ENGYGLQBEDIA
VOL. xxvr •
aih :)(.» TC»M
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771.
SECOND ten 1777—1784.
THIRD eighteen 1788—1797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815—1817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860.
NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
E.3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL ;
CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R. A. ADAMS REILLY. J~
Joint-author of Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes. 1 TlSSerand, FranQOlS.
A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -4 Syllabus.
Paris. Editor of the Canoniste contemporain. t
A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the \ Swabian League.
University of Kiel, 1896-1905. {.
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. / Surface (in part).
See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. I
A. Ch. ALFRED CHAPMAN, M.lNST.C.E. /Sugar: Sugar Manufacture (in
Designer and Constructor of Sugar-Machinery. I part).
A. C. C. ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. [
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. •{ Theocritus.
• Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. [
Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J c ,_ .
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, | awonmsn.
and Fishes in the British Museum; &c. [_
A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFPERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. f
Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of J ThonHnfa* a* j.*,f\
History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia] lneoaorel Vn Pan>-
of Eusebius. I
A. D. G. ALFRED DENIS GODLEY, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Public Orator in the University. -! Tacitus (in part)
Author of Socrates and Athenian Society ; &c. Editor of editions of Tacitus.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls Tavlor Rowland-
College, Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- '
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;\ Ticket-of-Leave.
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c.' I
f Tertullian (in part);
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D. PH. J Ti«««/>/,,o «r M,.™-....,*;...
See the biographical article : HARNACK, ADOLF. 1^°"? , M°Psue.stia
[Theodoret (in part).
A. He. ARTHUR HERVEY. ("
Formerly Musical Critic to the Morning Post and to Vanity Fair. Author of Masters 4 Thomas, Charles.
of French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Tabriz;
General in the Persian Army. Autnor of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Teheran.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LL.D., Lrrr.D. ^Susa.
See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD H. ,.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. |~
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent I Swedenborg, Emanuel;
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of | Tithes (Religion).
Mysore Educational Service. L
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Tale.
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
1995
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. Mil. AUGUST MOLLER, PH.D. (1848-1892). f
Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Halle. Author of H Sunnites (in part).
Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland. Editor of Orientalische Bibliographic.
A. M. F.* ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. f
Vice- Admiral R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. J Surveying: Nautical.
Acting Conservator of River Mersey. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904-
1909. Author of Hydrographical Surveying; &c.
f Sugar-bird; Sun-bird;
Sun-bittern; Swallow;
A. H. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Swan; Swift; Tanager;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. j Tapaculo; Teal; Tern;
I Thrush; Tinamou;
[ Titmouse; Tody.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S.Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -i Swaziland (in part).
1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at
Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.
A. R. S. K. REV. ARCHIBALD R. S. KENNEDY, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. J Tabernacle;
Professor of Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen, 1887-1894. Editor of " Exodus " 1 Temple (in bart)
in the Temple Bible. [_
A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D.; LL.D. f
Member of the Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water 4 Temperance.
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
A. Sp. ARCHIBALD SHARP.
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.
A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian ] Textile-Printing: Art and
Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. [ Archaeology.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford j ,_
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Theosophy (in part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radical;; &c.
A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser
to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the Wheel; \ Symonds, John Addmgton.
Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the
Poets.
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Them
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. I
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws 4 Thurlow, Lord.
of England.
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LITT. r Thierry;
See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. "[ Tnou jacques
C. C. CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D. r
King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner \ Sureerv Hislor\<
and Vaccination; Plague »» India; &c. "geiy.
C. El. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa^ Tatars (in part)
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904. [
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Supply and Transport
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal ] (Military);
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. [ Thirty Years' War.
C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International 1 Token Money.
Trade; &c.
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of -| Sully.
the American Historical Association.
C. H. K. CLARENCE HILL K.ELSEY, A.M., LL.B.
Vice-President and General Manager of the Bond and Mortgage Guarantee Company J Title Guarantee Companies.
.New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; &c.
C. H. W. CHARLES THEODORE HAGBERG WRIGHT, LL.D.
Librarian and Secretary of the London Library. j Tolstoy, Leo.
C. J. B. CHARLES JASPER BLUNT. r
Major, Royal Artillery. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign, j Tirah Campaign.
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V Editor \ Suffolk, William de la Pole,
ot Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Duke of.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
C. R. B.
c. s. s.
C. Wi.
D. Br.
D. C. To.
D. F. T.
D. Gi.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. H. S.
D. LI. T.
D. R.-M.
D. S.*
D. Sch.
E. Ar.*
E. A. F.
E. Br.
E. C. B.
E. G.
E. Ga.
E. Gr.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lirr., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisx.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -i
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell 'Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry Thorfinn Karlselni.
the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. f
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies I cvmlMji,0«ip
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrate Action of the Bynl
Nervous System.
C. WlLHELM.
Author of Essays on Ballet and Spectacle.
SIR DIETRICH BRANDIS, K.C.I. E., F.R.S. (1824-1907).
Inspector-General of Forestry to the Indian Government, 1864-1883.
REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A.
Rector of Worplesdon, Surrey. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Suite: Music;
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-< Symphonic Poem;
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. ^ Symphony.
SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.
H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic
Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar I _, . , . •>
Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed the Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape 1 lele c°Pe ^ Part>-
Colony and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogue of
Stars for the Equinoxes, 1830, 1860, 1883, 1890, 1900; &c.
DAVTD GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f _ .
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow &yrla>
of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 a«d 1903 ; -j Tobruk;
Ephesus> 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, Tokat.
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
| Theatre: Spectacle.
•I Teak (in part).
•i Thomson, James (1700-1748).
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal •
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly
President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author
of Structural Botany ; Studies in Fossil Botany ; &c.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and •
Rhondda.
DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc.
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester -
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c.
DAVID SHARP, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S.
Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of the Museum of Zoology, .
University of Cambridge, and President of the Entomological Society of London.
Author of " Insecta " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
DAVID FREDERICK SCHLOSS, M.A.
Formerly Senior Investigator and Statistician in the Labour Department of the •
Board of Trade. Author of Methods of Industrial Remuneration ; &c.
REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, "
Bradford.
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford,
and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., LITT.D. f
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " -|
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
Suflren, Admiral;
Swold, Battle of.
Thuret, Gustave.
Swansea.
Sudan: Arcltaeology (in part).
Termite.
Sweating System.
Superintendent.
Formerly Fellow -j
Syracuse.
Tancred;
Teutonic Order.
Tertiaries;
Thomas of Celano.
S ully-Pr udhomme ;
Sweden: Literature and
Philosophy;
Swinburne, Algernon C.;
Tegner, Esaias;
Tennyson, Alfred;
Terza Rima.
f Telegraph: Commercial
.l^Jl, VJAK^Jtr*, IV-L.iiNSl.lJ.iv. j . .
Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co. Ltd. Author of Manual ofJ. „
Electrical Undertakings ;&c. \ Telephone: Commercial
Aspects.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.
EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
I" Sunium; Tegea: Archaeology;
\ Thebes (Greece);
[Tiryns (in part).
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. H.* ERNEST HARRISON, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Studies in i Terence (in part).
Theognis.
E. He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical 1 Tanganyika, Lake.
Society, London.
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. J*un.; .
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 1 ineodOSia: Ancient;
of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Thyssagetae.
E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., F.I.C. f
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Textile-printing* Manu-
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -j
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor Jacl'
of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. fTigranes;
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -j Tiridates;
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. I Tissaphernes
E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. f Theopomous
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. \
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Surgery: Modern practice;
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Tetanus.
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. \,
E. 0. S. EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.lNST.M.E. f
Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National Fire I Theatre: Modern stage
Brigades' Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author of 1 mechanism
Fires and Public Entertainments; &c. L
E. Wh. EMMANUEL WHEELER, M.A. -j Theophrastus.
F. C. B. FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D. f
Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of the
British Academy. Part-editor of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the \ Thomas, St (in part).
Sinaitic Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early
Eastern Christianity; &c.
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. [ ?uebj; Sussex> Kingdom of;
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. | Sweden: Early History;
\ Teuton!.
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP. INST. r
Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J — t,
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for | Teetn<
Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f Terpenes
Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). i
F. H. H. FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. f Tammanv Hall
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. \
F. J. G. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. J
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID : Family. |_
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student •< ThuJe.
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer 1006-1007
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. ' I
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Thebes (Egypt);
Thoth.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial <
German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of
Memphis; &c.
F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910).
Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Modern Spiritualism- \ Table-turning.
Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c.
F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. JcwnrH
See the biographical article: POLLOCK: Family. 1
F. Pu. FREDERICK PURSER, M.A. (1840-1910). f
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Professor of Natural Philosophy in \ Surface (in part).
the University of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 1
f Sudan: Geography and
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. Statistics, Archaeology (in
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. ] Parti and History;
Swaziland (in part);
F.V.B. F. VINCENT BROOKS. Timbuktu; Tlemcen.
°f ^^ ^^ Br°°kS' °ay & **»• Ltd" Lithographic | Sun Copying.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. W. Ga. FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Assistant Director I
of the Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology in the University of 1 Tapeworms.
Manchester. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical I
Zoology; &c.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. I Tal
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. j
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
F. W. T. FRANK WILLIAM TAUSSIG. j Tariff.
See the biographical article: TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. [Tadpole;
Keeper of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -\ Teleostomes.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Tithes' English
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. L
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A.
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, i Teraphim (in part).
University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. L
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: i Thysanoptera.
their Structure and Life. I
G. H. D. SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN, K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.Sc. ("
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and J Tide.
Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association,
1905. Author of The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System ; &c.
G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1905). f
Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j males 01 Miletus.
Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Creek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; &c.
G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., D.ING. /
I
See the biographical article : LUNGE, G.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. 4 Thiers.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN.
G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. I" _
Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J °yn<
Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author Taurobolium.
of With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c.
G. U. GOJI UKITA. J
Formerly Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Author of Wealth O/T Tokyo.
Canada (in Japanese).
G. W. P. GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f
Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King's iir-n-
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the -j lemple, air William.
University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont-
fort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. fS,UyU,tl; I?b?T'L-
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old \ Tarafa; Tha Alibi;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. L Tirmidhl.
H. B. Wa. HENRY BEAUCHAMP WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. [
Assistant to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author-^ Terracotta (in part).
of The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c. I
{ Sullivan, Sir Arthur;
Tennent, Sir E.-
Tho. TO- iurnj. ~ t;»,
Theatre. Modern (in
Thompson, Francis.
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. f Symeon Metaphrastes;
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. \ Synaxarium; Thecla, St.
H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. f Telescope (in part).
Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lens. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \
H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. {
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the I Thessaly ;
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, j Thrace.
Author of History of Ancient Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. L
H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. f
Keeper of the BibliothSque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: saJ. Teniers (in part).
vie et son aiuvre,
H. H. L. HENRY HARVEY LITTLEJOHN, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University { Suicide.
of Edinburgh. I
H. Ja. HENRY JACKSON, Lirr.D., LL.D., O.M. f
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity I Thales of Miletus: Philosophy.
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History 1
of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. f Thermodynamics;
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of « Thermoelectricity;
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. L Thermometry
H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f Teutonic Languages;
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in •< Teutonic Peoples;
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. I Thor.
H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. J Telegraph;
Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year "j Telephone
Book; &c.
H. S. J. HENRY STUART TONES, M.A. f
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J _ .
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. | Jneaire. Ancient (in part).
Author of The Roman Empire; &c.
H. Tl. HENRY TIEDEMANN. J ThnrhA«.ir
London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. I 1J
H. W. B. SIR HILARO WILLIAM WELLESLEY BARLOW, Bart. / Sword: Modern Military (in
Lieut.-Col. Royal Artillery. Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. 1 part).
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. [
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, S Theobald.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. I
H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. J Thapsacus
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. I
I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f svnairof?ua United-
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J STw.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A 1 lam' Jacol) ben JAea'
Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. LTanna.
I. J. C. ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. C
Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J „, , _ .
Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his 1 Taylor» Zaehary.
Companions; &c. [_
J. A. F. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., r
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow „ ,
of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, •< Telegraph: Wireless
and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Telegraphy.
Currents. [_
3. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -I Tertiary.
The Geology of Building Stones.
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. ADDINGTON. "I Tasso.
J. Br. RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.Lnr. r
See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. -| Theodora.
J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J.
Author of Die liturgische Gewandung; &c. •{ 5urPllce;
I Tiara.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. ,-
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c at Kine's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Tumor 1 Timber.
{engineers.
J. C. E. JAMKS COSSAR EWART, M.D., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Edinburgh. Swiney Lecturer on
C Museum, 1907. Author of The Multiple Origin of Horses ™egony.
J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. C
' New York- Took part Sumer and sumerian-
J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M.
^ewaY^knu"hVProfpS^ ISSSSSS SL2S The°10giCal SCminary> { Thessalonians' EP-«es to the.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S.
, .., ....
NoZ°aUn M rr T ?*" f sP%nish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Tamayo y Baus-
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academv 1 T- ~, M , •
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of 1 TlISO de Molina-
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L
J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. r
' Oxford. Targum.
J. Ga. JAMES GATRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article : GAIRDNER, JAMES. -jTalbot (Family) (in par f).
3- G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. \ "^^^St Edward.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. G. Fr.
J. G. M.
J. G. So.
J. H. M.
J. H. R.
J. HI. R.
J. Ja.
J. K. I.
J. K. L.
JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D. f
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, i Thesmophona (in part).
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. L
JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of 4 Taste.
Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life ofHelmholtz; &c. L
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma;
The Upper Burma Gazetteer.
I Theinni;
' \ Thibaw.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lirr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f .
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director! watre. Ancient (tn part);
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South H Modern (in part);
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Tiryns (in part).
Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D.
•Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -{ Talbot (Family) (in part).
History; Peerage and Pedigree.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J >raiievrand
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic 1
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.
JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D.
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding -j Tabernacles, Feast of.
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article : INGRAM, JOHN KELLS.
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859. Mathe-
matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873;
Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884.
Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King s
College, London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing
Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
Sumptuary Laws.
Tegetthoff, Admiral.
J. L. E. D.
J. M.
J. Mt.
J. HcE.
J. M. G.
J. M. H.
J. Pu.
J. P. E.
J. P. P.
J. P. Pe.
J. S. F.
JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER.
Director of Armagh Observatory.
Kepler; &c.
Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to •{ Time, Measurement of.
SIR JOHN MACDONELL, M.A., C.B., LL.D.
Master of the Supreme Court. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and
the London Chamber of Commerce ; Quain Profess9r of Comparative Law, Uni- .
versity College, London. Editor of State Trials; 'Civil Judicial Statistics; &c.
Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c.
Suzerainty.
REV. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D.
Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland.
Author of Historical New Testament; &c.
JOHN McEwAN, F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.Soc.
r Timothy, First Epistle to;
Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -I Timothy, Second Epistle to;
I Titus, Epistle to.
Tea.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).
Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894.
of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
Author J Tassie, James.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r Terramara;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -j Themistocles;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Thucydides (in part).
JOHN PURSER, M.A., LL.D. ("
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. Member of the 1 Surface (in part).
Royal Irish Academy.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J _ ...
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire dhistoire du droit 1 lame-
franc,ais; Sec.
JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., Lm.D. r
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Textual Criticism;
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly, | Tibullus, Albius.
Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum; &c. L
JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine,
New York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. •
In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of
Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer
en Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of"
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
Tigris.
• Syenite;
Tachylytes;
Theralite.
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. f
Indian Forest Service (retired). Formerly Director of the Imperial Forest School -| Teak (in part).
at Dchra Dun. Author of A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. I
J. S. Ga.
at>VbchralDun.~Author of ~A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c.
J. S. R.
Amicitia; &c.
Syr-Darya (River) (in part);
Syr-Darya (Province) (in part) ;
Takla Makan;
Tambov (in part);
Tarim; Tian-Shan;
Tiflis (Town) (in part);
Tobolsk (Government) (in part);
. Tomsk (Government) (in part).
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBV.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. ("
Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J _ .
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the |
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. [Theatre: Law relating to
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -I Theatres;
College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. [ Tithes (Law).
J. Wai. JAMES WALKER D.Sc., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Professor of Chemistry, I Thprmnrhpmi«itrv
University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author of Introduction to Physical]
Chemistry. I
J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. [
Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 Tasmania: Geology,
of Australia; &c. I
J. W. He. JAMES WYCUFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Taaffe Count*
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient •{ _ ' ' .
History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the Tnun-Honenstem.
German Empire; &c.
J. W. L. G. JAMES WHTTBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J Table, Mathematical.
Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger }
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics.
K. A. M.* KATE A. MEAKIN (MRS BUDGETT MEAKIN). /Tetuan; Sus.
K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. r
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- | Tatian.
ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c. |_
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r Svmnhonia. Tambnurinp-
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical J if* ma' lamDounne>
Archaeology. \ Timbrel.
L. A. W. LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D. /Tih»* c i\
Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. \ ™ l (tn part)-
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r Sylvanite- Sylvite*
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Tetradymite;
Mineralogical Magazine. { Tetrahedrite; Thorite.
M. B. MONTAGU BROWNE. J
Author of Practical Taxidermy; CoMcting Butterflies and Moths. 1 Taxidermy.
M. Ba. THE HON. MAURICE BARING. f
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the
Morning Post in Manchuria, 1904; and Special Correspondent in Russia, 1905-1908, J Taine
and in Constantinople, 1909. Author of Landmarks in Russian Literature; With
the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c. [
M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the
International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- Thnrnvprnft William
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch "; British Portrait- 1 Tnornyerolt> William
Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts R A •
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. J. de G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. r
See the biographical article: GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. \ Thousand and one Nights.
M. M. Bh. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. r
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author i Takhtsingji.
of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Tegea; Theodosius I.-III. ;
Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham J Theramenes'
University, 1905-1908. I Thrasybulus!
N. M. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Syriac Language*
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's J
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. B Llte
N. M.* NEILL MALCOLM, D.S.O., F.R.G.S. J Th0mas °f Marga'
Major, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1897- f
1898; South Africa, 1899-1900; Somaliland, 1903-1904; British Mission to Fez, J. Tactics.
1905. Editor of The Science of War.
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Taboo;
Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and\ Telepathy.
Marriage in Australia; &c.
0. H. D. OSKAR HENRIK DUMRATH, PH.D. f
Formerly Editor of foreign news in the Nya Dagligt AUehanda. \ Sweflen: History (in part).
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Sweden: Geography and
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Assistant Secretary j Statistics;
of the British Association. I TihA* (in A/rr/1
* liucl \in yUrtJ.
Syr-Darya: River (in part);
Syr-Darya: Province (in part);
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P.A.
P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I
"
Tambov (in part);
Tatars (in part);
Tiflis: Town (in part);
Tobolsk: Government (in part) ;
Tomsk: Government (in part).
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- "j T.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. J FT. i / • ,\
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. , 1 Temers (tn P"rt>-
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r
Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridge. Formerly of the I
Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. -i. Sweden: Geology.
Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology.
P. M.* SIR PHILIP MAGNUS. f
M.P. for the University of London. Superintendent and Secretary of the City and
Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chair- J Technical Education.
man of Secondary Schools Association. Member of the Royal Commission on 1
Technical Instruction, 1881-1884. Author of Industrial Education; &c.
P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. r
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer, j Thrashing.
P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. C
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. H Succession.
R. A. N. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., LITT.D. r
Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sufiism; Sunnites (in part).
Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz ; A Literary History of the ]
Arabs; &c. j
R. A. Sa. RALPH ALLEN SAMPSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and _
Astronomy in the University of Durham, and Fellow of St John's College,.Cambridge. •< *un.
Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter ; &c.
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. r
St John's College. Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- I Tiberias,
ploration Fund.
R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. r_. ,., ,. A
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. n rart>-
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. f „ / • ,\
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Swift» Jonathan (in part),
R. Gn. SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. r_
See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT. -j Taxation.
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. (Oxon). f Testaments of the Three
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton ' p b
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity J ratnarcBs;
College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apoca- ] Testaments of the Twelve
lypse of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Sec. Patriarchs.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Tarantula;
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Tardigrada; Ticks.
XIV
R. J. M.
R.L.*
R. Ma.
R. N. B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. P. S.
R. R.
6. A. C.
S. BI.
St G. L. F.-P.
St G. S.
S. K.
S. N.
T.As.
T. A. A.
T. A. C.
T. de L.
T. H.
T. H. H.*
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. f Sussex, 3rd Earl of;
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at:Law. Formerly Editor of the St James s J Tandy, James Napper;
Gazette (London). [ Temple, Earl.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum
of all Lands ; The Came A nitnals of Africa ; &c.
REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., D.D.
Tutor in Lancashire Independent College, Manchester.
, r Swine; Tapir (in part);
01 j ,
eer ]
AThe°be"erl Tarsier; Tiger (in part);
[ Tillodontia; Titanotheriidae
•< Theism; Theology.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from
1469 to 1700; &c.
Svane, Hans;
Sweden: History (in part);
Sweyn I.;
Szechenyi, Istvan, Count;
Szigligeti, Ede;
Tarnowski, Jan;
Tausen, Hans; Tessin, Count;
Theodore I.-III. of Russia;
Thokbly, Imre; Tisza, Kalman;
Toll, Johan, Count;
Tolstoy, Petr, Count.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. ~f
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Temnle (' * <)
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's\ mpie (in part).
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
REINHOLD ROST, C.I.E., LL.D. (1822-1896). r
Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1863-1869. Librarian at the India Office, _, .. _
London, 1869-1893. Editor of H. H. Wilson's Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; 1 Tamils; Thugs.
Hodgson's Essays on Indian Subjects; &c,
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r
Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and J Talmud
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
f Thomson, Grimur;
I Thoroddsen, Jon.
SIGFUS BLSNDAL.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
ST GEORGE LANE Fox-PiTT, M.R.A.S.
Associate of King's College, London. Treasurer and Vice-President of the Moral J Theosoohv Oriental
Education League and the International Moral Education Congress.
ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. r „
Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. •{ Infrapeutae;
I Tobit, The Book of.
STEN KONOW, PH.D. r
Frat^^
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON.
| Time, Standard.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 10,06. Member
of the imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna.
Suessula; Sulci; Surrentum;
Sutri; Sybaris;
Syracuse (in part); Taormina;
Taranto; Tarentum; Tarquinii;
Teggiano; Tergeste;
Termini Imerese; Terracina;
Tharros; Thurii; Tibur;
Tiburtina, Via; Ticinum.
j Templars (in part).
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A.
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c.
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O.
^«£t,~GTerufor NewJ°uth W,ales- Government Statistician, New South Wales,
886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth J Tasmania: Geography, Statistics
iZnd A?™" °f Wates' Statislical Account of Australia and New Zea-\ and History.
A. TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE, Lirr.D.
Formerly Professor of Indo-Chinese at University College, London.
THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lrrr.D.
See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. j Theodoric.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, KCMGKCIEDSc r
B^J^*»!fMB^^»»miswAr*
| Tibet (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xv
T. H. W. T. HUDSON WILLIAMS. f
Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales, Bangor. \ Tneogms Of Megara.
T. L. B. SIR THOMAS LAUDER BRUNTON, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. f
Consulting Physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Modern "i Therapeutics.
Therapeutics; Therapeutics of the Circulation; &c. (.
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, J —., «TI n
Cambridge. Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The 1 TheodosiUS of TnpollS.
Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements ; &c. L
T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f
Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. •< Thomas a Kempis.
Author of Life of Luther; &c. L
T. R. R. S. REV. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. f
Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of J Thvrostraca
Worcester College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of the Linnaean Society, 1903- 1
1907. Author of A History of Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c.
T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (~
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, I Swift, Jonathan (in part);
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the 1 Tichborne Claimant.
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson ; &c. L
V. W. Ch. VALENTINE WALBRAN CHAPMAN. { *V*£f)Sllgar Man«faclure «»
W. Ay. WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E. f Ta-ho.
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical adviser to the Standards H
Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy; &c. I
Switzerland: Geography,
Government, &c., History
and Literature;
Tell, William; Thun (Town):
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of-
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
Thun, Lake of; Thurgau;
Ticino (Canton);
. Tirol; Toggenburg, The.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f SurPlice: Church of England;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 1 Templars (in part) ;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. i Titles of Honour.
W. B.* WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. rT._ .
Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain.-^ ""acolla
Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. [ Tile.
W. B. B. W. BAKER BROWN. /«,,hma,in«, wr-n
Lieut.-Colonel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta. \ Submarine Mines.
W. B. S.* WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the J
Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of the Westminster Gazette, the Saturday ] Thomas, Arthur Goring.
Review and the Globe.
W. E. Co. RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, D.D. r
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, J Tait, Archbishop;
London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The } Tp<:tampn»iim nnmini
Study of Ecclesiastical History ; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. [ 1( uu'
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f cummarv jurisdiction-
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ °
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). [ Summons; Sunday (Law).
W. G. F. WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN. f
Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products; &c. Joint- -I Tobacco.
editor of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.
W. Hy. WILLIAM HENRY. r
Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the) Swimmin"
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; 1
&c. L
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. /Tapir (in part);
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Tiger (in part).
W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. ("
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author-! Thackeray.
of Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c.
W. J. B. REV. WILLIAM JACKSON BRODRIBB, M.A. r
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivers, -I Tacitus (in Part).
Wilts. [
W. L.* WALTER LEHMANN, M.D. ("
Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted J Toitecs
Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-1909. Author of |
publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology.
W. McD. WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A.
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow -I Suggestion,
of St John's College, Cambridge.
XVI
W. M. R.
W. M. Ra.
W. N. S.
W. P. A.
W.RI.
W. R. S.
W. Sb.
W. S. R.
W. W. R.*
W. Y. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
Sec the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, Lirr.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL.
/ Tintoretto;
I Titian.
; Tarsus.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member .{ Sunshine,
of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899.
Joint Author of Text-Book of Practical Physics; &c.
LlEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the I B__-_|-._. r j,
Geographical Board of Canada. Past President of the Canadian Society of Civil |
Engineers.
WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., Lirr.D.
Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University
of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British '
Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of
The Early Age of Greece ; &c.
Thrace: Ancient Peoples.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article : SMITH, W. ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM SHARP.
See the biographical article: SHARP, WILLIAM.
WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. f
Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the -|
J Teraphim (in part).
- Thoreau, Henry David.
Present Period ; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
Tallis, Thomas.
J Toledo, Councils of.
J Terence (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Succession Duty.
Succinic Acid.
Suez Canal.
Suffolk, Earls and Dukes of.
Suffolk.
Sulphonic Acids.
Sulphur.
Sumatra.
Sunderland.
Sundew.
Sunflsh.
Sunstroke.
Surat.
Surgical Instruments and
Appliances.
Surrey.
Sussex, Earls of.
Sussex.
Sutherland, Earls
Dukes of.
Swabia.
Sweating-Sickness.
Swithun, St.
Sydney (N.S.W.).
Syllogism.
Syracuse (N.Y.).
Sze-ch'uen.
Synagogue.
Table.
Tahiti.
and
Tampa.
Tantalum.
Tarragona.
Tattooing.
Taunton.
Tellurium.
Tenby.
Tenerifle.
Tennessee.
Tennis.
Tent.
Test Acts.
Tewkesbury.
Texas.
Thallium.
Thames.
Theodolite.
Theseus.
Thorium.
Thuringia.
Tibbu.
Tierra del Fuego.
Tiglath-Pileser.
Timor.
Tin.
Tipperary.
Titanium.
Togoland.
Toledo.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES. A submarine mine is a weapon of war
used in the attack and defence of harbours and anchorages.
It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or
beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to
put out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is
intended to act against." It differs from the torpedo (q.v.) in
being incapable of movement (except in the special form of
drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or
current). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was
not made till 1870. Prior to that date the teim " torpedo "
was used for all explosive charges fired in the water.
Submarine mines may be divided into two main classes, con-
trollable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified,
" electrical " or " mechanical." In the first class the method of
firing is by electricity, the source of the electric power whether
by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on
shore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By
simply switching off the electricity in the firing station, such
mines are rendered inert and entirely harmless. In the
second class, the means of firing are contained in the mine
itself, the source of power being a small electric battery,
or being obtained from a pistol, spring or suspended weight.
In all mines of this class the impulse which actuates the firing
gear is given by a ship or other floating object bumping against
the mine. When mechanical mines have once been set for firing
they are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety arrange-
ments are employed to prevent the firing apparatus working
while the mine is being laid, and clockwork is sometimes added
to render the mine inactive after a certain definite time or in
case the mine breaks away from its mooring. Their principal
advantages, as compared with the electrically controlled mines,
are cheapness and rapidity of laying. " Controllable " mines are
absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their
condition is always accurately known, and if any break adrift
not only is the fact at once known but the mines themselves are
harmless. Another advantage is that when fired by " observa-
tion " as described below, they are placed at depths which will
be well below the bottom of any vessels passing through the
mine field. They can thus be used in channels which have to
be kept open for traffic during hostilities.
Electrical mines take rather longer to prepare and lay out
than the other class, as the electrical cables have to be laid and
jointed, and they require rather more skill and training in
the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such mines
represent the highest development of this form of warfare, and
the details given below refer mainly to this class of mine.
Electrical mines are arranged on two systems according to the
method of ascertaining the proper moment to apply the firing
XXVI. I
current to the mine cables. These methods are by " observa-
tion " or by " circuit closer."
The " observation " system depends on two careful observa-
tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position
in which the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile
ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines
when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of
ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track
is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is closed on
shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in observation
such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and are
usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across
the channel, all the mines in a line being fired together. Observa-
tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored
at depths which are well below the bottom of any friendly
vessels and (except that anchoring in the mine field must be
forbidden for fear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc-
tion to friendly traffic.
In the " circuit closer " or " C.C." system, each mine contains
a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a
vessel or other object against the mine. When set in action,
this apparatus completes an electrical circuit in the mine,
through which the mine can be fired, if the main switch on
shore is closed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored
to its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in
the mine, or by an electrical device operated from the shore.
Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are
to this extent an interference with friendly traffic. A vessel
passing by mistake through a mine field of this class would
run no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but
might do some damage to the mines.
This class of mine is used in side channels which it is intended
to close entirely, or to reduce the width of navigable channels
where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their
principal advantage is that if the firing switch is closed they are
effective in fog or mist, when observation mines could not be
worked, and when the guns of the defence would be equally out
of action. As they are fired only when close against the side
of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines
themselves are handy and easy to lay.
Compared with observation mines they use much less cable,
as the action of the C.C. is such that only the mine which is struck
can be fired. Several mines of this class can therefore share
one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring
and arrangement limit the number connected to one cable to
four. A set of mines on one cable is referred to as a " group."
The arrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing
station on shore, in which is the battery or other source of
SUBSIDY— SUCCESSION
electrical power for firing, and the necessary apparatus for
testing the system of mines, which is usually done daily. To
let the operator in the firing station know when the C.C. of a
mine has been struck and the mine is ready to fire, a small
electrical apparatus is provided in the firing station for each
group of mines. This arrangement strikes a bell when the C.C.
is worked and also closes a break in the firing circuit. The
operator can then close the main switch and fire the mine,
or if acting on the order to "fire all mines that signal" he has
already closed his main switch, the signalling apparatus, in the
act of striking the bell, completes the firing circuit. A similar
piece of apparatus is connected to each observing instrument,
the completion of the circuit of any line at the observing station
then gives a signal in the firing station and the firing circuit is
completed.
The firing station can be on a vessel moored near the mine
field, but is more usually on shore, where it can be made abso-
lutely secure against any form of attack. But the observing
stations must be on shore to give stability to the observing
instruments, they cannot be entirely protected as they must
have a small opening facing the mine field, but can be made
very inconspicuous.
Any explosive can be used in submarine mines, provided
adequate means are taken to explode the charge, but the explo-
sive which is easiest to handle and is in most general use is wet
gun-cotton with a small dry primer and detonator to start
ignition. The detonators for electrical mines are on the " low
tension " system, that is, firing is effected by the heating of a
small length of wire called a " bridge," round which is placed a
priming which ignites and detonates a small charge of fulminate
of mercury.
The charge is contained in a steel mine-case, which has an
" apparatus " inside to contain the electrical arrangements
and the C.C. when used. Cases for observation mines are
usually cylindrical in shape for mines to rest on the bottom
and spherical for buoyant mines. The weight of charge is
about 500 ft and the size of a buoyant case for this charge
would be four feet in diameter. Cases for contact mines are
spherical, about 39 in. in diameter, and can hold 100 ft of gun-
cotton. They are always buoyant. Buoyancy is provided for
by an air-space inside the case. Buoyant cases are moored to a
heavy weight or " sinker," the connexion being by a steel wire
rope, or in electrical mines, the cable itself. The cable is care-
fully insulated and protected with a layer of steel wires. An
earth return is used for the electrical circuit.
The employment of mines in any defence must depend entirely
on the general character of the defence adopted, which will
itself depend on the size and importance of the harbour to be
defended and other details (see COAST DEFENCE). The role
of mines in a defence is to act as an obstacle to detain ships
under fire and compel them to engage the artillery of the defence.
Thus mines find their greatest usefulness in the defence of har-
bours with long channels of approach. Mine fields can be de-
stroyed by " creeping " for and cutting the electric cables, by
" sweeping " for the mines themselves with long loops of chain
or rope or by destroying the mines with "countermines." To
guard against any of these, the mine field should be protected
by gun fire and lit at night by electric lights. As vessels sunk
by mines may obstruct the channel, mines should not be used
in very narrow channels.
Although the scientific development of submarine mining
is the work of the last fifty years, attempts to use drifting charges
against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the i6th
century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in
1780 Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he
called a " torpedo," and which was experimented with, not very
successfully, up to 1815. In 1834 the Russians used mechanical
mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success.
The first application of electricity to the explosion of sub-
merged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruc-
tion of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the " Royal
George " at Spithead in 1839 and subsequent years. The first
military use of electrically-fired mines was made in the American
Civil War of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged
by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European
nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used
during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War
of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. But the most
interesting example of mine warfare was in the attack and
defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) of
1904-05 Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both
suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and tor-
pedoes were first introduced into the English service about 1863,
defence mines being placed in the charge of the Royal Engineers,
while torpedoes were developed by the Royal Navy. Up to
1904 there were mine defences at most of the British ports,
but in that year the responsibility of mines was placed on
the navy, and since then the mine defences have been much
reduced. (W. B. B.)
SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops,
aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind
or in reserve "), an aid, subvention, assistance granted especially
in money. The word has a particular use in economic history
and practice. In English history it is the general term for a tax
granted to the king by parliament, and so distinguished from those
dues, such as the customs dues, which were raised by the royal
prerogative; of these subsidies there were many varieties; such
was the subsidy in excess of the customs on wool, leather, wine
or cloth exported or imported by aliens, later extended to other
articles and to native exporters and importers (see TONNAGE
AND POUNDAGE); there was also the subsidy which in the i4th
century took the place of the old feudal levies. Apart from
this application the term, in modern times, is particularly applied
to the pecuniary assistance by means of bounties, &c., given by
the state to industrial undertakings (see BOUNTY). Subsidies
granted by the state to literary, dramatic or other artistic
institutions, societies, &c., are generally styled " subventions "
(Lat. subvenire, to come to the aid of).
SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)
the act of succeeding or following, as of events, objects, places
in a series, &c., but particularly, in law, the transmission or
passing of rights from one to another.
In every system of law provision has to be made for a readjust-
ment of things or goods on the death of the human beings
who owned and enjoyed them. Succession to rights may be
considered from two points of view: in some ways they depend
on the personality of those who are concerned with them: if
you hire a servant, you acquire a claim against a certain person
and your claim will disappear on his death. But personal
relations are commonly implicated in the arrangement of pro-
perty: if a person borrows money, the creditor expects to be
paid even should the debtor die, and the actual payment will
depend to a great extent on the rules as to inheritance. Succes-
sion, in the sense of the partition or redistribution of the pro-
perty of a former owner is, in modern systems of law, the subject
of many rules. Such rules may be based on the will of a de-
ceased person. They will be found in such articles as ADMINIS-
TRATION; ASSETS; EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS; INHERI-
TANCE; INTESTACY; LEGACY; WILL; &c. There are cases,
however, in which a will cannot be expressed; this eventuality
is discussed in the present article, and there can be no doubt
that it is the most characteristic one from the point of view of
social conditions. It represents the view of society at large
as to what ought to be the normal course of succession in the
readjustment of property after the death of a citizen. We shall
dwell chiefly on the customs of succession among the nations of
Aryan stock. Other customs are noticed in the articles on
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES; MAHOMMEDAN LAW; &c.
We have to start from a distinction between personal goods and
the property forming the economic basis of existence for the
family which is strongly expressed in early law. War booty, pro-
ceeds of hunting, clothes and ornaments, implements fashioned by
personal skill, are taken to belong to a man in a more personal
way than the land on which he dwells or the cattle of a herd.
SUCCESSION
It is characteristic that even in the strict law of paternal power
formulated by the Romans an unemancipated son was protected
in his rights in regard to things acquired in the camp (peculium
castrense) and later on this protection spread to other chattels
(peculium quasi-castrense) . The personal character of this kind
of property has a decisive influence on the modes of succession
to it. This part of the inheritance is widely considered in
early law as still in the power of the dead even after demise.
We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the personal
belongings of the dead: this is done by several Australian and
Negro tribes (Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz,
pp. 174-5) . Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the
goods remaining after deceased persons have to be taken away
by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house
of the deceased. Such customs were prevalent, for example,
among the North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro-
quois tribes. Evidently the nearer relations dare not take
over such things on account of a tabu rule, while strangers may
appropriate them, as it were, by right of conquest.
The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own
things gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead
out of his personal succession. The habit of putting arms,
victuals, clothes and ornaments in the grave seems almost
universal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlying
such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with all
matters necessary to his existence after death. A very char-
acteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the
customs of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the
Arabian traveller Ibn Fadhlan. The whole of the personal
property was divided into three parts: one-third went to the
family, the second third was used for making clothes and other
ornaments for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing
on the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself
consisted in the following: the corpse was put into a boat
and was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating
drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut
into two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the
weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of
two horses, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de-
ceased was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objects were
burned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashes.
This description is the more interesting because it starts from
a division of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being
affected, as it were, to his personal usage. This rule continues
to be observed in Germanic law in later times and became
the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal
property in English law. According to Glanville (vii. 5, 4)
the chattels of the deceased have to be divided into three
equal parts, of which one goes to his heir, one to his wife
and one is reserved to the deceased himself. The same reser-
vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in
Magna Charta (c. 26) and in Bracton's statement of Common
Law (fol. 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation
of " the dead man's part " was taken to apply to the property
which had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly,
the Church had to take care. This lies at the root of the com-
mon law doctrine observed until the passing of the Court of
Probate Act 1857. On the strength of this doctrine the
bishop was the natural administrator of this part of the
personalty of the deceased.
The succession to real property, if we may use the English
legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the
needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views
may be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases.
Taking the principal types in a logical sequence, which differs
from the historical one, we may say that the aggregate of things
and claims relinquished by a deceased person may: (i) pass
to relatives or other persons who stood near him in a way deter-
mined by law. Should several persons of the kind stand
equally near in the eye of the law the consequence would be a
division of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession
rules in such systems of inheritance. (2) The deceased may be
considered as a subordinate member of a higher organism —
a kindred, a village, a state, &c. In such a case there can be no
succession proper as there has been no individual property to
begin with. The cases of succession will be a relapse of certain
goods used by the member of a community to that community
and a consequent rearrangement of rights of usage. The law
of succession will again be constructed on a personal basis,
but this basis will be supplied not by the single individual whose
death has had to be recorded but by some community or union
to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods
and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance
may be considered as a unit having an existence and an object
of its own. The circumstance of the death of an individual
owner will, as in case 2, be treated as an accidental fact. The
unity of the inheritance and the social part played by it will con-
stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession.
The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one.
In practice pure forms corresponding to these main concep-
tions occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly
appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try
to give briefly an account of the following arrangements: (i)
the joint family in so far as it bears on succession; (2)
voluntary associations among co-heirs; (3) division of inheri-
tance; (4) united succession in the shape of primogeniture and
of junior right.
The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs
and doctrines ranging over nearly 5000 years contains many
indications as to the existence of a joint family which was
considered as the corporate owner of property and therefore
did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through
the death of any of its members. The father or head of such
a joint family was in truth only the manager of its property
during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right
of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself
could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly
in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine
we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only
characteristic consequences and fragments of it, but that we
have not the means of observing it directly in a consistent
and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs
which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question
whether such a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard
to chattels: even in the earliest period of Hindu law articles
of personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and
strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate
property. Gains of science, art and craft are mentioned in early
instances as subject to special ownership and corresponding
rules of personal succession are framed in regard to them
(Jolly, Tagore lectures on Partition, Inheritance and Adoption,
94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of
movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong-
ing to the family community and incapable of partition, e.g.
water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property
destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became
rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro-
ceeds of the sale should be divided, but originally they seem
to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though
used by its single members. And as to immovables — land and
houses — they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary
law from partition among co-heirs.
In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family
system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households,
where brothers clustered round the eldest or " keeper of the
hearth"1 (taTiairaniov) , and not only the management of
family property but even marriages were dependent on the unity
of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring
of the younger brothers. With the Romans there are hardly
any traces of a primitive family community excluding succession,
but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based on this
fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales).
1 The term illustrates the intimate connexion between inheritance
and household religion in ancient Aryan custom.
SUCCESSION
During three generations the offspring of father, grandfather
and great-grandfather held together in regard to land. The
consequence was that, although separate plots and houses were
commonly reserved for the uses of the smaller families included
within the larger unit, the death of the principal brought about
an equalization of shares first per slirpes and ultimately per
capita until the final break-up of the community when it reached
the stage of the great-grandsons of the original founder. But
the most elaborate system of family ownership is to be observed
in the history of the latest comers among the Aryan races — the
Slavs. In the backward mountain regions which they occupied
in the Balkan Peninsula and in the wilderness of the forests and
moors of Eastern Europe they developed many characteristic
tribal institutions and, among these, the joint family, the
Zadruga, inokoshtina. The huge family communities of the
southern Slavs have been described at length by recent observers,
and there can be no doubt that their roots go back to a distant
past (see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). There is no room in them
for succession proper: what has to be provided for is the con-
tinuity of business management by elders and the repartition of
rights of usage and maintenance, a repartition largely depen-
dent on varying customs and on the policy of the above-men-
tioned elders. In Russia the so-called large family appears as a
much less extensive application of the same idea. It extends
rarely over more than three generations, but even as a cluster
of members gathering around a grandfather or a great-uncle
it presents an arrangement which hampers greatly private enter-
prise and staves off succession until the moment when the great
household breaks up between the descendants of a great-grand-
father.
In Germanic law we catch a glimpse of a state of things in
which side relations were not admitted to succession at all.
The Prankish Edict of Chilperic (A.D. 571) tells us that if some-
body died without leaving sons or daughters, his brother was to
succeed him and not his neighbours (non vicini). This has to
be construed as a modification of the older rule according to
which the neighbours succeeded and not the brother. Under
" neighbours " we cannot understand merely people connected
with a person by proximity of settlement, but rather his kinsmen
in their usual capacity of neighbours. The fact that kinsmen
forming a settlement have precedence of such near relations as
the brothers is characteristic enough, especially, as even the
succession of sons and daughters is mentioned in a way which
shows that there was still some doubt whether neighbouring
kinsmen should not take inheritance instead of the latter.
These are systems of a very archaic arrangement based on a
close tribal community between the members of a kindred.
Such a community is not apparent in later legal custom, but there
are many signs of a close union between members of the same
family. The law of Scania, a province of southern Sweden,
shows us a group settled around a grandfather. His sons even
when married hold part of the property under him and it
is with some difficulty that they and their wives succeed in
separating some of the goods acquired by personal work or
brought in by marriage from the rest of the household property
(Scanian Law, Danish Text i. 5). The same arrangement
appears in Lombard law as regards brothers who remain settled
in a common house (Edict of Rothari c. 167). Of course, in all
such cases, there could be no real inheritance and succession,
but merely the stepping in of the next generation into the rights
and duties of the representative of an older generation on the
latter's demise. In legal terminology it is a case of accretion
and not of succession.
The next stage in the development of succession is presented
by an arrangement which was common in Germany, viz. by the
management of property under the rule of so-called Ganerb-
schaft. Ganerben is the same as the Latin coheredes, com-
participes, consortes. A capitulary of 818 mentions such com-
munities of heirs holding in common (cf. Boretius Capitularia,
i. 282). While the community lasted none of the shareholders
could dispose of any part of the property by his single will.
Legally and economically all transactions had to proceed from
common consent and common resolve. This did not preclude the
possibility of any one among the shareholders claiming his own
portion, in which case part of the property had to be meted
out to him according to fair computation (swascara). There
was no legal constraint over the shareholders to remain in
common: division could be brought about either by common
consent or by claims of individuals, and yet the constant occur-
rence of these settlements of co-heirs shows that as a matter of
fact it was more profitable to keep together and not to break
up the unit of property by division. The customary union of
co-heirs appears in this way as a corrective of the strict legal
principle of equal rights between heirs of the same degree. In
English practice the joint management of co-heirs is not so fully
described, but there can be no doubt that under the older Saxon
rule admitting heirs of the same degree to equal rights in suc-
cession the interests of economic efficiency were commonly pre-
served by the carrying on of common husbandry without any
realization of the concurrent claims which would have broken
up the object of succession. This accounts for the fact that
notwithstanding the prevalence among the early English of
the rule admitting all the sons or heirs in the same position to
equal shares in the inheritance, the organic units of hides,
yardlands, &c. are kept up in the course of centuries. In
the management of so-called gavelkind succession in Kent
partition was legally possible and came sometimes to be effected,
but there was the customary reaction against it in the shape of
keeping up the " yokes " and " sulungs." A trace of the same
kind of union between co-heirs appears in the so-called parage
communities so often mentioned in Domesday Book.
In all these cases the principle of union and joint manage-
ment is kept up by purely economic means and considerations.
The legal possibility of partition is admitted by the side of it.
It is interesting to watch two divergent lines of further develop-
ment springing from this common source; on the one side we
see the full realization of individual right resulting in frequent
divisions; on the other side we watch the rise of legal restraints
on subdivision resulting in the establishment, in respect of
certain categories of property, of rules excluding the plurality
of heirs for the sake of preserving the unity of the household.
The first system is, of course, most easily carried out in countries
where individualistic types of husbandry prevail. In Europe
it is especially prevalent in the south with its intense cultivation
of the arable and its habits of wine and olive growing. We
shall not wonder, therefore, that the unrestricted subdivision
among heirs is represented most completely by Roman law.
Not to speak of the fact that already in the XII. Tables the
principal mode of inheritance was considered to be inheritance
by will while intestate succession came in as a subsidiary ex-
pedient, we have to notice that there is no check on the dis-
persion of property among heirs of the same degree. The only
survival of a regime of family community may be found in the
distinction between heredes sui (heirs of their own) and heredes
exlranei (outside heirs of the deceased). The first entered by
their own right and took possession of property which had
belonged to them potentially even during their ancestor's life.
The latter drew their claims from their relationship to the •
deceased and this did not give them a direct hold on the property .
in question. Apart from that the civil law of ancient Rome
favoured complete division and the same principle is represented
in all European legislation derived from Roman law or strongly
influenced by it. Sometimes, as in the French Code Civil, even
the wish of the owner cannot alter the course of such succession
as no person can make a will depriving any of his children of their
legal share.
In full contrast with this mode of succession prevailing in
romanized countries we find the nations proceeding from
Germanic stock and strongly influenced by feudalism developing
two different kinds of restraints on subdivision. In Scandi- .
navian law this point of view is expressed by the Norwegian
customs as to Odal. The principal estates of the country, which,
according to the law of the Gulathing have descended through
five generations in the same family, cannot be dispersed and
SUCCESSION DUTY
alienated at pleasure. They are considered as rightly belong-
ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been
established. In order to keep these estates within the kindred
they are to descend chiefly to men: women are admitted to
property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is
only the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sister
of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted
to take Odal as if they were men. Nieces and first-cousins are
admitted in the sense that they have to pass the property to
their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventualities,
be bought out by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity
of Odal consists in the right of relations descending from one of
the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiring Odal
estate. Any holder of such an estate who wants to sell it in its
entirety or in portion has first to apply te his relatives and they
may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger less
one-fifth. Even if no relative has taken advantage of this
privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back
into the family by compulsory redemption if the relatives
subsequently find the means and have the wish to resort to
such redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the
younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter
of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peasant
families sets great price on holding the property of the household
well together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not
to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the common
case of several heirs succeeding to the farm, they generally make
up among themselves who is to remain in charge of the ancestral
household: the rest are compensated in money or helped to
start on some other estate or perhaps in a cottage by the side
of the principal house. In medieval England, France and Ger-
many the same considerations of economic efficiency are felt
as regards the keeping up of united holdings, and it may be said
that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these
considerations become. If it is possible, though not perhaps
profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it becomes
almost impossible to break-up the smaller units — so-called
yardlands and oxgangs. Through being parcelled up into
small plots, land loses in value, and, as to cattle, it is impossible
to divide one ox or one horse in specie without selling them.
No wonder that we find practices and customs of united suc-
cession arising in direct contradiction with the ancient rule that
all heirs of the same degree should be admitted to equal shares.
Glanville mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held
partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit-
ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed
strongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It was
certainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding
a military fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the
value of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other
among heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords
there was the evident self-interest of the tenants themselves
and therefore the point of view of unification of holdings is by
no means confined to servile tenements or to military fiefs.
The question whether the successor should be the eldest
son or the youngest son is a secondary one. The latter
practice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro-
duced in England what is termed the Borough English
rule. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast
in point of succession between the two parts of the borough
of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their
tenements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English
tenants the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation
of this passage of the holdings to the youngest is found in the
fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house,
while the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into
the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take
care of his land. This is well in keeping with the view that
customs of united succession arise in connexion with compensa-
tion provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to
settlement in the original household. The succession of the
youngest appears also very characteristic in so far as it illustrates
the break up into small tenancies, as the youngest in the family
is certainly not a fit representative of hierarchy and authority
and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own
restricted household.
One more feature of the ancient law of succession has to be
noticed in conclusion, viz. the exclusion of women from
inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards
movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par
with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic
conception personal ornaments and articles of household furni-
ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line
of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts
women and men on the same footing as to all forms of property
equated to " movable money " (Losore); but as to land there is
a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are
admitted to a certain extent, but always placed behind men of
equal degree. Frankish and Lombard law originally excluded
women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as
ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think
about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules
of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation
of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin-
gians (Lex Anglorum et Werinorum,c. 6). It is stated there that
inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the
homicide of relatives and with the power of bearing arms. One
of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved
to be the Church. It favoured all through the view that land
should be transmitted in the same way as money or chattels.
A Frankish formula (Marculf) shows us a father who takes care
to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural
affection in spite of the strict law of his tribe. Such instruments
were strongly backed by the Church, and the view that women
should be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made
its way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times.
AUTHORITIES. — Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (1878); Julius
Jolly, Outlines of a History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance
and Adoption (Tagpre law lectures) (Calcutta, 1883); B. W. Leist,
Altarisches jus Civile (1892); F. Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales
(2nd ed., 1904) ; the same, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law
(1902) ; Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille cellique (1906) ; A. Heusler,
Institutionen des deutschen Privatrechts, i. (1885); H. Brunner,
Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (vol. i., and. ed., 1907) ; Jul. Picker, Unter-
suchungen zur Erbepfolge (Innsbruck, 1891 ft.); Kraus, Sitte und
Brauch der Sud-Slaven; Pollock and Maitland, History of English
Law, ii. (1895) ; Kenny, Law of Primogeniture (1878) ; P. Vinogradoff,
The Growth of the Manor (1905); Brandt, Forelaesninger om norsk
Retshistorie Kristiania (1880); Boden, "Das Odalsrecht " in the
Zeitschrift der Savignystiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte (Ger. Abth.
xxiii.); H. Brunner, "Der Totentheil " in the same Zeitschrift
(Ger. Abth. xix.); L. Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908),
vol. i.; Fustel de Coulanges, La CM antique (4th ed., 1872).
(P. Vi.)
SUCCESSION DUTY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax
placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes
on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one
person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the
successor)." In order properly to understand the present
state of the English law it is necessary to describe shortly the
state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894 — an act which
effected a considerable change in the duties payable and in the
mode of assessment of those duties.
The principal act which first imposed a succession duty in
England was the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a
duty varying from i to 10 % according to the degree of con-
sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed
upon every succession which was defined as " every past or
future disposition of property by reason whereof any person
has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or
the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after
the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either
immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin-
gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation
and every devolution by law of any beneficial interest in pro-
perty, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying
after the time appointed for the commencement of this act to
SUCCINIC ACID
any other person in possession or expectancy." The property
which is liable to pay the duty is in realty or leasehold estate
in the United Kingdom and personalty — not subject to legacy
duty — which the beneficiary claims by virtue of English,
Scottish or Irish law. Personalty in England bequeathed by a
person domiciled abroad is not subject to succession duty.
Successions of a husband or a wife, successions where the princi-
pal value is under £100, and individual successions under £20,
are exempt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty
directed to be converted into real estate are liable to succession,
not to legacy duty. Special provision is made for the collection
of duty in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor
is also the predecessor. The duty is a first charge on property,
but if the property be parted with before the duty is paid the
liability of the successor is transferred to the alienee. It is,
therefore, usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to
demand for the protection of the purchaser the production of
receipts for succession duty, as such receipts are an effectual
protection notwithstanding any suppression or misstatement
in the account on the footing of which the duty was assessed
or any insufficiency of such assessment. The duty is by this
act directed to be assessed as follows: on personal property, if
the successor takes a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the
principal value of the annuity or yearly income estimated
according to the period during which he is entitled to receive
the annuity or yearly income, and the duty is payable in four
yearly instalments free from interest. If the successor takes
absolutely he pays in a lump sum duty on the principal value.
On real property the duty is payable in eight half-yearly instal-
ments without interest on the capital value of an annuity equal to
the annual value of the property. Various minor changes were
made. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881, personal
estates under £300 were exempted. By the Customs and Inland
Revenue Act 1888 an additional £% was charged on successions
already paying i% and an additional ij% on successions
paying more than i %. By the Customs and Inland Revenue
Act 1889 an additional duty of i% called estate duty was
payable on successions over £10,000.
The Finance Acts 1894 and 1909 effected large changes in
the duties payable on death (for which see ESTATE DUTY;
LEGACY). As regards the succession duties they enacted that
payment of the estate duties thereby created should include
payment of the additional duties mentioned above. Estates
under £1000 (£2000 in the case of widow or child of deceased)
are exempted from payment of any succession duties. The
succession duty payable under the Succession Duty Act 1853
was in all cases to be calculated according to the principal
value of the property, i.e. its selling value, and though still
payable by instalments interest at 3% is chargeable. The
additional succession duties are still payable in cases where
the estate duty is not charged, but such cases are of small
importance and in practice are not as a rule charged.
United States. — The United States imposed a succession duty by
the War Revenue Act of 1898 on all legacies or distributive shares
of personal property exceeding $10,000. It is a tax on the privilege
of succession. Devises or distributions of land are not affected by
it. The rate of duty runs from 75 cents on the $100 to $5 on the
$100, if the legacy or share in question does not exceed $25,000.
On those of over that value the rate is multiplied Ij times on
estates up to $100,000, twofold on those from $100,000 to $500,000,
2j times on those from $500,000 to a million, and threefold for
those exceeding a million. This statute has been supported as
constitutional by the Supreme Court. Many of the states also
impose succession duties, or transfer taxes; generally, however, on
collateral and remote successions; sometimes progressive, according
to the amount of the succession. The state duties generally touch
real estate successions as well as those to personal property. If a
citizen of state A owns registered bonds of a corporation chartered
by state B, which he has put for safe keeping in a deposit vault
in state C, his estate may thus have to pay four succession taxes,
one to state A, to which he belongs and which, by legal fiction, is
the seat of all his personal property; one to state B, for permitting
the transfer of the bonds to the legatees on the books of the
corporation; one to state C, for allowing them to be removed
from the deposit vault for that purpose; and one to the United
States.
SUCCINIC ACID, C2IL.(CO,H)2. Two acids torresponding
to this empirical formula are known — namely ethylene suc-
cinic acid, HOsC-CHj-Crk-COzH and ethylidene succinic acid
CHrCH(CO2H)j.
Ethylene succinic acid occurs in amber, in various resins and
lignites, in fossilized wood, in many members of the natural
orders of Papaveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes,
urine and blood. It is also found in the thymus gland of calves
and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation
of fats and of fatty acids by nitric acid, and is also a product of
the fermentation of malic and tartaric acids. It is usually
"obtained by the distillation of amber, or by the fermentation of
calcium malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may
be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric acids with hydriodic
acid (R. Schmitt, Ann., 1860, 114, p. 106; V. Dessaignes, ibid.,
1860, 115, p. 120; by reducing fumaric and maleic acids with
sodium amalgam; by heating bromacetic acid with silver to
130° C.; in small quantity by the oxidation of acetic acid with
potassium persulphate (C. Moritz and R. Wolffenstein, Ber., 1899,
32, p. 2534); by the hydrolysis of succinonitrile (from ethylene
dibromide) C2KU->C2II<Br2-*C2H4(CN)2->C2H4(COzH)J; by the
hydrolysis of /3-cyanpropionic ester; and by the condensation
of sodiomalonic ester with monochloracetic ester and hydrolysis
of the resulting ethane tricarboxylic ester (RC^C^CH- CHj- CO2R;
this method is applicable to the preparation of substituted
succinic acids. It is also produced by the electrolysis of a
concentrated solution of potassium ethyl malonate.
It crystallizes in prisms or plates which melt at 185° C. and boil
at 235° C. with partial conversion into the anhydride. It is
readily soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the acid are
decomposed in sunlight by uranium salts, with evolution of
carbon dioxide and the formation of propionic acid. Potassium
permanganate, in acid solution, oxidizes it to carbon dioxide
and water. The sodium salt on distillation with phosphorus
trisulphide gives thiophene. The esters of the acid condense
readily with aromatic aldehydes and ketones to form -y-di-
substituted itaconic acids and 7-alkylen pyrotartaric acids
(H. Stobbe, Ann., 1899, 308, p. 71). -y-Oxyacids are formed
when aldehydes are heated with sodium succinate and sodium
acetate. Numerous salts of the acid are known, the basic
ferric salt being occasionally used in quantitative analysis for
the separation of iron from aluminium.
Succinyl chloride, obtained by the action of phosphorus penta-
chloride on succinic acid, is a colourless liquid which boils at 190° C.
In many respects it behaves as though it were dichlorbutyro-lactone,
jH^
; e.g. on reduction it yields butyro-lactone, and when
condensed with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride it
yields chiefly -y-diphenylbutyro-lactone. Succinic anhydride,
C2H4(CO)2O, is obtained by heating the acid or its sodium salt with
acetic anhydride; by the action of acetyl chloride on the barium salt;
by distilling a mixture of succinic acid and succinyl chloride, or by
heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid. It crystallizes
in plates which melt at 120° C., and distils without decomposition.
It is slowly dissolved by water with the formation of the acid. It
combines readily with the meta-aminophenols to form rhodamines,
which are valuable dyestuffs. Heated in a current of ammonia '
it gives succinimide, which is also obtained on heating acid ammon-
ium succinate. It crystallizes in colourless octahedra which melt
at 125-126° C., and is easily soluble in water. When warmed with
baryta water it yields succinamic acid, HOjC-CHj-CHj-CONHj;
and with alcoholic ammonia at 100° C. it gives succinamide. The
imino hydrogen atom is easily replaced by metals. Distillation
with zinc dust gives pyrrol (g.t>.). By the action of bromine in
alkaline solution it is converted into 0-aminopropionic acid.
Succinamide, C2H4(CONH2)2, best obtained by the action of ammonia
on diethyl succinate, crystallizes in needles which melt at 242-
243° C., and is soluble in hot water. Succinonitrile, CjH4(CN)i,
is obtained by the action of potassium cyanide on ethylene
dibromide or by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium cyan-
acetate. It is an amorphous solid which melts at 54—55° C. On
reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution it yields tetraethylene
diamine (putrescein) and pyrollidine.
Methyl succinic acid (pyrotartaricacid),HO2C-CHj-CH(CH>)-CO8H,
is formed by the dry distillation of tartaric acid ; by heating pyruvic
acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 180° C. ; by the reduction
of citraconic and mesaconic acids with sodium amalgam; and by
SUCHER— SUCKLING
the hydrolysis of 0-cyanbutyric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms
which melt at 112 C. and are soluble in water. It forms an
anhydride when heated. The sodium salt on heating with
phosphorus trisulphide yields methylthiophen.
Ethylidene succinic acid or isosuccinic acid, CHj-CH(CO2H)j,
is produced by the hydrolysis of o-cyaupropionic acid and by the
action of methyl iodide on sodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in
prisms which melt at 120° C. (T. Salzer, Journ. prak. Ghent., 1898 [2],
57, p. 497), and dissolve in water. It does not yield an anhydride,
but when heated loses carbon dioxide and leaves a residue of
propionic acid. It may be distinguished from the isomeric
ethylene succinic acid by the fact that its sodium salt does not give
a precipitate with ferric chloride.
SUCHER, ROSA (1849- ), German opera singer, nte
Hasselbeck, was the wife of Josef Sucher (1844-1908), a well-
known conductor and composer. They were married in 1876,
when she had already had various engagements as a singer and he
was conductor at the Leipzig city theatre. Frau Sucher soon
became famous for her performances in Wagner's operas, her
seasons in London in 1882 and 1892 proving her great capacity
both as singer and actress; in 1886 and 1888 she sang at
Bayreuth, and in later years she was principally associated with
the opera stage in Berlin, retiring in 1903. Her magnificent
rendering of the part of Isolde in Wagner's opera is especially
remembered.
SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Due D'ALBUFERA DA VALENCIA
(1770-1826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of
Napoleon's generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons,
where he was born on the 2nd of March 1770. He originally
intended to follow his father's business; but having in 1792
served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at
Lyons, he manifested military abilities which secured his rapid
promotion. As chef de balaillon he was present at the siege of
Toulon in 1793, where he took General O'Hara prisoner. During
the Italian campaign of 1796 he was severely wounded at Cerea
on the nth of October. In October 1797 he was appointed to the
command of a demi-brigade, and his services, under Joubert in the
Tirol in that year, and in Switzerland under Brune in 1 797-98, were
recognized by his promotion to the rank of general of brigade.
He took no part in the Egyptian campaign, but in August was
made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency
and discipline of the army in Italy. In July 1799 he was made
general of division and chief of staff to Joubert in Italy, and
was in 1800 named by Massena his second in command. His
dexterous resistance to the superior forces of the Austrians with
the left wing of Massena's army, when the right and centre were
shut up in Genoa, not only prevented the invasion of France
from this direction but contributed to the success of Napoleon's
crossing the Alps, which culminated in the battle of Marengo
on the i4th of June. He took a prominent part in the Italian
campaign till the armistice of Treviso. In the campaigns of
1805 and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlitz,
Saalfeld, Jena, Pultusk and Ostrolenka. He obtained the title
of count on the igth of March 1808, married Mile de Saint
Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte's wife, and soon afterwards
was ordered to Spain. Here, after taking part in the siege of
Saragossa, he was named commander of the army of Aragon and
governor of the province, which, by wise and (unlike that of most
of the French generals) disinterested administration no less
than by his brilliant valour, he in two years brought into com-
plete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria
on the i4th of June 1809, and on the 22nd of April 1810 defeated
O'Donnell at Lerida. After being made marshal of France
(July 8, 1811) he in 1812 achieved the conquest of Valencia,
for which he was rewarded with the title of due d'Albufera da
Valencia (1812). When the tide set against the French Suchet
defended his conquests step by step till compelled to retire into
France, after which he took part in Soult's defensive campaign.
By Louis XVIII. he was on the 4th of June made a peer of
France, but, having during the Hundred Days commanded
one of Napoleon's armies on the Alpine frontier, he was deprived
of his peerage on the 24th of July 1815. He died near Marseilles
on the 3rd of January 1826. Suchet wrote Mtmoires dealing
with the Peninsular War, which were left by the marshal in an
unfinished condition, and the two volumes and atlas appeared
in 1820-1834 under the editorship of his former chief staff
officer, Baron St Cyr-Nogues.
See C. H. Barault-Roullon, Le Marechal Suchet (Paris, 1854);
Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les mbmoires du Marshal
Suchet (Paris, 1840), a controversial work on the last events of the
Peninsular War, inspired, it is supposed, by Soult; and Lieutenant -
General Lamarque's obituary notice in the Spectateur militaire
(1826). See also bibliography in article PENINSULAR WAR.
SU-CHOW. There are in China three cities of this name
which deserve mention.
1. Su-chow-Fu, in the province of Kiang-su, formerly one
of the largest cities in the world, and in 1907 credited still with
a population of 500,000, on the Grand Canal, 55 m. W.N.W. of
Shanghai, with which it is connected by railway. The site is
practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu. The
walls are about 10 m. in circumference and there are four large
suburbs. Its silk manufactures are represented by a greater
variety of goods than are produced anywhere else in the empire;
and the publication of cheap editions of the Chinese classics is
carried to great perfection. There is a Chinese proverb to the
effect that to be perfectly happy a man ought to be born in
Su-chow, live in Canton and die in Lien-chow. The nine-
storeyed pagoda of the northern temple is one of the finest in
the country. In 1860 Su-chow was captured by the T'aip'ings,
and when in 1863 it was recovered by General Gordon the city
was almost a heap of ruins. It has since largely recovered its
prosperity, and besides 7000 silk looms has cotton mills and
an important trade in rice. Of the original splendour of the
place some idea may be gathered from the beautiful plan on a
slab of marble preserved since 1247 in the temple of Confucius and
reproduced in Yule's Marco Polo, vol. i. Su-chow was founded
in 484 by Ho-lu-Wang, whose grave is covered by the artificial
" Hill of the Tiger " in the vicinity of the town. The literary
and poetic designation of Su-chow is Ku-su, from the great tower
of Ku-su-tai, built by Ho-lu-Wang. Su-chow was opened to
foreign trade by the Japanese treaty of 1895. A Chinese and
European school was opened in 1900.
2. Su-chow, formerly Tsiu-tsuan-tsiun, a free city in the
province of Kan-suh, in 39° 48' N., just within the extreme
north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It is
the great centre of the rhubarb trade. Completely destroyed
in the great Mahommedan or Dungan insurrection (1865-72),
it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuilt.
3. Su-chow, a commercial town situated in the province of
Sze-ch'uen at the junction of the Min River with the Yang-tse-
Kiang, in 28° 46' 50" N. Population (1007) about 50,000.
SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1600-1642), English poet, was born
at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and bap-
tized there on the icth of February 1609. His father, Sir John
Suckling (1560-1627), had been knighted by James I. and was
successively master of requests, comptroller of the household
and secretary of state. He sat in the first and second parlia-
ments of Charles I.'s reign, and was made a privy councillor.
During his career he amassed a considerable fortune, of which
the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent
to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was entered at Gray's
Inn in 1627. He was intimate with Thomas Carew, Richard
Lovelace, Thomas Nabbes and especially with John Hales
and Sir William Davenant, who furnished John Aubrey with
information about his friend. In 1628 he left London to travel
in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of
1630, when he was knighted. In 1631 he volunteered for the
force raised by the marquess of Hamilton to serve under
Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He was back at Whitehall in
May 1632; but during his short service he had been present at
the battle of Breitenfeld and in many sieges. He was hand-
some, rich and generous; his happy gift in verse was only one
of many accomplishments, but it commended him especially
to Charles I. and his queen. He says of himself (" A Sessions
of the Poets ") that he " prized black eyes or a lucky hit at
bowls above all the trophies of wit." He was the best card-
player and the best bowler at court. Aubrey says that he
8
SUCRE— SUCZAWA
invented the game of cribbage, and relates that his sisters came
weeping to the bowling green at Piccadilly to dissuade him from
play, fearing that he would lose their portions. In 1634 great
scandal was caused in his old circle by a beating which he
received at the hands of Sir John Digby, a rival suitor for the
hand of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby; and it has
been suggested that this incident, which is narrated at length
in a letter (Nov. 10, 1634) from George Garrard l to Strafford,
had something to do with his beginning to seek more serious
society. In 1635 ne retired to his country estates in obedience
to the proclamation of the aoth of June 1632 enforced by
the Star Chamber * against absentee landlordism, and employed
his leisure in literary pursuits. In 1637 " A Sessions of the
Poets " was circulated in MS., and about the same time he
wrote a tract on Socinianism entitled An Account of Religion
by Reason (pr. 1646).
As a dramatist Suckling is noteworthy as having applied to
regular drama the accessories already used in the production
of masques. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own
expense with elaborate scenery. Even the lace on the actors'
coats was of real gold and silver. The play, in spite of its
felicity of diction, lacks dramatic interest, and the criticism
of Richard Flecknoe (Short Discourse of the English Stage),3
that it seemed " full of flowers, but rather stuck in than growing
there," is not altogether unjustified. The Goblins (1638,
pr. 1646) has some reminiscences of The Tempest; Brennoralt,
or the Discontented Colonel (1639, pr. 1646) is a satire on the
Scots, who are the Lithuanian rebels of the play; a fourth play,
The Sad One, was left unfinished owing to the outbreak of the
Civil War. Suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a
cost of £12,000, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedi-
tion of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland's retreat before
Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad (pr. 1656),
in Musarum deliciae, " on Sir John Suckling's most war-
like preparations for the Scottish war."4 He was elected as
member for Bramber for the opening session (1640) of the Long
Parliament; and in that winter he drew up a letter addressed
to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St Albans, advising the
king to disconcert the opposition leaders by making more con-
cessions than they asked for. In May of the following year he
was implicated in an attempt to rescue Strafford from the Tower
and to bring in French troops to the king's aid. The plot was
exposed by the evidence of Colonel George Goring, and Suckling
fled beyond the seas. The circumstances of his short exile are
obscure. He was certainly in Paris in the summer of 1641.
One pamphlet related a story of his elopement with a lady to
Spain, where he fell into the hands of the Inquisition. The
manner of his death is uncertain, but Aubrey's statement that
he put an end to his life by poison in May or June 1642 in fear
of poverty is generally accepted.
Suckling's reputation as a poet depends on his minor pieces.
They have wit and fancy, and at times exquisite felicity of
expression. " Easy, natural Suckling," Millamant's comment
in Congreve's Way of the World (Act iv., sc. i.) is a just tribute
to their spontaneous quality. Among the best known of them
are the " Ballade upon a Wedding," on the occasion of the
marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady
Margaret Howard, "I prithee, send me back my heart,"
"Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together," and
" Why so pale and wan, fond lover?" from Aglaura. " A
Sessions of the Poets," describing a meeting of the con-
temporary versifiers under the presidency of Apollo to decide
who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many
later satires.
A collection of Suckling's poems was first published in 1646 as
Fragmenta aurea, the so-called Selections (1836) published by the
1 Strafford's Letters and Despatches (1739), i. 336.
1 For an account of the proceedings see Historical Collections, ed.
by Rushworth (1680), 2nd pt., pp. 288-293.
* Reprinted in Eng. Drama and Stage, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, Rox-
burghe Library (1869), p. 277.
4 Attributed by Aubrey to Sir John Mennis (1599-1671). See
also a song printed in the tract, Fox borealis (Harl. Misc. iii. 235).
Rev. Alfred Inigo Suckling, author of the History and Antiquities of
Suffolk (1846-1848) with Memoirs based on original authorities and
a portrait after Van Dyck, is really a complete edition of his works,
of which W. C. Hazlitt's edition (1874; revised ed., 1892) is little more
than a reprint with some additions. The Poems and Songs of Sir
John Suckling, edited by John Gray and decorated with woodcut
border and initials by Charles Ricketts, was artistically printed at
the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In 1910 Suckling's works in prose
and verse were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For anecdotes
of Suckling's life see John Aubrey's Brief Lives (Clarendon Press
ed., ii. 242).
SUCRE, or CHUQUISACA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the
department of Chuquisaca and nominal capital of the republic,
46 m. N.E. of Potosi in 19° 2' 45* S., 65° 17' W. Pop. (1900),
20,967; (1906, estimate), 23,416, of whom many are Indians and
cholos. The city is in an elevated valley opening southward
on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cachimayo, the
principal northern tributary of the Pilcomayo. Its elevation,
8839 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeable climate. There are
fertile valleys in the vicinity which provide the city's markets
with fruit and vegetables, while the vineyards of Camargo
(formerly known as Cinti), in the southern part of the depart-
ment, supply wine and spirits of excellent quality. The city is
laid out regularly, with broad streets, a large central plaza and
a public garden, or promenade, called the prado. Among its
buildings are the cathedral, dating from 1553 and once noted
for its wealth; the president's palace and halls of congress,
which are no longer occupied as such by the national govern-
ment; the cabildo, or town-hall; a mint dating from 1572; the
courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded
in 1624, with faculties of law, medicine and theology. There
is a pretty chapel called the " Rotunda," erected in 1852 at
the lower end of the prado by President Belzu, on the spot where
an attempt had been made to assassinate him. Sucre is the
seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate
of Bolivia. It is not a commercial town, .and its only note-
worthy manufacture is the " clay dumplings " which are eaten
with potatoes by the inhabitants of the Bolivian uplands.
Although the capital of Bolivia, Sucre is one of its most isolated
towns because of the difficult character of the roads leading to
it. It is reached from the Pacific by way of Challapata, a
station on the Antofagasta & Oruro railway.
The Spanish town, according to Velasco, was founded in 1538
by Captain Pedro Angules on the site of an Indian village called
Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and was called
Charcas and Ciudad de la Plata by the Spaniards, though the
natives clung to the original Indian name. It became the capital
of the province of Charcas, of the comarca of Chuquisaca, and of
the bishopric of La Plata and Charcas, and in time it became
the favourite residence and health resort of the rich mine-owners
of Potosi. The bishopric dates from 1552 and the archbishopric
from 1609. In the latter year was created the Real Audiencia
de la Plata y Charcas, a royal court of justice having jurisdiction
over Upper Peru and the La Plata provinces of that time. Sucre
was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against
Spanish rule — on the 2Sth of May 1809. In 1840 the name
Sucre was adopted in honour of the patriot commander who won
the last decisive "battle of the war, and then became the first
president of Bolivia. The city has suffered much from partisan
strife, and the removal of the government to La Paz greatly
diminished its importance.
SUCZAWA (Rumanian, Suceava), a town in Bukovina,
Austria, 50 m. S. of Czernowitz by rail. Pop. (1900), 10,955.
It is situated on the river Suczawa, which forms there the
boundary between Bukovina and Rumania. One of its two
churches, dating from the I4th century, contains the grave of
the patron saint of Bukovina. The principal industry is the
tanning and leather trade. Not far from Suczawa lies the
monastery of Dragomirna, in Byzantine style, built at the
beginning of the i/th century. Suczawa is a very old town and
was until 1565 the capital of the principality of Moldavia. It
was many times besieged by Poles, Hungarians, Tatars and
Turks. In 1675 it was besieged by Sobiaski, and in 1679 it
was plundered by the Turks.
SUDAN
SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks),
that region of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and
Egypt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the
Red Sea. It is bounded S. (i) by the maritime countries of the
west coast of Africa, (2) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by
the equatorial lakes, and E. by the Abyssinian and Galla high-
lands. The name is often used in Great Britain in a restricted
sense to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory,
but it is properly applied to the whole area indicated, which
corresponds roughly to that portion of negro Africa north of the
equator under Mahommedan influence. The terms Nigritia
and Negroland, at one time current, referred to the same region.
^'M^^&j^WGL
Anglo -Egyptian
SUDAN
Railmay *...***•**• Caravan routes
Capitals of Provinces
The Sudan has an ethnological rather than a physical unity,
and politically it is divided into a large number of states, all
now under the control of European powers. These countries
being separately described, brief notice only is required of the
Sudan as a whole.
Within the limits assigned it has a length of about 4000 m.,
extending southwards at some points 1000 m., with a total
area of over 2,000,000 sq. m., and a population, approximately,
of 40,000,000. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes
and the well-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a
transitional zone of level grassy steppes (partly covered with
mimosas and acacias) with a mean breadth of about 60 m.
The zone lies between 17° and 18° N., but towards the centre
reaches as far south as 15° N. Excluding this transitional
zone, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated
region, with extensive open or rolling plains, level plateaus, and
abutting at its eastern and western ends on mountainous country.
Crystalline rocks, granites, gneisses and schists, of the Central
African type, occupy the greater part of the country. Towards
the south-east, slates, quartzites and iron-bearing schists ocCur,
but their age is not known. The Congo sandstones do not appear
to extend as far north. The Nubian sandstone borders the
Libyan desert on the south and south-west, but it is doubtful
if this sandstone is of Cretaceous or earlier date.
The Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts of
three other hydrographic systems, namely: the Niger, draining
southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad;
and the Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean. Lying
within the tropics and with an average elevation of not more
than 1500 to 2000 ft. above the sea, the climate of the Sudan
is hot and in the river valleys very un-
healthy. Few parts are suitable for the
residence of Europeans. Cut off from
North Africa by the Saharan desert, the
inhabitants, who belong in the main to
the negro family proper, are thought to
have received their earliest civilization
from the East. Arab influence and the
Moslem religion began to be felt in the
western Sudan as early as the gth century
and had taken deep root by the end of
the nth. The existence of native Chris-
tian states in Nubia hindered for some '
centuries the spread of Islam in the
eastern Sudan, and throughout the
country some tribes have remained
pagan. It was not until the last quarter
of the ipth century that the European
nations became the ruling force.
The terms western, central and eastern
Sudan are indicative of geographical
position merely. The various states are
politically divisible into four groups:
(i) those west of the Niger; (2) those
between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3)
those between Lake Chad and the basin
of the Nile; (4) those in the upper Nile
valley.
The first group includes the native
states of Bondu, Futa Jallon, Masina,
Mossi and all the tribes within the great
bend of the Niger. In the last quarter
of the i Qth century they fell under the
control of France, the region being
styled officially the French Sudan. In
1900 this title was abandoned. The
greater part of what was the French
Sudan is now known as [the Upper
Senegal and Niger Colony (see SENEGAL,
FRENCH WEST AFRICA, &c.).
The second group of Sudanese states
EI""yW"*"Ki is almost entirely within the British
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the sultanate
of Sokoto and its dependent emirates of Kano, Bida, Zaria,
&c., and the ancient sultanate of Bornu, which, with Adamawa,
is partly within the German colony of Cameroon (see NIGERIA
and CAMEROON).
The third or central group of Sudanese states is formed of
the sultanates of Bagirmi (<?.».) with Kanem and Wadai (q.v.).
Wadai was the last state of the Sudan to come under European
influence, its conquest being effected in 1909. This third group
is included in French Congo (q.v.).
The fourth group consists of the states conquered during
the i gth century by the Egyptians and now under the joint
control of Great Britain and Egypt. These countries are known
collectively as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see below).
For the regions west of Lake Chad the standard historical work
is the Travels of Dr Heinrich Barth (5 vols., London, 1857-1858).
Consult also P. C. Meyer, Erforschungsgeschichte und Staatenbildungen
des Westsudan (Gotha, 1897), an admirable summary with biblio-
graphy and maps; Karl Kumm, The Sudan (London, 1907); Lady
10
SUDAN
Lugard, A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905); and the biblio-
graphies given under the various countries named. For sources
and history see TIMBUKTU. For the central Sudan the most im-
portant work is that of Gustav Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols.,
Berlin 1879-1889). See also Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the
Nile (2 vols., London, 1907) ; Karl Kumm, From Haussaland to Egypt
(London, 1910). For the eastern Sudan see the bibliographies under
the following section. A good general work is P. Paulitschke's
Die Suddnlander (Freiburg, 1885).
THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN
The region which before the revolt of the Arabized tribes
under the Mahdi Mahommed Ahmed in 1881-84 was known
as the Egyptian Sudan has, since its reconquest by
a* the Anglo-Egyptian expeditions of 1896-98, been
under the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and
Egypt. The limits of this condominium differ slightly from
those of the Egyptian Sudan of the pre-Mahdi period. It is
bounded N. by Egypt (the 22nd parallel of N. lat. being the
dividing line) , E. by the Red Sea , Eritrea and Abyssinia, S. by
the Uganda Protectorate and Belgian Congo, W. by French
Congo. North of Darfur is the Libyan Desert, in which the
western and northern frontiers meet. Here the boundary is
undefined.1
As thus constituted the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan forms a com-
pact territory which, being joined southwards by the Uganda
Protectorate, brings the whole of the Nile valley from the
equatorial lakes to the Mediterranean under the control of Great
Britain. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extends north to south
about 1200 m. in a direct line, and west to east about 1000 m.
also in a direct line. It covers 950,000 sq. m., being about one-
fourth the area of Europe. In what follows the term Sudan
is used to indicate the Anglo-Egyptian condominium only.
Physical Features. — The Sudan presents'many diversified features.
It may be divided broadly into two zones. The northern portion,
from about 16° N., is practically the south-eastern continuation
of the Saharan desert; the southern region is fertile, abundantly
watered, and in places densely forested. West oi the Nile there
is a distinctly marked intermediate zone of steppes. In the southern
district, between 5° and 10° N., huge swamps extend on either side
of the Nile and along the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
From south to north the Sudan is traversed by the Nile (j.t>.),
and all the great tributaries of that river are either partly or entirely
within its borders. The most elevated district is a range of mountains
running parallel to the Red Sea. These mountains, which to the
south join the Abyssinian highlands, present their steepest face
eastward, attaining heights within the Sudan of 4000 to over 7000 ft.
Jebel Erba, 7480 ft., and Jebel Soturba, 6889 ft. (both between 21°
and 22° N.), the highest peaks, face the Red Sea about 20 m.
inland. Westward the mountains 'slope gradually to the Nile
valley, which occupies the greater part of the country and has a
general level of from 600 to 1600 ft. In places, as between Suakin
and Berber and above Roseires on the Blue Nile, the mountains
approach close to the river. Beyond the Nile westward extend
vast plains, which in Kordofan and Dar Nuba (between 10° and
15° N.) are broken by hills reaching 2000 ft. Farther west, in
Darfur, the country is more elevated, the Jebel Marra range being
from 5000 to 6000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the country gradually rises to a ridge of hills,
perhaps 2000 ft. high, which running south-east and north-west form
the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo.
Apart from the Nile system, fully described elsewhere, the Sudan
has two other rivers, the Gash and the Baraka. These are inter-
mittent streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea
and flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters
the Sudan near Kassala and north of that town turns west towards
the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached.
The Gash nevertheless fertilizes a considerable tract of country.
The Khor Baraka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red
Sea in the neighbourhood of Trinkitat (some 50 m. south of Suakin),
but about 30 m. from the coast forms an inland delta. Except in
seasons of great rain its waters do not reach the sea.
The Coast Region. — The coast extends along the Red Sea north
to south from 22° N. to 18° N., a distance following the indentations
of the shore of over 400 m. These indentations are numerous but
not deep, the general trend of the coast being S.S.E. The most
prominent headland is Ras Rawaya (21° N.) which forms the
northern shore ot Dokhana Bay. There are few good harbours, Port
1 It was supposed to be indicated by the line which, according to
the Turkish firman of 1841, describes a semicircle from the Siwa
Oasis to Wadai, approaching the Nile between the Second and Third
Cataracts. This line is disregarded by the Sudan government.
Sudan and Suakin being the chief ports. South of Suakin is the
shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number of small islands lie off the
coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland
ten to twenty miles, and is traversed by khors (generally dry) with
ill-defined shifting channels. Beyond this plain rise the mountain
ranges already mentioned. Their seaward slopes often bear a
considerable amount of vegetation.
The Desert Zone. — The greater part of the region between the coast
and the Nile is known as the Nubian Desert. It is a rugged, rocky,
barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, along whose beds there
is scanty vegetation. The desert character of the country increases
as the river is neared, but along either bank of the Nile is a narrow
strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile there are a few oases —
those of Selima, Zaghawa and El Kab — but this district, part of
the Libyan Desert, is even more desolate than the Nubian Desert.
The Intermediate Zone and the Fertile Districts. — East of the Nile
the region of absolute desert ceases about the point of the Atbara
confluence. The country enclosed by the Nile, the Atbara and the
Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Meroe, consists of very fertile
soil, and along the eastern frontier, by the upper courses of the
rivers named, is a district of rich land alternating with prairies and
open forests. The fork between the White and Blue Niles, the
Gezira, is also fertile land. South of the Gezira is Sennar, a well-
watered country of arable and grazing land.
West of the Nile the desert zone extends farther south than on
the east, and Kordofan, which comes between the desert and the
plains of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, is largely barren and steppe land.
South of 10° N. there is everywhere abundance of water. Darfur
is mainly open, steppe-like country with extensive tracts of cultiv-
able land and a central mountain massif, the Jebel Marra (see
SENNAR KORDOFAN, DARFUR).
Climate. — The country lies wholly within the tropics, and as the
greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than 1500 ft.
above the sea it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest in the
central regions, least in the desert zone, where the difference between
summer and winter is marked. Even in winter, however, the day
temperatures are high. Of this region the Arabs say " the soil is
like fire and the wind like a flame." Nevertheless, the drynessof the
air renders the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan
and Darfur, are also healthy except after the autumn rains. At
Khartum, centrally situated, the minimum temperature is about
40° F., the maximum 113°, the mean annual temperature being 80°.
January is the coldest and June the hottest month. Violent sand-
storms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may
be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or
no rain. There are perhaps a few rainy days in winter and an
occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where " the
rainy season " is from mid-June to September, there are some
10 in. of rain during the year. The number of days on which
rain falls rarely exceeds, however, fifteen. The rainfall increases
to about 20 m. per annum in the eastern and south-eastern
regions. In the swamp district and throughout the Bahr-el-Ghazal
heavy rains (40 in. or more a year) are experienced. The
season of heaviest rain is from April to September. In the
maritime district there are occasional heavy rains between August
and January. In the sudd region thunderstorms are frequent.
Here the temperature averages about 85° F., the air is always
damp and fever is endemic.
Flora. — In the deserts north of Khartum vegetation is almost
confined to stunted mimosa and, in the less arid districts, scanty
herbage. Between the desert and the cultivated Nile lands is an
open growth of samr, hashab (Acacia verek) and other acacia trees.
Between Khartum and 12° N. forest belts line the banks of the
rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the sant or
sunt (Acacia arabica). Farther from the rivers are open woods of
heglig (Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, &c., and dense thickets of
laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr (Acacia mellifera). These open woods
coyer a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and talh trees
being the chief producers of gum arabic. South of 12° N. the forest ,
lands of the White Nile as far south as the sudd region are of similar
character to that described. On the Blue Nile the forest trees
alter, the most abundant being the babanus (Sudan ebony) and the
silag (Anogeissus leiocarpus), while gigantic baobabs, called tebeldi
in the Sudan, and tarfa (Sterculia cinerea) are numerous. In
southern Kordofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghazal
the silag and ebony are also common, as well as African mahogany
(homraya, Khaya senegalensis) and other timber trees. In the
Ghazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among
them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in
the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Mongalla mudiria and along the Abyssinian-
Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-el-Jebel and north of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal are vast prairies covered with tall coarse grass.
Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some
districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant grows
in almost every province. (See also § Agriculture, and, for the
vegetation of the swamp region, NILE.)
Fauna. — Wild animals and birds are numerous. Elephants are
abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel forests, and
are found in fewer numbers in the upper valley of the Blue Nile.
SUDAN
ii
The hippopotamus and crocodile abound in the swamp regions,
which also shelter many kinds of water-fowl. The lion, leopard,
giraffe and various kinds of antelope are found in the prairies and
in the open woods. In the forests are numerous bright-plumaged
birds and many species of monkeys, mostly ground monkeys —
the trees being too prickly for climbing. Snakes are also plentiful,
many poisonous kinds being found. In the steppe regions of Kordo-
fan, Darfur, &c., and in the Nubian Desert ostriches are fairly
plentiful. Insect life is very abundant, especially south of 12° N.,
the northern limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are mosqui-
toes, termites and the serut, a brown fly about the size of a wasp,
with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Locusts are less
common, but, especially in the eastern districts, occasionally cause
great destruction. For domestic animals see § Agriculture.
Inhabitants. — The population, always sparse in the desert
and steppe regions, was never dense even in the more fertile
southern districts. During the Mahdia the country suffered
severely from war and disease. Excluding Darfur the popula-
tion before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. In
1905 an estimate made by the Sudan government put the
population at 1,853,000 only, including 11,000 foreigners, of
whom 2800 were Europeans. Since that year there has been
a considerable natural increase and in 1910 the population was
officially estimated at 2,400,000. There has also been a slight
immigration of Abyssinians, Egyptians, Syrians and Europeans
— the last named chiefly Greeks.
The term " Bilad-es-Sudan " (" country of the blacks ") is
not altogether applicable to the Anglo-Egyptian condominium,
the northern portion being occupied by Hamitic and Semitic
tribes, chiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley
north of Khartum the inhabitants are of very mixed origin.
This applies particularly to the so-called Nubians who inhabit
the Dongola mudiria (see NUBIA). Elsewhere the inhabitants
north of 12° N. are of mixed Arab descent. In the Nubian
Desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin, the last
named grazing their camels in the mountainous districts towards
the Red Sea. In the region south of Berber and Suakin are
the Hadendoa. The Jaalin, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the
country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and
Hassanat are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabish
occupy the desert country north of Kordofan, which is the home
of the Baggara tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed
Arab and negro blood.
Of negro Nilotic tribes there are three or four main divisions.
The Shilluks occupy the country along the west side of the Nile
northward from about Lake No. The country east of the Nile
is divided between the Bari, Nuer and Dinka tribes. The
Dinkas are also widely spread over the Bahr-el-Ghazal province.
South of Kordofan and west of the Shilluk territory are the
Nubas, apparently the original stock of the Nubians. In the
south-west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other
tribes, and along the Nile-Congo water-parting are the A-Zande
or Niam-Niam, a comparatively light-coloured race. (All the
tribes mentioned are separately noticed.)
Social Conditions. — In contrast with the Egyptians, a most
industrious race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro,
are as a general rule indolent. Where wants are few and simple,
where houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out
the cold, there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs " clothed
in rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the
free-born sons of the desert, no matter how large their herds or
how numerous their followings" (Egypt, No. i [1904], p. 147).
Following the establishment of British control slave-raiding and
the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues.
A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic-
speaking peoples and slow but distinct moral improvement is
visible among them. Among the riverain " Arabs " some were
found to supply labour for public works, and with the money
thus obtained cattle were bought and farms started. The
Dongolese are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab
tribes are all Mahommedans, credulous and singularly liable
to fits of religious excitement. Most of the negro tribes are
pagan, but some of them who live in the northern regions
have embraced Islam.
Divisions and Chief Towns. — Darfur is under native rule. The
rest of the Sudan is divided into mudirias (provinces) and these are
subdivided into mamuria. The mudirias are Haifa, Red Sea, Dongola
and Berber in the north (these include practically all the region
known as Nubia) ; Khartum, Blue Nile and White Nile in the centre;
Kassala and Sennar in the east; Kordofan in the west; and Bahr-
el-Ghazal, Upper Nile (formerly Fashoda) and Mongalla in the
south. The mudirias vary considerably in size.
The capital, Khartum (<?.».), pop. with suburbs about 70,000,
is built in the fork formed by the junction of the White and Bjue
Niles. Opposite Khartum, on the west bank of the White Nile,
is Omdurman (q.v.), pop. about 43,000, the capital of the Sudan
during the Mahdia. On the Nile north of Khartum at the towns
of Berber, Abu Hamed, Merawi (Merowe), Dongola and Wadi
Haifa. On the Red Sea are Port Sudan and Suakin. Kassala
is on the river Gash east of the Atbara and near the Eritrean frontier.
(These towns are separately noticed.) On the Blue Nile are Kamlin,
Sennar, Wad Medani (Q.V.), pop. about 20,000, a thriving business
centre and capital of the Blue Nile mudiria, and Roseires, which
marks the limit of navigability by steamers of the river. Gallabat
is a town in the Kassala mudiria close to the Abyssinian frontier,
and Gedaref lies between the Blue Nile and Atbara a little north of
14° N. El Obeid, the chief town of Kordofan, is 230 m. south-
west by south of Khartum. Duiem, capital of the White Nile
mudiria, is the river port for Kordofan. El Fasher, the capital of
Darfur, is 500 m. W.S.W. of Khartum. AH the towns named,
except Roseires, are situated north of 13° N. In the south of
the Sudan there are no towns properly so called. The native
villages are composed of straw or palm huts; the places occupied
by Europeans or Egyptians are merely " posts " where the
administrative business of the district is carried on. Fashoda (g.f.),
renamed Kodok, is the headquarters of the Upper Nile mudiria.
Communications. — North of Khartum the chief means of com-
munication is by railway; south of that city by steamer. There are
two trunk railways, one connecting the Sudan with Egypt, the
other affording access to the Red Sea. The first line runs from the
Nile at Wadi Haifa across the desert in a direct line to Abu Hamed,
and from that point follows more or less closely the right (east)
bank of the Nile to Khartum. At Khartum the Blue Nile is bridged
and the railway is continued south through the Gezira to Sennar.
Thence it turns west, crosses the White Nile near Abba Island, and
is continued to El Obeid. The length of the line from Haifa to
Khartum is 575 m. ; from Khartum to Obeid 350 m. The railway
from the Nile to the Red Sea starts from the Haifa-Khartum line
at Atbara Junction, a mile north of the Atbara confluence. It runs
somewhat south of the Berber-Suakin caravan route. At Sallom,
278 m. from Atbara Junction, the line divides, one branch going
north to Port Sudan, the other south to Suakin. The total distance
to Port Sudan from Khartum is 493 m., the line to Suakin being
4 m. longer. Besides these main lines a railway, 138 m. long, runs
from Abu Hamed on the right bank of the Nile to Kareima (opposite
Merawi) in the Dongola mudiria below the Fourth Cataract. (The
railway which started from Haifa and followed the right bank of the
Nile to Kerma, 201 m. from Haifa, was abandoned in 1903.) The
railways are owned and worked by the state.
In connexion with the Khartum-Haifa railway steamers ply on
the Nile between Haifa and Shellal (Assuan) where the railway
from Alexandria ends. The distance by rail and steamer between
Khartum and Alexandria is about 1490 m. Steamers run on the
Nile between Kerma and Kareima, and above Khartum the govern-
ment maintains a regular service of steamers as far south as Gondo-
koro in the Uganda Protectorate. During flood season there is
also a steamship service on the Blue Nile. Powerful dredgers and
sudd-cutting machines are used to keep open communications in
the upper Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal.
The ancient caravan routes Korosko-Abu Hamed and Berber-
Suakin have been superseded by the railways, but elsewhere wells
and rest-houses are maintained along the main routes between the
towns and the Nile. On some of these roads a motor car service
is maintained.
From Port Sudan and Suakin there is a regular steamship service
to Europe via the Suez Canal . There are also services to Alexandria,
the Red Sea ports of Arabia, Aden and India.
There is an extensive telegraphic system. Khartum is connected
by land lines with Egypt and Uganda, thus affording direct tele-
graphic connexion between Alexandria and Mombasa (2500 m.).
From Khartum other lines go to Kassala and the Red Sea ports.
In some places the telegraph wires are placed 16 ft. 6 in. above
the ground to protect them from damage by giraffes.
Agriculture and other Industries. — North of Khartum agricul-
tural land is confined to a narrow strip on either side of the Nile
and to the few oases in the Libyan Desert. In the Gezira and in
the plains of Gedaref between the Blue Nile and the Atbara there
are wide areas of arable land, as also in the neighbourhood of Kassala
along the banks of the Gash. In Kordofan and Darfur cultivation
is confined to the khors or valleys. The chief grain crop is durra,
the staple food of the Sudanese. Two crops are obtained yearly
in several districts. On lands near the rivers the durra is sown after
the flood has gone down and also at the beginning of the rainy
season. Considerable quantities of wheat and barley are also
12
SUDAN
grown. Other foodstuffs raised are lentils, beans, onions and
melons. The date-palm is cultivated along the Nile valley below
Khartum, especiajly on the west bank in the Dongola mudiria and
in the neighbouring oases. Dates are also a staple product in
Darfur and Kordofan. Ground-nuts and sesame are grown in large
quantities for the oil they yield, and cotton of quality equal to
that grown in the Delta is produced. The Sudan was indeed the
original home of Egyptian cotton.
For watering the land by the river banks sakias (water-wheels)
are used, oxen being employed to turn them There are also a few
irrigation canals. In 1910, apart from the date plantations, about
1,500,000 acres were under cultivation. In 1910 a system of basin
irrigation was begun in Dongola mudiria.
Gum and ruboer are the chief forest products. The gum is
obtained from eastern Kordofan and in the forests in the upper
valley of the Blue Nile, the best gum coming from Kordofan. It
is of two kinds, hashab (white) and talk (red), the white being the
most valuable. Rubber is obtained from the Bahr-el-Ghazal —
where there are Para and Ceara rubber plantations — and in the
Sobat district. The wood of the sunt tree is used largely for boat-
building and for fuel, and the mahogany tree yields excellent timber.
Fibre is made from several trees and plants. Elephants are hunted
for the sake of their ivory. The wealth of the Arab tribes consists
largely in their herds of camels, horses and cattle. They also keep
ostrich farms, the feathers being of good quality. The Dongola
breed of horses is noted for its strength and hardness. The camels
are bred in the desert north of Berber, between the Nile and Red
Sea, in southern Dongola, in the Hadendoa country and in northern
Kordofan. The Sudanese camel is lighter, faster and better bred
than the camel of Egypt. The camel, horse and ostrich are not
found south of Kordofan and Sennar. The negro tribes living
south of those countries possess large herds of cattle, sheep and
goats. The cattle are generally small and the sheep yield little
wool. The Arabs use the cattle as draught-animals as well as for
their milk and flesh ; the negro tribes as a rule do not eat their oxen.
Fowls are plentiful, but of poor quality. Donkeys are much used
in the central regions; they make excellent transport animals.
Mineral Wealth. — In ancient times Nubia, i.e. the region between
the Red Sea and the Nile south of Egypt and north of the Suakin-
Berber line, was worked for gold. Ruins of an extensive gold-
mine exist near Jebel Erba at a short distance from the sea. In
1905 gold mining recommenced in Nubia, in the district of Um
Nabardi, which is in the desert, about midway between Wadi
Haifa and Abu Hamed. A light railway, 30 m. long, opened in
June 1905, connects Um Nabardi with the government railway
system. The producing stage was reached in 1908, and between
September 1908 and August 1909 the mines yielded 4500 oz. of gold.
Small quantities of gold-dust are obtained from Kordofan, and
gold is found in the Beni-Shangul country south-west of Sennar,
but this region is within the Abyssinian frontier (agreement of
the I5th of May 1902). There is lignite in the Dongola mudiria
and iron ore is found in Darfur, southern Kordofan and in the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. In the last-named mudiria iron is worked by the
natives. The district of Hofrat-el-Nahas (the copper mine) is
rich in copper, the mines having been worked intermittently from
remote times.
Trade. — The chief products of the Sudan for export are gum,
ivory, ostrich feathers, dates and rubber. Cotton, cotton-seed
and grain (durra, wheat, barley) sesame, livestock, hides and skins,
beeswax, mother-of-pearl, senna and gold are also exported. Before
the opening (1906) of the railway to the Red Sea the trade was chiefly
with Egypt via the Nile, and the great cost of carriage hindered its
development. Since the completion of the railway named goods
can be put on the world's markets at a much cheaper rate. Besides
the Egyptian and Red Sea routes there is considerable trade between
the eastern mudirias and Abyssinia and Eritrea, and also some trade
south and west with Uganda and the Congo countries. The Red
Sea ports trade largely with Arabia and engage in pearl fishery.
The principal imports are cotton goods, food-stuffs (flour, rice,
sugar, provisions), timber, tobacco, spirits (in large quantities),
iron and machinery, candles, cement and perfumery. The value
of the trade, which during the Mahdist rule (1884-1898) was a few
thousands only, had increased in 1905 to over £1,500,000. In
1908 the exports of Sudan produce were valued at ££515,000'; the
total imports at ££1,892,000.
Government. — The administration is based on the provisions
of a convention signed on the igth of January 1899 between
the British and Egyptian governments. The authority of the
sovereign powers is represented by a governor-general appointed
by Egypt on the recommendation of Great Britain. In 1910 a
council consisting of four ex officio members and from two to
four non-official nominated members was created to advise the
governor-general in the exercise of his executive and legislative
functions. Subject to the power of veto retained by the governor-
general all questions are decided by a majority of the council.
L 1 A£E(pound Egyptian) is equal to £i, os. 6d. British currency.
Each of the mudirias into which the country is divided is presided
over by a mudir (governor) responsible to the central govern
ment at Khartum. The governor-general, the chiefs of the
various departments of state and the mudirs are all Europeans,
the majority being British military officers The minor officials
are nearly all Egyptians or Sudanese. Revenue is derived as
to about 60% from the customs and revenue-earning depart-
ments (i.e. steamers, railways, posts and telegraphs), and as
to the rest from taxes on land, date-trees and animals, from
royalties on gum, ivory and ostrich feathers, from licences to
sell spirits, carry arms, &c., and from fees paid for the shooting
of game. Expenditure is largely on public works, education,
justice and the army. Financial affairs are managed from
Khartum, but control over expenditure is exercised by the
Egyptian financial department. The revenue, which in 1898
was ££35,000, for the first time exceeded a million in 1909, when
the amount realized was ££1,040,200. The expenditure in
1909 was ££1,153 ooo. Financially the government had been,
up to 1910, largely dependent upon Egypt. In the years 1901-
1909 ££4,378,000 was advanced from Cairo for public works
in the Sudan; in the same period a further sum of about
££2,750,000 had been found by Egypt to meet annual deficits
in the Sudan budgets (see Egypt, No. i [1910], pp. 5-6).
Justice. — The Sudan judicial codes, based in part on those
of India and in part on the principles of English law and of
Egyptian commercial law, provide for the recognition of " cus-
tomary law " so far as applicable and " not repugnant to good
conscience." In each mudiria criminal justice is administered
by a court, consisting of the mudir (or a judge) and two magis-
trates, which has general competence. The magistrates are
members of the administrative staff, who try minor cases without
the help of the mudir (or judge). The governor-general possesses
revising powers in all cases. Civil cases of importance are heard
by a judge (or where no judge is available by the mudir or his
representative); minor civil cases are tried by magistrates.
From the decision of the judges an appeal lies to the legal
secretary of the government, in his capacity of judicial com-
missioner. Jurisdiction in all legal matters as regards personal
status of Mahommedans is administered by a grand cadi and a
staff of subordinate cadis. The police force of each mudiria is
independently organized under the control of the mudirs.
Education. — Education is in charge of the department of
public instruction. Elementary education, the medium of
instruction being Arabic, is given in kuttabs or village schools.
There are primary schools in the chief towns where English,
Arabic, mathematics, and in some cases land-measuring is
taught. There are also government industrial workshops, and
a few schools for girls. The Gordon College at Khartum trains
teachers and judges in the Mahommedan courts and has annexed
to it a secondary school. The college also contains the Wellcome
laboratories for scientific research. Among the pagan negro
tribes Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are established.
These missions carry on educational work, special attention
being given to industrial training.
Defence. — The defence of the country is entrusted to the
Egyptian army, of which several regiments are stationed in the
Sudan. The governor-general is sirdar (Commander-in-chief)
of the army. A small force of British troops is also stationed
in the Sudan — chiefly at Khartum. They are under the com-
mand of the governor-general in virtue of an arrangement made
in 1905, having previously been part of the Egyptian command.
For topography, &c.,see The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, a compendium
prepared by officers of the Sudan government and edited by Count
Gleichen (2 vols., London, 1905); for administration, finance and
trade the annual Reports [by the British agent at Cairo] on Egypt
and the Sudan, since 1898; and the special report (Blue Book Egypt,
No. 11., 1883) by Colonel D. H. Stewart. Consult also J. Pethenck,
Travels in Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1862); W. Junker, Travels
l"Af"ca- 1^75-1886 (3 vols., London, 1890-1892); G. Schweinfurth
The Heart of Africa (2 vols., London, 1873); J. Baumgarten, Os/-
ajnka, der Sudan und das Seengebiet (Gotha, 1890); E. D. Schoenfeld,
Erythraa und der agyptische Sudan (Berlin, 1904); C. E. Muriel,
Report on the Forests of the Sudan (Cairo, 1901); H. F. Witherby,
Bird Hunting on the White Nile (London, 1902). For ethnology.
SUDAN
&c., see A. H.'Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (London,
1884) ; H. Frobenius, DieHeiden-Neger des dgyptischen Sudan (Berlin,
1893). Scientific and medical subjects are dealt with in the Reports
of the Wellcome Research Laboratories, Gordon College, Khartum.
The Sudan Almanac is a valuable official publication. (F. R. C.)
Archaeology. — Archaeological study in the Sudan was retarded
for many years by political conditions. The work which had
been begun by Cailliaud, Champollion, Lepsius and others was
interrupted by the rise of the Mahdist power; and with the
frontiers of Egypt itself menaced by dervishes, the country
south of Aswan (Assuan) was necessarily closed to the student
of antiquity. Even after the dervishes had been overthrown
at the battle of Omdurman (1898) it was some time before
archaeologists awoke to a sense of the historical importance of
the regions thus made accessible to them. Dr Wallis Budge
visited several of the far southern sites and made some tentative
excavations, but no extensive explorations were undertaken
until an unexpected event produced a sudden outburst of activity.
This was the resolution adopted by the Egyptian government
to extend the great reservoir at the First Cataract by raising
the height of the Aswan dam. As a result of this measure all
sites bordering the river banks from Aswan to Abu Simbel
were threatened with inundation and the scientific world took
alarm. A large sum of money was assigned by the government,
partly for the preservation of the visible temples in the area
to be submerged, partly for an official expedition under the
charge of Dr G. A. Reisner which was to search for all remains
of antiquity hidden beneath the ground. At the same time
the university of Pennsylvania despatched the Eckley B. Coxe,
jun., expedition, which devoted its attention to the southern
half of Lower Nubia from Haifa to Korosko, while the govern-
ment excavators explored from Korosko to Aswan. Thus
in the five years 1907-1911 inclusive an immense mass of new
material was acquired which throws a flood of light on the
archaeology at once of Egypt and the Sudan. For it must be
clearly appreciated that though all except the southern twenty
miles of Lower Nubia has been attached for purposes of admini-
stration of Egypt proper, yet this political boundary is purely
artificial. The natural geographical and ethnical southern
frontier of Egypt is the First Cataract; Egyptian scribes of the
Old Empire recognized this truth no less clearly than Diocletian,
and Juvenal anticipates the verdict of every modern observer
when he describes the " porta Syenes " as the gate of Africa.
It is the more necessary to emphasize this fact as the present
article must unavoidably be concerned principally with the
most northern regions of the country of the Blacks — for since
the days of Lepsius there has been little new investigation south
of Haifa. The hasty reconnaissances of Dr Wallis Budge,
Professor A. H. Sayce, Mr Somers Clarke and Professor J.
Garstang must be followed by more thorough and intensive
study before it can be possible to write in more than very general
terms of anything but the well-known monuments left by
Egyptian kings whose history is already tolerably familiar from
other sources. The inscriptions of these kings and their officials
have been collected by Professor J. H. Breasted and some
account of the temples and fortresses from Haifa to Khartum
will be found in the following section, Ancient Monuments
south of Haifa, while the history of the early and medieval
Christian kingdoms is outlined in the articles ETHIOPIA and
DONGOLA. The central and southern Sudan is therefore almost
a virgin field for the archaeologist, but the exploration of Lower
Nubia has made it possible to write a tentative preface to the
new chapters still unrevealed.
The Sudan was well named by the medieval Arab historians,
for it is primarily and above all the country of the black races,
of those Nilotic negroes whose birthplace may be supposed to
have been near the Great Lakes. But upon this aboriginal
stock were grafted in very early times fresh shoots of more
vigorous and intellectual races coming probably from the East
(cf . AFRICA : Ethnology) . Lower Nubia was one of the crucibles
in which several times was formed a mixed nation which defied
or actually dominated Egypt. There is some scientific ground
for dating the earliest example of such a fusion to the exact
period of the Egyptian Old Empire. It is certain in any case
that the process was constantly repeated at different dates
and in different parts of the country from Aswan to Axum, and
to the stimulation which resulted from it must be ascribed the
principal political and intellectual movements of the Sudanese
nations. Thus the Ethiopians who usurped the crown of the
Pharaohs from 740-660 B.C. were of a mixed stock akin to the
modern Barabra; the northern Nubians who successfully defied
the Roman emperors were under the lordship of the Blemyes
(Blemmyes), an East African tribe, and the empire of the
Candace dynasty, no less than the Christian kingdoms which
succeeded it, included many heterogeneous racial elements
(see also NUBIA). The real history of the Sudan will therefore
be concerned with the evolution of what may be called East
African or East Central African civilizations.
Up to the present, however, this aspect has been obscured,
for until 1907 scholars had little opportunity of studying ancient
Ethiopia except as a colonial extension of Egypt. From the
purely Egyptological standpoint there is much of value to be
learned from the Sudan. The Egyptian penetration of the
country began, according to the evidence of inscriptions, as early
as the Old Empire. Under the Xllth Dynasty colonies were
planted and fortresses established down to the Batn-el-Hagar.
During the XVIIIth Dynasty the political subjugation was com-
pleted and the newly won territories were studded with cities and
temples as far south as the Fourth Cataract. Some two hundred
years later the priests of Amen (Ammon), flying from Thebes,
founded a quasi-Egyptian capital at Napata. But after this date
Egypt played no part in the evolution of Ethiopia. Politically
moribund, it succumbed to the attacks of its virile southern neigh-
bours, who, having emerged from foreign tutelage, developed
according to the natural laws of their own genius and environ-
ment. The history of Ethiopia therefore as an independent
civilization may be said to date from the 8th century B.C., though
future researches may be able to carry its infant origins to a
remoter past.
Of the thousand years or more of effective Egyptian occupa-
tion many monuments exist, but on a broad general view it must
be pronounced that they owe their fame more to the accident
of survival than to any special intrinsic value. For excepting
Philae, which belongs as much to Egypt as to Ethiopia, Abu
Simbel is the only temple which can be ranked among first
rate products of Egyptian genius. The other temples, attractive
as they are, possess rather a local than a universal interest.
Similarly while the exploration of the Egyptian colonies south
of the First Cataract has added many details to our knowledge
of political history, of local cults and provincial organization,
yet with one exception it has not affected the known outlines
of the history of civilization. This exception is the discovery
made by Dr G. A. Reisner that the archaic culture first detected
at Nagada and Abydos and then at many points as far north
as Giza extended southwards into Nubia at least as far as
Gerf Husein. This was wholly unexpected, and if, as seems
probable, the evidence stands the test of criticism, it is a new
historical fact of great importance. The government expedition
found traces between Aswan and Korosko of all the principal
periods from this early date down to the Christian era. The
specimens 'obtained are kept in a separate room of the Cairo
Museum, where they form a collection of great value.
The work of the Pennsylvanian expedition, however, while
adding only a few details to the archaeology of the Egyptian
periods, has opened a new chapter in the history of the African
races. No records indeed were discovered of the founders of
the first great Ethiopian kingdom from Piankhi to Tirhakah,
nor has any fresh light been thrown upon the relations which
that remarkable king Ergamenes maintained with the Egyptian
Ptolemies. But the exploration of sites in the southern half
of Lower Nubia has revealed the existence of a wholly unsus-
pected independent civilization which grew up during the first
six centuries after Christ. The history of the succeeding
periods, moreover, has been partially recovered and the study
SUDAN
of architecture enriched by the excavation of numerous churches
dating from the time of Justinian, when Nubia was tirst Christian-
ized, down to the late medieval period when Christianity was
extirpated by Mahommedanism.
The civilization of the first six centuries A.D. may be called
" Romano-Nubian," a term which indicates its date and suggests
something of its character. It is the product of a people living
on the borders of the Roman Empire who inherited much of the
Hellenistic tradition in minor arts but combined it with a
remarkable power of independent origination. The sites on
which it has been observed range from Dakka to Haifa, that
is to say within the precise limits which late Latin and Greek
writers assign to the Blemyes, and there is good reason to identify
the people that evolved it with this hitherto almost unknown
barbarian nation. Apart from this, however, the greatest
value of the new discoveries will consist in the fact that they
may lay the foundations for a new documentary record of past
ages. For the graves yielded not only new types of statues,
bronzes, ivory carvings and painted pottery — all of the highest
artistic value — but also a large number of stone stelae inscribed
with funerary formulae in the Meroitic script.
In the course of sixty years the small collection of Meroitic
inscriptions made by Lepsius had not been enlarged and no
progress had been made towards decipherment. But the
cemeteries of Shablul and Karanog alone yielded 1 70 inscriptions
on stone, besides some inscribed ostraka. This mass of material
brought the task of decipherment within the range of possibility,
and even without any bilingual record to assist him, Mr F. LI.
Griffith rapidly succeeded in the first stages of translation. As
further explorations bring more inscriptions to light the records
of Ethiopia will gradually be placed on a firm documentary
basis and the names and achievements of its greatest monarchs
will take their place on the roll of history.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — C.'R.Lcps{us,DenkmdlerausAegyptenundAelhio-
pien (1849), Abh. yi., Briefe aus Aegypten, Aethiopien, &c. (1852),
Nubische Grammatik (1880); H. Brugsch, Zeitschrift fur aegyptische
Sprache (1887); F. Cailliaud, Voyage d, Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc
(1826); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (1907); G. A.
Reisner and C. M. Firth, Reports on The Archaeological Survey of
Nubia; G. Elliott Smith and F. Wood Jones, ibid. vol. ii. "The
Human Remains" (1910); J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt
(1906-1907), A History of Egypt (1905), Temples of Lower 'Nubia
(1906), Monuments of Sudanese Nubia (1908); D. Randall-Maclver
and C. L. Woolley, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun. expedition,
viz. vol. i. Areika (1909), vols. iii., iv., v. Karanog (vol.- iii.
"The Romano-Nubian Cemetery," text, vol. iv. ibid., plates, 1910),
vol. vii. Behen; G. S. Mileham, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun.,
expedition, vol. ii. Churches in Lower Nubia (1910); F. LI. Griffith,
Reports on the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. vi. Meroitic
Inscriptions from Shablul and Karanog, Meroitic Inscriptions, and
2 vols. on Tombs of- El Amarna; and the " Archaeological Survey "
of the Egypt Exploration Fund. (D. R.-M.)
Ancient Monuments south of Haifa. — Ruins of pyramids,
temples, churches and other monuments are found along both
banks of the Nile almost as far south as the Fourth Cataract,
and again in the " Island of Meroe'." In the following list the
ruins are named as met with on the journey south from Wadi
Haifa. Opposite that town on the east bank are the remains
of Bohon, where was found the stele, now at Florence, com-
memorating the conquest of the region by Senwosri (Usertesen) I.
of Egypt (c. 2750 B.C.). Forty-three miles farther south are
the ruins of the twin fortresses of Kumma and Semna. Here
the Nile narrows and passes the Semna cataract, and graven
on the rocks are ancient records of " high Nile." At Amara,
some 80 m. above Semna, are the ruins of a temple with Meroitic
hieroglyphics. At Sai Island, 130 m. above Haifa, are remains
of a town and of a Christian church. Thirteen miles south of
Sai at Soleb are the ruins of a fine temple commemorating
Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. (c. 1414 B.C.) to whose queen Taia
was dedicated a temple at Sedeinga, a few miles to the north
At Sesebi, 40 m. higher up the Nile, is a temple of the heretic king
Akhenaton re-worked by Seti I. (c. 1327 B.C.). Opposite
Hannek at the Third Cataract on Tombos Island are extensive
ancient granite quarries, in one of which lies an unfinished
colossus. On the east side of the river near Kerma are the
remains of an Egyptian city. Argo Island, a short distance
higher up, abounds in ruins, and those at Old Dongola, 320 m.
from Haifa, afford evidence of the town having been of consider-
able size during the time of the Christian kingdom of Dongola.
From Old Dongola to Merawi (a distance of 100 m. by the river)
are numerous ruins of monasteries, churches and fortresses of
the Christian era in Nubia — notably at Jebel Deka and Magal.
In the immediate neighbourhood of Jebel Barkal (the " holy
mountain " of the ancient Egyptians), a flat-topped hill which
rises abruptly from the desert on the right bank of the Nile a
mile or two above the existing village of Merawi (Merowe),
are many pyramids and six temples, the pyramids having a
height of from 35 to 60 ft. Pyramids are also found at Zuma
and Kurru on the right "bank, and at Tangassi on the left bank
of the river, these places being about 20 m. below Merawi.
That village is identified by some archaeologists with the ancient
Napata, which is known to have been situated near the " holy
mountain." On the left bank of the Nile opposite Merawi are
the pyramids of Nuri, and a few miles distant in the Wadi
Ghazal are the ruins of a great Christian monastery, where were
found gravestones with inscriptions in Greek and Coptic. Ruins
of various ages extend from Merawi to the Fourth Cataract.
Leaving the Nile at this point and striking direct across the
Bayuda Desert, the river is regained at a point above the Atbara
confluence. Thirty miles north of the town of Shendi are the
pyramids of Meroe (or Assur) in three distinct groups. From one
of these pyramids was taken " the treasure of Queen Candace,"
now in the Berlin Museum. Many of the pyramids have a
small shrine on the eastern side inscribed with debased Egyptian
or Meroite hieroglyphics. These pyramids are on the right
bank of the Nile, that is in the " Island of Meroe." Portions (in-
cluding a harbour) of the site of the city of Meroe, at Begerawia,
not far from the pyramids named, were excavated in 1900-1910
(see MEROE). In this region, and distant from the river, are
the remains of several cities, notably Naga, where are ruins
of four temples, one in the Classic style. On the east bank
of the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above Khartum at Soba, are ruins
of a Christian basilica. Farther south still, at Ceteina on the
White Nile (in 1904), and at Wad el-Hadad, some miles north
of Sennar, on the Blue Nile (in 1908), Christian remains have
been observed.
Between the Nile at Wadi Haifa and the Red Sea are the
remains of towns inhabited by the ancient miners who worked
the district. The most striking of these towns is Deraheib
(Castle Beautiful), so named from the picturesque situation
of the castle, a large square building with pointed arches. The
walls of some 500 houses still stand.
For a popular account (with many illustrations) of these ruins
see J. Ward, Our Sudan: Its Pyramids and Progress (London, loos).
(F. R. CY)
HISTORY
A. From the Earliest Time to the Egyptian Conquest. — The
southern regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are without
recorded history until the era of the Egyptian conquest in the
th century. In the northern regions, known as Ethiopia
or Nubia, Egyptian influence made itself felt as early as the
Old Empire. In process of time powerful states grew up with
capitals at Napata and Meroe (see ante § Archaeology and
ETHIOPIA and EGYPT). The Nubians— that is the dwellers
in the Nile valley between Egypt and Abyssinia — did not embrace
Christianity until the 6th century, considerably later than their
Abyssinian neighbours. The Arab invasion of North Africa
in the 7th century, which turned Egypt into a Mahommedan
country, had not the same effect in Nubia, the Moslems, though
they frequently raided the country, being unable to hold it.
On the ruins of the ancient Ethiopian states arose Christian
the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and Aloa, with Kingdoms of
capitals at Dongola and Soba (corresponding roughly Nabia-
to Napata and Meroe). These kingdoms continued to exist
until the .middle of the I4th century or later (see DONGOLA:
Mudirio). Meanwhile Arabs of the Bern Omayya tribe, under
pressure from the Beni Abbas, had begun to cross the Red Sea
SUDAN
as early as the 8th century and to settle in the district around
Sennar on the Blue Nile, a region which probably marked the
southern limits of the kingdom of Aloa. The Omayya, who
during the following centuries were reinforced by further
immigrants from Arabia, intermarried with the negroid races,
and gradually Arab influence became predominant and Islam
the nominal faith of all the inhabitants of Sennar. In this way
a barrier was erected between the Christians of Nubia and those
of Abyssinia. By the isth century the Arabized negro races
of the Blue Nile had grown into a powerful nation known as
the Funj (q.v.), and during that century they extended their
conquests north to the borders of Egypt. The kingdom of
Dongola had already been reduced to a condition of anarchy
by Moslem invasions from the north. Christianity was still
professed by some of the Nubians as late as the i6th century,
but the whole Sudan north of the lands of the pagan negroes
(roughly 12° N.) was then under Moslem sway. At that time
the sultans of Darfur (q.v.) in the west and the sultans or kings
of Sennar (the Funj rulers) in the east were the most powerful
of the Mahommedan potentates.
The first of the Funj monarchs acknowledged king of the
whole of the allied tribes, of which the Hameg were next in
importance to the Funj, was Amara Dunkas, who
Baipire reigned c. I484-IS26.1 During the reign of Adlan,
c. 1596-1603, the fame of Sennar attracted learned
men to his court from such distant places as Cairo and Bagdad.
Adlan's great-grandson Badi Abu Baku attacked the Shilluk
negroes and raided Kordofan. This monarch built the great
mosque at Sennar, almost the only building in the town to survive
the ravages of the dervishes in the igth century. In the early
part of the i8th century there was war between the Sennari
and the Abyssinians, in which the last named were defeated
with great slaughter. It is said that the cause of quarrel was
the seizure by the king of Sennar of presents sent by the king
of France to the Negus. The victory over the " infidel "
Abyssinians became celebrated throughout the Mahommedan
world, and Sennar was visited by many learned and celebrated
men from Egypt, Arabia and India. Towards the end of the
1 8th century the Hameg wrested power from the Funj and the
kingdom fell into decay, many of the tributary princes refusing
to acknowledge the king of Sennar. These disorders con-
tinued up to the time of the conquest of the country by the
Egyptians.
B. From the Egyptian Conquest to the Rise of the Mahdi. — The
conquest of Nubia was undertaken in 1820 by order of Mehemet
AH, the pasha of Egypt, and was accomplished in
'he two years following. In its consequences this
proved one of the most important events in the
history of Africa. Mehemet Ali never stated the reasons which
led him to order the occupation of the country, but his leading
motive was, probably, the desire to obtain possession of the
mines of gold and precious stones which he believed the Sudan
contained. He also saw that the revenue of Egypt was falling
through the diversion, since about 1800, of the caravan routes
from the Nile to the Red Sea ports, and may have wished to
recapture the trade, as well as to secure a country whence
thousands of slaves could be brought annually. Mehemet Ali
also wished to crush the remnant of the Mamelukes who in 1812
had established themselves at Dongola, and at the same time
to find employment for the numerous Albanians and Turks
in his army, of whose fidelity he was doubtful.
Mehemet Ali gave the command of the army sent to Nubia
to his son Ismail, who at the head of some 4000 men left Wadi
Haifa in October 1820. Following the Nile route he occupied
Dongola without opposition, the Mamelukes fleeing before him.
(Some of them went to Darfur and Wadai, others made their
way to the Red Sea. This was the final dispersal of the Mame-
lukes.) With the nomad Shagia, who dominated the district,
1 Various lists and dates of reign of the rulers of Sennar are
given; reference may be made in Stokvis's Manuel d'histoire vol. i.
(Leiden, 1888), and to The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, vol. i. (London,
1905).
Egypt ** ^
Ismail had two sharp encounters, one near Korti, the other
higher up the river, and in both fights Ismail was successful.
Thereafter the Shagia furnished useful auxiliary cavalry to the
Egyptians. Ismail remained in the Dongola province till Feb-
ruary 1821, when he crossed the Bayuda Desert and received
the submission of the meks (kings) of Berber, Shendi and Halfaya,
nominal vassals of the king of Sennar. Continuing his march
south Ismail reached the confluence of the White and Blue Niles
and established a camp at Ras Khartum. (This camp developed
into the city of Khartum.) At this time Badi, the king of
Sennar, from whom all real power had been wrested by his
leading councillors, determined to submit to the Egyptians,
and as Ismail advanced up the Blue Nile he was met at Wad
Medani by Badi who declared that he recognized Mehemet Ali
as master of his kingdom. Ismail and Badi entered the town of
Sennar together on the I2th of June 1821, and in this peaceable
manner the Egyptians became rulers of the ancient empire of
the Funj. In search of the gold-mines reported to exist farther
south Ismail penetrated into the mountainous region of Fazokl,
where the negroes offered a stout resistance. In February 1822
he set out on his return to Sennar and Dongola, having received
reports of risings against Egyptian authority. The Egyptian
soldiery had behaved throughout with the utmost barbarity,
and their passage up the Nile was marked by rapine, murder,
mutilation and fire. Of the rulers who had submitted to Ismail,
Nair Mimr, the mek of Shendi, had been compelled to follow in
the suite of the Egyptians as a sort of hostage, and this man
entertained deep hatred of the pasha. On Ismail's return to
Shendi, October 1822, he demanded of the mek 1000 slaves to
be supplied in two days. The mek, promising compliance,
invited Ismail and his chief officers to a feast in his house, around
which he had piled heaps of straw. Whilst the Egyptians were
feasting the mek set fire to the straw and Ismail and all his
companions were burnt to death.
Ismail's death was speedily avenged. A second Egyptian
army, also about 4000 strong, had followed that of Ismail's
up the Nile, and striking south-west from Debba had wrested,
after a sharp campaign, the province of Kordofan (1821) from
the sultan of Darfur. This army was commanded by Mahommed
Bey, the Defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ah'. Hearing of
Ismail's murder the Defterdar marched to Shendi, defeated the
forces of the mek, and took terrible revenge upon the inhabitants
of Metemma and Shendi, most of the inhabitants, including
women and children, being burnt alive. Nair Mimr escaped to
the Abyssinian frontier, where he maintained his independence.
Having conquered Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan the Egyptians
set up a civil government, placing at the head of the administra-
tion a governor-general with practically unlimited power.*
About this period Mehemet Ali leased from the sultan of Turkey
the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa, and by this means
got into his hands all the trade routes of the eastern Sudan.
The pasha of Egypt practically monopolized the trade of the
country except that in slaves, which became a vast " industry,"
the lands inhabited by negro tribes on the borders of the con-
quered territories being raided annually for the purpose. From
the negro population the army was so largely recruited that in
a few years the only non-Sudanese in it were officers. The
Egyptian rule proved harmful to the country. The governors-
general and the leading officials were nearly all Turks, Albanians
or Circassians, and, with rare exceptions, the welfare of the
people formed no part of their conception of government.8
Numerous efforts were made to extend the authority of Egypt.
In 1840 — previous attempts having been unsuccessful — the
fertile district of Taka, watered by the Atbara and Gash and
near the Abyssinian frontier, was conquered and the town of
2 For a list of the governors-general see The Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, i. p. 280 (London, 1905).
1 Khurshid Pasha, governor-general for 13 years (1826-1839),
was one of these exceptions. He gained a great reputation both for
rectitude and vigour. He led expeditions up the White Nile against
the Dinkas as far as Fashoda; defeated the Abyssinians on the
Sennar frontier, and taught the natives of Khartum to build houses
of brick.
i6
SUDAN
Kassala founded. In 1837 the pasha himself visited the Sudan,
going as far as Fazokl, where he inspected the goldfields.
In 1849 Abd-el-Latif Pasha became governor-general and
attempted to remedy some of the evils which disfigured the
administration. He remained in office, however, little more
than a year, too short a period to effect reforms. The Sudan
was costing Egypt more money than its revenue yielded, though
it must not be forgotten that large sums found their way illicitly
into the. hands of the pashas. The successors of Mehemet Ali,
in an endeavour to make the country more profitable, extended
their conquests to the south, and in 1853 and subsequent years
trading posts were established on the Upper Nile, the pioneer
European merchant being John Petherick, British consular
agent at Khartum.1 Petherick sought for ivory only, but those
who followed him soon found that slave-raiding was more
profitable than elephant hunting. The viceroy Said, who made
a rapid tour through the Sudan in 1857, found it in a deplorable
condition. The viceroy ordered many reforms to be executed
and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. The reforms were
mainly inoperative and slavery continued. The project which
Said also conceived of linking the Sudan to Egypt by railway
remained unfulfilled. The Sudan at this time (c. 1862) is described
by Sir Samuel Baker as utterly ruined by Egyptian methods
of government and the retention of the country only to be
accounted for by the traffic in slaves. The European merchants
above Khartum had sold their posts to Arab agents, who
oppressed the natives in every conceivable fashion. Ismail
Pasha, who became viceroy of Egypt in 1863, gave orders, for
the suppression of the slave trade, and to check the operations
of the Arab traders a military force was stationed at Fashoda
(1865), this being the most southerly point then held by the
Egyptians. Ismail's efforts to put an end to the slave trade,
if sincere, were ineffective, and, moreover, south of Kordofan
the authority of the government did not extend beyond the posts
occupied by their troops. Ismail, however, was ambitious to
extend his dominions and to develop the Sudan on the lines he
had conceived for the development of Egypt. He obtained
(1865) from the sultan of Turkey a finnan assigning to him the
administration of Suakin and Massawa; the lease which Mehemet
Ali had of these ports having lapsed after the death of that
pasha. Ismail subsequently (1870-1875) extended his sway
over the whole coast from Suez to Cape Guardafui and garrisoned
the towns of Berbera, Zaila, &c., while in 1874 the important
town of Harrar, the entrep6t for southern Abyssinia, was seized
by Egyptian troops. The khedive had also seized Bogos, in
the hinterland of Massawa, a province claimed by Abyssinia.
This action led to wars with Abyssinia, in which the Egyptians
were generally beaten. Egyptian authority was withdrawn
from the coast regions south of Suakin in 1884 (see below and
also ABYSSINIA; ERITREA and SOMALILAND).
At the same time that Ismail annexed the seaboard he was
extending his sway along the Nile valley to the equatorial lakes,
and conceived the idea of annexing all the country between
the Nile and the Indian Ocean. An expedition was sent (1875)
to the Juba River with that object, but it was withdrawn at
the request of the British government, as it infringed the rights
of the sultan of Zanzibar.2 The control of all territories south
of Gondokoro had been given (April i, 1869) to Sir Samuel
Baker, who, however, only left Khartum to take up his governor-
The sn'P 'n February 1870. Reaching Gondokoro on
Equatorial the 26th of May following, he formally annexed
Regions: that station, which he named Ismailia, to the khedival
domains. Baker remained as governor of the Equa-
torial Provinces until August 1873, and in March 1874
Colonel C. G. Gordon took up the same post. Both Baker and
1 The government monopoly in trade ceased after the death of
Mehemet Ali in 1849.
* The Juba was quite unsuitable as a means of communication
between the Indian Ocean and the Nile. The proposal made to
Ismail by Gordon was to send an expedition to Mombasa and thence
up the Tana River, but for some unexplained reason, or perhaps
by mistake, the expedition was ordered to the Juba (see Col. Gordon
in Central Africa, 4th ed., 1885, pp. 65, 66, 150 and 151, and Geog.
Journ., Feb. I, 1909, p. 150).
Darfur
contjucrvd.
Gordon made strenuous efforts towards crushing the slave trade,
but their endeavours were largely thwarted by the inaction of
the authorities at Khartum. Under Gordon the Upper Nile
region as far as the borders of Uganda came effectively under
Egyptian control, though the power of the government extended
on the east little beyond the banks of the rivers. On the west
the Bahr-el-Ghazal had been overrun by Arab or semi-Arab
slave-dealers. Nominally subjects of the khedive, they acted
as free agents, reducing the country over which they terrorized
to a state of abject misery. The most powerful of the slave
traders was Zobeir Pasha, who, having defeated a force sent
from Khartum to reduce him to obedience, invaded Darfur
(1874). The khedive, fearing the power of Zobeir, also sent
an expedition to Darfur, and that country, after a stout resist-
ance, was conquered. Zobeir claimed to be made governor-
general of the new province; his request being refused, he went
to Cairo to urge his claim. At Cairo he was detained by the
Egyptian authorities.
Though spasmodic efforts were made to promote agriculture
and open up communications the Sudan continued to be a con-
stant drain on the Egyptian exchequer. The khedive Ismail
revived Said's project of a railway, and a survey for a line from
Wadi Haifa to Khartum was made (1871), while a branch line
to Massawa was also contemplated. As with Said's project
these schemes came to naught.3 In October 1876 Gordon
left the Equatorial Provinces and gave up his appointment.
In February 1877, under pressure from the British Genera/
and Egyptian governments, he went to Cairo, where Gordon
he. was given the governorship of the whole of the Oovemor-
Egyptian territories outside Egypt; namely, the **"
Sudan provinces proper, the Equatorial Provinces, Darfur, and
the Red Sea and Somali coasts. He replaced at Khartum Ismail
Pasha Eyoub, a Turk made governor-general in 1873, who had
thwarted as much as he dared all Gordon's efforts to reform.
Gordon remained in the Sudan until August 1879. During his
tenure of office he did much to give the Sudanese the benefit
of a just and considerate government. In 1877 Gordon
suppressed a revolt in Darfur and received the submission of
Suliman Zobeir (a son of Zobeir Pasha), who was at the head
of a gang of slave-traders on the Bahr-el-Ghazal frontier. In
1878 there was further trouble in Darfur and also in Kordofan,
and Gordon visited both these provinces, breaking up many
companies of slave-hunters. Meantime Suliman (acting on
the instructions of his father, who was still at Cairo) had broken
out into open revolt against the Egyptians in the Bahr-el-
Ghazal. The crushing of Suliman was entrusted by Gordon
to Romolo Gessi (1831-1881), an Italian who had previously
served under Gordon on the Upper Nile. Gessi, after a most
arduous campaign (1878-79), in which he displayed great military
skill, defeated and captured Suliman, whom, with other ring-
leaders, he executed. The slave-raiders were completely broken
up and over 10,000 captives released. A remnant of Zobeir's
troops under a chief named Rabah succeeded in escaping west-
ward, (see RABAH). Having conquered the province Gessi was
made governor of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and given the rank of pasha.
When Gordon left the Sudan he was succeeded at Khartum
by Raouf Pasha, under whom all the old abuses of the Egyptian
administration were revived. At this time the high European
officials in the Sudan, besides Gessi, included Emin Pasha (q.v.)
— then a bey only — governor of the Equatorial Province since
1878, and Slatin Pasha — then also a bey — governor of Darfur.
Gessi, who had most successfully governed his province, found
his position under Raouf intolerable, resigned his post in Sep-
tember 1880 and was succeeded by Frank Lupton, an English-
man, and formerly captain of a Red Sea merchant steamer,
who was given the rank of bey. At this period (1880-1882)
schemes for the reorganization and better administration of
the Sudan were elaborated on paper, but the revolt in Egypt
under Arabi (see EGYPT: History) and the appearance in the
Sudan of a Mahdi prevented these schemes from being put into
8 Up to 1877, when the work was abandoned, some 50 m. of
rails had been laid from Wadi Haifa at a cost of some £450,000.
SUDAN
execution (assuming that the Egyptian authorities were sincere
in proposing reforms).
C. The Rise and Power of Mahdism. — The Mahdist move-
ment, which was utterly to overthrow Egyptian rule, derived its
strength from two different causes: the oppression under which
the people suffered,1 and the measures taken to prevent the
Baggara (cattle-owning Arabs) from slave trading. Venality
and the extortion of the tax-gatherer flourished anew after the
departure of Gordon, while the feebleness of his successors
inspired in the Baggara a contempt for the authority which
prohibited them pursuing their most lucrative traffic. When
Mahommed Ahmed (q.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed himself the
long-looked-for Mahdi (guide) of Islam, he found most of
.his original followers among the grossly superstitious villagers
of Kordofan, to whom he preached universal equality and a
community of goods, while denouncing the Turks2 as unworthy
Moslems on whom God would execute judgment. The Baggara
perceived in this Mahdi one who could be used to shake off
Egyptian rule, and their adhesion to him first gave importance
to his " mission." Mahommed Ahmed became at once the
leader and the agent of the Baggara. He married the daughters
of their sheikhs and found in Abdullah, a member of theTaaisha
section of the tribe, his chief supporter. The first armed conflict
The between the Egyptian troops and the Mahdi's
Massacre of followers occurred in August 1881. In June 1882
Hicks the Mahdi gained his first considerable success.
Pasha's The capture of El Obeid on the i?th of January
Army. lgg3 and the annjhilation in the November following
of an army of over 10,000 men commanded by Hicks Pasha
(Colonel William Hicks [q.v.] formerly of the Bombay army)
made the Mahdi undisputed master of Kordofan and Sennar.
The next month, December 1883, saw the surrender of Slatin
in Darfur, whilst in February 1884 Osman Digna, his amir in
the Red Sea regions, inflicted a crushing defeat on some 4000
Egyptians at El Teb near Suakin. In April following Lupton
Bey, governor of Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose troops and officials had
embraced the Mahdist cause, surrendered and was sent captive
to Omdurman, where he died on the 8th of May 1888.
On learning of the disaster to Hicks Pasha's army, the British
government (Great Britain having been since 1882 in military
occupation of Egypt) insisted that the Egyptian government
should evacuate such parts of the Sudan as they still held, and
General Gordon was despatched, with Lieut .-Colonel Donald
H. Stewart,3 to Khartum to arrange the withdrawal of the
Egyptian civil and military population. Gordon's instructions,
based largely on his own suggestions, were not wholly consistent;
they contemplated vaguely the establishment of some form of
stable government on the surrender of Egyptian
Gordon at authorj|-y an(] among the documents with which
Khartum, *.-,-, r , • i •
he was furnished was a firman creating him governor-
general of the Sudan.4 Gordon reached Khartum on the i8th
of February 1884 and at first his mission, which had aroused
great enthusiasm in England, promised success. To smooth
the way for the retreat of the Egyptian garrisons and civilians
he issued proclamations announcing that the suppression of
the slave trade was abandoned, that the Mahdi was sultan of
Kordofan, and that the Sudan was independent of Egypt. He
enabled some thousands of refugees to make their escape to
1 Writing from Darfur in April 1879 Gordon said: " The govern-
ment of the Egyptians in these far-off countries is nothing else but
one of brigandage of the very worst description. It is so bad that
all hope of ameliorating it is hopeless."
1 The Sudanese spoke of all foreigners as " Turks." This arose
from the fact that most of the higher Egyptian officials were of
Turkish nationality and that the army was officered mainly by
Turks, Albanians, Circassians, &c., and included in the ranks many
Bashi-Bazuks (irregulars) of non-Sudanese origin.
' Colonel Stewart had been sent to Khartum in 1882 on a mission
of inquiry, and he drew up a valuable report, Egypt, No. II (1883).
4 It is unnecessary here to enter upon a discussion of the precise
nature of Gordon's instructions or of the measure in which he carried
them out. The material for forming a judgment will be found in
Gordon's Journals (1885), Morley's Life of Gladstone (1903), Fitz-
maurice's Life of Granville (1905), and Cramer's Modern Egypt
(1908). (See also GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE.)
Assuan and collected at Khartum troops from some of the out-
lying stations. By this time the situation had altered for the
worse and Mahdism was gaining strength among tribes in the
Nile valley at first hostile to its propaganda. As the only means
of preserving authority at Khartum (and thus securing the
peaceful withdrawal of the garrison) Gordon repeatedly tele-
graphed to Cairo asking that Zobeir Pasha might be sent to
him, his intention being to hand over to Zobeir the government
of the country. Zobeir (q.v.), a Sudanese Arab, was probably the
one man who could have withstood successfully the Mahdi.
Owing to Zobeir's notoriety as a slave-raider Gordon's request
was refused. All hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptians
was thus rendered impossible. The Mahdist movement now
swept northward and on the 2oth of May Berber was
captured by the dervishes and Khartum isolated. From this
time the energies of Gordon were devoted to the defence of
that town. After months of delay due to the vacillation of the
British government a relief expedition was sent up the Nile
under the command of Lord Wolseley. It started too late to
achieve its object, and on the 25th of January 1885 Khartum
was captured by the Mahdi and Gordon killed. Colonel Stewart,
Frank Power (British consul at Khartum) and M. Herbin (French
consul), who (accompanied by nineteen Greeks) had been sent
down the Nile by Gordon in the previous September to give
news to the relief force, had been decoyed ashore and murdered
(Sept. 18, 1884). The fall of Khartum was followed by the
withdrawal of the British expedition, Dongola being evacuated
in June 1885. In the same month Kassala capitulated, but
just as the Mahdi had practically completed the destruction
of the Egyptian power 5 he died, in this same month of June
1885. He was at once succeeded by the khalifa Abdullah,
whose rule continued until the 2nd of September i8p8,6 when
his army was completely overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian
force under Sir H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener. The military
operations are described elsewhere (see EGYPT: Military Opera-
tions), and here it is only necessary to consider the internal
situation and the character of the khalifa's govern- The
ment. The Mahdi had been regarded by his adhe- Khalifa'*
rents as the only true commander of the faithful, *?"**•
endued with divine power to conquer the whole world. He
had at first styled his followers dervishes (i.e. religious mendi-
cants) and given them the j ibba as their characteristic garment
or uniform. Later on he commanded the faithful to call them-
selves ansar (helpers), a reference to the part they were to play
in his Career of conquest, and at the time of his death he was
planning an invasion of Egypt. He had liberated the Sudanese
from the extortions of the Egyptians, but the people soon found
that the Mahdi's rule was even more oppressive than had been
that of their former masters, and after the Mahdi's death the
situation of the peasantry in particular grew rapidly worse,
neither life nor property being safe. Abdullah set himself
steadily to crush all opposition to his own power. Mahommed
Ahmed had, in accordance with the traditions which required
the Mahdi to have four khalifas (lieutenants), nominated, besides
Abdullah, Ali wad Helu, a sheikh of the Degheim and Kenana
Arabs, and Mahommed esh Sherif, his son-in-law, as khalifas.
(The other khalifaship was vacant having been declined by the
sheikh es Senussi [q.v.]). Wad Helu and Sherif were stripped
of their power and gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the
Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere
of operations was on the Red Sea coast. Abdullah's rule was
a pure military despotism which brought the country to a state
of almost complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was
also almost constantly in conflict either with the Shilluks, Nuers
and other negro tribes of the south ; with the peoples of Darfur,
where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with
the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arab tribes who
6 Sennar town held out until the igth of August, while the Red
Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa never fell into the hands of the
Mahdists. The garrisons of some other towns were rescued by the
Abyssinians.
6 This period in the history of the Sudan is known as the Mahdia.
i8
SUDAN
had never embraced Mahdism, or with the Italians, Egyptians
and British. Notwithstanding all this opposition the khalifa
found in his own tribesmen and in his black troops devoted
adherents and successfully maintained his position. The
attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the
dervish army at Toski (Aug. 3, 1889). The attempts to subdue
the Equatorial Provinces were but partly successful. Emin
Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacuated
Wadelai in April 1889. The greater part of the region and also
most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal relapsed into a state of complete
savagery.
In the country under his dominion the khalifa's government
was carried on after the manner of other Mahommedan states,
but pilgrimages to the Mahdi's tomb at Omdurman were substi-
tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca. The arsenal and dockyard and
the printing-press at Khartum were kept busy (the workmen
being Egyptians who had escaped massacre). Otherwise Khartum
was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital and
compelling disaffected tribes to dwell in it so as to be under
better control. While Omdurman grew to a huge size the
population of the country generally dwindled enormously from
constant warfare and the ravages of disease, small-pox being
endemic. The Europeans in the country were kept prisoners at
Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like Slatin and Lupton, they
included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers
of Greek merchants established at Khartum. Although several
were closely imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly
flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death.
From time to time a prisoner made his escape, and from the
accounts of these ex-prisoners knowledge of the character of
Dervish rule is derived in large measure. The fanaticism with
which the Mahdi had inspired his followers remained almost
unbroken to the end. The khalifa after the fatal day of Omdur-
man fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in November
1899. In January 1900 Osman Digna, a wandering fugitive
for months, was captured. In 1902 the last surviving dervish
amir of importance surrendered to the sultan of Darfur.
Mahdism as a vital force in the old Egyptian Sudan ceased,
however, with the Anglo-Egyptian victory at Omdurman.1
D. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. — Of the causes which
led to the reconquest of the Sudan — the natural desire of the
Egyptian government to recover lost territory, the equally
natural desire in Great Britain to "avenge " the death of "Gordon
were among them — the most weighty was the necessity of
securing for Egypt the control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being
wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity.
That control would have been lost had a European power other
than Great Britain obtained possession of any part of the Nile
valley; and at the time the Sudan was reconquered (1896-98)
France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river
between Khartum and Gondokoro, as the Marchand expedition
from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Nile constitutes,
in the words of Lord Cromer, the true justification of the
policy of re-occupation, and makes the Sudan a priceless
possession for Egypt.1
The Sudan having been reconquered by " the joint military
and financial efforts" of Great Britain and Egypt, the British
government claimed " by right of conquest " to share in the
settlement of the administration and legislation of the country.
To meet these claims an agreement (which has been aptly
called the constitutional charter of the Sudan) between Great
Britain and Egypt, was signed on the igth of January 1899,
establishing the joint sovereignty of the two states throughout
1 In the autumn of 1903 Mahommed-el-Amin, a native of Tunis,
proclaimed himself the Mahdi and got together a following in Kor-
dofan. He was captured by the governor of Kordofan and publicly
executed at El Obeid. In April 1908 Abd-el-Kader, a Halowin
Arab and ex-dervish, rebelled in the Blue Nile province, claiming to
be the prophet Issa (Jesus). On the agth of that month he murdered
Mr C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, deputy inspector of the province, and the
Egyptian mamur. The rising was promptly suppressed, Abd-el-
Kader was captured and was hanged on the i;th of May.
1 Egypt, No. i (1905), p. 119.
the Sudan.' The reorganization of the country had already
begun, supreme power being centred in one official termed the
" governor-general of the Sudan." To this post was appointed
Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commandcr-in-chief ) of the Egyptian
army, under whom the Sudan had been reconquered. On Lord
Kitchener going to South Africa at the close of 1899 he was
succeeded as sirdar and governor-general by Major-General Sir
F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since
1883. Under a just and firm administration, which from the
first was essentially civil, though the principal officials were
officers of the British army, the Sudan recovered in a surprising
manner from the woes it suffered during the Mahdia. At the
head of every mudiria (province) was placed a British official,
though many of the subordinate posts were filled by Egyptians.
An exception was made in the case of Darfur, which before the
battle of Omdurman had thrown off the khalifa's rule and was
again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan Ali
Dinar, was recognized by the Sudan government, on condition
of the payment of an annual tribute.
The first duty of the new administration, the restoration of
public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, though
tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed from time
immemorial to raid their weaker neighbours, gave some trouble.
In 1906, in 1908, and again in 1910 expeditions had to be sent
against the Nubas. In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the Niam-Niams at first
disputed the authority of the government, but Sultan Yambio, the
recalcitrant chief, was mortally wounded in a fight in February
1905 and no further disturbance occurred. The delimitation
(1903-1904) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia
enabled order to be restored in a particularly lawless region,
and slave-raiding on a large scale ended in that quarter with
the capture and execution of a notorious offender in 1904. In
Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal the slave trade
continued however for some years later.
With good administration and public security the population
increased steadily. The history of the country became one of
peaceful progress marked by the growing content- Ti,eKe.
ment of the people. The Sudan government devoted generative
much attention to the revival of agriculture and Work of
commerce, to the creation of an educated class of 2/*Sto
natives, and to the establishment of an adequate
judicial system. Their task, though one of immense difficulty,
was however (in virtue of the agreement of the igth of January
1899) free from all the international fetters that bound the
administration of Egypt. It was moreover rendered easier by
the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance with
native law and custom, no attempt being made to Egyptianize
or Anglicize the Sudanese. The results were eminently satis-
factory. The Arab-speaking and Mahommedan population
found their religion and language respected, and from the first
showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. To the
negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedingly suspicious
of all strangers — whom hitherto they had known almost
exclusively as slave-raiders — the very elements of civilization
had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions the
Sudan government encouraged the work of missionary societies,
both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraging
propaganda work among the Moslems.
In their general policy the Sudan government adopted a
system of very light taxation; low taxation being in countries
such as Egypt and the Sudan the keystone of the political arch.
This policy was amply justified by results. In 1899 the revenue
derived from the country was ££126,000, in 1909 it had risen to
££1,040,000, despite slight reductions in taxation, a proof of
the growing prosperity of the land. This prosperity was brought
about largely by improving the water-supply, and thus bringing
more land under cultivation, by the creation of new industries,
and by the improvement of means of communication. A shorter
route to the sea than that through Egypt being essential for the
' At first Suakin was excepted from soms of the provisions
of this agreement, but these exceptions were done away with by
a supplementary agreement of the loth of July 1899.
SUDATORIUM— SUDBURY
commercial development of the country, a railway from the Nile
near Berber to the Red Sea was built (1904-1906). This line
shortened the distance from Khartum to the nearest seaport by
nearly 1000 m., and by reducing the cost of carriage of mer-
chandise enabled Sudan produce to find a profitable outlet in
the markets of the world. At the same time river communi-
cations were improved and the numbers of wells on caravan roads
increased. Steps were furthermore taken by means of irrigation
works to regulate the Nile floods, and those of the river Gash.
To the promotion of education and sanitation, and in the
administration of justice, the government devoted much energy
with satisfactory results. Indeed the regenerative work of
Great Britain in the Sudan has been fully as successful and even
more remarkable than that of Great Britain in Egypt. A large
part of this work has been accomplished by officers of the British
army. Some of the most valuable suggestions about such matters
as land settlement, agricultural loans, &c., emanated from officers
who a short time before were performing purely military duties.
Nevertheless civil servants gradually replaced military officers
in the work of administration, army officers being liable to be
suddenly removed for war or other service, often at times when
the presence of officials possessed of local experience was most
important. In efficiency and devotion to duty the Egyptian
officials under the new regime also earned high praise.
The relations of the Sudan government with its Italian,
Abyssinian and French neighbours was marked by cordiality,
Bahr-ei- but with the Congo Free State difficulties arose over
ahazai and claims made by that state to the Bahr-el-Ghazal
Lado. (gee AFRICA, § 5). Congo State troops were in 1904
stationed in Sudanese territory. The difficulty was adjusted
in 1906 when the Congo State abandoned all claims to the Ghazal
province (whence its troops were withdrawn during 1907), and
it was agreed to transfer the Lado enclave (q.v.) to the Sudan
six months after the death of the king of the Belgians. Under
the terms of this agreement the Lado enclave was incorporated
in the Sudan in 1910. As to the general state of the country Sir
Eldon Gorst after a tour of inspection declared in his report for
1909, " I do not suppose that there is any part of the world in
which the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants."
AUTHORITIES. — Summaries of ancient and medieval history
will be found in E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (2 vols.,
1907) and The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1095), edited by Count
Gleichen. The story of the Egyptian conquest and events up to
1850 are summarized in H. Deherain's Le Soudan egyptien sous
Mehemet Ali (Paris, 1898). For the middle period of Egyptian rule
see Sir Samuel Baker's Ismailia (1874) ; Col. Gordon in Central Africa,
edited by G. Birkbeck Hill (4th ed., 1885), being extracts from
Gordon's diary, 1874-1880; Seven Years in the Soudan, by Romolo
Gessi Pasha (1892); and Der Sudan unter dgyptischer Herrschaft, by R.
Buchta (Leipzig, 1888). The rise of Mahdism and events down to
1900 are set forth in (Sir) F. R. Wingate's Mahdiism and the Egyptian
Sudan (1891). This book contains translations of letters and
proclamations of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period the
Journals of Major General Gordon at Khartoum (1885); F. Power's
Letters from Khartoum during the Siege (1885), and the following
four books written by prisoners of the dervishes are specially valuable :
Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896); Father J.
Ohrwalder (from the MSS. of, by F. R. Wingate), Ten Years' Captivity
in the Mahdi' s Camp (1882-1892) (1892); Father Paolo Rosignoli, 7
miei dodici anni di prigionia in mezzo ai dervice del Sudan (Mondovi,
1898); C. Neufeldt, A Prisoner of the Khaleefa (1899). See also
G. Dujarric, L'Etat mahdiste du Soudan (Paris, 1901). For the
" Gordon Relief " campaign, &c., see the British official History of
the Sudan Campaign (1890); for the campaigns of 1896-98, H. S. L.
Alford and W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Soudan, its Loss and Recovery
(1898); G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (Edinburgh,
1898) ; Winston S. Churchill, The River War (revised ed., 1902). The
story of the Fashoda incident is told mainly in British and French
official despatches; consult also for this period G. Hanotaux, Fachoda
(Paris, 1910) ; A. Lebon, La Politique de la France 1896-1898 (Paris,
1901); and R. de Caix, Fachoda, la France et I'Angleterre (Paris,
1899). Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908) covers Sudanese history
for the years 1881—1907. Consult also the authorities cited under
EGYPT) : Modern History, and H. Pensa,L'Egypte et le Soudan egyptien
(Paris, 1895). Unless otherwise stated the place of publication is
London. (F. R. C.)
SUDATORIUM, the term in architecture for the vaulted
sweating-room (sudor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred
to in Vitruvius (v. 2), and there called the concamerala sudalio.
In order to obtain the great heat required, the whole wall was
lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectangular section,
placed side by side, through which the hot air and the smoke
from the suspensura passed to an exit in the roof.
SUDBURY, SIMON OF (d. 1381), archbishop of Canterbury,
was born at Sudbury in Suffolk, studied at the university of
Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI.,
who sent him, in 1356, on a mission to Edward III. of England.
In October 1361 the pope appointed him bishop of London, and
he was soon serving the king as an ambassador and in other ways.
In 1375 he succeeded William Wittlesey as archbishop of Canter-
bury, and during the rest of his life was a partisan of John of
Gaunt. In July 1377 he crowned Richard II., and in 1378 John
Wycliffe appeared before him at Lambeth, but he only took
proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In
January 1380 Sudbury became chancellor of England, and the
revolting peasants regarded him as one of the principal authors
of their woes. Having released John Ball from his prison at
Maidstone, the Kentish insurgents attacked and damaged the
archbishop's property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then,
rushing into the Tower of London, they seized the archbishop
himself. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Hill and, on the I4th
of June 1381, was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried
in Canterbury Cathedral. Sudbury rebuilt part of the church of
St Gregory at Sudbury, and with his brother, John of Chertsey,
he founded a college in this town; he also did some building at
Canterbury. His father was Nigel Theobald, and he is some-
times called Simon Theobald or Tybald.
See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury.
SUDBURY, a post town and outport of Nipissing district,
Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Pacific railway, 443 m. W. of
Montreal. Pop. (1901), 2027. It has manufactures of explosives,
lumber and planing mills, and is the largest nickel mining centre
in the world. Gold, copper and other minerals are also raised-
Practically all the ore is shipped to the United States.
SUDBURY, a market town and municipal borough of England,
chiefly in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, but
partly in the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. (1901),
7109. It b'es on the river Stour (which is navigable up to the
town), 59 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway.
All Saints' parish church, consisting of chancel, nave, aisles and
tower, is chiefly Perpendicular — the chancel being Decorated.
It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. The church was restored
in 1882. St Peter's is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave
roof. St Gregory's, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich
spire-shaped font-cover of wood, gilt and painted. The grammar
school was founded by William Wood in 1491. There are some
old half-timbered houses, including one very fine example. The
principal modern buildings are the town-hall, Victoria hall
and St Leonard's hospital. Coco-nut matting is an important
manufacture; silk manufactures were transferred from London
during the igth century, and horsehair weaving was established
at the same time. There are also flour-mills, malt-kilns, lime-
works, and brick and tile yards. The town is governed by a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. The borough lies wholly
in the administrative county of West Suffolk. Area, 1925 acres.
The ancient Saxon borough of Sudbury (Sudbyrig, Sudberi,
Suthberia) was the centre of the southern portion of the East
Anglian kingdom. Before the Conquest it was a borough owned
by the mother of Earl Morcar, from whom it was taken by
William I., who held it in 1086. It was alienated from the
Crown to an ancestor of Gilbert de Clare, gth earl of Gloucester.
In 1271 the earl gave the burgesses their first charter confirming
to them all their ancient liberties and customs. The earl of
March granted a charter to the mayor and bailiffs of Sudbury in
1397. In 1440 and again in 1445 the men and tenants of Sudbury
obtained a royal confirmation of their privileges. They were
incorporated in 1553 under the name of the mayor, aldermen and
burgesses of Sudbury, and charters were granted to the town by
Elizabeth, Charles II. and James II. Its constitution was re-
formed by the act of 1835. It was represented in parliament
by two burgesses from 1558 till its disfranchisement in
20
1844. The lord of the borough had a market and fair in the
century, and three fairs in March, July and December were held
in 1792. Markets still exist on Thursdays and Saturdays.
Weavers were introduced by Edward III., and the town became
the chief centre of the Suffolk cloth industry after the Restoration.
SUDD, or SADD (an Arabic word meaning "to dam"), the
name given to the vegetable obstruction which has at various
dates closed the waters of the Upper Nile to navigation. It is
composed of masses of papyrus and urn suf ( Vossia procera) and
the earth adhering to the roots of those reeds. Mingled with the
papyrus and um suf (Arabic for " mother -of-wool " ) are small
swimming plants and the light brittle ambach. The papyrus
and um suf grow abundantly along the Nile banks and the con-
nected lagoons between 7° N. and 13° N. Loosened by storms
these reeds drift until they lodge on some obstruction and form a
dam across the channel, converted by fresh arrivals into blocks
that are sometimes 25 m. in length, and extend 15 to 20 ft.
below the surface. These masses of decayed vegetation and
earth, resembling peat in consistency, are so much compressed
by the force of the current that men can walk over them every-
where. In parts elephants could cross them without danger.
The pressure of the water at length causes the formation of a side
channel or the bursting of the sudd. (For sudd cutting see NILE.)
In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the sudd, being chiefly composed of
small swimming plants, is of less formidable nature than that
of the main stream.
Consult, O. Deuerling, Die Pflanzenbarren der afrikanischen
Flusse (Munich, 1900), a valuable monograph; and the bibliography
under NILE, especially Captain H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of
the Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906).
SUDERMANN, HERMANN (1857- ), German dramatist
and novelist, was born on the 3oth of September 1857 at Matzi-
ken in East Prussia, close to the Russian frontier, of a Mennonite
family long settled near Elbing. His father owned a small
brewery in the village of Heydekrug, and Sudermann received
his early education at the Realschule in Elbing, but, his parents
having been reduced in circumstances, he was apprenticed to a
chemist at the age of fourteen. He was, however, enabled to
enter the Realgymnasium in Tilsit, and to study philosophy and
history at Konigsberg University. In order to complete his
studies Sudermann went to Berlin, where he was tutor in several
families. He next became a journalist, was from 1881-1882
editor of the Deutsches Reichsblatt, and then devoted himself to
novel-writing. The novels and romances Im Zwielicht (1886),
Frau Sorge (1887), Geschwister (1888) and Der Katzensteg (1890)
failed to bring the young author as much recognition as his first
drama Die Ehre (1889), which inaugurated a new period in the
history of the German stage. Of his other dramas the most
successful were Sodoms Ende (i8gi),Heimat (1893), DieSchmetter-
lingsschlacht (1894), DasGliick im Winkel (1895), Morituri (1896),
Johannes (1898), Die drei Reiherfedern (1899), Johannesfeuer
(1900), Es lebe das Leben ! (1902), Der Sturmgesdle Sokrates
(1903) and Stein unter Steinen (1905). Sudermann is also the
author of a powerful social novel, Es war (1904), which, like Frau
Sorge and Der Katzensteg, has been translated into English.
See W. Kawerau, Hermann Sudermann (1897); H. Landsberg,
Hermann Sudermann (1902); H. Jung, Hermann Sudermann (1902);
H. Schoen, Hermann Sudermann, poete dramatique et romancier
(1905); and I. Axelrod, Hermann Sudermann (1907).
SUE, EUGENE [JOSEPH MARIE] (1804-1857), French novelist,
was born in Paris on the 2oth of January 1804. He was the son
of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon's army, and is said to have
had the empress Josephine for godmother. Sue himself acted
as surgeon both in the Spanish campaign undertaken by France
in 1823 and at the battle of Navarino (1828). In 1829 his father's
death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he
settled in Paris. His naval experiences supplied much of the
materials of his first novels, Kernock le pirate (1830), Alar-Gull
(1831), La Salamandre (2 vols., 1832), La Coucaratcha (4 vols.,
1832-1834), and others, which were composed at the height of the
romantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he
wrote Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanaliques des Cevennes (4 vols., 1 840)
and Latrtaumont (2 vols., 1837). He was strongly affected by the
SUDD— SUEBI
Socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous
works: Les Mysteres de Paris (10 vols., 1842-1843) and Le Juif
errant (10 vols., 1844-1845), which were among the most popular
specimens of the roman-feuilleton. He followed these up with some
singular and not very edifying books: Les Sept peches capitaux
(16 vols., 1847-1849), which contained stories to illustrate each
sin, Les Mysteres du peuple (1849-1856), which was suppressed
by the censor in 1857, and several others, all on a very large scale,
though the number of volumes gives an exaggerated idea of their
length. Some of his books, among them the Juif errant and the
Mysteres de Paris, were dramatized by himself, usually in collab-
oration with others. His period of greatest success and popu-
larity coincided with that of Alexandre Dumas, with whom some
writers have put him on an equality. Sue has neither Dumas's
wide range of subject, nor, above all, his faculty of conducting
the story by means of lively dialogue; he has, however, a com-
mand of terror which Dumas seldom or never attained. From
the literary point of view his style is bad, and his construction
prolix. After the revolution of 1848 he sat for Paris (the Seine)
in the Assembly from April 1850, and was exiled in consequence
of his protest against the coup d'itat of the 2nd of December
1851. This exile stimulated his literary production, but the
works of his last days are on the whole much inferior to those
of his middle period. Sue died at Annecy (Savoy) on the
3rd of August 1857.
SUEBI, or SUEVI, a collective term applied to a number of
peoples in central Germany, the chief of whom appear to have
been the Marcomanni, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones and
Langobardi. From the earliest times these tribes inhabited the
basin of the Elbe. The Langobardic territories seem to [have
lain about the lower reaches of the river, while the Semnones lay
south. The Marcomanni occupied the basin of the Saale, but
under their king, Maroboduus, they moved into Bohemia during
the early part of Augustus's reign, while the Quadi, who are first
mentioned in the time of Tiberius, lay farther east towards the
sources of the Elbe. The former home of the Marcomanni was
occupied by the Hermunduri a few years before the Christian
era. Some kind of political union seems to have existed among
all these tribes. The Semnones and Langobardi were at one
time subject to the dominion of the Marcomannic king Marobo-
duus, and at a much later period we hear of Langobardic troops
taking part against the Romans in the Marcomannic War. The
Semnones claimed to be the chief of the Suebic peoples, and
Tacitus describes a great religious festival held in their tribal
sanctuary, at which legations were present from all the other
tribes.
Tacitus uses the name Suebi in a far wider sense than that
defined above. With him it includes not only the tribes of the
basin of the Elbe, but also all the tribes north and east of that
river, including even the Swedes (Suiones). This usage, which is
not found in other ancient writers, is probably due to a confusion
of the Suebi with the agglomeration of peoples under their
supremacy, which as we know from Strabo extended to some
at least of the eastern tribes.
In early Latin writers the term Suebi is occasionally applied to
any of the above tribes. From the 2nd to the 4th century,
however, it is seldom used except with reference to events in the
neighbourhood of the Pannonian frontier, and here probably
means the Quadi. From the middle of the 4th century onward
it appears most frequently in the regions south of the Main, and
soon the names Alamanni and Suabi are used synonymously.
The Alamanni (q.v.) seem to have been, in part at least, the
descendants of the ancient Hermunduri, but it is likely that
they had been joined by one or more other Suebic peoples, from
the Danubian region, or more probably from the middle Elbe,
the land of the ancient Semnones. It is probably from the
Alamannic region that those Suebi came who joined the
Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and eventually founded a
kingdom in north-west Spain. After the ist century the term
Suebi seems never to be applied to the Langobardi and seldom
to the Baiouarii (Bavarians), the descendants of the ancient
Marcomanni. But besides the Alamannic Suebi we hear
SUECA— SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS
21
also of a people called Suebi, who shortly after the middle oi
the 6th century settled north of the Unstrut. There is
evidence also for a people called Suebi in the district above
the mouth of the Scheldt. It is likely that both these settle-
ments were colonies from the Suebi of whom we hear in the
Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith as neighbours of the Angli, and
whose name may possibly be preserved in Schwabstedt on the
Treene. The question has recently been raised whether these
Suebi should be identified with the people whom the Romans
called Heruli. After the 7th century the name Suebi is practically
only applied to the Alamannic Suebi (Schwaben), with whom it
remains a territorial designation in Wiirttemberg and Bavaria
until the present day.
See Caesar, De betto gallico, i. 37, 51 sqq., iv. I sqq., vi. 9 sqq.;
Strabo, p. 290 seq. ; Tacitus, Germania, 38 sqq. ; K. Zeuss, Die
Deutschenund die Nachbarstamme, pp. 55 sqq., 315 sqq.; C. Bremer
in Paul's Grundriss (2nd ed.), iii. 915^950; H. M.Chadwick, Originof
the English Nation, 216 sqq. (Cambridge, 1907). (F. G. M. B.)
SUECA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia,
near the left bank of the river Jucar, and on the Silla-Cullera
railway. Pop. (1900), 14,435. Sueca is separated from the
Mediterranean Sea (7 m. east) by the Sierra de Cullera. It is a
modern town, although many of the houses have the flat roofs,
view-turrets (miradores) and horseshoe arches characteristic of
Moorish architecture. There are a few handsome public
buildings, such as the hospital, town-hall and theatre. Sueca
has a thriving trade in grain and fruit from the Jucar valley,
which is irrigated by waterways created by the Moors.
SUESS, EDUARD (1831- ), Austrian geologist, was born
in London on the zoth of August 1831, his father, a native of
Saxony, having settled there as a German merchant. Three
years later the family removed to Prague, and in 1845 to Vienna.
Eduard Suess was educated for commercial life, but early dis-
played a bent for geology. At the age of nineteen he published
a short sketch of the geology of Carlsbad and its mineral waters;
and in 1852 he was appointed an assistant in the Imperial
museum of Vienna. There he studied the fossil Brachiopoda, and
manifested such ability that in 1857 he was appointed professor
of geology at the university. In 1862 he relinquished his museum
duties, and gave his whole time to special research and teaching,
retaining his professorship until 1901. Questions of ancient
physical geography, such as the former connexion between
northern Africa and Europe, occupied his attention; and in 1862
he published an essay on the soils and water-supply of Vienna.
He was elected a member of the town council, and in 1869 to a
seat in the Diet of Lower Austria, which he retained until 1896.
Meanwhile he continued his geological and palaeontological
work dealing with the Tertiary strata of the Vienna Basin, also
turning his attention to the problems connected with the evolu-
tion of the earth's surface-features, on which he wrote a monu-
mental treatise. This, the great task of his life, embodied the
results of personal research and of a comprehensive study of the
work of the leading geologists of all countries; it is entitled
Antlitz der Erde, of which the first volume was published in 1885,
the second in 1888, and pt. i. of the third volume in 1901. The
work has been translated into French, and (in part) into English.
Suess was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of
France in 1889, and a foreign member of the Royal Society in
1894. In 1896 the Geological Society of London awarded to him
the Wollaston medal.
Memoir (with portrait), by Sir A. Geikie, Nature (May 4, 1905).
SUESSULA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, in the plain
ii m. W. of the modern Cancello, 9 m. S.E. of the ancient Capua.
Its earlier history is obscure. In 338 B.C. it obtained Latin
rights from Rome. In the Samnite and Hannibahc wars it was
strategically important as commanding the entrance to the
Caudine pass. Sulla seems to have founded a colony here. It is
frequently named as an episcopal see up till the loth century A.D.,
and was for a time the chief town of a small Lombard principality.
It was several times plundered by the Saracens, and at last
abandoned by the inhabitants in consequence of the malaria. The
ruins of the town lie within the Bosco d'Acerra, a picturesque
forest. They were more conspicuous in the i8th century than
they now are, but traces of the theatre may still be seen, and
debris of other buildings. Oscan tombs were excavated there
between 1878 and 1886, and important finds of vases, bronzes,
&c., have been made. The dead were generally buried within
slabs of tufa arranged to form a kind of sarcophagus (see F. von
Duhn in Romische Mitteilungen, 1887, p. 235 sqq.). Suessula lay
on the line of the Via Popillia, which was here intersected by a
road which ran from Neapolis through Acerrae, and on to the Via
Appia, which it reached just west of the Caudine pass. On
the hills above Cancello to the east of Suessula was situated
the fortified camp of M. Claudius Marcellus, which covered
Nola and served as a post of observation against Hannibal in
Capua. (T. As.)
SUET (M. Eng. sewel, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod.
suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sevum, tallow, grease, probably
allied to sapo, soap), the hard flaked white fat lying round the
kidneys of the sheep or ox; that of the pig forms lard. Beef-
suet is especially used in cookery.
SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, GAIUS, Roman historian,
lived during the end of the ist and the first half of the and
century A.D. He was the contemporary of Tacitus and the
younger Pliny, and his literary work seems to have been
chiefly done in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (A.D. 98-138).
His father was military tribune in the XIHth legion, and he
himself began life as a teacher of rhetoric and an advocate.
To us he is known as the biographer of the twelve Caesars
(including Julius) down to Domitian. The lives are valuable
as covering a good deal of ground where we are without the
guidance of Tacitus. As Suetonius was the emperor Hadrian's
private secretary (magister epistolamm) , he must have had
access to many important documents in the Imperial archives,
e.g. the decrees and transactions ol the senate. In addition
to written and official documents, he picked up in society a
mass of information and anecdotes, which, though of doubtful
authenticity, need not be regarded as mere inventions of
his own. They give a very good idea of the kind of court
gossip prevalent in Rome at the time. He was a friend and cor-
respondent of the younger Pliny, who when appointed governor
of Bithynia took Suetonius with him. Pliny also recommended
him to the favourable notice of the emperor Trajan, " as a most
upright, honourable, and learned man, whom persons often
remember in their wills because of his merits," and he begs that
he may be made legally capable of inheriting these bequests, for
which under a special enactment Suetonius was, as a childless
married man, disqualified. Hadrian's biographer, Aelius
Spartianus, tells us that Suetonius was deprived of his
private secretaryship because he had not been sufficiently
observant of court etiquette towards the emperor's wife
during Hadrian's absence fn Britain.
The Lives of the Caesars has always been a popular work. It
is rather a chronicle than a history. It gives no picture of the
society of the time, no hints as to the general character and tenden-
cies of the period. It is the emperor who is always before us, and
yet the portrait is drawn without any real historical judgment or
insight. It is the personal anecdotes, several of which are very
amusing, that give the lives their chief interest; but the author
panders rather too much to a taste for scandal and gossip. None the
less he throws considerable light on an important period, and next to
Tacitus and Dip Cassius is the chief (sometimes the only) authority.
The language is clear and simple. The work was continued by
Marius Maximus (3rd century), who wrote a history of the emperors
from Nerva to Elagabalus (now lost). Suetonius was a voluminous
writer. Of his De viris ittustribus, the lives of Terence and Horace,
Fragments of those of Lucan and the elder Pliny and the greater
part of the chapter on grammarians and rhetoricians, are extant.
Other works by him (now lost) were: Praia (= X«j«5c« = patch-
work), in ten books, a kind of encyclopaedia; the Roman Year, Roman
Institutions and Customs, Children's Games among the Greeks, Roman
Public Spectacles, On the Kings, On Cicero's Republic.
Editio princeps, 1470; editions by great scholars: Erasmus,
Isaac Casaubon, J. G. Graevius, P. Burmann; the best complete
annotated edition Is still that of C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius (1816)-
recent editions by H. T. Peck (New York, 1889); Leo Preud'homme
(1906); M. Ihm (1907). Editions of, separate lives: Augustus, by
E. S. Shuckburgh (with useful introduction, 1896); Claudius, by H.
Smilda (1896), with notes and parallel passages from other authorities.
The best editions of the text are by C. L. Roth (1886), and A. Reiffer-
scheid (not including the Lives, 1860). On the De viris illustrious, see
22
SUEZ— SUEZ CANAL
G. K6rtge in Dissert, philolog. kalenses (1900), vol. xiv. ; and, above all,
A. Mace, Essai sur Suitone (1900), with an exhaustive bibliography.
There are English translations by Philemon Holland (reprinted in
the Tudor Translations, 1900), and by Thomson and Forester (in
Bohn's Classical Library).
SUEZ, a port of Egypt on the Red Sea and southern terminus
of the Suez Canal (?.».), situated at the head of the Gulf of Suez
in 29058'37"N.,32°3i'i8*E. It is 80 m. E. by S. of Cairo in a
direct line but 148 m. by rail, and is built on the north-west
point of the gulf. Pop. (1007), 18,347. From the heights to the
north, where there is a khedivai chalet, there is a superb view to
the south with the Jebel Ataka on the right, Mt Sinai on the
left and the waters of the gulf between. Suez is supplied with
water by the fresh-water canal, which starts from the Nile at
Cairo and is terminated at Suez by a lock which, north of the
town, joins it to the gulf. Before the opening of this canal in
1863 water had to be brought from " the Wells of Moses," a
small oasis 3 m. distant on the east side of the gulf. About
2 m. south of the town are the harbours and quays constructed
on the western side of the Suez Canal at the point where the
canal enters the gulf. The harbours are connected with the
town by an embankment and railway built across a shallow,
dry at low water save for a narrow channel. On one of the
quays is a statue to Thomas Waghorn, the organizer of the
" overland route " to India. The ground on which the port is
built has all been reclaimed from the sea. The accommodation
provided includes a dry dock 410 ft. long, 100 ft. broad and
nearly 36 ft. deep. There are separate basins for warships
and merchant ships, and in the roadstead at the mouth of the
canal is ample room for shipping. Suez is a quarantine
station for pilgrims from Mecca; otherwise its importance is
due almost entirely to the ships using the canal.
In the 7th century a town called Kolzum stood, on a site
adjacent to that of Suez, at the southern end of the canal which
then joined the Red Sea to the Nile. Kolzum retained some of
the trade of Egypt with Arabia and countries farther east long
after the canal was closed, but by the i3th century it was in
ruins and Suez itself, which had supplanted it, was also, according
to an Arab historian, in decay. On the Ottoman conquest of
Egypt in the i6th century Suez became a naval as well as a trad-
ing station, and here fleets were equipped which for a time dis-
puted the mastery of the Indian Ocean with the Portuguese.
According to Niebuhr, in the i8th century a fleet of nearly
twenty vessels sailed yearly from Suez to Jidda, the port of Mecca
and the place of correspondence with India. When the French
occupied Suez in 1798 it was a place of little importance, and the
conflicts which followed its occupation in 1800 by an English
fleet laid the greater part in ruins. The overland mail route from
England to India by way of Suez was opened in 1 83 7 . The regular
Peninsular & Oriental steamer service began a few years later,
and in 1857 a railway was opened from Cairo through the desert.
This line is now abandoned in favour of the railway which follows
the canal from Suez to Ismailia, and then ascends the Wadi
Tumilat to Zagazig, whence branches diverge to Cairo and
Alexandria.
SUEZ CANAL. Before the construction of the Suez Canal
there was no direct water communication between the Mediter-
ranean and the Red Sea, but at various eras such communication
existed by way of the Nile. Trade between Egypt and countries
to the east was originally overland to ports south of the Gulf of
Suez; the proximity of the roadstead at the head of that gulf to
Memphis and the Delta nevertheless marked it as the natural
outlet for the Red Sea commerce of Lower Egypt. The fertile
Wadi Tumilat extending east of the Nile valley almost to the
head of the gulf (which in ancient times reached north to the
Bitter Lakes) afforded an easy road between the Nile and the
Red Sea, while the digging of a navigable canal connecting the
river and the gulf gave the northern route advantages not
possessed by the desert routes farther south, e.g. that between
Coptos and Kosseir. Aristotle, Strabo and Pliny attribute to
the legendary Sesostris (q.v.) the distinction of being the first
of the pharaohs to build a canal joining the Nile and the Red Sea.
From an inscription on the temple at Karnak it would appear
that such a canal existed in the time of Seti I. (1380 B.C.). This
canal diverged from the Nile near Bubastis and was carried along
the Wadi Tumilat to Heroopolis, near Pithom, a port at the head
of the Heroopolite Gulf (the Bitter Lakes of to-day) . The channel
of this canal is still traceable in parts of the Wadi Tumilat, and
its direction was frequently followed by the engineers of the fresh-
water canal. Seti's canal appears to have fallen into decay or
to have been too small for later requirements, for Pharaoh Necho
(609 B.C.) began to build another canal; possibly his chief object
was to deepen the channel between the Heroopolite Gulf and
the Red Sea, then probably silting up. Necho's canal was not
completed — according to Herodotus 120,000 men perished in the
undertaking. Darius (520 B.C.) continued the work of Necho,
rendering navigable the channel of the Heroopolite Gulf, which
had become blocked. Up to this time there appears to have been
no connexion between the waters of the Red Sea and those of the
Bubastis-Heroopolis canal ; vessels coming from the Mediterranean
ascended the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Bubastis and then sailed
along the canal to Heroopolis, where their merchandise had to be
transferred to the Red Sea ships. Ptolemy Philadelphus (283 B.C.)
connected the canal with the waters of the sea, and at the
spot where the junction was effected he built the town of Arsinoe.
The dwindling of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile rendered this
means of communication impossible by the time of Cleopatra
(31 B.C.). Trajan (A.D. 98) is said to have repaired the canal, and,
as the Pelusiac branch was no longer available for navigation,
to have built a new canal between Bubastis and Babylon (Old
Cairo), this new canal being known traditionally as Amnis
Trajanus or Amnis Augustus. According to H. R. Hall, however,
" It is very doubtful if any work of this kind, beyond repairs, was
undertaken in the times of the Romans; and it is more probable
that the new canal was the work of 'Amr " (the Arab conqueror
of Egypt in the 7th century). The canal was certainly in use in
the early years of the Moslem rule in Egypt ; it is said to have been
closed c. A.D. 770 by order of Abu Ja'far (Mansur), the second
Abbasid caliph and founder of Bagdad, who wished to prevent
supplies from reaching his enemies in Arabia by this means.
'Amr's canal (of which the Khalig which passed through Cairo
and was closed in 1897 is said to have formed part) had its ter-
minus on the Red Sea south of the Heroopolite Gulf near the
present town of Suez. In this neighbourhood was the ancient
city of Clysma, to which in 'Amr's time succeeded Kolzum,
perhaps an Arabic corruption of Clysma. The exact situation
of Clysma is unknown, but Kolzum occupied the site of Suez,
the hills north of which are still called Kolzum. After the closing
of the canal in the 8th century it does not appear for certain that
it was ever restored, although it is asserted that in the year 1000
Sultan Hakim rendered it navigable. If so it must speedily have
become choked up again. Parts of the canal continued to be
filled during the Nile inundations until Mehemet Ali (A.D. 1811)
ordered it to be closed; the closing, however, was not completely
effected, for in 1861 the eld canal from Bubastis still flowed as
far as Kassassin. This part of the canal, after over 2500 years
of service, was utilized by the French engineers in building the
fresh-water canal from Cairo to Suez in 1861-1863. This canal
follows the lines of that of 'Amr (or Trajan).
Maritime Canal Projects. — Apart from water communication
between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea by way of the Nile,
the project of direct communication by a canal piercing the
isthmus of Suez was entertained as early as the 8th century A.D. by
Harun al-Rashid, who is said to have abandoned the scheme,
being persuaded that it would be dangerous to lay open the coast
of Arabia to the Byzantine navy. After the discovery of the Cape
route to India at the close of the isth century, the Venetians,
who had for centuries held the greater part of the trade of the
East with Europe via Egypt and the Red Sea, began negotiations
with the Egyptians for a canal across the isthmus, but the con-
quest of Egypt by the Turks put an end to these designs. In
1671 Leibnitz in his proposals to LouisXIV. of France regarding
an expedition to Egypt recommended the making of a maritime
canal, and the Sheikh al-Balad Ah' Bey (c. 1770) wished to carry
out the project. Bonaparte when in Egypt in 1798 ordered the
SUEZ CANAL
isthmus to be surveyed as a preliminary to the digging of a canal
across it, and the engineer he employed, J. M. Lepere, came to the
conclusion that there was a difference in level of 29 ft. between
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. This view was combated
at the time by Laplace and Fourier on general grounds, and was
finally disproved in 1846-1847 as the result of surveys made at
the instance of the Societe d' Etudes pour le Canal de Suez. This
society was organized in 1846 by Prosper Enfantin, the Saint
Simonist, who thirteen years before had visited Egypt in con-
nexion with, a scheme for making a canal across the isthmus
of Suez, which, like the canal across the isthmus of Panama, was
part of the Saint Simonist programme for the regeneration of
the world. The expert commission appointed by this society
reported by a majority in favour of Paulin Talabot's plan,
according to which the canal would have run from Suez to
Alexandria by way of Cairo.
injure British maritime supremacy, and that the proposal was
merely a device for French interference in the East.
Although the sultan's confirmation of the concession was not
actually granted till 1866, de Lesseps in 1858 opened the sub-
scription lists for his company, the capital of which was 200
million francs in 400,000 shares of 500 francs each. In less than
a month 314,494 shares were applied for; of these over 200,000
were subscribed in France and over 96,000 were taken by the
Ottoman Empire. From other countries the subscriptions were
trifling, and England, Austria and Russia, as well as the United
States of America, held entirely aloof. The residue of 85,506
shares1 was taken over by the viceroy. On the 25th of April
1859 the work of construction was formally begun, the first
spadeful of sand being turned near the site of Port Said, but
progress was not very rapid. By the beginning of 1862 the fresh-
water canal had reached Lake Timsa, and towards the end of the
Scale. 1:887.000
English Wilts
.» t 4 <T '?
Plan and Section
of the
!-*J_
/ """"— Little j^fi
Bitter/^' y-
/..fc-S/- j- ^
(Topography only from L'Istkme el U Canal de Suez, by G. Charles-Roui, by permission of Messrs Hachette & Co.)
For some years after this report no progress was made; indeed,
the society was in a state of suspended animation when in 1854
Ferdinand de Lesseps came to the front as the chief exponent of
the idea. He had been associated with the Saint Simonists and
for many years had been keenly interested in the question. His
opportunity came in 1854 when, on the death of Abbas Pasha,
his friend Said Pasha became viceroy of Egypt. From Said on
the 3oth of November 1854 he obtained a concession authorizing
him to constitute the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime
de Suez, which should construct a ship canal through the isthmus,
and soon afterwards in concert with two French engineers,
Linant Bey and Mougel Bey, he decided that the canal should
run in a direct line from Suez to the Gulf of Pelusium, passing
through the depressions that are now Lake Timsa and the Bitter
Lakes, and skirting the eastern edge of Lake Menzala. In the
following year an international commission appointed by the
viceroy approved this plan with slight modifications, the chief
being that the channel was taken through Lake Menzala instead
of along its edge, and the northern termination of the canal
moved some 175 m. westward where deep water was found closer
to the shore. This plan, according to which there were to be
no locks, was the one ultimately carried out, and it was embodied
in a second and amplified concession, dated the sth of January
1856, which laid on the company the obligation of constructing,
in addition to the maritime canal, a fresh-water canal from the
Nile near Cairo to Lake Timsa, with branches running parallel
to the maritime canal, one to Suez and the other to Pelusium.
The concession was to last for 99 years from the date of the open-
ing of the canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean,
after which, in default of other arrangements, the canal passes
into the hands of the Egyptian government. The confirmation
of the sultan of Turkey being required, de Lesseps went to Con-
stantinople to secure it, but found himself baffled by British
diplomacy; arid later in London he was informed by Lord
Palmerston that in the opinion of the British government the
canal was a physical impossibility, that if it were made it would
same year a narrow channel had been formed between that lake
and the Mediterranean. In 1863 the fresh-water canal was
continued to Suez.
So far the work had been performed by native labour; the
concession of 1856 contained a provision that at least four- fifths
of the labourers should be Egyptians, and later in the same year
Said Pasha undertook to supply labourers as required by the
engineers of the canal company, which was to house and feed
them and pay them at stipulated rates. Although the wages
and the terms of service were better than the men obtained
normally, this system of forced labour was strongly disapproved
of in England, and the khedive Ismail who succeeded Said on the
latter's death in 1863 also considered it as being contrary to the
interests of his country. Hence in July the Egyptian foreign
minister, Nubar Pasha, was sent to Constantinople with the pro-
posal that the number of labourers furnished to the company
should be reduced, and that it should be made to hand back to
the Egyptian government the lands that had been granted it by
Said in 1856. These propositions were approved by the sultan,
and the company was informed that if they were not accepted
the works would be stopped by force. Naturally the company
objected, and in the end the various matters in dispute were
referred to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon III. By his
award, made in July 1864, the company was allowed 38 million
francs as an indemnity for the abolition of the coniie, 16 million
francs in respect of its retrocessions of that portion of the fresh-
water canal that lay between Wadi, Lake Timsa and Suez (the
remainder had already been handed back by agreement), and 30
million francs in respect of the lands which had been granted it by
Said. The company was allowed to retain a certain amount of
land along the canals, which was necessary for purposes of con-
struction, erection of workshops, &c., and it was put under the
obligation of finishing the fresh-water canal between Wadi and
1 These formed part of the 176,602 shares which were bought for
the sum of £3,976,582 from the khedive by England in 1875 at the
instance of Lord Beaconsfield (q.v.).
SUEZ CANAL
Suez to such dimensions that the depth of water in it would be
zj metres at high Nile and at least i metre at low Nile. The
supply of Port Said with water it was allowed to manage by
any means it chose; in the first instance it laid a double line of
iron piping from Timsa, and it was not till 1885 that the original
plan of supplying the town by a branch of the fresh-water
canal was carried out. The indemnity, amounting to a total of
84 million francs, was to be paid in instalments spread over
1 5 years.
The abolition of forced labour was probably the salvation of
the enterprise, for it meant the introduction of mechanical appli-
ances and of modern engineering methods. The work was divided
into four contracts. The first was for the supply of 250,000 cubic
metres of concrete blocks for the jetties of Port Said; the second,
for the first 60 kilometres of the channel from Port Said, involved
the removal of 22 million cubic metres of sand or mud; the third
was for the next length of 13 kilometres, which included the
cutting through the high ground at El Gisr; and the fourth and
largest was for the portion between Lake Timsa and the Red Sea.
The contractors for this last section were Paul Borel and Alex-
andre Levalley, who ultimately became responsible also for the
second or 60 kilometres contract. For the most part the material
was soft and therefore readily removed. At some points, how-
ever, as at Shaluf and Serapeum, rock was encountered. Much
of the channel was formed by means of dredgers. Through
Lake Menzala, for instance, native workmen made a shallow
channel by scooping out the soil with their hands and throwing it
out on each side to form the banks; dredgers were then floated
in and completed the excavation to the required depth, the
soil being delivered on the other side of the banks through long
spouts. At Serapeum, a preliminary shallow channel having been
dug out, water was admitted from the fresh-water canal, the level
of which is higher than that of the ship canal, and the work was
completed by dredgers from a level of about 20 ft. above the sea.
At El Gisr, where the soil, composed largely of loose sand, rises
60 ft. above the sea, the contractor, Alphonse Couvreux, employed
an excavator of his own design, which was practically a bucket-
dredger working in the dry. A long arm projecting downwards
at an angle from an engine on the bank carried a number of
buckets, mounted on a continuous chain, which scooped up
the stuff at the bottom and discharged it into wagons at the
top.
In 1865 de Lesseps, to show the progress that had been made,
entertained over 100 delegates from chambers of commerce in
different parts of the world, and conducted them over the works.
In the following year the company, being in need of money,
realized 10 million francs by selling to the Egyptian government
the estate of El Wadi, which it had purchased from Said, and it
also succeeded in arranging that the money due to it under the
award of 1864 should be paid off by 1869 instead of 1879. Its
financial resources still being insufficient, it obtained in 1867
permission to invite a loan of 100 million francs; but though the
issue was offered at a heavy discount it was only fully taken up
after the attractions of a lottery scheme had been added to it.
Two years later the company got 30 million francs from the
Egyptian government in consideration of abandoning certain
special rights and privileges that still belonged to it and of hand-
ing over various hospitals, workshops, buildings, &c., which it
had established on the isthmus. The government liquidated this
debt, not by a money payment, but by agreeing to forego for
25 years the interest on the 176,602 shares it held in the company,
which was thus enabled to raise a loan to the amount of the debt.
Altogether, up to the end of the year (1869) in which the canal
was sufficiently advanced to be opened for traffic, the accounts
of the company showed a total expenditure of 432,807,882 francs,
though the International Technical Commission in 1856 had
estimated the cost at only 200 millions for a canal of larger
dimensions.
The formal opening of the canal was celebrated in November
1869. On the i6th there was an inaugural ceremony at Port
Said, and next day 68 vessels of various nationalities, headed
by the " Aigle " with the empress Eugenie on board, began the
passage, reaching Ismailia (Lake Timsa) the same day. On the
1 9th they continued their journey to the Bitter Lakes, and on the
20th they arrived at Suez. Immediately afterwards regular traffic
began. In 1870 the canal was used by nearly 500 vessels, but
the receipts for the first two years of working were considerably
less than the expenses. The company attempted to issue a loan of
20 million francs in 1871, but the response was small, and it was
only saved from bankruptcy by a rapid increase in its revenues.
The total length of the navigation from Port Said to Suez
is 100 m. The canal was originally constructed to have a
depth of 8 metres with a bottom width of 22 metres, but it soon
became evident that its dimensions must be enlarged. Certain
improvements in the channel were started in 1876, but a more
extensive plan was adopted in 1885 as the result of the inquiries
of an international commission which recommended that the depth
should be increased first to 8J metres and finally to 9 metres,
and that the width should be made on the straight parts a
minimum of 65 metres between Port Said and the Bitter Lakes,
and of 75 metres between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, increasing
on curves to 80 metres. To pay for these works a loan of 100
million francs was issued. These widenings greatly improved
the facilities for ships travelling in opposite directions to pass
each other. In the early days of the canal, except in the Bitter
Lakes, vessels could pass each other only at a few crossing
places or gares, which had a collective length of less than a mile;
but owing to the widenings that have been carried out, passing
is now possible at any point over the greater part of the canal,
one vessel stopping.while the other proceeds on her way. From
March 1887 navigation by night was permitted to ships which
were provided with electric search-lights, and now the great
majority avail themselves of this facility. By these measures
the average time of transit, which was about 36 hours in 1886,
has been reduced by half. The maximum speed permitted in
the canal itself is 10 kilometres an hour.
The dues which the canal company was authorized to charge
by its concession of 1856 were 10 francs a ton. In the first
instance they were levied on the tonnage as shown by the
papers on board each vessel, but from March 1872 they were
charged on the gross register tonnage, computed according to
the method of the British Merchant Shipping Act 1854. The
result was that the shipowners had to pay more, and, objections
being raised, the whole question of the method of charge was
submitted to an international conference which met at Con-
stantinople in 1873. It fixed the dues at 10 francs per net
register ton (English reckoning) with a surtax of 4 francs per
ton, which, however, was to be reduced to 3 francs in the case
of ships having on board papers showing their net tonnage
calculated in the required manner. It also decided that the
surtax should be gradually diminished as the traffic increased,
until in the year after the net tonnage passing through the canal
reached 2,600,000 tons it should be abolished. De Lesseps
protested against this arrangement, but on the sultan threaten-
ing to enforce it, if necessary by armed intervention, he gave
in and brought the new tariff into operation in April 1874.
By an arrangement with the canal company, signed in 1876,
the British government, which in 1875 by the purchase of the
khedive's shares, had become a large shareholder, undertook
negotiations to secure that the successive reductions of the tariff
should take effect on fixed dates, the sixth and last instalment
of 50 centimes being removed in January 1884, after which the
maximum rate was to be 10 francs per official net ton. But
before this happened British shipowners had started a vigorous
agitation against the rates, which they alleged to be excessive,
and had even threatened to construct a second canal. In
consequence a meeting was arranged between them and repre-
sentatives of the canal company in London in November 1883,
and it was agreed that in January 1885 the dues should be
reduced to 9! francs a ton, that subsequently they should be
lowered on a sliding scale as the dividend increased, and that
after the dividend reached 25% all the surplus profits should be
applied in reducing the rates until they were lowered to 5 francs
a ton. Under this arrangement they were fixed at 7! francs
SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF— SUFFOLK, IST DUKE OF 25
per ton at the beginning of 1906. For ships in ballast reduced
rates are in force. For passengers the dues remain at to francs
a head, the figure at which they were originally fixed.
By the concessions of 1854 and 1856 the dues were to be the
same for all nations, preferential treatment of any kind being
forbidden, and the canal and its ports were to be open " comme
passages neutres " to every merchant ship without distinction
of nationality. The question of its formal neutralization by
international agreement was raised in an acute form during
the Egyptian crisis of 1881-82, and in August of the latter year
a few weeks before the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, navigation upon it
was suspended for four days at the instance of Sir Garnet
Wolseley, who was in command of the British forces. At the
international conference which was then sitting at Constanti-
nople various proposals were put forward to ensure the use of the
canal to all nations, and ultimately at Constantinople on the
29th of October 1888 Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Spain,
France, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey signed the
Suez Canal Convention, the purpose of which was to ensure
that the canal should " always be free and open, in time of
war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war,
without distinction of flag. " Great Britain, however, in signing,
formulated a reservation that the provisions of the convention
should only apply so far as they were compatible with the
actual situation, namely the " present transitory and excep-
tional condition of Egypt, " and" so far as they would not fetter
the liberty of action of the British government during its occupa-
tion of that country. But by the Anglo-French agreement
of the 8th of April 1904 Great Britain declared her adherence
to the stipulations of the convention, and agreed to their being
put in force, except as regards a provision by which the agents
in Egypt of the signatory Powers of the convention were to meet
once a year to take note of the due execution of the treaty.
It was by virtue of this new agreement that the Russian war-
ships proceeding to the 'East in 1904-1905 were enabled to
use the canal, although passage was prohibited to Spanish war-
ships in 1898 during the war between Spain and the United
States.
L'Isthme et le Canal de Suez, historique, flat actuel, by J. Charles-
Roux (2 vols., Paris 1901), contains reprints of various official
documents relating to the canal, with plates, maps and a biblio-
graphy extending to 1499 entries.
SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF. These English titles
were borne in turn by the families of Ufford, Pole, Brandon,
Grey and Howard. A certain holder of land in Suffolk, named
John de Peyton, had a younger son Robert, who acquired the
lordship of Ufford in that county and was known as Robert
de Ufford. He held an important place in the government
of Ireland under Edward I. and died in 1298; his son Robert
(1270-1316) was created Baron Ufford by a writ of summons
to parliament in 1309, and increased his possessions by marriage
with Cicely, daughter and heiress of Robert de Valoines. This
Robert had several sons, one of whom was Sir Ralph de Ufford
(d. 1346), justiciar of Ireland, who married Maud, widow of
William de Burgh, earl of Ulster, and daughter of Henry
Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. Robert's eldest surviving son,
another Robert (c. 1298-1369), was an associate of the young
king Edward III., and was one of the nobles who arrested Roger
Mortimer in 1330. In 1337 he was created earl of Suffolk.
The earl was employed by Edward III. on high military and
diplomatic duties and was present at the battles of Crecy and
Poitiers. His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1339-1382), held
important appointments under Edward III. and Richard II.
He played a leading part in the suppression of the Peasants'
Revolt in 1381, but in the same year he supported the popular
party in parliament in the attack on the misgovernment of
Richard II. Although twice married he left no sons, and his
earldom became extinct, his extensive estates reverting to the
Crown.
In 1385 the earldom of Suffolk and the lands of the Uffords
were granted by Richard II. to his friend Michael Pole (c. 1330-
1389), a son of Sir William atte Pole, a baron of the exchequer
and a merchant (see POLE FAMILY). After an active public
life as the trusted adviser of Richard II. Pole was dismissed
from his office of chancellor, was impeached and sentenced to
death, but escaped to France, where he died. His titles and
estates were forfeited, but in 1399 the earldom of Suffolk and
most of the estates were restored to his son Michael (c. 1361-
1415). Michael, the 3rd earl (1394-1415), waskilledat the battle
of Agincourt, and the earldom passed to his brother William (1396-
1450), who was created earl of Pembroke in 1443, marquess
of Suffolk in 1444, and duke of Suffolk in 1448 (see SUFFOLK,
WILLIAM DE LA POLE, DUKE or). The duke's son, John,
2nd duke of Suffolk (1442-1491), married Elizabeth, daughter
of Richard, duke of York, and sister of King Edward IV.,
by whom he had six sons. The eldest, John (c. 1464-1487),
was created earl of Lincoln, and was named heir to the throne
by Richard III. He was killed fighting against Henry VII. at
the battle of Stoke, and was attainted. His brother Edmund
(c. 1472-1513) should have succeeded his father in the duke-
dom in 1491, but he surrendered this to Henry VII. in return
for some of the estates forfeited by the earl of Lincoln, and
was known simply as earl of Suffolk. Having incurred the
displeasure of the king, he left his own country in 1501 and
sought help for an invasion of England. Consequently he was
attainted in 1504 and was handed over in 1506 to Henry. He
was kept in prison until 1513, when he was beheaded by
Henry VIII. His brother Richard now called himself duke of
Suffolk, and put forward a claim to the English crown. Known
as the " white rose," he lived abroad until 1525, when he was
killed at the battle of Pavia.
In 1514 the title of duke of Suffolk was granted by Henry
VIII. to his friend, Charles Brandon (see SUFFOLK, CHARLES
BRANDON, DUKE or) and it was borne successively by his two
sons, Henry and Charles, becoming extinct when Charles died
in July 1551. In the same year it was revived in favour of
Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, who had married Frances, a
daughter of the first Brandon duke. Grey, who became mar-
quess of Dorset in 1530, was a prominent member of the reform-
ing party during the reign of Edward VI. He took part in the
attempt to make his daughter, Jane, queen of England in 1553,
but as he quickly made his peace with Mary he was not seriously
punished. In 1554, however, he took part in the rising headed
by Sir Thomas Wyat; he was captured, tried for treason and
beheaded in February 1554, when the dukedom again became
extinct. In 1603 Thomas Howard, Lord Howard de Walden,
son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was created earl
of Suffolk, and the earldom has been held by his descendants
to the present day (see SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, ist earl of).
SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, IST DUKE OF (c. 1484-
1 54S)i was the son of William Brandon, standard-bearer of
Henry VII., who was slain by Richard III. in person on Bos-
worth Field. Charles Brandon was brought up at the court
of Henry VII. He is described by Dugdale as " a person comely
of stature, high of courage and conformity of disposition to
King Henry VIII.," with whom he became a great favourite.
He held a succession of offices in the royal household, becoming
master of the horse in 1513, and received many valuable grants
of land. On the 15th of May 1513 he was created Viscount
Lisle, having entered into a marriage contract with his ward,
Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle in her own right, who, how-
ever, refused to marry him when she came of age. He dis-
tinguished himself at the sieges of Terouenne and Tournai in
the French campaign of 1513. One of the agents of Margaret
of Savoy, governor of the Netherlands, writing from before
Terouenne, reminds her that Lord Lisle is a second king and
advises her to write him a kind letter. At this time Henry VIII.
was secretly urging Margaret to marry Brandon, whom he
created duke of Suffolk, though he was careful to disclaim
(March 4, 1514) any complicity in the project to her father, the
emperor Maximilian I. The regent herself left a curious account
of the proceedings (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vol. i.
4850-4851). Brandon took part in the jousts which celebrated
the marriage of Mary Tudor, Henry's sister, with Louis XII.
26
SUFFOLK, IST EARL OF
of France. He was accredited to negotiate various matters
with Louis, and on his death was sent to congratulate the new
king Francis I. An affection between Suffolk and the dowager
queen Mary had subsisted before her marriage, and Francis
roundly charged him with an intention to marry her. Francis
perhaps in the hope of Queen Claude's death, had himself been
one of her suitors in the first week of her widowhood, and
Mary asserted that she had given him her confidence to avoid
his importunities. Francis and Henry both professed a friendly
attitude towards the marriage of the lovers, but Suffolk had
many political enemies, and Mary feared that she might again
be sacrificed to political considerations. The truth was that
Henry was anxious to obtain from Francis the gold plate and
jewels which had been given or promised to the queen by Louis
in addition to the reimbursement of the expenses of her marriage
with the king; and he practically made his acquiescence in
Suffolk's suit dependent on his obtaining them. The pair cut
short the difficulties by a private marriage, which Suffolk an-
nounced to Wolsey, who had been their fast friend, on the $th
of March. Suffolk was only saved from Henry's anger by
Wolsey, and the pair eventually agreed to pay to Henry £24,000
in yearly instalments of £1000, and the whole of Mary's dowry
from Louis of £200,000, together with her plate and jewels.
They were openly married at Greenwich on the I3th of May.
The duke had been twice married already, to Margaret Mortimer
and to Anne Browne, to whom he had been betrothed before
his marriage with Margaret Mortimer. Anne Browne died in
1 51 1 1 but Margaret Mortimer, from whom he had obtained a
divorce on the ground of consanguinity, was still living. He
secured in 1528 a bull from Pope Clement II. assuring the
legitimacy of his marriage with Mary Tudor, and of the daughters
of Anne Browne, one of whom, Anne, was sent to the court of
Margaret of Savoy. After his marriage with Mary, Suffolk
lived for some years in retirement, but he was present at the
Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and in 1523 he was sent to
Calais to command the English troops there. He invaded
France in company with Count de Buren, who was at the head
of the Flemish troops, and laid waste the north of France, but
disbanded his troops at the approach of winter. Suffolk was
entirely in favour of Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon,
and in spite of his obligations to Wolsey he did not scruple to
attack him when his fall was imminent. The cardinal, who
was acquainted with Suffolk's private history, reminded him of
his ingratitude: " If I, simple cardinal, had not been, you should
have had at this present no head upon your shoulders wherein
you should have had a tongue to make any such report in despite
of us. " After Wolsey's disgrace Suffolk's influence increased
daily. He was sent with the duke of Norfolk to demand the
great seal from Wolsey; the same noblemen conveyed the news
of Anne Boleyn's marriage to Queen Catherine, and Suffolk
acted as high steward at the new queen's coronation. He was one
of the commissioners appointed by Henry to dismiss Catherine's
household, a task which he found distasteful. He supported
Henry's ecclesiastical policy, receiving a large share of the
plunder after the suppression of the monasteries. In 1544 he
was for the second time in command of an English army for
the invasion of France. He died at Guildford on the 24th of
August in the following year.
After the death of Mary Tudor on the 24th cf June 1533 he
had married in 1534 his ward Catherine (1520-1580), Baroness
Willoughby de Eresby in her own right, then a girl of fifteen.
His daughters by his marriage with Anne Browne were Anne,
who married firstly Edward Grey, Lord Powys, and, after the
dissolution of this union, Randal Harworth; and Mary (b. 1510),
who married Thomas Stanley, Lord Monteagle. By Mary
Tudor he had Henry earl of Lincoln (1516-1634); Frances, who
married Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, and became the
mother of Lady Jane Grey; and Eleanor, who married Henry
Clifford, second earl of Cumberland. By Katherine Willoughby
he had two sons who showed great promise, Henry (1535-1551)
and Charles (c. 1537-1551), dukes of Suffolk. They died of the
sweating sickness within an hour of one another. Their tutor
Sir Thomas Wilson, compiled a memoir of them, Vita et obitus
duorum fratrum Suffolcensium (1551).
There is abundant material for the history of Suffolk's career in
the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (ed. Brewer in the Rolls
Series). See also Dugdale, Baronage of England (vol. ii. 1676);
and G. E. C., Complete Peerage. An account of his matrimonial
adventures is in the historical appendix to a novel by E. S. Holt
entitled The Harvest of Yesterday.
SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, IST EARL OF (1561-1626),
second son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was born
on the 24th of August 1561. He behaved very gallantly during
the attack on the Spanish armada and afterwards took part in
other naval expeditions, becoming an admiral in 1 599. Created
Baron Howard de Walden in 1597 and earl of Suffolk in July
1603, he was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1603
to 1614 and lord high treasurer from 1614 to 1618, when he was
deprived of his office on a charge of misappropriating money.
He was tried in the Star-chamber and was sentenced to pay a
heavy fine. Suffolk's second wife was Catherine (d. 1633),
widow of the Hon. Richard Rich, a woman whose avarice was
partly responsible for her husband's downfall. She shared his
trial and was certainly guilty of taking bribes from Spain. One
of his three daughters was the notorious Frances Howard,
who, after obtaining a divorce from her first husband, Robert
Devereux, earl of Essex, married Robert Carr, earl of Somerset,
and instigated the poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury. The earl
died on the 28th of May 1626. He built a magnificent residence
at Audley End, Essex, which is said to have cost £200,000. One
of Suffolk's seven sons was Sir Robert Howard (1585-1653), who
inherited Clun Castle, Shropshire, on the death of his brother,
Sir Charles Howard, in 1622. He was twice imprisoned on
account of his illicit relations with Frances, Viscountess Purbeck
(d. 1645), a daughter of Sir Edward Coke, and after sitting in
six parliaments was expelled from the House of Commons for
executing the king's commission of array in 1642. He died on
the 22nd of April 1653. Another of Suffolk's sons, Edward
(d. 1675), was created baron Howard of Escrick in 1628. He was
one of the twelve peers who signed the petition on grievances,
which he presented to Charles I. at York in 1640, and after the
abolition of the House of Lords in 1649 he sat in the House of
Commons as member for Carlisle, being also a member of the
council of state. In 1651 he was expelled from parliament for
taking bribes and he died on the 24th of April 1675. His second
son, William, 3rd lord Howard of Escrick (c. 1626-1694), was
a member of the republican party during the Commonwealth;
later he associated himself with the opponents of the arbitrary
rule of Charles II., but turning informer he was partly respon-
sible for the conviction of Lord William Russell and of Algernon
Sydney in 1683. On the death of William's son, Charles, the
4th lord, in 1715 the barony of Howard of Escrick became
extinct.
Suffolk's eldest son, THEOPHILUS, 2nd earl of Suffolk (1584-
1640), was captain of the band of gentlemen pensioners under
James I. and Charles I., and succeeded to the earldom in May
1626, obtaining about the same time some of the numerous
offices which had been held by his father, including the lord-
lieutenancy of the counties of Suffolk, Cambridge and Dorset.
He died on the 3rd of June 1640, when his eldest son James
(1610-1689) became 3rd earl. This nobleman, who acted as
earl marshal of England at the coronation of Charles II., died
'n January 1689 when his barony of Howard de Walden fell
nto abeyance between his two daughters.1 His earldom,
however, passed to his brother George (c. 1625-1691), who
j t, thus fallen into abeyance in 1689 the barony of Howard
de Walden was revived in 1784 in favour of John Griffin Griffin,
afterwards Lord Braybrooke, on whose death in May 1797 it fell
again into abeyance. In 1799 the bishop of Derry, Frederick
A,ug.uitu,? Hervey, 4th earl of Bristol, a descendant of the 3rd earl
of Suffolk, became the sole heir to the barony. On Bristol's death
n July 1803 it passed to Charles Augustus Ellis (1709-1868), a
jrandson of the bishop's elder son, John Augustus, Lord Hervey
1 757-1 796), who had predeceased his lather. It was thus separated
rom the marquessate of Bristol, which passed to the bishop's only
urvivmg son, and it has since been held by the family of Ellis.
SUFFOLK, DUKE OF
27
became 4th earl of Suffolk. George's nephew, Henry, the 6th
earl (c. 1670-1718), who was president of the board of trade
from 1715 to 1718, left an only son, Charles William (1693-
1722), who was succeeded in turn by his two uncles, the younger
of them, Charles (1675-1733) becoming 9th earl on the death
of his brother Edward in June 1731. This earl was the husband
of Henrietta countess of Suffolk (c. 1681-1767), the mistress of
George II., who was a daughter of Sir Henry Hobart, bart.,
of Blickling, Norfolk. When still the Hon. Charles Howard,
he and his wife made the acquaintance of the future king in
Hanover; after the accession of George I. to the English throne
in 1714 both husband and wife obtained posts in the household
of the prince of Wales, who, when he became king as George II.,
publicly acknowledged Mrs Howard as his mistress. She was
formally separated from her husband before 1731 when she
became countess of Suffolk. The earl died on the 28th of Sep-
tember 1733, but the countess, having retired from court and
married the Hon. George Berkeley (d. 1746), lived until the
26th of July 1767. Among Lady Suffolk's friends were the
poets Pope and Gay and Charles Mordaunt (earl of Peterborough) .
A collection of Letters to and from Henrietta Countess of Suffolk,
and her Second Husband, the Plan. George Berkeley, was edited by
J. W. Croker (1824).
The 9th earl's only son Henry, the loth earl (1706-1745),
•died without sons in April 1745, when his estate at Audley End
passed to the descendants of the 3rd earl, being inherited in
1762 by John Griffin Griffin (1719-1797), afterwards Lord
Howard de Walden and Lord Braybrooke. As owners of this
estate the earls of Suffolk of the Howard line had hitherto been
hereditary visitors of Magdalene College, Cambridge, but this
office now passed away from them. The earldom of Suffolk
was inherited by Henry Bowes Howard, 4th earl of Berkshire
(1696-1757), who was the great-grandson of Thomas Howard
(c. 1590-1669), the second son of the ist earl of Suffolk,
Thomas having been created earl of Berkshire in 1626. Since
1745 the two earldoms have been united, Henry Molyneux
Paget Howard (b. 1877) succeeding his father, Henry Charles
(1833-1898), as igth earl of Suffolk and I2th earl of Berkshire
in 1898.
SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE, DUKE OF (1396-1450),
second son of Michael de la Pole, second earl of Suffolk, was born
on the i6th of October 1396. His father died at the siege of
Harfleur, and his elder brother was killed at Agincourt on the
25th of October 1415. Suffolk served in all the later French
campaigns of the reign of Henry V., and in spite of his youth held
high command on the marches of Normandy in 1421-22. In
1423 he joined the earl of Salisbury in Champagne, and shared
his victory at Crevant. He fought under John, duke of Bedford,
at Verneuil on the i7th of August 1424, and throughout the
next four years was Salisbury's chief lieutenant in the direction
of the war. When Salisbury was killed before Orleans on the
3rd of November 1428, Suffolk succeeded to the command.
After the siege was raised, Suffolk was defeated and taken
prisoner by Jeanne d'Arc at Jargeau on the I2th of June 1429.
He was soon ransomed, and during the next two years was again
in command on the Norman frontier. He returned to England
in November 1431, after over fourteen years' continuous service
in the field.
Suffolk had already been employed on diplomatic missions
by John of Bedford, and from this time forward he had an
important share in the work of administration. He attached
himself naturally to Cardinal Beaufort, and even thus early
seems to have been striving for a general peace. But public
opinion in England was not yet ripe, and the unsuccessful con-
ference at Arras, with the consequent defection of Burgundy,
strengthened the war party. Nevertheless the cardinal's
authority remained supreme in the council, and Suffolk, as his
chief supporter, gained increasing influence. The question of
Henry VI.'s marriage brought him to the front. Humphrey
of Gloucester favoured an Armagnac alliance. Suffolk brought
about the match with Margaret of Anjou. Report already
represented Suffolk as too friendly with French leaders like
Charles of Orleans, and it was with reluctance that he undertook
the responsibility of an embassy to France. However, when he
returned to England in June 1444, after negotiating the marriage
and a two years' truce, he received a triumphant reception. He
was made a marquess, and in the autumn sent again to France
to bring Margaret home. The French contrived to find occasion
for extorting a promise to surrender all the English possessions
in Anjou and Maine, a concession that was to prove fatal to
Suffolk and his policy. Still for the time his success was com-
plete, and his position as the personal friend of the young king
and queen seemed secure. Humphrey of Gloucester died in
February 1447, within a few days of his arrest, and six weeks
later Cardinal Beaufort died also. Suffolk was left without an
obvious rival, but his difficulties were great. Rumour, though
without sufficient reason, made him responsible for Humphrey's
death, while the peace and its consequent concessions rendered
him unpopular. So also did the supersession of Richard of York
by Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in the French com-
mand. Suffolk's promotion to a dukedom in July 1448, marked
the height of his power. The difficulties of his position may have
led him to give some countenance to a treacherous attack on
Foug6res during the time of truce (March 1449). The renewal
of the war and the loss of all Normandy were its direct conse-
quences. When parliament met in November 1449, the oppo-
sition showed its strength by forcing the treasurer, Adam
Molyneux, to resign. Molyneux was murdered by the sailors
at Portsmouth on the gth of January 1450. Suffolk, realizing
that an attack on himself was inevitable, boldly challenged
his enemies in parliament, appealing to the long and honourable
record of his public services. On the 7th of February and again
on the gth of March the Commons presented articles of accusa-
tion dealing chiefly with alleged maladministration and the ill
success of the French policy; there was a charge of aiming at the
throne by the betrothal of his son to the little Margaret Beaufort,
but no suggestion of guilt concerning the death of Gloucester.
The articles were in great part baseless, if not absurd. Suffolk,
in his defence on the I3th of March, denied them as false, untrue
and too horrible to speak more of. Ultimately, as a sort of
compromise, the king sentenced him to banishment for five
years. Suffolk left England on the ist of May. He was inter-
cepted in the Channel by the ship " Nicholas of the Tower, "
and next morning was beheaded in a little boat alongside.
The " Nicholas " was a royal ship, and Suffolk's murder was
probably instigated by his political opponents.
Popular opinion at the time judged Suffolk as a traitor. This
view was accepted by Yorkist chroniclers and Tudor historians,
who had no reason to speak well of a Pole. Later legend made
him the paramour of Margaret of Anjou. Though utterly
baseless, the story gained currency in the Mirrour for Magis-
trates, and was adopted in Shakespeare's 2 Henry VI.
(act in. sc. ii.). Suffolk's best defence is contained in the touching
letter of farewell to his son, written on the eve of his departure
(Paston Letters, i. 142), atnd in his noble speeches before parlia-
ment (Rolls of Parliament, v. 176, 182). Of the former Lingard
said well that it is " difficult to believe that the writer could
have been either a false subject or a bad man. " The policy of
peace which Suffolk pursued was just and wise ; he foresaw from
the first the personal risk to which its advocacy exposed him.
This alone should acquit him of any base motive; his conduct
was " throughout open and straightforward " (Stubbs). What-
ever his defects as a statesman, he was a gallant soldier, a man of
culture and a loyal servant.
Suffolk's wife, Alice, was widow of Thomas, earl of Salisbury,
and granddaughter of Geoffrey Chaucer. By her he had an
only son John, second duke of Suffolk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Suffolk is necessarily prominent in all contem-
porary authorities. The most important are J. Stevenson's Wars of
the English in France, Thomas Beckington's Correspondence, T.
Wright's Political Poems and Songs, ii. 222-234 (for the popular
view) — these three are in the Rolls Series; and the Paston Letters.
Of French writers E. de Monstrelet and Jehan de Waurin are most
useful for his military career, T. Basin and Matthieu d'Escouchy
for his fall (all these are published by the Soci6t6 de 1'Histoire de
28
SUFFOLK
France). For modern accounts see especially W. Stubbs. Constitu-
tional History (favourable), The Political History of England (1906),
vol. iv., by C. Oman (unfavourable), and G. du Fresne de Beau-
court's Histoire de Charles VII. See also H. A. Napier •BHtstorual
Notices of Swincombe and Ewelme (1858). (<~. L. is..;
SUFFOLK, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by
Norfolk, E. by the North Sea, S. by Essex and W. by Cambridge-
shire. The area is 1488-6 sq. m. The surface b as a whole
but slightly undulating. In the extreme north-west near
Mildenhall, a small area of the Fen district is included.
This is bordered by a low range of chalk hills extending from
Haverhill northwards along the western boundary, and thence
by Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The coast-line has a
length of about 62 m., and is comparatively regular, the bays
being generally shallow and the headlands rounded and
only slightly prominent. The estuaries of the Deben, Orwell
and Stour, however, are between 10 and 12 m. in length.
The shore is generally low and marshy, with occasional clay
and sand cliffs. It includes, in the declivity on which Old
Lowestoft stands, the most easterly point of English land.
Like the Norfolk coast, this shore has suffered greatly from
incursions of the sea, the demolition of the ancient port of Dun-
wich (q.v.) forming the most noteworthy example. The prin-
cipal seaside resorts are Lowestoft, Southwold, Aldeburgh and
Felixstowe. The rivers flowing northward are the Lark, ^ in
the north-west corner, which passes in a north-westerly direction
to the Great Ouse in Norfolk; the Little Ouse or Brandon,
also a tributary of the Great Ouse, flowing by Thetford and
Brandon and forming part of the northern boundary of the
county; and the Waveney, which rises in Norfolk and forms
the northern boundary of Suffolk from Palgrave till it falls
into the mouth of the Yare at Yarmouth. The Waveney
is navigable from Bungay, and by means of Oulton Broad
also communicates with the sea at Lowestoft. The rivers
flowing in a south-easterly direction to the North Sea are the
Blyth; the Aide or Ore, which has a course for nearly
10 m. parallel to the seashore; the Deben, from Debenham,
flowing past Woodbridge, up to which it is navigable; the
Orwell or Gipping, which becomes navigable at Stowmarket,
whence it flows past Needham Market and Ipswich; and the
Stour. which forms nearly the whole southern boundary of
the county, receiving the Brett, which flows past Lavenham
and Hadleigh; it is navigable from Sudbury. At the union
of its estuary with that of the Orwell is the important port of
Harwich (in Essex). The county has no valuable minerals.
Flints are worked, as they have been from pre-historic times;
a considerable quantity of clay is raised and lime and whiting
are obtained in various districts.
Geology. — The principal geological formations are the Chalk
and the Tertiary deposits. The former occupies the surface, except
where covered by superficial drift, in the central and north-west
portions of the county, and it extends beneath the Tertiaries in the
south-east and east. In the extreme north-west round Mildenhall the
Chalk borders a tract of fen land in a range of low hills from Haverhill
by Newmarket and Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The Chalk is
quarried near Ipswich, Bury St Edmunds, Mildenhall and elsewhere;
at Brandon the chalk flints for gun-locks and building have been
exploited from early times. The Tertiary formations include
Thanet sand, seen near Sudbury; and Reading Beds and London
Clay which extend from Sudbury through Hadleigh, Ipswich, Wood-
bridge and thence beneath younger deposits to the extreme north-east
of the county. Above the Eocene formations lie the Pliocene
" Crags," which in the north overlap the Eocene boundary on to the
chalk. The oldest of the crag deposits is the Coralline Crag, pale
sandy and marly beds with many fossils; this is best exposed west
and north of Aldeburgh and about Sudbourne and Orford. Resting
upon the Coralline beds, or upon other formations in their absence,
is the Red Crag, a familiar feature above the London Clay in the
cliffs at Felixstowe and Baudsey, where many fossils used to be
found ; inland it appears at Bentley, Stutton and Chillesford, where
the " Scrobicularia Clay " and Chillesford beds of Prestwich appear
above it. The last-named beds probably correspond with the Norwich
Crag, the name given to the upper, paler portion of the Red Crag,
together with certain higher beds in the north part of east Suffolk.
The Norwich Crag is visible at Dunwich, Bavent, Easton and Wang-
ford. In the north the Cromer Forest beds, gravels with fresh-water
fossils and mammalian remains, may be seen on the coast at Gorton
and Pakefield. Between the top of the London Clay and the base of
the Crags is the " Suffolk Bone Bed " with abundant mammalian
bones and phosphatic nodules. Glacial gravel, sand and chalky
boulder clay are scattered over much of the county, generally forming
stiffer soils in the west and lighter sandy soils in the east. Pebble
gravels occur at Westleton and Halesworth, and later gravels, with
palaeolithic implements, at Hoxne; while old river-gravels of still
later date border the present river valleys. The chalk and gault
have been penetrated by a boring at Stutton, revealing a hard
palaeozoic slaty rock at the depth of about loco ft.
Agriculture. — Suffolk is one of the most fertile counties in England.
In the i8th century it was famed for its dairy products. The
high prices of grain during the wars of the French Revolution led
to the extensive breaking up of its pastures, and it is now one of
the principal grain-growing counties in England. There is con-
siderable variety of soils, and consequently in modes of farming
in different parts of the county. Along the sea-coast a sandy loam
or thin sandy soil prevails, covered in some places with the heath
on which large quantities of sheep are fed, interspersed with tracts,
more or less marshy, on which cattle are grazed. The best land adjoins
the rivers, and consists of a rich sandy loam, with patches of lighter
and easier soil. In the south-west and the centre is much finer
grain-land having mostly a clay subsoil, but not so tenacious as the
clay in Essex. In climate Suffolk is one of the driest of the English
counties; thus, the mean annual rainfall at Bury St Edmunds is
rather less than 24 in. Towards the north-west the soil is generally
poor, consisting partly of sand on chalk, and partly of peat and open
heath. Some four-fifths of the total area of the county is under
cultivation. Barley, oats and wheat are the most important of
the grain crops. The breed of horses known as Suffolk punches
is one of the most valued for agricultural purposes in England.
The breed of cattle native to the county is a polled variety, on the
improvement of which great pains have been bestowed. The old
Suffolk cows, famous for their great milking qualities, were of various
colours, yellow predominating. The improved are all red. Much
milk is sent to London, Yarmouth, &c. Many cattle, mostly imported
from Ireland, are grazed in the winter. The sheep are nearly all
of the blackfaced improved Suffolk breed, a cross between the old
Norfolk horned sheep and Southdowns. The breed of pigs most
common is small and black.
Manufactures and Trade. — The county is essentially agricultural,
and the most important manufactures relate to this branch of
industry. They include that of agricultural implements, especially
at Ipswich, Bury St Edmunds and Stowmarket, and that of artificial
manures at Ipswich and Stowmarket, for which coprolites are dug.
Malting is extensively carried on throughout the county. There
are chemical and gun-cotton manufactories at Stowmarket _ and
gun flints are still made at Brandon. At other towns small miscel-
laneous manufactures are carried on, including silk, cotton, linen,
woollen, and horsehair and coco-nut matting. The principal ports
are Lowestoft, Southwold, Aldeburgh, Woodbridge and Ipswich.
Lowestoft is the chief fishing town. Herrings and mackerel are
the fish most abundant on the coasts.
Communications. — The main line of the Great Eastern railway,
entering the county from the south, serves Ipswich and Stowmarket,
continuing north into Norfolk. The east Suffolk branch from Ipswich
serves Woodbridge, Saxmundham. Halesworth, and Beccles, with
branches to Felixstowe, to Framlingham, to Aldeburgh, and to
Lowestoft; while the Southwold Light railway connects with that
town from Halesworth. The other principal branches are those from
Stowmarket to Bury St Edmunds and westward into Cambridge-
shire, from Essex into Norfolk by Long Melford, Bury St Edmunds
and Thetford, and from Long Melford to Haverhill, which is the
northern terminus of the Colne Valley railway.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is
952,710 ac:es, with a population in 1891 of 371,235 and in 1901 of
384,293. Suffolk comprises 21 hundreds, and for administrative
purposes is divided into the counties of East Suffolk (557,854 acres)
and West Suffolk (390,914 acres). The following are municipal
boroughs and urban districts.
(1) EAST SUFFOLK. Municipal boroughs — Aldeburgh (pop. 2405),
Beccles (6898), Eye (2004), Ipswich, a county borough and the
county town (66,630), Lowestoft (29,850), Southwold (2800).
Urban districts — Bungay (3314), Felixstowe and Walton (5815),
Halesworth (2246), Leiston-cum-Sizewell (3259), Oulton Broad
(4044), Saxmundham (1452), Stowmarket (4162), Woodbridge (4640).
(2) WEST SUFFOLK. Municipal boroughs — Bury St Edmunds
(16,255), Sudbury (7109). Urban distncts — Glemsford (t.975),
Hadleigh (3245), Haverhill (4862), Newmarket (10,688), which is
mainly in the ancient county of Cambridge.
Small market and other towns are numerous, such are
Brandon, Clare, Debenham, Framlingham, Lavenham, Mildenhall,
Needham Market and Orford. For parliamentary purposes the
county constitutes five divisions, each returning one member, viz.
north or Lowestoft division, north-east or Eye, north-west or Stow-
market, south or Sudbury, and south-east or Woodbridge. Bury
St Edmunds returns one member and Ipswich two; part of the
borough of Great Yarmouth falls within the county. There is
one court of quarter sessions for the two administrative counties,
which is usually held at Ipswich for east Suffolk, and then by
SUFFRAGAN
29
adjournment at Bury St Edmunds for west Suffolk. East Suffolk
is divided into 1 1 and west Suffolk into 8 petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Bury St Edmunds, Ipswich, Sudbury, Eye,
Lowestoft and Southwold have separate commissions of the peace,
and the three first-named have also separate courts of quarter
sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 519. The ancient
county contains 465 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or
in part; it is situated partly in the diocese of Ely and partly in that
of Norwich.
History. — The county of Suffolk (Sudfole, Suthfolc) was formed
from the south part of the kingdom of East Anglia which
had been settled by the Angles in the latter half of the sth
century. The most important Anglo-Saxon settlements appear
to have been made at Sudbury and Ipswich. Before the end
of the Norman dynasty strongholds had arisen at Eye, Clare,
Walton and Framlingham. Probably the establishment of
Suffolk as a separate shire was scarcely completed before the
Conquest, and although it was reckoned as distinct from Nor-
folk in the Domesday Survey of 1086, the fiscal administration
of Norfolk and Suffolk remained under one sheriff until 1575.
The boundary of the county has undergone very little change,
though its area has been considerably affected by coast
erosion. Parts of Gorleston and Thetford, which formerly
belonged to the ancient county of Suffolk, are now within the
administrative county of Norfolk, and other slight alterations
of the administrative boundary have been made. Under the
Local Government Act of 1888 Suffolk was divided into the
two administrative counties of east and west Suffolk.
At first the whole shire lay within the diocese of Dunwich
which was founded c. 631. In 673 a new bishopric was estab-
lished at Elmham to comprise the whole of Norfolk which had
formerly been included in the see of Dunwich. The latter came
to an end with the incursion of the Danes, and on the revival
of Christianity in this district Suffolk was included in the diocese
of Elmham, subsequently removed from South Elmham to
Thetford and thence to Norwich. In 1835-1836 the archdeaconry
of Sudbury was transferred by the ecclesiastical commissioners
to the diocese of Ely. This archdeaconry had been separated
from the original archdeaconry of Suffolk in 1127. In 1256 the
latter included thirteen deaneries which have since been sub-
divided, so that at present it contains eighteen deaneries; Sud-
bury archdeaconry which comprised eight deaneries in 1256
now includes eleven. There were also three districts under
peculiar jurisdiction of Canterbury and one under that of
Rochester.
The shire-court was held at Ipswich. In 1831 the whole
county contained twenty-one hundreds and three municipal
boroughs. Most of these hundreds were identical with those
of the Domesday Survey, but in 1086 Babergh was rated as
two hundreds, Cosford, Ipswich and Parham as half hundreds
and Samford as a hundred and a half. Hoxne hundred was
formerly known as Bishop's hundred and the vtlls which were
included later in Thredling hundred were within Claydon
hundred in 1086. Two large ecclesiastical liberties extended
over more than half of the county; that of St Edmund included
the hundreds of Risbridge, Thedwastry, Thingoe, Cosford,
Lackford and Blackbourn in which the king's writ did not run,
and St Aethelreda of Ely claimed a similar privilege in the
hundreds of Carleford, Colneis, Plumesgate, Loes, Wilford and
Thredling. Among others who had large lands in the county
with co-extensive jurisdiction were the lords of the honor of
Clare, earls of Gloucester and Hereford and the lords of the
honor of Eye, held successively by the Bigods, the Uffords and
the De la Poles, earls of Suffolk. The Wingfields, Bacons and
Herveys have been closely connected with the county.
Suffolk suffered severely from Danish incursions, and after
the Treaty of Wedmore became a part of the Danelagh. In 1173
the earl of Leicester landed at Walton with an army of Flemings
and was joined by Hugh Bigod against Henry II. In 1317 and
the succeeding years a great part of the county was in arms for
Thomas of Lancaster. Queen Isabella and Mortimer having
landed at Walton found all the district in their favour. In
1330 the county was raised to suppress the supporters of the
earl of Kent; and again in 1381 there was a serious rising of the
peasantry chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bury St Edmunds.
Although the county was for the most part Yorkist it took little
part in the Wars of the Roses. In 1525 the artisans of the
south strongly resisted Henry VIII.'s forced loan. It was from
Suffolk that Mary drew the army which supported her claim to
the throne. In the Civil Wars the county was for the most
part parliamentarian, and joined the Association of the Eastern
Counties for defence against the Papists.
The county was constantly represented in parliament by two
knights from 1290, until the Reform Bill of 1832 gave four
members to Suffolk, at the same time disfranchising the boroughs
of Dunwich, Orford and Aldeburgh. Suffolk was early among
the most populous of English counties, doubtless owing to its
proximity to the continent. Fishing fleets have left its ports
to bring back cod and ling from Iceland and herring and mackerel
from the North Sea. From the i4th to the I7th century it
was among the chief manufacturing counties of England owing
to its cloth-weaving industry, which was at the height of its
prosperity during the isth century. In the I7th and i8th
centuries its agricultural resources were utilized to provide
the rapidly-growing metropolis with food- In the following
century various textile industries, such as the manufacture of
sail-cloth, cocoa-nut fibre, horse-hair and clothing were estab-
lished; silk-weavers migrated to Suffolk from Spitalfields, and
early in the ipth century an important china factory flourished
at Lowestoft.
Antiquities. — Of monastic remains the most important are those
of the great Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds, noticed under
that town; the college of Clare, originally a cell to the abbey
of Bee in Normandy and afterwards to St Peter's Westminster,
converted into a college of secular canons in the reign of Henry VI.,
still retaining much of its ancient architecture, and now used as a
boarding-school; the Decorated gateway of the Augustinian priory
of Butley ; and the remains of the Grey Friars monastery at Dunwich.
A peculiarity of the church architecture is the use of flint for purposes
of ornamentation, often of a very elaborate kind, especially on the
porches and parapets of the towers. Another characteristic is the
round towers, which are confined to East Anglia, but are considerably
more numerous in Norfolk than in Suffolk, the principal being those
of Little Saxham and Herringfleet, both good examples of Norman.
It is questionable whether there are any remains of pre-Norman
architecture in the county. The Decorated is well represented, but
by far the greater proportion of the churches are Perpendicular,
fine examples of which are so numerous that it is hard to select ex-
amples. But the church of Blythburgh in the east and the exquisite
ornate building at Lavenham in the west may be noted as typical,
while the church of Long Melford, another fine example, should be
mentioned on account of its remarkable lady chapel. Special
features are the open roofs and woodwork (as at St Mary's, Bury
St Edmunds, Earl Stonham and Stonham Aspall, Ufford and
Blythburgh), and the fine fonts.
The remains of old castles are comparatively unimportant, the
principal being the entrenchments and part of the walls of Bungay,
the ancient stronghold of the Bigods; the picturesque ruins of
Mettingham, built by John de Norwich in the reign of Edward III.;
Wingfield, surrounded by a deep moat, with the turret walls and the
drawbridge still existing; the splendid ruin of Framlingham, with
high and massive walls, originally founded in the 6th century, but
restored in the I2th; the outlines of the extensive fortress of Clare
Castle, anciently the baronial residence of the earls of Clare; and
the fine Norman keep of Orford Castle, on an eminence overlooking
the sea. Among the many fine residences within the county there
are several interesting examples of domestic architecture of the
reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. Hengrave Hall (c. 1530),
4 m. north-west from Bury St Edmunds, is a noteworthy example
— an exceedingly picturesque building of brick and stone, enclosing
a court-yard. Another is Helmingham Hall, a Tudor mansion of
brick, surrounded by a moat crossed by a drawbridge. West
Stow Manor is also Tudor; its gatehouse is fine, but the mansion
has been adapted into a farmhouse.
See A. Suckling, The History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846-
1848); William White, History, gazetteer and directory of Suffolk
(1855); John Kirby, The Suffolk Traveller (1735); A. Page, Supple-
ment to the Suffolk Traveller (1843) ; Victoria County History; Suffolk.
SUFFRAGAN (Med. Lat. su/raganeus su/ragator, one who
assists, from sufragari, to vote in favour of, to support)
in the Christian Church, (i) a diocesan bishop in his relation
to the metropolitan; (2) an assistant bishop. (See the article
BISHOP.)
SUFFRAGE— SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ
SUFFRAGE (Lat. su/ragium), the right or the exercise of the
right of voting in political affairs; in a more general sense, an
expression of opinion, assent or approval; in ecclesiastical use,
the short intercessory prayers in litanies spoken or sung by the
people as distinguished from those of the priest or minister.
(See REPRESENTATION; VOTE AND VOTING, and REGISTRATION:
and, for the Women's Suffrage Movement, WOMEN: § Political
Rights.) The etymology of the Latin word su/ragium has been
much discussed. It is usually referred to sub- and the root of
frangere, to break, and its original meaning must thus have been
a piece of broken tile or a potsherd on which the names or
initials of the candidates were inscribed and used as a voting
tablet or labella. There is, however, no direct evidence that
this was ever the practice in the case of voting upon legislation
in the assembly (see W. Corssen, Ueber Aussprache, &c., der
Lateinischen Sprache, i. 397, and Mommsen, Romische Geschichte,
ili. 412 n. i.).
SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ, PIERRE ANDRfi DE (1720-1788),
French admiral, was the third son of the marquis de Saint
Tropez, head of a family of nobles of Provence which claimed to
have emigrated from Lucca in the I4th century. He was born
in the Chateau de Saint Canat in the present department of Aix
on the 1 7th of July 1729. The French navy and the Order of
Malta offered the usual careers for the younger sons of noble
families of the south of France who did not elect to go into the
Church. The connexion between the Order and the old French
royal navy was close. Pierre Andr6 de Suffren was destined by
his parents to belong to both. He entered the close and aristo-
cratic corps of French naval officers as a " garde de la marine " —
cadet or midshipman, in October 1743, in the " Solide, " one
of the line of battleships which took part in the confused engage-
ment off Toulon in 1744. He was then in the " Pauline " in
the squadron of M. Macnfimara on a cruise in the West Indies.
In 1746 he went through the due D'Anville's disastrous expedi-
tion to retake Cape Breton, which was ruined by shipwreck and
plague. Next year (1747) he was taken prisoner by Hawke
in the action with the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay.
His biographer Cunat assures us that he found British arro-
gance offensive. When peace was made in 1 748 he went to
Malta to perform the cruises with the galleys of the Order
technically called " caravans," a reminiscence of the days when
the knights protected the pilgrims going from Saint John d'Acre
to Jerusalem. In Suffren's time this service rarely went beyond
a peaceful tour among the Greek islands. During the Seven
Years' War he had the unwonted good fortune to be present
as lieutenant in the " Orphee " in the action with Admiral Byng
(q.v.), which, if not properly speaking a victory, was at least not
a defeat for the French, and was followed by the surrender of
the English garrison of Minorca. But in 1757 he was again
taken prisoner, when his ship the " Ocean " was captured by
Boscawen off Lagos. On the return of peace in 1 763 he intended
again to do the service in the caravans which was required to
qualify him to hold the high and lucrative posts of the Order.
He was, however, named to the command of the " Cameleon, "
a zebec — a vessel of mixed square and lateen rig peculiar to the
Mediterranean — in which he cruised against the pirates of the
Barbary coast. Between 1767 and 1771 he performed his
caravans, and was promoted from knight to commander of the
Order. From that time till the beginning of the War of American
Independence he commanded vessels in the squadron of evolution
which the French government had established for the purpose
of giving practice to its officers. His nerve and skill in handling
his ship were highly commended by his chiefs. In 1778 and 1779
he formed part of the squadron of D'Estaing (q.v.) throughout
its operations on the coast of North America and in the West
Indies. He led the line in the action with Admiral John Byron
off Grenada, and his ship, the " Fantasque " (64), lost 62 men.
His letters to his admiral show that he strongly disapproved of
D'Estaing's half-hearted methods. In 1780 he was captain cf
the " Zele " (74), in the combined French and Spanish fleets
which captured a great English convoy in the Atlantic. His
candour towards his chief had done him no harm in the
opinion of D'Estaing. It is said to have been largely by the
advice of this admiral that Suffren was chosen to command a
squadron of five ships of the line sent out to help the Dutch
who had joined France and Spain to defend the Cape against
an expected English attack, and then to go on to the East
Indies. He sailed from Brest on the 22nd of March on the
cruise which has given him a unique place among French
admirals, and puts him in the front rank of sea commanders.
He was by nature even more vehement than able. The dis-
asters which had befallen the navy of his country during the
last two wars, and which, as he knew, were due to bad adminis-
tration and timid leadership, had filled him with a burning
desire to retrieve its honour. He was by experience as well as
by temperament impatient with the formal manoeuvring of
his colleagues, which aimed at preserving their own ships rather
than at taking the English, and though he did not dream of
restoring the French power in India, he did hope to gain some
such success as would enable his country to make an honourable
peace. On the i6th of April 1781 he found the English expedi-
tion on its way to the Cape under the command of Commodore,
commonly called Governor, George Johnstone (1730-1787), at
anchor in Porto Praya, Cape de Verd Islands. Remembering
how little respect Boscawen had shown for the neutrality of
Portugal at Lagos, he attacked at once. Though he was in-
differently supported, he inflicted as much injury as he suffered,
and proved to the English that in him they had to deal with
an admiral of quite a different type from the Frenchmen
they had been accustomed to as yet. He pushed on to the
Cape, which he saved from capture by Johnstone, and then
made his way to the Isle de France (Mauritius), then held by the
French. M. D'Orves, his superior officer, died as the united
squadrons, now eleven sail of the line, were on their way to the
Bay of Bengal. The campaign, which Suffren now conducted
against the English admiral Sir Edward Hughes (i72O?-i794),
is famous for the number and severity of the encounters between
them. Four actions took place in 1782: on the I7th of February
1782, south of Madras; on the I2th of April near Trincomalee; on
the 6th of July off Cuddalore, after which Suffren seized upon
the anchorage of Trincomalee compelling the small British
garrison to surrender; and again near that port on the 3rd of
September. No ship was lost by Sir Edward Hughes in any of
these actions, but none were taken by him. Suffren attacked
with unprecedented vigour on every occasion, and if he had not
been ill-supported by some of his captains he would undoubtedly
have gained a distinct victory; as it was, he maintained his
squadron without the help of a port to refit, and provided him-
self with an anchorage at Trincomalee. His activity encouraged
Hyder Ali, who was then at war with the Company. He refused
to return to the islands for the purpose of escorting the troops
coming out under command of Bussy, maintaining that his
proper purpose was to cripple the squadron of Sir Edward Hughes.
During the north-east monsoon he would not go to the islands
but refitted in the Malay ports in Sumatra, and returned with the
south-west monsoon in 1783. Hyder Ali was dead, but Tippoo
Sultan, his son, was still at war with the Company. Bussy
arrived and landed. The operations on shore were slackly con-
ducted by him, and Suffren was much hampered, but when he
fought his last battle against Hughes (April 20, 1783), with
fourteen ships to eighteen he forced the English admiral to retire
to Madras, leaving the army then besieging Cuddalore in a very
dangerous position. The arrival of the news that peace had been
made in Europe put a stop to hostilities, and Suffren returned
to France. While refitting at the Cape on his way home, several
of the vessels also returning put in, and the captains waited on
him. Suffren said in one of his letters that their praise gave
him more pleasure than any other compliment paid him. In
France he was received with enthusiasm, and an additional
office of vice-admiral of France was created for him. He had
been promoted bailli in the Order of Malta during his absence.
His death occurred very suddenly on the 8th of December 1788,
when he was about to take command of a fleet collected in Brest.
The official version of the cause of death was apoplexy, and as
SUFIISM
he was a very corpulent man it appeared plausible. But many
years afterwards his body servant told M. Jal, the historio-
grapher of the French navy, that he had been killed in a duel
by the prince de Mirepoix. The cause of the encounter, accord-
ing to the servant, was that Suffren had refused in very strong
language to use his influence to secure the restoration to the
navy of two of the prince's relations who had been dismissed for
misconduct.
Suffren was crippled to a large extent by the want of loyal
and capable co-operation on the part of his captains, and the
vehemence of his own temperament sometimes led him to
disregard prudence, yet he had an indefatigable energy, a wealth
of resource, and a thorough understanding of the fact — so
habitually disregarded by French naval officers — that success
at sea is won by defeating an enemy and not by merely out-
manoeuvring him; and this made him a most formidable enemy.
The portraits of Suffren usually reproduced are worthless, but
there is a good engraving by Mme de Cernel after an original
by Gerard.
The standard authority for the life of Suffren is the Histoire
du Bailli de Suffren by Ch. Cunat (1852). The Journal de Bord du
Bailli de Suffren dans I'lnde, edited by M. Mores, was published in
1888. There is an appreciative study in Captain Mahan's Sea
Power in History. (D. H.)
SUFllSM (tafawwuf), a term used by Moslems to denote
any variety of mysticism, is formed from the Arabic word Sufi,
which was applied, in the and century of Islam, to men or women
who adopted an ascetic or quietistic way of life. There can be
no doubt that $ufi is derived from $ uf (wool) in reference to the
woollen garments often, though not invariably, worn by such
persons: the phrase labisa's-$uf (" he clad himself in wool ")
is commonly used in this sense, and the Persian word pashmina-
push, which means literally " clothed in a woollen garment, "
is synonymous with $ufi. Other etymologies, such as Safa
(purity) — a derivation widely accepted in the East — and ao$6s,
are open to objection on linguistic grounds.
In order to trace the origin and history of mysticism in Islam
we must go back to Mahomet. On one side of his nature the
Prophet was an ascetic and in some degree a mystic. Not-
withstanding his condemnation of Christian monkery (rah-
baniya), i.e. of celibacy and the solitary life, the example of the
Hanlfs, with some of whom he was acquainted, and the Christian
hermits made a deep impression on his mind and led him to
preach the efficacy of ascetic exercises, such as prayer, vigils
and fasting. Again, while Allah is described in the Koran as
the One God working his arbitrary will in unapproachable
supremacy, other passages lay stress on his all-pervading pres-
ence and intimate relation to his creatures, e.g. " Wherever ye
turn, there is the face of Allah " (ii. 109), " We (God) are nearer
to him (Man) than his neck-vein " (1. 15). The germs of mys-
ticism latent in Islam from the first were rapidly developed by
the political, social and intellectual conditions which prevailed
in the two centuries following the Prophet's death. Devastat-
ing civil wars, a ruthless military despotism caring only for
the things of this world, Messianic hopes and presages, the luxury
of the upper classes, the hard mechanical piety of the orthodox
creed, the spread of rationalism and freethought, all this induced
a revolt towards asceticism, quietism, spiritual feeling and
emotional faith. Thousands, wearied and disgusted with worldly
vanities, devoted themselves to God. The terrors of hell,
so vividly depicted in the Koran, awakened in them an intense
consciousness of sin, which drove them to seek salvation in
ascetic practices. Suflism was originally a practical religion,
not a speculative system; it arose, as Junayd of Bagdad says,
" from hunger and taking leave of the world and breaking
familiar ties and renouncing what men deem good, not from
disputation. " The early Sufis were closely attached to the
Mahommedan church. It is said that Abu Hashim of Kufa
(d. before A.D. 800) founded a monastery for Sufis at Ramleh
in Palestine, but such fraternities seem to have been exceptional.
Many ascetics of this period used to wander from place to place,
either alone or in small parties, sometimes living by alms and
sometimes by their own labour. They took up and emphasized
certain Koranic terms. Thus dhikr (praise of God) consisting
of recitation of the Koran, repetition of the Divine names,
&c., was. regarded as superior to the five canonical prayers
incumbent on every Moslem, and taivakkul (trust in God) was
defined as renunciation of all personal initiative and volition,
leaving one's self entirely in God's hands, so that some fanatics
deemed it a breach of " trust " to seek any means of livelihood,
engage in trade, or even take medicine. Quietism soon passed
into mysticism. The attainment of salvation ceased to be the
first object, and every aspiration was centred in the inward life
of dying to self and living in God. " O God ! " said Ibrahim ibn
Adham, " Thou knowest that the eight Paradises are little
beside the honour which Thou hast done unto me, and beside
Thy love, and Thy giving me intimacy with the praise of Thy
name, and beside the peace of mind which Thou hast given me
when I meditate on Thy majesty." Towards the end of the
2nd century we find the doctrine of mystical love set forth in the
sayings of a female ascetic, Rabi'a.of Basra, the first of a long
line of saintly women who have played an important r61e in
the history of Suflism. Henceforward the use of symbolical
expressions, borrowed from the vocabulary of love and wine,
becomes increasingly frequent as a means of indicating holy
mysteries which must not be divulged. This was not an unneces-
sary precaution, for in the course of the 3rd century, Suflism
assumed a new character. Side by side with the quietistic and
devotional mysticism of the early period there now sprang up
a speculative and pantheistic movement which was essentially
anti-Islamic and rapidly came into conflict with the orthodox
ulema. It is significant that the oldest representative of this
tendency — Ma'ruf of Bagdad — was the son of Christian parents
and a Persian by race. He defined Suflism as a theosophy;
his aim was " to apprehend the Divine realities." A little later
Abu Sulaiman al-Daranl in Syria and Dhu'1-Nun in Egypt
developed the doctrine of gnosis (ma'rifat) through illumination
and ecstasy. The step to pantheism was first decisively taken
by the great Persian Sufi, Abu Yazld (Bayezld) of Bistam (d.
A.D. 874), who introduced the doctrine of annihilation (/and),
i.e. the passing away of individual consciousness in the will of
God.
It is, no doubt, conceivable that the evolution of Suflism
up to this point might not have been very different even although
it had remained wholly unaffected by influences outside of
Islam. But, as a matter of fact, such influences made them-
selves powerfully felt. Of these, Christianity, Buddhism and
Neoplatonism are the chief. Christian influence had its source,
not in the Church, but in the hermits and unorthodox sects,
especially perhaps in the Syrian Euchites, who magnified the
duty of constant prayer, abandoned their all and wandered as
poor brethren. Suflism owed much to the ideal of unworldliness
which they presented. Conversations between Moslem devotees
and Christian ascetics are often related in the ancient Sufi
biographies, and many Biblical texts appear in the form of
sayings attributed to eminent Sufis of early times, while sayings
ascribed to Jesus as well as Christian and Jewish legends
occur in abundance. More than one §ufl doctrine — that of
tawakkul may be mentioned in particular — show traces of Chris-
tian teaching. The monastic strain which insinuated itself
into Suflism in spite of Mahomet's prohibition was derived,
partially at any rate, from Christianity. Here, however,
Buddhistic influence may also have been at work. Buddhism
flourished in Balkh, Transoxiana and Turkestan before the
Mahommedan conquest, and in later times Buddhist monks
carried their religious practices and philosophy among the
Moslems who had settled in these countries. It looks as though
the legend of Ibrahim ibn Adham, a prince of Balkh who one
day suddenly cast off his royal, robes and became a wandering
§ufi, were based on the story of Buddha. The use of rosaries,
the doctrine of fana, which is probably a form of Nirvana, and
the system of " stations" (maqamaf) on the road thereto, would
seem to be Buddhistic in their origin. The third great foreign
influence on Suflism is the Neoplatonic philosophy. Between
A.D. 800 and 860 the tide of Greek learning, then at its height,
SUGAR
streamed into Islam from the Christian monasteries of Syria,
from the Persian Academy of JundeshapOr in Khuzistan,
and from the S, abians of Harran in Mesopotamia. The so-called
" Theology of Aristotle," which was translated into Arabic about
A. D. 840, is full of Neoplatonic theories, and the mystical writings
of the pseudo-Dionysius were widely known throughout western
Asia. It is not mere coincidence that the doctrine of Gnosis
was first worked out in detail by the Egyptian S. ufl, Dhu '1-NOn
(d. A.D. 859), who is described as an alchemist and theurgist.
§uflism on its theosophical side was largely a product of Alex-
andrian speculation.
By the end of the 3rd century the main lines of the Sufi
mysticism were already fixed. It was now fast becoming an
organized system, a school for saints, with rules of discipline and
devotion which the novice was bound to learn from his spiritual
director, to whose guidance he submitted himself absolutely.
These directors regarded themselves as being in the most intimate
communion with God, who bestowed on them miraculous gifts
(karamat). At their head stood a mysterious personage called
the Qutb (Axis) : on the hierarchy of saints over which he pre-
sided the whole order of the universe was believed to depend.
During the next two hundred years (A.D. 900-1100), various
manuals of theory and practice were compiled: the Kitab
al Luma" by Abu Nasr al-Sarraj, the Qut al-Qulub by Abu Talib
al-Makkl, the Risala of Qushairl, the Persian Kashf al-Mahjub
by 'Ali ibn 'Uthman al-Hujwirl, and the famous Ihya by Ghazall.
Inasmuch as all these works are founded on the same materials,
viz., the Koran, the Traditions of the Prophet and the sayings
of well-known Sufi teachers, they necessarily have much in
common, although the subject is treated by each writer from his
own standpoint. They all expatiate on the discipline of the soul
and describe the process of purgation which it must undergo
before entering on the contemplative life. The traveller
journeying towards God passes through a series of ascending
" stations " (maqdmat) : in the oldest extant treatise these are
(i) repentance, (2) abstinence, (3) renunciation, (4) poverty,
(5) patience, (6) trust in God, (7) acquiescence in the will of
God. After the " stations " conies a parallel scale of " states "
of spiritual feeling (ahwdl), such as fear, hope, love, &c., leading
up to contemplation (mushdhadat) and intuition (yaqln). It
only remained to provide Sufiism with a metaphysical basis,
and to reconcile it with orthodox Islam. The double task was
finally accomplished by Ghazall (q.v.). He made Islamic
theology mystical, and since his time the revelation (kashf)
of the mystic has taken its place beside tradition (naql) and
reason ('aql) as a source and fundamental principle of the faith.
Protests have been and are still raised by theologians, but Moslem
sentiment will usually tolerate whatever is written in sufficiently
abstruse philosophical language or spoken in manifest ecstasy.
The Sufis do not form a sect with definite dogmas. Like the
monastic orders of Christendom, they comprise many shades of
opinion, many schools of thought, many divergent tendencies — from
asceticism and quietism to the wildest extravagances of pantheism.
European students of Sufiism are apt to identify it with the panthe-
istic type which prevails in Persia. This, although more interesting
and attractive than any other, throws the transcendental and vision-
ary aspects of Sufiism into undue relief. Nevertheless some account
must be given here of the Persian theosophy which has fascinated
the noblest minds of that subtle race and has inspired the most
beautiful religious poetry in the world. Some of its characteristic
features occur in the sayings attributed to Bayezid (d. A.D. 874),
whom Buddhistic ideas unquestionably influenced. He said, for
example, " I am the winedrinker and the wine and the cup-bearer,"
and again, " I went from God to God, until they cried from me in
me, ' O Thou I.' " The peculiar imagery which distinguishes the
poetry of the Persian Sufis was more fully developed by a native
of Khorasan, Abu Sa'Id ibn Abi'l-Khair (d. A.D. 1049) in his mystical
quatrains which express the relation between God and the soul
by glowing and fantastic allegories of earthly love, beauty and
intoxication. Henceforward, the great poets of Persia, with few
exceptions, adopt this symbolic language either seriously or as a
convenient mask. The majority are §ufis by profession or conviction.
" The real basis of their poetry," says A. von Kremer, " is a loftily
inculcated ethical system, which recognizes in purity of heart,
charity, self-renunciation and bridling of the passions the neces-
sary conditions of eternal happiness. Attached to this we find a
pantheistic theory of the emanation of all things from God and their
ultimate reunion with him. Although on the surface Islam is not
directly assailed, it sustains many indirect attacks, and frequently
the thought flashes out, that all religions and revelations are only
the rays of a single eternal sun; that all prophets have only delivered
and proclaimed in different tongues the same principles of eternal
goodness and eternal truth which flow from the divine soul of the
world." The whole doctrine of Persian Sufiism is expounded
in the celebrated Mathnawi of Jalaluddin Rumi (q.v.), but in such
a discursive and unscientific manner that its leading principles are
not easily grasped. They may be stated briefly as follows : —
God is the sole reality (al-Haqq) and is above all names and
definitions. He is not only absolute Being, but also absolute Good,
and therefore absolute Beauty. It is the nature of beauty to desire
manifestation ; the phenomenal universe is the result of this desire,
according to the famous Tradition in which God says, " I was a
hidden treasure, and I desired to be known, so I created the creatures
in order that I might be known." Hence the Sufis, influenced by
Neoplatonic theories of emanation, postulate a number of inter-
mediate worlds or descending planes of existence, from the primal
Intelligence and the primal Soul, through which " the Truth "
(al-Haqq) diffuses itself. As things can be known only through
their opposites, Being can only be known through Not-being,
wherein as in a mirror Being is reflected; and this reflection is
the phenomenal universe, which accordingly has no more reality
than a shadow cast by the sun. Its central point is Man,
the microcosm, who reflects in himself all the Divine attributes.
Blackened on one side with the darkness of Not-being, he
bears within him a spark of pure Being. The human soul
belongs to the spiritual world and is ever seeking to be
re-united to its source. Such union is hindered by the bodily
senses, but though not permanently attainable until death, it can
be enjoyed at times in the state called ecstasy (hal), when the veil of
sensual perception is rent asunder and the soul is merged in God.
This cannot be achieved without destroying the illusion of self, and
self-annihilation is wrought by means of that divine love, to which
human love is merely a stepping-stone. The true lover feels himself
one with God, the only real being and agent in the universe; he is
above all law, since whatever he does proceeds directly from God,
just as a flute produces harmonies or discords at the will of the
musician; he is indifferent to outward forms and rites, preferring
a sincere idolaterto an orthodox hypocrite and deeming the ways to
God as many in number as the souls of men. Such in outline is
the Sufi theosophy as it appears in Persian and Turkish poetry. Its
perilous consequences are plain. It tends to abolish the distinction
between good and evil — the latter is nothing but an aspect
of Not-being and has no real existence — and it leads to the deifica-
tion of the hierophant who can say, like Husain b. Mansur al-Hallaj,
"I am the Truth." $ufi fraternities, living in a convent under the
direction of a sheikh, became widely spread before A.D. 1 100 and gave
rise to Dervish orders, most of which indulge in the practice of
exciting ecstasy by music, dancing, drugs and various kinds of
hypnotic suggestion (see DERVISH).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Tholuck, Sufismus sive theosophia Persarum pan-
theistica (Berlin, 1821); Bluthensammlung aus der morgenlandischen
Mystik (Berlin, 1825) ; E. H. Palmer, Oriental Mysticism (Cambridge,
1867); Von Kremer, Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams
(Leipzig, 1 868) ; Goldziher, ' ' Materialien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Sufismus " in W.Z.K.M. xiii. 35 sqq. " Die Heiligenverehrung im
Islam " in Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 277 sqq. (Halle, 1890),
" The Influence of Buddhism on Islam "in/..R..<4.S. (1904), 125 sqq.;
and Vorlesungen iiber den Islam, 139 sqq. (Heidelberg, 1910);
E. H. Whinfield, the Gulshun-i-Raz of Mahmud Shabistari,
edited with translation and notes (London, 1880), and Abridged
translation of the Masnavi (London, 1898); E. G. Browne, A
Year amongst the Persians (London, 1893); Merx, Ideen und Grund-
linien einer allgemeinen Geschichte der Mystik (Heidelberg,
1893); H. Eth6, " Die mystische und didaktische Poesie " in Geiger
and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii. 271 sqq. (Strass-
burg, 1896—1904); Gibb, History of Ottoman Poetry, especially i.
33 sqq. (London, 1900-1907) ; D. B. Macdonald, " Emotional religion
in Islam," in J.R.A.S. (1901-1902) ; Development of Muslim theology
(New York, 1903) and The religious attitude and life in Islam (Chicago,
1009); R. A. Nicholson, Selected poems from the Divani Shamsi
Tabriz (Cambridge, 1898). " Enquiry concerning the origin and
development of Sufiism " in J.R.A.S. (1906), 303 sqq., and Transla-
tion of the Kashf al-Mahjub (London, 1910) ; Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal,
The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (London, 1908). (R.A.N.)
SUGAR, in chemistry, the generic name for a certain series
of carbohydrates, i.e. substances of the general formula Cn(H2O)m.
Formerly the name was given to compounds having a sweet
taste, e.g. sugar of lead, but it is now restricted to certain oxy-
aldehydes and oxy-ketones, which occur in the vegetable and
animal kingdoms either free or in combination as glucosides
(q.v.) and to artificial preparations of similar chemical structure.
Cane sugar has been known for many centuries; milk sugar was
obtained by Fabrizio Bartoletti in 1615; and in the middle of
the 1 8th century Marggraf found that the sugars yielded by the
SUGAR
33
beet, carrot and other roots were identical with cane sugar.
The sugars obtained from honey were investigated by Lowitz
and Proust, and the latter decided on three species: (i) cane
sugar, (2) grape sugar, and (3) fruit sugar; the first has the
formula CuHaOii, the others C6Hi2Os. This list has been con-
siderably developed by the discovery of natural as well as of
synthetic sugars.
It is convenient to divide the sugars into two main groups:
monosaccharoses (formerly glucoses) and disaccharoses (formerly
saccharoses). The first term includes simple sugars containing
two to nine atoms of carbon, which are known severally as bioses,
trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, &c. ; whilst those of the second
group have the formula CuHaOu and are characterized by yielding
two monosaccharose molecules on hydrolysis. In addition tri-
saccharoses are known of the formula CiaHszOu ; these on hydrolysis
yield one molecule of a monosaccharose and one of a disaccharose,
or three of a monosaccharose. It is found also that some mono-
saccharoses behave as aldehydes whilst others contain a keto group ;
those having the first character are called aldoses, and the others
ketoses. All sugars are colourless solids or syrups, which char on
strong heating; they are soluble in water, forming sweet solutions
but difficultly soluble in alcohol. Their solutions are optically
active, i.e. they rotate the plane of polarized light; the amount of
the rotation being dependent upon the concentration, temperature,
and, in some cases, on the age of the solution (cf. GLUCOSE). The
rotation serves for the estimation of sugar solutions (saccharimetry).
They are neutral to litmus and do not combine with dilute acids
or bases; strong bases, such as lime and baryta, yield saccharates,
whilst, under certain conditions, acids and acid anhydrides may
yield esters. Sugars are also liable to fermentation.1 Our knowledge
of the chemical structure of the monosaccharoses may be regarded
as dating from 1880, when Zincke suspected some to be ketone
alcohols, for it was known that glucose and fructose, for example,
yielded penta-acetates, and on reduction gave hexahydric alcohols,
which, when reduced by hydriodic acid, gave normal and secondary
hexyliodide. The facts suggested that the six carbon atoms
formed a chain, and that a hydroxy group was attached to five
of them, for it is very rare for two hydroxy groups to be attached
to the same carbon atom. The remaining oxygen atom is aldehydic
or ketonic, for the sugars combine with hydrocyanic acid, hydroxy-
lamine and phenylhydrazine. The correctness of this view was
settled by Kiliani in 1885. He prepared the cyanhydrins of glucose
and fructose, hydrolysed them to the corresponding oxy-acids,
from which the hydroxy groups were split out by reduction; it
was found that glucose yielded normal heptylic acid and fructose
methylbutylacetic acid; hence glucose is an aldehyde alcohol,
CH2OH-(CH-OH)4-CHO, whilst fructose is a ketone alcohol
CH2OH- (CH-OH),-CO-CH2OH.2 Kiliani also showed that arabinose,
CjHi2Os, a sugar found in cherry gum, was an aldopentose, and thus
indicated an extension of the idea of a " sugar."
Before proceeding to the actual synthesis of the sugars, it is
advisable to discuss their decompositions and transformations.
1. Cyanhydrins. — The cyanhydrins on hydrolysis give mono-
carboxylic acids, which yield lactones; these compounds when
reduced by sodium amalgam in sulphuric acid solution yield a sugar
containing one more carbon atom. This permits the formation
of a higher from a lower sugar (E. Fischer)
CH2OH CH2OH CHjOH CH2OH
CH-OH CH-OH /CH CH-OH
(CH-OH)j -> (CH-OH)2 -»/ (CH-OH), -> (CH-OH)2
CHO CH-OH °\ CH-OH CH-OH
CN \CO CHO
Pentose — > Cyanhydrin — > Lactone — > Hexose.
2. Oximes. — The oximes permit the reverse change, i.e. the
passage from a higher to a lower sugar. Wohl forms the oxime
and converts it into an acetylated nitrile by means of acetic anhydride
and sodium acetate; ammoniacal silver nitrate solution removes
hydrocyanic acid and the resulting acetate is hydrolysed by acting
with ammonia to form an amide, which is finally decomposed with
sulphuric acid.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
(CH-OH), -» (CH-OH), -» (CH-OH), -» (CH-OH),
CH-OH CH-OH CH-OH CHO
CHO CH:NOH CN
Hexose — » Oxime — > Nitrile — » Pentose.
Ruff effects the same change by oxidizing the sugar to the oxy-acid,
'See FERMENTATION; and for the relation of this property to
structure see STEREOISOMERISM.
2 These formulae, however, require modification in accordance
with the views of Lowry and E. F. Armstrong, which postulate a
y oxidic structure (see GLUCOSE). This, however, does not disturb
the tenor of the following arguments.
XXVI. 2
and then further oxidizing this with Fenton's reagent, i.e. hydrogen
peroxide and a trace of a ferrous salt :
C4H,04(CH-OH)-CHO->C<H,04(CH-OH)-C02H->C,H,04-CHO
Hexose -» Acid -» Pentose.
3. Phenylhydrazine Derivatives. — Fischer found that if one mole-
cule of phenylhydrazine acted upon one molecule of an aldose or
ketose a hydrazone resulted which in most cases was very soluble
in water, but if three molecules of the hydrazine reacted (one of
which is reduced to ammonia and aniline) insoluble crystalline
substances resulted, termed osazones, which readily characterized
the sugar from which it was obtained.
R R R
CH-OH -» CH-OH -+ C-.N-NHPh
CHO CH:N-NHPh. CH:N-NHPh.
Aldose — > Hydrazone — » Osazone;
R R R
CO -» C:N-NHPh. -> C:N-NHPh
CH2OH CH2OH CH:N-NHPh.
Ketose — » Hydrazone — » Osazone.
On warming the osazone with hydrochloric acid the phenylhydra-
zine residues are removed and an osone results, which on reduction
with zinc and acetic acid gives a ketose.
R R R
C:N-NHPh. -> CO -» CO
CH:N-NHPh. CHO CH2OH
Osazone — > Osone — » Ketose.
A ketose may also be obtained by reducing the osazone with zinc
and acetic to an osamine, which with nitrous acid gives the ketose:
R R R
C:N-NHPh. -* CO -> CO
CH:N-NHPh. CH2NH2 CH,OH.
Osazone — » Osamine — » Ketose.
These reactions permit the transformation of an aldose into a
ketose; the reverse change can only be brought about by reducing
the ketose to an alcohol, and oxidizing this compound to an aldehyde.
It is seen that aldoses and ketoses which differ stereochemically
in only the two final carbon atoms must yield the same osazone;
and since d-mannose, d-glucose, and d-fructose do form the same
osazone (d-glucosazone) differences either structural or stereochemical
must be placed in the two final carbon atoms.3
It may here be noticed that in the sugars there are asymmetric
carbon atoms, and consequently optical isomers are to be expected.
Thus glucose, containing four such atoms, can exist in 16 forms;
and the realization of many of these isomers by E. Fischer may be
regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements in modern chem-
istry. The general principles of stereochemistry being discussed
in Stereoisomerism (?.».), we proceed to the synthesis of glucose
and fructose and then to the derivation of their configurations.
In 1861 Butlerow obtained a sugar-like substance, methylenitan,
by digesting trioxymethylene, the solid polymer of formaldehyde,
with lime. The work was repeated by O. Loew, who prepared in
1885 a sweet, unfermentable syrup, which he named formose,
CeHiiOt and, later, by using magnesia instead of lime, he obtained
the fermentable methose. Fischer showed that methose was
identical with the a-acrose obtained by himself and Tafel in 1887
by decomposing acrolein dibromide with baryta, and subsequently
prepared by oxidizing glycerin with bromine in alkaline solution,
and treating the product with dilute alkali at o°. Glycerin appears
to yield, on mild oxidation, an aldehyde, CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO,
and a ketone, CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, and these condense as shown
in the equation :
CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO+CH2OH-CO-CH!OH =
CH2OH-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CO.CH,OH+H2O.
The osazone prepared from a-acrose resembled most closely the
glucosazone yielded by glucose, mannose, and fructose, but it was
optically inactive; also the ketose which it gave after treatment
with hydrochloric acid and reduction of the osone was like ordinary
fructose except that it was inactive. It was surmised that o-acrpse
was a mixture of dextro and laevo fructose, a supposition
which was proved correct by an indirect method. The starting
point was ordinary (<f)mannite (mannitolJ.QHuOe.a naturally occur-
ring hexahydric alcohcrt, which only differed from o-acntol, the
alcohol obtained by reducing a-acrose, with regard to optical activity.
Mannite on oxidation yields an aldose, mannose, CgHuOt, which
' To distinguish the isomerides of opposite optical activity, it is
usual to prefix the letters d- and /-, but these are used only to indicate
the genetic relationship, and not the character of the optical activity;
ordinary fructose, for example, being represented as d-fructose —
although it exercises a laevorotatory power — because it is derived
from d-glucose.
34
SUGAR
on further oxidation gives a mannonic acid, ("J IJ< il I j.,-(( >_1 1 ; this
acid readily yields a lactone. Also Kiliani found that the lactone
derived from the cyanhydrin of natural arabinose (laevo) was
identical with the previous lactone except that its rotation was
equal and opposite. On mixing the eslactones and reducing
(a +/)-mnanitol was obtained, identical with o-acritol. A separation
of u-acrose was made by acting with beer yeast, which destroyed
the ordinary fructose and left /-fructose which was isolated as its
osazone. Also (</ + /) mannonic acid can be split into the d and /
acids by fractional crystallization of the strychnine or brucine salts.
The acid yields, on appropriate treatment, (/-mannose and (/-mannite.
Similarly the / acid yields the laevo derivatives.
The next step was to prepare glucose. This was effected in-
directly. The identity of the formulae and osazones of (/-mannose
and (/-glucose showed that the stereochemical differences were
situated at the carbon atom adjacent to the aldehyde group.
Fischer applied a method indicated by Pasteur in converting dextro
into laevo-tartaric acid; he found that both (/-mannonic and
(/-gluconic acids (the latter is yielded by glucose on oxidation) were
mutually convertible by heating with quinoline under pressure at
140°. It was then found that on reducing the lactone of the acid
obtained from (/-mannonic acid, ordinary glucose resulted.
Fischer's o-acrose therefore led to the synthesis of the dextro
and laevo forms of mannose, glucose and fructose; and these
substances have been connected synthetically with many other
sugars by means of his cyanhydrin process, leading to higher
sugars, and Wohl and Ruff's processes, leading to lower sugars.
Certain of these relations are here summarized (the starting substance
is in italics) : —
/-Glucose 4— l-arabinose — > /-mannose — > /-mannoheptose;
glucononose 4— o-gluco-octose 4— a-glucoheptose 4— d-glucose — >
0-glucoheptose — 7 /8-gluco-octose ;
A-mannose—> (/-mannoheptose — ^manno-octose~>mannononose;
d-glucose —$ (/-arabinose — > (/-erythrose.
l-glucose— $ 6-arabinose — ^ /-erythrose.
Their number is further increased by spatial inversion of the dicarb-
oxylic acids formed on oxidation, followed by reduction; for
example: d- and /-glucose yield (/-and /-gulose; and also by Lobry de
Bruyn and Van Ekenstein's discovery that hexoses are transformed
into mixtures of their isomers when treated with alkalis, alkaline
earths, lead oxide, &c.
Monosaccharoses.
Biose. — The onl\
ily possible biose is glycollic aldehyde, CHO-CHjOH,
obtained impure by Fischer from bromacetaldehyde and baryta
water, and crystalline by Fenton by heating dihydroxymaleic
acid with water to 60°. It polymerizes to a tetrose under the action
of sodium hydroxide.
Triases. — The trioses are the aldehyde and ketone mentioned
above as oxidation products of glycerin. Glyceric aldehyde
CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO, was obtained pure by Wohlon oxidizing
acrolein acetal, CH2-CH(OC2H6)2> and hydrolysing. Although
containing an asymmetric carbon atom it has not been resolved
The ketone, dihydroxyacetone, CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, was obtained
by Piloty by condensing formaldehyde with nitromethane, reducing
to a hydroxylamino compound, which is oxidized to the oxime of
dihydroxyacetone ; the ketone is liberated by oxidation with bromine
water:
* (CH2OH)3C-NO2 -> (CH2OH)3C-NH OH
-> (CH2OH)2C:NOH-»(CH2OH)2CO.
The ketone is also obtained when Bertrand's sorbose bacterium acts
on glycerol ; this medium also acts on other alcohols to yield ketoses ;
for example: erythrite gives erythrulose, arabite arabinulose,
mannitol fructose, &c.
Tetroses. — Four active tetroses are possible, and three have been
obtained by Ruff and Wohl from the pentoses. Thus Wohl pre-
pared /-threose from /-xylose and /-erythrose from /-arabinose, and
Ruff obtained d- and /-erythrose from d- and /-arabonic acids, the
oxidation products of d- and /-arabinoses. Impure inactive forms
result on the polymerization of glycollic aldehyde and also on the
oxidation of erythrite, a tetrahydric alcohol found in some lichens.
d-Erythrulose is a ketose of this series.
Pentoses. — Eight stereoisomeric pentaldoses are possible, and six
are known : d- and /-arabinose, d- and /-xylose, /-ribose, and
o-lyxose. Scheibler discovered /-arabinose in 1869, and regarded it
as a glucose; in 1887 Kiliani proved it to be a pentose. (/-Arabinose
is obtained from (/-glucose by Wohl's method. /-Xylose was dis-
covered by Koch in 1886; its enantiomorph is prepared from
(/-gulose by Wohl's method. /-Ribose and (jflyxose are prepared by
inversion from /-arabinose and /-xylose; the latter has also been
obtained from (/-galactose. We may notice that the pentoses differ
from other sugars by yielding furfurol when boiled with hydrochloric
acid. Rhamnose or isodulcite, a component of certain glucosides,
fucose, found combined in seaweeds and chinovose, present as its
ethyl ester, chinovite, in varieties of quina-bark, are methyl pentoses.
/-Arabinulose obtained from arabite and Bertrand's sorbium
bacterium is a ketose.
Hexoses.— The hexoses may be regarded as the most important
sub-division of the monosaccharoses. The reader is referred to
GLUCOSE and FRUCTOSE for an account of these substances. The
next important aldose is mannose. (/-Mamiose, first prepared by
oxidizing (/-mannite, found in plants and manna-ash (Fraxinus
ornus), was obtained by Tollens and Gans on hydrolysing cellulose
and by Reis from seminine (reserve cellulose), found in certain
plant seeds, e.g. vegetable ivory. /-Mannose is obtained from
/-mannonic acid. Other forms are: d- and /-gulose, prepared from
the lactones of the corresponding gulonic acids, which are obtained
from d- and /-glucose by oxidation and inversion; d- and /-idose,
obtained by inverting with pyridine d- and /-gulonic acids, and
reducing the resulting idionic acids; d- and /-galactose, the first
being obtained by hydrolysing milk _sugar with dilute sulphuric
acid, and the second by fermenting inactive galactose (from the
reduction of the lactone of d, /-gaiactonic acid) with yeast; and
(/- and /-talose obtained by inverting the gaiactonic acids by pyridine
into d- and /-talonic acids and reduction. Of the ketoses, we notice
(/-sorbose, found in the berries of mountain-ash, and (/-tagatose,
obtained by Lobry de Bruyn and van Ekenstein on treating galactose
with dilute alkalis, talose and /-sorbose being formed at the same
time. The higher sugars call for no special notice.
Configuration of the Hexaldoses.1 — The plane projection of molecular
structures which differ stereochemically is discussed under STEREO-
ISOMERISM; in this place it suffices to say that, since the terminal
groups of the hexaldose molecule are different and four asymmetric
carbon atoms are present, sixteen hexaldoses are possible; and for
the hexahydric alcohols which they yield on reduction, and the
tetrahydric dicarboxylic acids which they give on oxidation, only
ten forms are possible. Employing the notation in which the
molecule is represented vertically with the aldehyde group at the
bottom, and calling a carbon atom+or — according as the hydrogen
atom is to the left or right, the possible configurations are shown in
the diagram. The grouping of the forms 5 to to with 1 1 to 16 is
designed to show that the pairs 5, 1 1 for example become identical
when the terminal groups are the same.
II
13 14 15 16
8
IO
We can now proceed to the derivation of the structure of glucose.
Since both (/-glucose and (/-gulose yield the same active (d) saccharic
acid on oxidation, the configuration of this and the corresponding
/-acid must be sought from among those numbered 5-10 in the above
table. Nos. 7 and 8 can be at once ruled out, however, as acids
so constituted would be optically inactive and the saccharic acids
are active. If the configuration of (/-saccharic acid were given by
either 6 or 10, bearing in mind the relation of mannose to glucose,
it would then be necessary to represent (/-mannosaccharic acid
by either 7 or 8 — as the forms 6 and 10 pass into 7 and 8 on changing
the sign of a terminal group; but this cannot be done as mannosac-
charic acid is optically active. Nos. 6 and 10 must, in consequence,
also be ruled out. No. 5, therefore, represents the configuration
of one of the saccharic acids, and No. 9, that of the isomeride of '
equal opposite rotatory power. As there is no means of distinguish-
ing between the configuration of a dextro- and laevo-modification,
an arbitrary assumption must be made. No. 5 may therefore be
assigned to the d- and No. 9 to the /-acid. It then follows that
(/-mannose is represented by No. I, and /-mannose by No. 4, as man-
nose is produced by reversing the sign of the asymmetric system
adjoining the terminal COH group.
It remains to distinguish between 5 and 11,9 and 1 5 as representing
glucose and gulose. To settle this point it is necessary to consider
the configuration of the isomeric pentoses — arabinose and xylose —
from which they may be prepared. Arabinose being convertible
into /-glucose and xylose into /-gulose, the alternative formulae to be
considered are —
CH2(OH) +COH
CH2(OH)+-M — COH.
1 The following account is mainly from H. E. Armstrong's article
CHEMISTRY in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia ; the representa-
tion differs from the projection of Meyer and Jacobsen.
SUGAR
35
If the asymmetric system adjoining the COH group, which is that
introduced in synthesizing the hexose from the pentose, be eliminated
the formulae at disposal for the two pentoses are
CH,(OH) --- COH
CH,(OH)H --- COH.
When such compounds are converted into corresponding dibasic
acids, CO2H.[CH(OH)]«.CO2H, the number of asymmetric carbon
atoms becomes reduced from three to two, as the central carbon
atom is then no longer associated with four, but with only three
different radicles. Hence it follows that the " optical " formulae
of the acids derived from two pentoses having the configuration
given above will be
CO2H-0-COaH
COjH+O-COaH,
and that consequently only one of the acids will be optically active.
As a matter of fact, only arabinose gives an active product on oxida-
tion; it is therefore to be supposed that arabinose is the ---
compound, and consequently
CH,(OH) --- + COH = /-glucose
CH2(OH) H ---- COH = /-gulose.
When xylose is combined with hydrocyanic acid and the cyanide
is hydrolysed, together with /-gulonic acid, a second isomeric acid,
/-idonic acid, is produced, which on reduction yields the hexaldose
/-idose. When /-gulonic acid is heated with pyridine, it is converted
into /-idonic acid, and vice versa; and d-gulonic acid may in a
similar manner be converted into d-idonic acid, from which it is
possible to prepare d-idpse. It follows from the manner in which
/-idose is produced that its configuration is CH2(OH) -\ ---- j-COH.
The remaining aldohexoses discovered by Fischer are derived
from d-galactose from milk-sugar. When oxidized this aldohexose
is first converted into the monobasic galactonic acid, and then into
dibasic mucic acid; the latter is optically inactive, so that its
configuration must be one of those given in the sixth and seventh
columns of the table. On reduction it yields an inactive mixture
of galactonic acids, some molecules being attacked at one end, as
it were, and an equal number of others at the other. On reducing
the lactone prepared from the inactive acid an inactive galactose is
obtained from which /-galactose may be separated by fermentation.
Lastly, when </-galactpnic acid is heated with pyridine, it is con-
verted into talonic acid, which is reducible to talose, an isomeride
bearing to galactose the same relation that mannose bears to
glucose. It can be shown that d-galactose is CH2(OH) H --- h -COH,
and hence (f-talose is CHS(OH) + — + + COH.
The configurations of the penta-and tetra-aldoses have been
determined by similar arguments; and those of the ketoses can be
deduced from the aldoses.
Disaccharoses.
I
The disaccharoses have the formula C^HaOu and are character-
ized by yielding under suitable conditions two molecules of a hexose :
CiiHaOii+HjO = CeHijOe+CeHuOc. The hexoses so obtained
are not necessarily identical : thus cane sugar yields d-glucose and
d-fructose (invert sugar) ; milk sugar and melibiose give d-glucose
and (/-galactose, whilst maltose yields only glucose. Chemically
they appear to be ether anhydrides of the hexoses, the union being
effected by the aldehyde or alcohol groups, and in consequence
they are related to the ethers of glucose and other hexoses, i.e. to
the alkyl glucosides. Cane sugar has no reducing power and does
not fprm an hydrazone or osazone; the other varieties, however,
reduce Fehling's solution and form hydrazones and osazones,
behaving as aldoses, i.e. as containing the group -CH(OH)-CHO.
The relation of the disaccharoses to the a- and /3-glucosides was
established by E. F. Armstrong (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1903, 85, 1305),
who showed that cane sugar and maltose were a-glucosides, and
raffinose an a-glucoside of melibiose. These and other considera-
tions have led to the proposal of an alkylen oxide formula for glucose,
first proposed by Tollens ; this view, which has been mainly developed
by Armstrong and Fischer, has attained general acceptance (see
GLUCOSE and GLUCOSJDE). Fischer has proposed formulae for
the important disaccharoses, and in conjunction with Armstrong
devised a method for determining how the molecule was built up,
by forming the osone of the sugar and hydrolysing, whereupon
the hexosone obtained indicates the aldose part of the molecule.
Lactose is thus found to be glucosido-galactose and melibiose a
galactosido-glucose.
Several disaccharoses have been synthesized. By acting with
hydrochloric acid on glucose Fischer obtained isomaltose, a disac-
charose very similar to maltose but differing in being amorphous
and unfermentable by yeast. Also Marchlewski (in 1899) synthe-
sized cane sugar from potassium fructosate and acetochloro-
glucose; and after Fischer discovered that acetochlorohexoses
readily resulted from the interaction of the hexose penta-acetates
and liquid hydrogen chloride, several others have been obtained.
Cane sugar, saccharose or saccharobiose, is the most important
sugar; its manufacture is treated below. When slowly crystallized
t forms large monoclinic prisms which are readily soluble in water
but difficultly soluble in alcohol. It melts at 160°, and on cooling
solidifies to a glassy mass, which on standing gradually becomes
opaque and crystalline. When heated to about 200° it yields a
brown amorphous substance, named caramel, used in colouring
liquors, &c. Concentrated sulphuric acid gives a black carbon-
aceous mass; boiling nitric acid oxidizes it to d-saccharic, tartaric
and oxalic acids; and when heated to 160° with acetic anhydride
an octa-acetyl ester is produced. Like glucose it gives saccharates
with lime, baryta and strontia.
Milk sugar, lactose, lactobiose, CuHnOu, found in the milk of
mammals, in the amniotic liquid of cows, and as a pathological
secretion, is prepared by evaporating whey and purifying the
sugar which separates by crystallization. It forms hard white
rhombic prisms (with 1H2O), which become anhydrous at 140°
and melt with decomposition at 205°. It reduces ammoniacal
silver solutions in the cold, and alkaline copper solutions on boiling.
Its aqueous solution has a faint sweet taste, and is dextro-rotatory,
the rotation of a fresh solution being about twice that of an old one.
It is difficultly fermented by yeast, but readily by the lactic acid
bacillus. It is oxidized by nitric acid to d-saccharic and mucic
acids ; and acetic anhydride gives an octa-acetate.
Maltose, malt-sugar, maltobiose, Ci2HMOu, is formed, together
with dextrine, by the action of malt diastase on starch, and as an
intermediate product in the decomposition of starch by sulphuric
acid, and of glycogen by ferments. It forms hard crystalline
crusts (with IHjO) made up of hard white needles.
Less important disaccharoses are : Trehalose or mycose,
Ci2H2jOii-2H2O, found in various fungi, e.g. Boletus edulis, in the
Oriental Trehala and in ergot of rye; melibiose, CuHzjOu, formed,
with fructose, on hydrolysing the tnsaccharose melitose (or raffinose),
CisHnOu-S^O, which occurs in Australian manna and in the
molasses of sugar manufacture; touranose, CuHaOu, formed with
a-glucose and galactose on hydrolysing another trisaccharose,
rnehzitose, C,8H32Oi6-2H2O, which occurs in Pinus larix and in
Persian manna; and agavose, Ci2HnOn, found in the stalks of
Agave amencana. (X.)
SUGAR MANUFACTURE
Sugar-cane is a member of the grass family, known botani-
cally as Saccharum officinarum, the succulent stems of which
are the source of cane sugar. It is a tall perennial grass-like
plant, giving off numerous erect stems 6 to 12 ft. or more in
height from a thick solid jointed root-stock. The stems are
solid and marked with numerous shining, polished, yellow,
purple or striped joints, 3 in. or less in length, and about ij in.
thick. They are unbranched and bear in the upper portion
numerous long narrow grass-like leaves arranged in two rows;
the leaf springs from a large sheath and has a more or less
spreading blade 3 ft. in length or longer, and 3 in. or more wide.
The small flowers or spikelets are borne in pairs on the ultimate
branches of a much branched feathery plume-like terminal
grey inflorescence, 2 ft. or more long. Production of flowers
is uncertain under cultivation and seed is formed very rarely.
The plant is readily propagated by cuttings, a piece of the
stem bearing buds at its nodes will root rapidly when placed
in sufficiently moist ground. The sugar-cane is widely cul-
tivated in the tropics and some sub-tropical countries, but is
not known as a wild plant. Its native country is unknown,
but it probably originated in India or some parts of eastern
tropical Asia where it has been cultivated from great antiquity
and whence its cultivation spread westwards and eastwards.
Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 158) points
out that the epoch of its introduction into different countries
agrees with the idea that its origin was in India, Cochin-China
or the Malay Archipelago, and regards it as most probable that
its primitive range extended from Bengal to Cochin-China.
The sugar-cane was introduced by the Arabs in the middle
ages into Egypt, Sicily and the south of Spain where it
Nourished until the abundance of sugar in the colonies caused
Its cultivation to be abandoned. Dom Enrique, Infante of
Portugal, surnamed the Navigator (1394-1460) transported it
about 1420, from Cyprus and Sicily to Madeira, whence it was
taken to the Canaries in 1503, and thence to Brazil and Hayti
early in the i6th century, whence it spread to Mexico, Cuba,
Guadeloupe and Martinique, and later to Bourbon. It was
ntroduced into Barbadoes from Brazil in 1641, and was dis-
:ributed from there to other West Indian islands. Though
cultivated in sub-tropical countries such as Natal and the
Southern states of the Union, it is essentially tropical in its
requirements and succeeds best in warm damp climates such as
SUGAR
Cuba, British Guiana and Hawaii, and in India and Java in
the Old World. The numerous cultivated varieties are dis-
tinguished mainly by the colour of the internodes, whether yellow,
red or purple, or striped, and by the height of the culm. Apart
from the sugar-cane and the beet, which are dealt with in detail
below, a brief reference need only be made here to maple sugar,
palm sugar and sorghum sugar.
Maple Sugar. — This is derived from the sap of the rock or sugar
maple (Acer saccharinum), a large tree growing in Canada and the
United States.
The sap is collected in spring, just before the foliage develops,
and is procured by making a notch or boring a hole in the stem of
the tree about 3 ft. from the ground. A tree may yield 3 gallons
of juice a day and continue flowing for six weeks; but on an average
only about 4 Ib of sugar are obtained from each tree, 4 to 6 gallons
of sap giving I Ib of sugar. The sap is purified and concentrated
in a simple manner, the whole work being carried on by farmers,
who themselves use much of the product for domestic and culinary
purposes.
Palm Sugar. — That which comes into the European market as
jaggery or khaur is obtained from the sap of several palms, the
wild date (Phoenix sylvestris), the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer),
the coco-nut (Cocos nucifera), the gomuti (Arenga saccharifera)
and others_. The principal source is Phoenix sylvestris, which is
cultivated in a portion of the Ganges valley to the north of Calcutta.
The trees are ready to yield sap when five years old ; at eight years
they are mature, and continue to give an annual supply till they
reach thirty years. The collection of the sap (toddy) begins about
the end of October and continues, during the cool season, till the
middle of February. The sap is drawn off from the upper growing
portion of the stem, and altogether an average tree will run in a
season 350 Ib of toddy, from which about 35 Ib of raw sugar — jaggery
— is made by simple and rude processes. Jaggery production is
entirely in native hands, and the greater part of the amount made is
consumed locally ; it only occasionally reaches the European market.
Sorghum Sugar. — The stem of the Guinea corn or sorghum
(Sorghum saccharatum) has long been known in China as a source
of sugar. The sorghum is hardier than the sugar-cane; it comes
to maturity in a season; and it retains its maximum sugar content
a considerable time, giving opportunity for leisurely harvesting.
The sugar is obtained by the same method as cane sugar.
Cane Sugar Manufacture. — The value of sugar-canes at a
given plantation or central factory would at first sight appear
Commercial to vary directly as the amount of saccharine con-
Vaiucs of tained in the juice expressed from them varies,
Sugar-canes.^^ j£ canes -^th juice indicating 9° Beaum6 be
made a basis of value or worth, say at tos. per ton, then canes
with juice indicating
in degrees Beaumd IO° 9° 8° 7° 6°
and containing in
sugar. . . . 18-05 %1 16-23% I4-42% I2-6I % 10-80%
would be worth per
ton .... n/ii lo/- 8/io§ 7/9| 6/8
But this is not an accurate statement of the commercial value
of sugar-canes — that is, of their value for the production of
sugar to the planter or manufacturer — because a properly
equipped and balanced factory, capable of making 100 tons of
sugar per day, for 100 days' crop, from canes giving juice of
9° B., or say 10,000 tons of sugar, at an aggregate expenditure
for manufacture (i.e. the annual cost of running the factory)
of £3 per ton, or £30,000 per annum, will not be able to make
as much sugar per day with canes giving juice of 8° B., and will
make still less if they yield juice of only 6° B. In practice,
the expenses of upkeep for the year and of manufacturing the
crop remain the same whether the canes are rich or poor and
whether the crop is good or bad, the power of the factory being
limited by its power of evaporation. For example, a factory
able to evaporate 622 tons of water in 24 hours could treat
loco tons of canes yielding juice of 9° B., and make therefrom
100 tons of sugar in that time; but this same factory, if supplied
with canes giving juice of 6° B., could not treat more than 935
tons of canes in 24 hours, and would only make therefrom 62-2
tons of sugar.
The following table may be useful to planters and central factory
owners. It shows the comparative results of working with juice
of the degrees of density mentioned above, under the conditions
described, for one day of 24 hours, and the real value, as raw material
for manufacture, of cane giving juice of 6° B. to 10° B., with their
apparent value based solely on the percentage of sugar in the juice.
Degrees Beaume1.
6°
7°
8°
9°
10°
Tons of canes
crushed per day
935-6
956-2
977-4
IOOO
1023-8
Tons of juice ex-
pressed
701-7
717-2
733-1
750
767-9
Tons of water
evaporated .
622
622
622
622
622
Tons of 1st Mas-
secuite
79-7
95-2
in-i
128
145-9
Tons sugar of all
classes recovered
62-2
74-3
86-7
IOO
114-0
Total output of
sugar in 100
days. Tons
6220
7430
8670
10,000
11,400
Total value of all
sugars per day
at £8 per ton
£497, 6/-
£594. 4/~
£693, 61-
£800
£912
Less factory ex-
penses per day .
£300
£300
£300
£300
£300
Leaves for canes
crushed
£197, 61-
£294, 4/-
£393, 61-
£5co
£612
Real value of
canes per ton
4/2J
6/2
81-
IO/-
ii/ni
Apparent value
(see preceding
Table) . .
6/8
7/9J
8/io|
IO/-
n/il
The canes in each case are assumed to contain 88 % of juice and 12 %
of fibre, and the extraction by milling to be 75 % of the weight of
canes — the evaporative power of the factory being equal to 622
tons per 24 hours. The factory expenses are taken at £30,000 per
annum, or £3 per ton on a crop of 10,000 tons (the sugar to cost
£8 per ton afl told at the factory) — equivalent to £300 per day for
the 100 working days of crop time.
But it is obvious that it would not pay a planter to sell canes at
45. 2fd. a ton instead of at los. a ton, any more than it would pay
a factory to make only 62-2 tons of sugar in 24 hours, or 6220 tons
in the crop of 100 days, instead of 10,000 tons. Hence arises the
imperative necessity of good cultivation by the planter, and of
circumspection in the purchase and acceptance of canes on the part
of the manufacturer.
The details of manufacture of sugar from canes and of sugar
from beetroots differ, but there are five operations in the production
of the sugar of commerce from either material which are common
to both processes. These are: —
1. The extraction of the juice.
2. The purification or defecation of the juice.
3. The evaporation of the juice to syrup point.
4. The concentration and crystallization of the syrup.
5. The curing or preparation of the crystals for the market by
separating the molasses from them.
Extraction of Juice. — The juice is extracted from canes by squeezing
them between rollers. In India at the present day there are thou-
sands of small mills worked by hand, through which „ tracti
the peasant cultivators pass their canes two or three * ™ '
at a time, squeezing them a little, and extracting per- y
haps a fourth of their weight in juice, from which they make a
substance resembling a dirty sweetmeat rather than sugar. In
Barbadoes there are still many estates making good Mascabado
sugar; but as the juice is extracted from the canes by windmills,
and then concentrated in open kettles heated by direct fire, the
financial results are disastrous, since nearly half the yield obtainable
from the canes is lost. In the best organized modern cane sugar
estates as much as I2j % of the weight of the canes treated is obtained
in crystal sugar of high polarizing power, although in Louisiana,
where cultivation and manufacture are alike most carefully and
admirably carried out, the yield in sugar is only about 7% of the (
weight of the canes, and sometimes, but seldom, as much as 9%.
This is due to conditions of climate, which are much less favourable
for the formation of saccharine in the canes than in Cuba. The
protection afforded to the planters by their government, however,
enables them to pursue the industry with considerable profit,
notwithstanding the poor return for their labour in saleable produce.
As an instance of the influence of climatic conditions combined
with high cultivation the cane lands of the Sandwich Islands may
be cited. Here the tropical heat is tempered by constant trade
winds, there is perfect immunity from hurricanes, the soil is peculi-
arly suited for cane-growing, and by the use of specially-prepared
fertilizers and an ample supply of water at command for irrigation
the land yields from 50 to 90 tons of canes per acre, from which
from 12 to 14% of sugar is produced. To secure this marvellous
return, with an annual rainfall of 26 in., as much as 52,000,000
gallons of water are pumped per 24 hours from artesian wells on
one estate alone. With an inexhaustible supply of irrigation water
obtainable, there is no reason why the lands in Upper Egypt, if
scientifically cultivated and managed, should not yield as abundantly
as those in the Sandwich Islands.
SUGAR
37
In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 a cane-crushing mill was shown
with three rollers 32 in. in diameter by 60 in. long. It is
driven by a powerful engine through triple gearing of 42 to_i, and
speeded to have a surface velocity of rollers of 15 ft. 9 in. per
minute. This mill is guaranteed to crush thoroughly and efficiently
from 250 to 300 tons of canes in 24 hours. In Louisiana two mills,
set one behind the other, each with three rollers 32 in. in diameter
by 78 in. long, and driven by one engine through gearing of 15
to i, are speeded to have a surface velocity of rollers of 25 ft. 6 in.
per minute (or 60% more than that of the French mill described
above), and they are efficiently crushing 900 to 1200 tons of
canes in 24 hours. In Australia, Demerara, Cuba, Java and Peru
double crushing and maceration (first used on a commercial scale in
Demerara by the late Hon. William Russell) have been generally
adopted; and in many places, especially in the Hawaiian Islands,
triple crushing (i.e. passing the canes through three consecutive
sets of rollers, in order to extract everything possible of extraction
by pressure) is employed. In the south of Spain, in some favoured
spots where sugar-canes can be grown, they are submitted even to
four successive crushings.
It has been found in practice advantageous to prepare the canes
for crushing in the mills, as above described, by passing them
through a pair of preparing rolls which are grooved or indented
in such manner as to draw in and flatten down the canes, no
matter in which way they are thrown or heaped upon the cane-
carrier, and thus prepare them for feeding the first mill of the series;
thus the work of crushing is carried on uninterruptedly and without
constant stoppages from the mills choking, as is often the case when
the feed is heavy and the canes are not prepared.
Although it cannot be said that any one system of extraction is
the best for all places, yet the following considerations are of general
application: —
a. Whatever pressure be brought to bear upon it, the vegetable
or woody fibre of crushed sugar-canes will hold and retain for the
. moment a quantity of moisture equal to its own weight,
Cru hlnT anc^ 'n Pract'ce Io% more than its own weight; or in
other words, 100 Ib of the best crushed megass will
consist of 47-62 Ib of fibre and 52-38 Ib of moisture — that is, water
with sugar in solution, or juice.
b. Canes vary very much in respect of the quality and also as
to the quantity of the juice they contain. The quantity of the
juice is the test to which recourse must be had in judging the effi-
ciency of the extraction, while the quality is the main factor to
be taken into account with regard to the results of subsequent
manufacture.
For the application of the foregoing considerations to practice,
the subjoined table has been prepared. It shows the greatest
quantity of juice that may be expressed from canes, according to
the different proportions of fibre they contain, but without employing
maceration or imbibition, to which processes reference is made
hereafter. The percentages are percentages of the original weight
of the uncrushed canes.
Per
Cent.
Per
Cent.
Per
Cent.
Per
Cent.
Per
Cent.
Per
Cent.
Percentage of fibre
in canes .
10
ii
12
13
H
15
Percentage of juice
in canes .
90
89
88
8?
86
85
Percentage of juice
retained in me-
gass ....
10
ii
12
13
H
IS
Percentage of maxi-
mum expression.
80
78
76
74
72
70
Percentage of best
average expres-
sion, in practice.
79
76-9
74-9
72-9
70-6
68-5
Percentage of juice
left in megass, in
practice .
ii
I2-I
13-2
14-3
15-4
16-5
The British Guiana Planters' Association appointed a sub-com-
mittee to report to the West India Commission on the manufacture
of sugar, who stated the following : —
With canes containing 12% fibre the following percentages of
sugar are extracted from the canes in the form of juice: —
Single crushing 76 %
Double crushing . . 85 %
Double crushing with 12% dilution 88%
Triple crushing with 10% dilution 90%
Diffusion with 25 % dilution 94 %
These results are equivalent to
66-88 % extraction for single crushing.
74-80% „ „ double crushing.
77-44% ,, „ double crushing with 12% dilution.
79-20% „ „ triple „ „ 10% „
82-72% „ „ diffusion with 25% „
To prevent the serious loss of juice left in the megass by even
the best double and triple crushing, maceration or imbibition was
introduced. The megass coming from the first mill .. ..
was saturated with steam and water, in weight equal "
to between 20 % and 30 % and up to 40 % of the original
weight of the uncrushed canes. Consequently, after
the last crushing the mixture retained by the residual megass was
not juice, as was the case when crushing was employed without
maceration, but juice mixed with water; and it was found that the
loss in juice was reduced by one-half. A further saving of juice
was sometimes possible if the market prices of sugar were such as
to compensate for the cost of evaporating an increased quantity
of added water, but a limit was imposed by the fact that water
might be used in excess. Hence in the latest designs for large
factories it has been proposed that as much normal juice as can be
extracted by double crushing only shall be treated by itself, and that
the megass shall then be soused with twice as much water as there
is juice remaining in it; after which, on being subjected to a third
crushing, it will yield a degraded juice, which would also be treated
by itself. It is found that in reducing the juice of these two qualities
to syrup, fit to pass to the vacuum pans for cooking to crystals,
the total amount of evaporation from the degraded juice is about
half that required from the normal juice produced by double
crushing.
Great improvements have been made in the means of feeding the
mills with canes by doing away with hand labour and substituting
mechanical feeders or rakes, which by means of a .. haakal
simple steam-driven mechanism will rake the canes tm reve.
from the cane waggons on to the cane-carriers. By ments
the adoption of this system in one large plantation
in the West Indies, crushing upwards of 1200 tons of canes per day,
the labour of sixty-four hands was dispensed with, and was thus
made available for employment in the fields. In Louisiana the
use of mechanical feeders is almost universal.
With a view of safeguarding themselves from breakdowns caused
by the inequality of feeding, or by the action of malicious persons
introducing foreign substances, such as crowbars, bolts, &c., among
the canes, and so into the mills, many planters have adopted so-
called hydraulic attachments, applied either to the megass roll
or the top roll bearings. These attachments, first invented by
Jeremiah Howard, and described in the United States Patent Journal
in 1858, are simply hydraulic rams fitted into the side or top caps
of the mill, and pressing against the side or top brasses in such
a manner as to allow the side or top roll to move away from the
other rolls, while an accumulator, weighted to any desired extent,
keeps a constant pressure on each of the rams. An objection to
the top cap arrangement is, that if the volume or feed is large enough
to lift the top roll from the cane roll, it will simultaneously lift it
from the megass roll, so that the megass will not be as well pressed
as it ought to be; and an objection to the side cap arrangement
on the megass roll as well as to the top cap arrangement is, that in
case more canes are fed in at one end of the rolls than at the other,
the roll will be pushed out farther at one end than at the other;
and though it may thus avoid a breakdown of the rolls, it is apt,
in so doing, to break the ends off the teeth of the crown wheels
by putting them out of line with one another. The toggle-joint
attachment, which is an extremely ingenious way of attaining
the same end as the hydraulic attachments, is open to the same
objections.
Extraction of cane juice by diffusion (a process more fully de-
scribed under the head of beetroot sugar manufacture) is adopted
in a few plantations in Java and Cuba, in Louisiana Dxtract]oa
and the Hawaiian Islands, and in one or two factories . „.„ .
in Egypt; but hitherto, except under exceptional y
conditions (as at Aska, in the Madras Presidency, where the
local price for sugar is three or four times the London price), it
would not seem to offer any substantial advantage over double or
triple crushing. With the latter system practically as much sugar
is obtained from the canes as by diffusion, and the resulting megass
furnishes, in a well-appointed factory, sufficient fuel for the crop.
With diffusion, however, in addition to. the strict scientific control
necessary to secure the benefits of the process, fuel — that is, coal or
wood — has to be provided for the working off of the crop, since the
spent chips or slices from the diffusers are useless for this purpose;
although it is true that in some plantations the spent chips have
to a certain extent been utilized as fuel by mixing them with a
portion of the molasses, which otherwise would have been sold or
converted into rum. The best results from extraction by diffusion
have been obtained in Java, where there is an abundance of clear,
good water; but in the Hawaiian Islands, and in Cuba and Demerara,
diffusion has been abandoned on several well mounted estates and
replaced by double and triple crushing; and it is not likely to be
resorted to again, as the extra cost of working is not compensated
by the slight increase of sugar produced. In Louisiana diffusion
is successfully worked on two or three large estates; but the general
body of planters are shy of using it, although there is no lack of
water, the Mississippi being near at hand.
Purification. — The second operation is the coagulation of the
albumen, and the separation of it with other impurities from the
SUGAR
_. ..
juice which holds them in suspension or solution. The moment
the juice is expelled from the cells of the canes chemical inversion
commences, and the sooner it is stopped the better. This is effected
by the addition of lime to neutralize the free acid. As cold juice
has a greater affinity for lime than hot juice, it is best to treat the
juice with lime when cold. This is easily done in liming or measuring
tanks of known capacity, into which the juice is run from the mill.
The requisite amount of milk of lime set up at 10° Beaum6 is then
added. Cream of lime of 17° Beaum6 is sometimes used, but the
weaker solution is preferable, since the proper proportion is more
easily adjusted. In Demerara and other places the juice is then
heated under pressure up to 220° F. to 250 k F. for a few moments,
on its way to a steam and juice separator, where the steam due to
the superheated juice flashes off, and is either utilized for aiding
Subsldiar tne steam supplied to the multiple effect evaporators,
or for heating cold juice on its way to the main heater,
or it is allowed to escape into the atmosphere. The
boiling juice is run down into subsiding tanks, where it cools, and
at the same time the albumen, which has been suddenly coagulated
by momentary exposure to high temperature, falls to the bottom
of the tank, carrying with it the vegetable and other matters which
were in suspension in the juice. After reposing some time, the
clear juice is carefully decanted by means of a pipe fixed by a swivel
joint to an outlet in the bottom of the tank, the upper end of the
pipe being always kept at the surface of the liquor by a float attached
to it. Thus clear liquor alone is run off, and the mud and cloudy
liquor at the bottom of the tank are left undisturbed, and discharged
separately as required.
In Australia a continuous juice separator is generally used, and
preferred to ordinary subsiding or filtering tanks. It is a cylin-
drical vessel about 6 ft. deep, fitted with a conical
bottom of about the same depth. Such a vessel is
Separator con.venjently made of a diameter which will give the
cylindrical portion sufficient capacity to hold the juice
expressed from the cane-mill in one hour. The hot liquor is con-
ducted downwards in a continuous steady stream by a central pipe
to eight horizontal branches, from which it issues into the separator
at the level of the junction of the cylindrical and conical portions
of the vessel. Since the specific gravity of hot liquor is less than
that of cold liquor, and since the specific gravity of the scum and
particles of solid matter in suspension varies so slightly with the
temperature that practically it remains constant, the hot liquor
rises to the top of the vessel, and the scums and particles of solid
matter in suspension separate themselves from it and fall to the
bottom. By the mode of admission the hot liquor at its entry is
distributed over a large area relatively to its volume, and while
this is necessarily effected with but little disturbance to the contents
of the vessel, a very slow velocity is ensured for the current of
ascending juice. In a continuous separator of which the cylindrical
portion measures 13 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. deep (a suitable
size for treating a juice supply of 4000 to 4500 gallons per hour),
the upward current will have a velocity of about I inch per minute,
and it is found that all the impurities have thus ample time to
separate themselves. The clear juice when it arrives at the top
of the separator flows slowly over the level edges of £ cross canal
and passes in a continuous stream to the service tanks of the evapo-
rators or vacuum pan. The sloping sides of the conical bottom
can be freed from the coating of scum which forms upon them every
two or three hours by two rotatory scrapers, formed of L-irons,
which can be slowly turned by an attendant by means of a central
shaft provided with a suitable handle. The scums then settle
down to the bottom of the cone, whence they are run off to the
scum tank. Every twenty-four hours or so the flow of juice may
be conveniently stopped, and, after all the impurities have subsided,
the superincumbent clear liquor may be decanted by a cock placed
at the side of the cone for the purpose, and the vessel may be washed
out. These separators are carefully protected by non-conducting
cement and wood lagging, and are closed at the top to prevent loss
of heat; and they will run for many hours without requiring to be
changed, the duration of the run depending on the quality of the
liquor treated and amount of impurities therein. Smaller separators
of the same construction are used for the treatment of syrup.
In Cuba, Martinique, Peru and elsewhere the old-fashioned
double-bottomed defecator is used, into which the juice is run
D . . _ direct, and there limed and heated. This defecator is
| e~ . made with a hemispherical copper bottom, placed in
Defecators an outer cast-iron casing, which forms a steam jacket,
and is fitted with a cylindrical curb or breast above
the bottom. If double-bottomed defecators are used in sufficient
number to allow an hour and a half to two hours for making each
defecation, and if they are of a size which permits any one of them
to be filled up by the cane-mill with juice in ten to twelve minutes,
they will make as perfect a defecation as is obtainable by any known
system; but their employment involves the expenditure of much
high-pressure steam (as exhaust steam will not heat the juice quickly
enough through the small surface of the hemispherical inner bottom),
and also the use of filter presses for treating the scums. A great
deal of skilled superintendence is also required, and first cost is
comparatively large. When a sufficient number are not available
for a two hours' defecation, it is the practice in some factories to
skim off the scums that rise to the top, and then boil up the juice
for a few minutes and skim again, and, after repeating the operation
once or twice, to run off the juice to separators or subsiders of any
of the kinds previously described. In Java and Mauritius, where
very clean canes are grown, double-bottomed defecators are generally
used, and to them, perhaps as much as to the quality of the canes,
may be attributed the very strong, fine sugars made in those islands.
They are also employed in Egypt, being remnants of the plant
used in the days when the juice passed through bone-black before
going to the evaporators.
A modification of the system of double-bottom defecators has
lately been introduced with considerable success in San Domingo
and in Cuba, by which a continuous and steady discharge _ .
of clear defecated juice is obtained on the one hand, and ^"\
on the other a comparatively hard dry cake of scum or
cachaza, and without the use of filter presses. These results
are brought about by adding to the cold juice as it comes
from the mill the proper proportion of milk of lime set
up at 8° B., and then delivering the limed juice in a constant
steady stream as near the bottom of the defecator as possible; it
is thus brought into immediate contact with the heating surface
and heated once for all before it ascends, with the result of avoid-
ing the disturbance caused in the ordinary defecator by pouring
cold juice from above on to the surface of the heated juice, and so
establishing down-currents of cold juice and up-currents of hot juice.
In the centre of the defecator an open- topped cylindrical vessel is
placed, with its bottom about 6 in. above the bottom of the
defecator and its top about 12 in. below the top of the defecator.
In this vessel is placed the short leg of a draw-off siphon, reaching
to nearly the bottom. The action of the moderate heat, 210° F.,
on the limed juice causes the albumen in it to coagulate; this rising
to the surface collects the cachazas, which form and float thereon.
The clear juice in the meantime flows over the edge of the cylindri-
cal vessel without disturbance and finds its way out by the short
leg of the siphon, and so passes to the canal for collecting the
defecated juice. The admission of steam must be regulated with
the greatest nicety, so as to maintain an equable temperature,
208° to 210° F., hot enough to act upon the albumen and yet not
enough to cause ebullition or disturbance in the juice, and so prevent
a proper separation of the cachazas. This is attained by the aid
of a copper pipe, 4 in. in diameter, which follows the curve of the
hemispherical bottom, and is fitted from one side to the other of
the defecator; one end is entirely closed, and the other is connected
by a small pipe to a shallow circular vessel outside the defecator,
covered with an india-rubber diaphragm, to the centre of which
is attached a light rod actuating a steam throttle- valve, and capable
of being adjusted as to length, &c. The copper pipe and circular
vessel are filled with cold water, which on becoming heated by the sur-
rounding juice expands, and so forces up the india-rubber diaphragm
and shuts off the steam. By adjusting the length of the connecting
rod and the amount of water in the vessel, the amount of steam
admitted can be regulated to a nicety. To make this apparatus
more perfectly automatic, an arrangement for continually adding
to and mixing with the juice the proper proportion of milk of lime
has been adapted to it ; and although it may be objected that once
the proportion has been determined no allowance is made for the
variation in the quality of the juice coming from the mill owing
to the variations that may occur in the canes fed into the mills,
it is obviously as easy to vary the proportion with the automatic
arrangement from time to time as it is to vary in each separate
direction, if the man in charge will take the trouble to do so, which
he very seldom does with the ordinary defecators, satisfying himself
with testing the juice once or twice in a watch. The scums forming
on the top of the continuous defecator become so hard and dry
that they have to be removed from time to time with a specially
constructed instrument like a flat spade with three flat prongs in
front. These scums are not worth passing through the filter presses,
and are sent to the fields direct as manure.
The scums separated from the juice by ordinary defecation
entangle and carry away with them a certain amount of the juice '
with its contained saccharine. In some factories they T
are collected in suitable tanks, and steam is blown into T^"'men*
them, which further coagulates the albuminous par- v.
tides. These in their upward passage to the top,
where they float, free themselves from the juice, which they leave
below them comparatively clear. The juice is then drawn off
and pumped up to one of the double-bottomed defecators and
redefecated, or, where juice-heaters have been used instead of
defecators, the scums from the separators or subsiders are heated
and forced through filter presses, the juice expressed going to the
evaporators and the scum cakes formed in the filter presses to the
fields as manure.
In diffusion plants the milk of lime is added, in proper propor-
tion, in the cells of the diffusion battery, and the chips or slices
themselves act as a mechanical filter for the juice; while in the
Sandwich Islands coral-sand filters have been employed for some
years, in addition to the chips, to free the juice from impurities
held in mechanical suspension. In Germany very similar filters
have also been used, pearl-quartz gravel taking the place of coral
sand, which it closely resembles. In Mexico filters filled with dry
SUGAR
39
powdered megass have been found very efficient for removing the
large quantity of impurities contained in the juice expressed from
the very vigorous but rank canes grown in that wonderfully fertile
country, but unless constant care is taken in managing them, and
in changing them at the proper time, there is great risk of inversion
taking place, with consequent loss of sugar.
After the juice has been defecated or purified by any of the
means above mentioned it is sent to the evaporating apparatus,
hereinafter described, where it is concentrated to 26° or 28° Beaum6,
and is then conducted in a continuous stream either into the service
tanks of the vacuum pan, if dark sugars are required, or, if a
better colour is wanted, into clarifiers. The latter are circular
or rectangular vessels, holding from 500 to 1500 gallons each, accord-
ing to the capacity of the factory, and fitted with steam coils at
the bottom and skimming troughs at the top. In them the syrup
is quickly brought up to the boil and skimmed for about five minutes,
when it is run off to the service tanks of the vacuum pans. The
heat at which the syrup boils in the clarifiers, 220° F., has the
property of separating a great deal of the gum still remaining in
it, and thus cleansing the solution of sugar and water for crystalliza-
tion in the vacuum pans; and if after skimming the syrup is run into
separators or subsiders of any description, and allowed to settle
down and cool before being drawn into the vacuum pan for crystalli-
zation, this cleansing process will be more thorough and the quality
of the final product will be improved. Whether the improvement
will be profitable or not to the planter or manufacturer depends on
the market for the sugar, and on the conditions of foreign tariffs,
which are not infrequently hostile.
Evaporation of the Juice to Syrup. — The third operation is the
concentration of the approximately pure, but thin and watery, juice
to syrup point, by driving off a portion of the water in vapour
through some system of heating and evaporation. Since on an
average 70% by measurement of the normal defecated cane juice
has to be evaporated in order to reduce it to syrup ready for final
concentration and crystallization in the vacuum pan, and since to
attain the same end as much as 90 to 95 % of the volume of mixed
juices has to be evaporated when maceration or imbibition is
employed, it is clear that some more economical mode of evapora-
tion is necessary in large estates than the open-fire batteries still
common in Barbados and some of the West Indian islands, and in
small haciendas in Central America and Brazil, but seldom seen
elsewhere. With open-fire batteries for making the syrup, which
was afterwards finished in the vacuum pan, very good sugar was
produced, but at a cost that would be ruinous in to-day's markets.
In the best days of the so-called Jamaica Trains in Demerara,
three-quarters of a ton of coal in addition to the megass was burned
per ton of sugar made, and with this for many years planters were
content, because they pointed to the fact that in the central factories,
then working in Martinique and Guadeloupe, with charcoal filters and
triple-effect evaporation, 750 kilos of coal in addition to the megass
were consumed to make 1000 kilos of sugar. All this has now been
changed. It is unquestionably better and easier to evaporate
in vacua than in an open pan, and with a better system_of firing,
a more liberal provision of steam generators, and multiple-effect
evaporators of improved construction, a far larger yield of sugar is
obtained from the juice than was possible of attainment in those
days, and the megass often suffices as fuel for the crop.
The multiple-effect evaporator, originally invented and con-
structed by Norberto Rilleux in New Orleans in 1840, has under-
gone many changes in design and construction since
that year. The growing demand for this system of
evaporation for application in many other industries
Evaporators, besides that of sugar has brought to the front a large
number of inventors. Forgetful or ignorant of the great prin-
ciple announced and established by Rilleux, they have mostly
devoted their energies and ingenuity to contriving all sorts of
complicated arrangements to give the juice the density required,
by passing and repassing it over the heating surface of the apparatus,
the saving of a few square feet of which would seem to have been
their main object. In some instances the result has been an addi-
tional and unnecessary expenditure of high-pressure steam, and in all
the weH-known fact — of the highest importance in this connexion —
appears to have been disregarded, that the shorter the time the
juice is exposed to heat the less inversion will take place in it, and
therefore the less will be the loss of sugar. But this competition
among inventors, whatever the incentive, has not been without
benefit, because to-day, by means of very simple improvements
in details, such as the addition of circulators and increased area
of connexions, what may be taken to be the standard type of
multiple-effect evaporator (that is to say, vertical vacuum pans
fitted with vertical heating tubes, through which passes the liquor
to be treated, and outside of which the steam or vapour circu-
lates) evaporates nearly double the quantity of water per square
foot of heating surface per hour which was evaporated by
apparatus in use so recently as 1885 — and this without any
increase in the steam pressure. That evaporation in vocuo, in a
multiple-effect evaporator, is advantageous by reason of the
increased amount of sugar obtained from a given quantity of
juice, and by reason of economy of fuel, there is no doubt, but
whether such an apparatus should be of double, triple, quadruple
or quintuple effect will depend very much on the amount of juice
to be treated per day, and the cost of fuel. Thus, supposing that
looo Ib of coal were required to work a single vacuum pan, evaporat-
ing, say, 6000 Ib of water in a given time, then 500 Ib of coal would
be required for a double-effect apparatus to do the same work,
333 ft> for a triple effect, 250 for a quadruple effect, and 200 Ib
for a quintuple effect. In some places where coal costs 6os. a ton,
and where steam is raised by coal, as in a beetroot factory, it might
pay to adopt a quintuple-effect apparatus, but on a cane-sugar
estate, where the steam necessary for the evaporator is raised by
burning the megass as fuel, and is first used in the engines working
the mills, the exhaust alone passing to the evaporator, there would
be very little, if any, advantage in employing a quadruple effect
instead of a triple effect, and practically none at all in having a
quintuple-effect apparatus, for the interest and sinking fund on the
extra cost would more than counterbalance the saving in fuel.
With the juice of some canes considerable difficulty is encountered
in keeping the heating surfaces of the evaporators clean and free
from incrustations, and cleaning by the use of acid has to be resorted
to. In places where work is carried on day and night throughout
the week, the standard type of evaporator lends itself more readily
to cleaning operations than any other. It is obviously easier to
brush out and clean vertical tubes open at both ends, and about
6 ft. long, on which the scale has already been loosened by the aid
of boiling with dilute muriatic acid or a weak solution of caustic
soda in water, than it is to clean either the inside or the outside of
horizontal tuoes more than double the length. This consideration
should be carefully remembered in the future by the planter who may
require an evaporator and by the engineer who may be called upon
to design or Construct it, and more especially by a constructor
without practical experience of the working of his constructions.
Concentration and Crystallization. — The defecated cane juice,
having lost about 70% of its bulk by evaporation in the multiple-
effect evaporator, is now syrup, and ready to enter the
vacuum pan for further concentration and crystalliza- Howard'*
tion. In a patent (No. 3607, 1812) granted to E. C.
Howard it is stated, among other things, that " water
dissolves the most uncrystallizable in preference to that which is
most crystallizable sugar," and the patentee speaks of " a discovery
I have made that no solution, unless highly concentrated, of sugar
in water can without material injury to its colouring and crystalliz-
ing power, or to both, be exposed to its boiling temperature during
the period required to evaporate such solution to the crystallizing
point." He stated that " he had made a magma of sugar and water
at atmospheric temperature, and heated the same to 190° or 200° F.
in a water or steam bath, and then added more sugar or a thinner
magma, and the whole being then in a state of imperfect fluidity,
but so as to close readily behind the stirrer, was filled into moulds
and purged " (drained). " I do further declare," he added, " that
although in the application of heat to the refining of sugar in my
said invention or process I have stated and mentioned the tempera-
ture of about 200 F. scale as the heat most proper to be used and
app|ied in order to secure and preserve the colour and crystalliz-
ability of the sugars, and most easily to be obtained with precision
and uniformity by means of the water bath and steam bath, yet when
circumstances or choice may render the same desirable I do make
use of higher temperatures, although less beneficial." Howard
at any rate saw clearly what was one of the indispensable requisites
for the economical manufacture of fine crystal sugar of good colour
— the treatment of saccharine solutions at temperatures very con-
siderably lower than 212° F., which is the temperature of water boil-
ing at normal atmospheric pressure. Nor was he long in providing
means for securing these lower temperatures. His patent (No.
3754 of 1813) describes the closed vacuum pan and the air pump
with condenser for steam by injection, the use of a thermometer
immersed in the solution in the pan, and a method of ascertaining
the density of the solution with a proof stick, and by observations
of the temperature at which, while fluid and not containing grain,
it could be kept boiling under different pressures shown by a vacuum
gauge. A table is also given of boiling points from 115° F. to
175 F., corresponding to decimal parts of an inch of mercury of
the vacuum gauge. Since Howard published his invention the
vacuum pan has been greartly improved and altered in shape and
power, and especially of recent years, and the advantages of concen-
trating in vocuo having been acknowledged, the system has been
adopted in many other industries, and crowds of inventors have
turned their attention to the principle. In endeavouring to make
a pan of less power do as much and as good work as one of greater
power, they have imagined many ingenious mechanical contrivances,
such as currents produced mechanically to promote evaporation
and crystallization, feeding the pan from many points in order
to spread the feed equally throughout the mass of sugar being
cooked, and so on. All their endeavours have obtained at best
but a doubtful success, for they have overlooked the fact that to
evaporate a given weight of water from the syrup in a vacuum
pan at least an equal weight (or in practice about 15% more) of
steam must be condensed, and the first cost of mechanical agitators,
together with the expenditure they involve for motive power and
SUGAR
maintenance, must be put against the slight saving in the heating
surface effected by their employment. On the other hand, the
advocates of admitting the feed into a vacuum pah in many minute
streams appeal rather to the ignorant and incompetent sugar-
boiler than to a man who, knowing his business thoroughly, wil
boil 150 tons of hot raw sugar in a pan in a few hours, feeding it
through a single pipe and valve 10 in. in diameter. Nevertheless
it has been found in practice, when syrups with low quotient ol
purity and high quotient of impurity are being treated, injecting
the feed at a number of different points in the pan does reduce the
time required to boil the pan, though of no practical advantage
with syrups of high quotient of purity and free from the viscosity
which impedes circulation and therefore quick boiling. Watt, when
he invented the steam engine, laid down the principles on which it
is based, and they hold good to the present day. So also the prin-
ciples laid down by Howard with respect to the vacuum pan hold
good to-day : larger pans have been made and their heating surface
has been increased, but it has been found by practice now, as it was
found then, that an ordinary worm or coil 4 in. in diameter and
50 ft. long will be far more efficient per square foot of surface than
a similar coil 100 ft. long. Thus the most efficient vacuum pans
of the present day are those which have their coils so arranged that
no portion of them exceeds 50 or 60 ft. in length; with such coils,
and a sufficient annular space in the pan free from obstruction, in
order to allow a natural down-current of the cooking mass, while an
up-current all round is also naturally produced by the action of
the heated worms or coils, rapid evaporation and crystallization
can be obtained, without any mechanical adjuncts to require
attention or afford excuse for negligence.
The choice of the size of the crystals to be produced in a given
pan depends upon the market for which they are intended. It is
of course presupposed that the juice has been properly defecated,
because without this no amount of skill and knowledge in cooking
in the pan will avail; the sugar resulting must be bad, either in
colour or grain, or both, and certainly in polarizing; power. If a
very large firm grain like sugar-candy is required the syrup when
first brought into the pan must be of low density, say 20° to 21°
Beaum£, but if a smaller grain be wanted it can easily be obtained
from syrup of 27° to 28° Beaum^. On some plantations making
sugar for particular markets and use in refineries it is the custom
to make only one class of sugar, by boiling the molasses produced
by the purging of one strike with the sugar in the next strike.
On other estates the second sugars, or sugars produced from boil-
ing molasses alone, are not purged to dryness, but when sufficiently
separated from their mother-liquor are mixed with the defecated
juice, thereby increasing its saccharine richness, and after being
converted into syrup in the usual manner are treated in the vacuum
pan as first sugars, which in fact they really are.
In certain districts, notably in the Straits Settlements, syrup is
prepared as described above for crystallization in a vacuum pan,
but instead of being cooked in vacua it is slowly boiled up in open
double-bottom pans. These pans are sometimes heated by boiling
oil, with the idea that under such conditions the sugar which is
kept stirred all the time as it thickens cannot be burnt or caramel-
ized; but the same object can be attained more economically
with steam of a given pressure by utilizing its latent heat. The
sugar thus produced, by constant stirring and evaporation almost
to dryness, forms a species of small-grained concrete. It is called
" basket sugar," and meets with a brisk sale, at remunerative
prices, among the Chinese coolies; and as the sugar as soon as
cooled is packed ready for market, without losing any weight by
draining, this branch of sugar-making is a most lucrative one where-
ever there is sufficient local demand. Very similar kinds of sugar
are also produced for local consumption in Central America and in
Mexico, under the names of ," Panela " and " Chancaca," but in
those countries the sugar is generally boiled in pans placed over
special fire-places, and the factories making it are on a comparatively
small scale, whereas in the Straits Settlements the " basket sugar
factories are of considerable importance, and are fitted with the most
approved machinery.
Curing or Preparation of Crystals for the Market. — The crystal-
lized sugar from the vacuum pan has now to be separated from the
molasses or mother-liquor surrounding; the crystals. In some
parts of Mexico and Central America this separation is still effected
by running the sugar into conical moulds, and placiag on the top
a layer of moist clay or earth which has been kneaded in a mill
into a stiff paste. The moisture from the clay, percolating through
the mass of sugar, washes away the adhering molasses and leaves
the crystals comparatively free and clear. It may be noted that
sugar that will not purge easily and freely with clay will not purge
easily and freely in centrifugals. But for all practical purposes
the system of claying sugar is a thing of the past, and the bulk of
the sugar of commerce is now purged in centrifugals, as indeed
it has been for many years. The reason is obvious. The claying
system involved the expense of large curing houses and the em-
ployment of many hands, and forty days at least were required for
completing the operation and making the sugar fit for the market,
whereas with centrifugals sugar cooked to-day can go to market
to-morrow, and the labour employed is reduced to a minimum.
When Cuba was the chief sugar-producing country making clayed
sugars it was the custom (followed in refineries and found advan-
tageous in general practice) to discharge the strike of crystallized
sugar from the vacuum pan into a receiver heated below by steam,
and to stir the mass for a certain time, and then distribute it into
the moulds in which it was afterwards clayed. When centrifugals
were adopted for purging the whole crop (they had long been used
for curing the seconder third sugars), the system then obtaining
of running the sugar into wagons or coolers, which was necessary
for the second and third sugars cooked only to string point, was
continued, but latterly " crystallization in movement, a develop-
ment of the system which forty years ago or more existed in refineries
and in Cuba, has come into general use, and with great advantage,
especially where proprietors have been able to erect appropriate
buildings and machinery for carrying out the system efficiently.
The vacuum pan is erected at a height which commands the crystal-
lizers, each of which will, as in days gone by in Cuba, hold the con-
tents of the pan, and these in their turn are set high enough to allow
the charge to fall into the feeding-trough of the centrifugals, thus
obviating the necessity of any labour to remove the raw sugar from
the time it leaves the vacuum pan to the time it falls into the
centrifugals. For this reason alone, and without taking into
consideration any increase in the yield of sugar brought about by
" crystallization in movement," the system is worthy of adoption
in all sugar factories making crystal sugar.
The crystallizers are long, horizontal, cylindrical or semi-cylin-
drical vessels, fitted with a strong horizontal shaft running from
end to end, which is kept slowly revolving. The shaft c ,
carries arms and blades fixed in such a manner that
the mass of sugar is quietly but thoroughly moved, Uxen,
while at the same time a gentle but sustained evaporation is pro-
duced by the continuous exposure of successive portions of the mass
to the action of the atmosphere. Thus also the crystals already
formed come in contact with fresh mother-liquor, and so go on
adding to their size. Some crystallizers are made entirely cylin-
drical, and are connected to the condenser of the vacuum pan; in
order to maintain a partial vacuum in them, some are fitted with
cold-water pipes to cool them and with steam pipes to heat them,
and some are left open to the atmosphere at the top. But the
efficiency of all depends on the process of almost imperceptible
yet continuous evaporation and the methodical addition of syrup,
and not on the idiosyncrasies of the experts who manage them;
and there is no doubt that in large commercial processes of manu-
facture the simpler the apparatus used for obtaining a desired
result, and the more easily it is understood, the better it will be
for the manufacturer. The sugar made from the first syrups does
not require a crystallizer in movement to prepare it for purging in
the centrifugals, but it is convenient to run the strike into the
crystallizer and so empty the pan at once and leave it ready to
commence another strike, while the second sugars will be better
for twenty-four hours' stirring and the third sugars for forty-eight
hours' stirring before going to the centrifugals. To drive these
machines electricity has been applied, with indifferent success, but
they have been very efficiently driven, each independently of the
others in the set, by means of a modification of a Pelton wheel,
supplied with water under pressure from a pumping engine. A
comparatively small stream strikes the wheel with a pressure
equivalent to a great head, say 300 ft., and as the quantity of
water and number of jets striking the wheel can be regulated with
the greatest ease and nicety, each machine can without danger be
quickly brought up< to its full speed when purging high-class sugars,
Dr allowed to run "slowly when purging low-class sugars, until the
heavy, gummy molasses have been expelled; and it can then be
brought up to its full speed for finally drying the sugar in the basket,
a boon which all practical sugar-makers will appreciate. The
water forced by the force-pump against the Pelton wheels returns
ay a waste-pipe to the tank, from which the force-pump takes
t again.
Recent Progress. — The manufacture of cane sugar has largely ,
ncreased in volume since the year 1901-1902. This, apart from
:he effect of the abolition of the sugar bounties, has been mainly the
result of the increased employment of improved processes, carried
on in improved apparatus, under skilled supervision, and with due
regard to the importance of the chemical aspects of the work.
Numerous central factories have been erected in several countries
with plant of large capacity, and many of them work day and night
or six days in the week. There were 173 of these central
factories working in Cuba in 1908-1909, among which Factorie*
the "Chaparra," in the province of Oriente, turned
out upwards of 69,000 tons of sugar in the crop of about
20 weeks, and the " Boston " had an output of about 61,000 tons
n the same time. Of the 178 factories at work in Java in 1908-
1909, nearly all had most efficient plant for treating the excellent
canes grown in that favoured island. (See Jaarboek voor suiker-
fabrikanten op Java, 13' J oar gang 1908-1909, pp. 22-61, Amster-
dam, J. H. de Bussy.) The severance of the agricultural work,
.e. cane-growing, from the manufacturing work, sugar-making,
nust obviously conduce to better and more profitable work of
}oth kinds.
SUGAR
The use of multiple-effect evaporation made it possible to raise
the steam for all the work required to be done in a well-equipped
_^ factory, making crystals, under skilful management,
by means of the bagasse alone proceeding from the
canes ground, without the aid of other fuel. The bagasse
so used is now commonly taken straight from the cane
mill to furnaces specially designed for burning it, in its moist
state and without previous drying, and delivering the hot gases
from it to suitable boilers, such as those of the multitubular type
or of the water-tube type. The value of fresh bagasse, or as it
is often called '" green ' bagasse, as fuel varies with the kind of
canes from which it comes, with their treatment in the mill, and
with the skill used in firing; but it may be stated broadly that
i ft of fresh bagasse will produce from ij lb to 2\ Ib of steam,
according to the conditions.
The use of preparing rolls with corrugations, to crush and equalize
the feed of canes to the mill, or to the first of a series of mills, has
B tractl become general. The Krajewski crusher has two such
'T. . °° steel rolls, with V-shaped corrugations extending longi-
tudinally across them. These rolls run at a speed
about 30% greater than the speed of the first mill, to which they
deliver the canes well crushed and flattened, forming a close mat of
pieces of cane 5 to 6 in. long, so that the subsequent grindrng can
be carried on without the stoppages occasioned by the mill choking
with a heavy and irregular feed. The crusher is preferably driven
by an independent engine, but with suitable gearing it can be driven
by the mill engine. The Krajewski crusher was invented some years
ago by a Polish engineer resident in Cuba, who took out a patent
for it and gave it his name. The patent has expired. The increase
in the output for a given time obtained by the use of the Krajewski
crusher has been estimated at 20 to 25 % and varies with the quality
of the canes; while the yield of juice or extraction is increased by
i or 2%.
The process of continuous defecation which was introduced into
Cuba from Santo Domingo about 1900 had by 1910 borne the
Purlfi a test °^ some ten years' use with notable success. The
Hatton defecator, which is employed for working it,
has been already described, but it may be mentioned
that the regulation of the admission of steam is now simplified
and secured by a patent thermostat — a selt-acting apparatus
in which the unequal expansion of different metals by heat actuates,
through compressed air, a diaphragm which controls the steam
stop-valve-^-and by this means a constant temperature of 210° F.
(98-8° C.) is maintained in the juice within the defecator during
the whole time it is at work.
Earthy matter and other matter precipitated and fallen on the
copper double bottom may be dislodged by a slowly revolving
scraper — say every twelve hours — and ejected through the bottom
discharge cock; and thus the heating surface of the copper bottom
will be kept in full efficiency. With ordinary care on the part of
the men in charge Hatton defecators will work continuously
for several days and nights, and the number required to deal with
a given volume of juice is half the number of ordinary defecators
of equal capacity which would do the same work; for it must be
borne in mind that an ordinary double-bottomed defecator takes
two hours to deliver^ its charge and be in readiness to receive a
fresh charge, i.e. 20 minutes for filling and washing out after empty-
ing; 60 minutes for heating up and subsiding; and 40 minutes
for drawing off the defecated juice, without agitating it. Apart
from increased yield in sugar of good quality, we may sum up the
advantages procurable from the use of Hatton defecators as follows:
cold liming; heating gently to the temperature required to coagulate
the albumen and not beyond it, whereby disturbance would ensue ;
the continuous separation of the scums; the gradual drying of the
scums _so as to make them ready for the fields, without carrying
away juice or requiring treatment in filter presses; and the con-
tinuous supply of hot defecated juice to the evaporators, without
the use of subsiding tanks or eliminators; and, finally, the saving
in expenditure on plant, such as filter presses, &c., and wages.
Beetroot Sugar Manufacture. — The sugar beet is a cultivated
variety of Beta maritima (nat. ord. Chenopodiaceae), other
varieties of which, under the name of mangold or mangel-wurzel,
are grown as feeding roots for cattle.
About 1760 the Berlin apothecary Marggraff obtained in his
laboratory, by means of alcohol, 6-2% of sugar from a white
variety of beet and 4-5% from a red variety. At the present
day, thanks to the careful study of many years, the improve-
ments of cultivation, the careful selection of seed and suitable
manuring, especially with nitrate of soda, the average beet
worked up contains 7% of fibre and 93% of juice, and yields
in Germany 12-79% and in France n-6% of its weight in sugar.
In Great Britain in 1910 the cultivation of beet for sugar was
being seriously undertaken in Essex, as the result of careful
consideration 'during several years. The pioneer experi-
ments on Lord Denbigh's estates at Newnham Paddox, in
Warwickshire, in 1900, had produced excellent results, both in
respect of the weight of the beets per acre and of the saccharine
value and purity of the juice. The average weight per acre
was over 25! tons, and the mean percentage of pure sugar in the
juice exceeded 15^. The roots were grown under exactly the
same cultivation and conditions as a crop of mangel-wurzel —
that is to say, they had the ordinary cultivation and manuring
of the usual root crops. The weight per acre, the saccharine
contents of the juice, and the quotient of purity compared
favourably with the best results obtained in Germany or France,
and with those achieved by the Suffolk farmers, who between
1868 and 1872 supplied Mr Duncan's beetroot sugar factory at
Lavenham; for the weight of their roots rarely reached 15 tons
per acre, and the percentage of sugar in the juice appears to have
varied between 10 and 12. On the best-equipped and most
skilfully managed cane sugar estates, where the climate is
favourable for maturing the cane, a similar return is obtained.
Therefore, roughly speaking, one ton of beetroot may be con-
sidered to-day as of the same value as one ton of canes; the
value of the refuse chips in one case, as food for cattle, being
put against the value of the refuse bagasse, as fuel, in the other.
Before beetroot had been brought to its present state of per-
fection, and while the factories for its manipulation were worked
with hydraulic presses for squeezing the juice out of the pulp
produced in the raperies, the cane sugar planter in the West
Indies could easily hold his own, notwithstanding the artificial
competition created and maintained by sugar bounties. But
the degree of perfection attained in the cultivation of the roots
and their subsequent manipulation entirely altered this situa-
tion and brought about the crisis in the sugar trade referred
to in connexion with the bounties (see History below) and
dealt with in the Brussels convention of 1902.
In beetroot sugar manufacture the operations are washing,
slicing, diffusing, saturating, sulphuring, evaporation, concentration
and curing.
Slicing. — The roots are brought from the fields by carts, canals
and railways. They are weighed and then dumped into a washing
machine, consisting of a large horizontal cage, submerged in water,
in which revolves a horizontal shaft carrying arms. The arms are
set in a spiral form, so that in revolving they not only stir the
roots, causing them to rub against each other, but also force them
forward from the receiving end.of the cage to the other end. Here
they are discharged (washed and freed from any adherent soil)
into an elevator, which carries them up to the top of the building
and delivers them into a hopper feeding the slicer. Slicers used
to be constructed with iron disks about 33 to 40 in. diameter,
which were fitted with knives and made 140 to 150 revolutions
per minute, under the hopper which received the roots. This
hopper was divided into two parts by vertical division plates,
against the bottom edge of which the knives in the disk forced
the roots and sliced and pulped them. Such machines were good
enough when the juice was expelled from the small and, so to
speak, chopped slices and pulp by means of hydraulic presses.
But hydraulic presses have now been abandoned, for the juice is
universally obtained by diffusion, and the small slicers have gone
out of use, because the large amount of pulp they produced in
proportion to slices is not suitable for the diffusion process, in
which evenly cut slices are required, which present a much greater
surface with far less resistance to the diffusion water. Instead
of the small slicers, machines made on the same principle, but
with disks 7 ft. and upwards in diameter, are used. Knives are
arranged around their circumference in such a way that the hopper
feeding them presents an annular opening to the disk, say 7 ft.
outside diameter and 5 ft. inside, with the necessary division plates
for the knives to cut against, and instead of making 140 to 150
revolutions the disks revolve only 60 to 70 times per minute.
Such a slicer is capable of efficiently slicing 300,000 kilos of roots
in twenty-four hours, the knives being changed four times in that
period, or oftener if required, for it is necessary to change them
the moment the slices show by their rough appearance that the
knives are losing their cutting edges.
Diffusion. — The diffusion cells are closed, vertical, cylindrical
vessels, holding generally 60 hectolitres, or 1320 gallons, and are
arranged in batteries of 12 to 14. Sometimes the cells are erected
in a circle, so that the spout below the slicing machine revolving
above them with a corresponding radius can discharge the slices
into the centre of any of the cells. In other factories the cells
are arranged in lines and are charged from the slicer by suitable
telescopic pipes or other convenient means. A circular disposition
of the cells facilitates charging by the use of a pipe rotating above
them, but it renders the disposal of the hot spent slices somewhat
SUGAR
difficult and inconvenient. The erection of the cells in straigh
lines may cause some little complication in charging, but it allow:
the hot spent slices to be discharged upon a travelling band whicl
takes them to an elevator, an arrangement simpler than any whicl
is practicable when the cells are disposed in a circle. Recently
however, a well-known sugar maker in Germany has altered his
battery in such manner that instead of having to open a large door
below the cells in order to discharge them promptly, he opens a
comparatively small valve and, applying compressed air at the top
of the cell, blows the whole contents ofspent slices up a pipe to
the drying apparatus, thus saving not only a great deal of time
but also a great deal of labour of a kind which is both arduous
and painful, especially during cold weather. The slices so blown
up, or elevated, are passed through a mill which expels the surplus
water, and are then pressed into cakes and dried until they hole
about 12% of water and 88% of beet fibre. These cakes, sole
as food for cattle, fetch as much as £4 per ton in Rumania, where
four or five beetroot factories are now at work. A cell when filled
with fresh slices becomes the head of the battery, and where skilled
scientific control can be relied upon to regulate the process, the best
and most economical way of heating the slices, previous to admitting
the hot liquor from the next cell, is by direct steam; but as the
slightest inattention or carelessness in the admission of direct steam
might have the effect of inverting sugar and thereby causing the
loss of some portion of saccharine in the slices, water heaters are
generally used, through which water is passed and heated up
previous to admission to the freshly-filled cell. When once a cell
is filled up and the slices are warmed through, the liquor from the
adjoining cell, which hitherto has been running out of it to the
saturators, is turned into the new cell, and beginning to displace
the juice from the fresh slices, runs thence to the saturators. When
the new cell comes into operation and becomes the head of the
battery, the first or tail cell is thrown out, and number two be-
comes the tail cell, and so the rounds are repeated; one cell isalways
being emptied and one filled or charged with slices and heated
up, the latter becoming the head of the battery as soon as it is
ready.
Saturation. — The juice, previously treated with lime in the
diffusion battery, flows thence into a saturator. This is a closed
vessel, into which carbonic acid gas (produced as described here-
after) is forced, and combining with the lime in the juice forms
carbonate of lime_. The whole is then passed through filter presses,
the clear juice being run off for further treatment, while the carbon-
ate of lime is obtained in cakes which are taken to the fields as
manure. The principal improvement made of recent years in this
portion of the process has been the construction of pipes through
which the carbonic acid gas is injected into the juice in such a manner
that they can be easily withdrawn and a clean set substituted. The
filter presses remain substantially unchanged, although many
ingenious but slight alterations have been made in their details.
The juice, which has now become comparatively clear, is again
treated with lime, and again passed through a saturator and filter
presses, and comes out still clearer than before. It is then treated
with sulphurous acid gas, for the purpose of decolorization, again
limed to neutralize the acid, and then passed through a third
saturator wherein all traces of lime and sulphur are removed.
A process for purifying and decolorizing the juice expressed
from beetroots by the addition of a small quantity of manganate
of lime (20 to 50 grammes per hectolitre of juice), under the influence
of an electric current, was worked with considerable success in
a sugar factory in the department of Seine-et-Marne in the year
1900-1901. A saving of 40% is stated to be effected in lime.
The use of sulphurous acid gas is entirely abandoned, and instead
of three carbonatations with corresponding labour and plant only
one is required. The coefficient of purity is increased and the
viscosity of the juice diminished. The total saving effected is
stated to be equivalent to 3 francs per ton of beetroot worked up.
This system is also being tried on a small scale with sugar-cane
juice in the West Indies. If by this process a more perfect defeca-
tion and purification of the juice is obtained, it will no doubt be
highly beneficial to the cane planter, though no great economy in
lime can be effected, because but very little is used in a cane factory
in comparison with the amount used in a beet factory.
Evaporation and Crystallization. — The clear juice thus obtained
is evaporated in a multiple-effect evaporator and crystallized in
a vacuum pan, and the sugar is purged in centrifugals. From the
centrifugal the sugar is either turned out without washing as raw
sugar, only fit for the refinery, or else it is well washed with a
spray of water and air until white and dry, and it is then offered
in the market as refined sugar, although it has never passed through
animal charcoal (bone-black). The processes of evaporation and
concentration are carried on as they are in a cane sugar factory,
but with this advantage, that the beet solutions are freer from gum
and glucose than those obtained from sugar-canes, and are therefore
easier to cook.
Curing. — There are various systems of purging refined, or so-
called refined, sugar in centrifugals, all designed with a view of
obtaining the sugar in lumps or tablets, so as to appear as if it had
been turned out from moulds and not from centrifugals, and great
ingenuity and large sums of money have been spent in perfecting
these different systems, with more or less happy results. But the
great achievement of recent manufacture is the production, without
the use of animal charcoal, of a cheaper, but good and wholesome
article, in appearance equal to refined sugar for all intents and
purposes, except for making preserves of fruits in the old-fashioned
way. The wholesale iam manufacturers of the present day use
this sugar; they boil the jam in vacua and secure a product that
will last a long time without deteriorating, but it lacks the delicacy
and distinctive flavour of fruit preserved by a careful housekeeper,
who boils it in an open pan with cane sugar to a less density, though
exposed for a short time to a greater heat.
Carbonatation. — The carbonic acid gas injected into the highly
limed juice in the saturators is made by the calcination of limestone
in a kiln provided with three cleaning doors, so arranged as to
allow the lime to be removed simultaneously from them every six
hours. The gas generated in the kiln is taken off at the top by
a pipe to a gas-washer. In this it passes through four sheets of
water, by which it is not only freed from any dust and dirt that
may have come over with it from the kiln, but is also cooled to
a temperature which permits an air-pump to withdraw the gas
from the kiln, through the gas- washer, and force it into the saturators,
without overheating. In some factories for refining sugar made
from beet or canes this system of carbonatation is used, and en-
ables the refiner to work with syrups distinctly alkaline and to
economize a notable amount of animal charcoal.
Refining. — Briefly, sugar-refining consists of melting raw or
unrefined sugar with water into a syrup of 27° to 28° Beaume,
or 1230 specific gravity, passing it through filtering cloth to
remove the sand and other matters in mechanical suspension,
and then through animal charcoal to remove all traces of colour-
ing matter and lime, thus producing a perfectly clear white
syrup, which, cooked in the vacuum pan and crystallized,
becomes the refined sugar of commerce.
Melting Pans. — The melting pans are generally circular vessels,
fitted with a perforated false bottom, on which the sugar to be
melted is dumped. The pans are provided with steam worms to
keep the mass hot as required, and with mechanical stirrers to
keep it in movement and thoroughly mixed with the water and
sweet water which are added to the sugar to obtain a solution
of the specific gravity desired. Any sand or heavy matter in
suspension is allowed to fall to the bottom of the pan into the
" sandbox " before the melted sugar is run off to the cloth filters.
In a process employed with great success in some refineries the
raw sugars are washed before being melted, and thus a purer
article is obtained for subsequent treatment. In this process the
raw sugar is mixed with a small amount of syrup so as to form a
suitable magma, and is then run into a continuous centrifugal,
where it is sufficiently washed, and from which it runs out, com-
paratively clean, into the melting pans described above.
Filters. — Taylor bag filters are generally used for clearing the
melted liquor of its mechanical impurities. They were introduced
years ago by the man whose name they still retain, but they are
rery different in construction to-day from what they were when
irst employed. They consist of tanks or cisterns fitted with
' heads " from which a number of bags of specially woven cloth
are suspended in a suitable manner, and into which the melted
sugar or liquor to be filtered flows from the melting pans. The
jags, though 60 in. or more in circumference, are folded up in
such a way that a sheath about 15 in. in circumference can be
massed over them. Thus a maximum of filtering surface with a
minimum of liquor in each bag is obtained, and a far greater
lumber of bags are got into a given area that would otherwise
)e possible, while the danger of bursting the bags by leaving them
unsupported is avoided. As the liquor goes on filtering through
the bags they gradually get filled up with slime and sludge, and
the clear liquor ceases to run. Steam is then turned on to the '
outside of the bags and sheaths, and hot water is run through
hem_ to wash out all the sweets they contain. Large doors at
the side of the cistern are then opened, and as soon as the bags
ire cool enough they are removed at the expense of very exacting
abour and considerable time, and fresh bags and sheaths are fixed
n their places ready for filtering fresh liquor. The dirty bags and
iheaths are then washed, mangled and dried, and made ready
or use again. In a refinery in Nova Scotia a system has been
ntroduced by which a travelling crane above the bag filters lifts
up any head bodily with all its bags attached, and runs it to the
mud and washing tanks at the end of the battery, while another
similar crane drops another head, fitted with fresh bags, into the
place of the one just removed. The whole operation of thus
changing a filter occupies about ten minutes, and there is no need
or anyone to enter the hot cistern to detach the bags, which are
•emoved in the open air above the mud tank. By this arrangement
he work of a refinery can be carried on with about one-half the
isterns otherwise required, because, although it does not reduce
he number of bags required per day for a given amount of
work, it enables the refiner to use one cistern twice a day with
SUGAR
43
fresh bags, instead of only once as heretofore. In some refineries
the travelling cranes are now run by electricity, which still further
facilitates the work. Another method of enabling more work to
be done in a given time in a given cistern is the use of a bag twice
the ordinary length, open at both ends. This, being folded and
placed in its sheath, is attached by both ends to the head, so that
the melted liquor runs into both openings at the same time. The
mud collects at the bottom of the (_)' ar>d allows the upper part ol
the bag to filter for a longer time than would be the case if the
bottom end were closed and if the bag hung straight like the letter |.
The clear, bright syrup coming from the bag filters passes to
the charcoal cisterns or filters. These are large cylindrical vessels
from 20 to 50 ft. high, and of such diameter as to hold a given
quantity of animal charcoal (also called " bone-black " and " char ")
in proportion to the contemplated output of the refinery. A very
usual size of cistern forming a convenient unit is one that will
hold 20 tons of char. Each cistern is fitted with a perforated
false bottom, on which a blanket or specially woven cloth is placed,
to receive the char which is poured in from the top, and packed as
evenly as possible until the cistern is filled. The char is then
" settled " by water being slowly run on to it, in order to prevent
the syrup making channels for itself and not permeating the
whole mass evenly. The cistern being thus packed and settled
is closed, and the syrup from the bag filters, heated up to nearly
boiling point, is admitted at the top until the cistern is quite full.
A small pipe entering below the false bottom allows the air in the
cistern to escape as it is displaced by the water or syrup. In some
refineries this pipe, which is carried up to a higher level than the
top of the cistern, is fitted with a whistle which sounds as long as
the air escapes. When the sound ceases the cistern is known to
be full, and the entrance of further water or syrup is stopped.
The syrup in the cistern is allowed to remain for about twelve
hours, by which time the char will have absorbed all the colouring
matter in it, as well as the lime. A cistern well packed with 20
tons of char will hold, in addition, about 10 tons of syrup, and
after settling, this can be pressed out by allowing second quality
syrup, also heated to nearly boiling point, to enter the cistern
slowly from the top, or it may be pressed out by boiling water.
By carefully watching the flow from the discharge cock of the
cistern the change from the first liquor to the next is easily de-
tected, and the discharge is diverted from the canal for the first
liquor to the canal for the second liquor, and, when required, to
the canals for the third and fourth liquors. Finally, boiling water
is admitted and forces out all the last liquor, and then continues
to run and wash out the sweets until only a trace remains. This
weak solution, called " sweet water," is sometimes used for melt-
ing the raw sugar, or it is evaporated in a multiple-effect apparatus
to 27° Beaume density, passed through the char filter, and cooked
in the vacuum pan like the other liquors. After the sweets have
come away, cold water is passed through the char until no trace
of lime or sulphate of lime is found in it; then a large manhole
at the bottom of the cistern is opened, and the washed and spent
char is removed. In most modern refineries the cisterns are so
arranged that the spent char falls on to a travelling band and is
conducted to an elevator which carries it up to the drying floor of
the charcoal kiln.
Retorts {or Reburning Char. — The kilns are made with either fixed
or revolving retorts. The former perhaps produce a little better
char, but the latter, working almost automatically, require less
labour and attention for an equal amount of work, and on the whole
have proved very satisfactory. From the drying floor on which
the spent char is heaped up it falls by gravitation into the retorts.
These are set in a kiln or oven, and are kept at as even a tempera-
ture as possible, corresponding to a dull cherry-red. Below each
retort, and attached to it, is a cooler formed of thin sheet-iron,
which receives the hot char as it passes from the retort, and at the
bottom of the cooler is an arrangement of valves which permits
a certain amount of char to drop out and no more. With the
fixed retorts these valves are worked from time to time by the
attendant, but with revolving retorts they are worked continuously
and automatically and allow from sixteen to twenty-four ounces
of char to escape per minute from each cooler, and so make room
in the retort above for a corresponding quantity to enter from the
drying floor. The reburnt and cooled char is collected and sent
back to the char cisterns. In the best-appointed refineries the
whole of the work in connexion with the char is performed mechani-
cally, with the exception of packing the filter cisterns with fresh
char and emptying the spent and washed char on to the carrying
bands. In former days, when refining sugar or " sugar baking "
was supposed to be a mystery only understood by a few of the
initiated, there was a _ place in the refinery called the "secret
room," and this name is still used in some refineries, where, how-
ever, it applies not to any room, but to a small copper cistern,
constructed with five or six or more divisions or small canals,
into which all the charcoal cisterns discharge their liquors by
pipes led up from them to the top of the cistern. Each pipe is
fitted with a cock and swivel, in such a manner that the liquor
from the cistern can be turned into the proper division according
to its quality.
Vacuum Pans and Receivers. — The filtered liquors, being collected
in the various service tanks according to their qualities, are drawn
up into the vacuum pans and boiled to crystals. These are then
discharged into large receivers, which are generally fitted with
stirrers, and from the receivers the cooked mass passes to the
centrifugal machines. As in the beetroot factories, these machines
work on different systems, but nearly all are arranged to turn out
sugar in lumps or tablets presenting an appearance similar to that
of loaf sugar made in moulds, as this kind of sugar meets with
the greatest demand. Granulated sugar, so called, is made by
passing the crystals, after leaving the centrifugals, through a large
and slightly inclined revolving cylinder with a smaller one inside
heated by steam. The sugar fed into the upper end of the cylinder
gradually works its way down to the lower, showering itself upon
the heated central cylinder. A fan blast enters the lower end, and,
passing out at the upper end, carries off the vapour produced by
the drying of the sugar, and at the same time assists the evapora-
tion. The dry sugar then passes into a rotating screen fitted with
two meshes, so that three grades of sugar are obtained, the coarsest
being that which falls out at the lower end of the revolving screen.
Recent Improvements. — Systematic feeding for the vacuum pan
and systematic washing of the massecuite have been recently
introduced not only into refineries, but also into sugar houses
or factories on plantations of both cane and beetroot, and great
advantages have resulted from their employment. The first-
mentioned process consists of charging and feeding the vacuum
pan with the richest syrup, and then as the crystals form and this
syrup becomes thereby less rich the pan is fed with syrup of lower
richness, but still of a richness equal to that of the mother-liquor
to which it is added, and so on until but little mother-liquor is
left, and that of the poorest quality. The systematic washing of
the massecuite is the reverse of this process. When the massecuite,
well pugged and prepared for purging, is in the centrifugals, it
is first washed with syrup of low density, to assist the separation
of mother-liquor of similar quality, this washing being supple-
mented by the injection of pure syrup of high density, or clairce,"
when very white sugar is required. The manufacturers who have
adopted this system assert that, as compared with other methods,
not only do they obtain an increased yield of sugar of better quality,
but that they do so at a less cost for running their machines and
with a reduced expenditure in sugar and " clairce." " Clairce " is
the French term for syrup of 27° to 30° Beaum6 specially prepared
from the purest sugar.
Apart from modifications in the details of sugar refining which
have come into use in late years, it should be mentioned that loaf
sugar made in conical moulds, and sugars made otherwise, to re-
semble loaf sugar, have practically disappeared from the trade,
having been replaced by cube sugar, which is found to be more
economical as subject to less waste by grocers and housekeepers,
and also less troublesome to buy and sell. Its manufacture was
introduced into England many years ago by Messrs Henry Tate &
Sons, and they subsequently adopted and use now the improved
process and apparatus patented in March 1890 by M Gustave
Adant, a foreman sugar refiner of Brussels.
The following is a brief description of the process and apparatus,
as communicated by the courtesy of Messrs Henry Tate & Sons, Ltd. :
Groups of cells or moulds are built within and against a cylindrical
iron casing, by means of vertical plates inserted in grooves and
set radially to the axis of the casing. Each cell is of suitable dimen-
sions to turn out a slab of sugar about 14 in. long — this being
about the height of the cell — and about 8 in. wide and about
J in. to I in. thick. By means of a travelling crane the casing is
placed within an iron drum, to which it is secured, and is then
brought under an overhead vacuum pan, from which the cells are
filled with massecuite. After cooling, the casing is lifted out of
the drum by a crane, assisted by compressed air, and is then con-
veyed by a travelling crane to a vertical centrifugal, inside of which
it is made fast. Suitable provision is made for the egress of syrup
from the massecuite in the cells when undergoing purging in the
centrifugal ; and the washing of the crystals can be aided by the
injection of refined syrup and completed by that of " clairce."
When this is done, the casing is hoisted out of the centrifugal and
the vertical plates and the slabs of sugar are extracted. The slabs
are sent by a conveyor to a drying stove, whence they issue to pass
through a cutting machine, provided with knives so arranged
that the cutting takes place both downwards and upwards, and here
the slabs are cut into cubes. The cubes fall from the cutting machine
pn to a riddling machine, which separates those which are defective
in size from the rest. These latter pass to automatic weighing
machines, which drop them, in quantities of I cwt., into wooden
aoxes of uniform measurement, made to contain that weight;
and the boxes are then conveyed to the storehouse, ready for sale.
History and Statistics. — Strabo xv. i. 20, has an inaccurate
notice from Nearchus of the Indian honey-bearing reed, and
various classical writers of the first century of our era notice
:he sweet sap of the Indian reed or even the granulated salt-
"ike product which was imported from IndJa, or from Arabia
44
SUGAR
and Opone (these being entrepots of Indian trade),1 under the
name of saccharum or ff&.Kx.a-pi (from Skr. sarkara, gravel,
sugar), and used in medicine. The art of boiling sugar
was known in Gangetic India, from which it was carried to
China in the first half of the yth century; but sugar refining
cannot have then been known, for the Chinese learned the use
of ashes for this purpose only in the Mongol period, from
Egyptian visitors.2 The cultivation of the cane in the West
spread from Khuzistan in Persia. At Gunde-Shapur in this region
" sugar was prepared with art " about the time of the Arab
conquest,3 and manufacture on a large scale was carried on at
Shuster, Sus and Askar-Mokram throughout the middle ages.4
It has been plausibly conjectured that the art of sugar refining,
which the farther East learned from the Arabs, was developed
by the famous physicians of this region, in whose pharmacopoeia
sugar had an important place. Under the Arabs the growth
and manufacture of the cane spread far and wide, from India
to Sus in Morocco (EdrisI, ed. Dozy, p. 62), and were also
introduced into Sicily and Andalusia.
In the age of discovery the Portuguese and Spaniards
became the great disseminators of the cultivation of sugar;
the cane was planted in Madeira in 1420; it was carried
to San Domingo in 1494; and it spread over the occupied
portions of the West Indies and South America early in
the i6th century. Within the first twenty years of the
i6th century the sugar trade of San Domingo expanded with
great rapidity, and it was from the dues levied on the
imports brought thence to Spain that Charles V. obtained
funds for his palace-building at Madrid and Toledo. In the
middle ages Venice was the great European centre of the sugar
trade, and towards the end of the isth century a Venetian
citizen received a reward of 100,000 crowns for the invention of
the art of making loaf sugar. One of the earliest references to
sugar in Great Britain is that of 100,000 Ib of sugar being shipped
to London in 1319 by Tomasso Loredano, merchant of Venice,
to be exchanged for wool. In the same year there appears in the
accounts of the chamberlain of Scotland a payment at the rate
of is. 9$d. per Ib for sugar. Throughout Europe it continued
to be a costly luxury and article of medicine only, till the
increasing use of tea and coffee in the i8th' century brought
it into the list of principal food staples. The increase in the
consumption is exemplified by the fact that, while in 1700 the
amount used in Great Britain was 10,000 tons, in 1800 it had
risen to 150,000 tons, and in 1885 the total quantity used was
almost 1,100,000 tons.
In 1747 Andreas Sigismund Marggraf, director of the physical
classes in the Academy of Sciences, Berlin, discovered the
existence of common sugar in beetroot and in numerous other
fleshy roots which grow in temperate regions. But no practical
use was made of the discovery during his lifetime. The first
to establish a beet-sugar factory was his pupil and successor,
Franz Carl Achard, at Cunern (near Breslau) in Silesia in 1801.
The processes used were at first very imperfect, but the extra-
ordinary increase in the price of sugar on the Continent caused
by the Napoleonic policy gave an impetus to the industry,
'Lucan iii. 237; Seneca, Epist. 84; Pliny, H.N. xii. 8 (who
supposes that sugar was produced in Arabia as well as in India);
Peripl. mar. Eryth. § 14; Dioscorides ii. 104. The view, often
repeated, that the saccharum of the ancients is the hydrate of
silica, sometimes found in bamboos and known in Arabian medicine
as tabashir, is refuted by Yule, Anglo-Indian Glossary, p. 654; see
also Not. et extr. des MSS. de la bibl. nat. xxv. 267 seq.
8 Marco Polo, ed. Yule, ii. 208, 212. In the middle ages the best
sugar came from Egypt (Kazwini i. 262), and in India coarse sugar
is still called Chinese and fine sugar Cairene or Egyptian.
1 So the Armenian Geography ascribed to Moses of Chorene
(q.v. for the date of the work) ; St Martin, M6m. sur VArmenie,
11. 372.
4 Istakhri p. 91; Yakut ii. 497. Tha'alibi, a writer of the nth
to the sultan in annual tribute (Lafaif, p. 107).' The names of
sugar in modern European languages are derived through the
Arabic from the Persian shakar.
and beetroot factories were established at many centres both
in Germany and in France. In Germany the enterprise came
to an end almost entirely with the downfall of Napoleon I.;
but in France, where at first more scientific and economical
methods of working were introduced, the manufacturers were
able to keep the industry alive. It was not, however, till after
1830 that it secured a firm footing; but from 1840 onwards it
advanced with giant strides.
Under the bounty system, by which the protectionist countries
of Europe stimulated the beet sugar industry by bounties on
exports, the production of sugar in bounty-paying countries
was encouraged and pushed far beyond the limits it could
have reached without state aid. At the same time the con-
sumption of sugar was greatly restricted owing to the
heavy excise duties imposed mainly to provide for the payment
of the bounties. The very large quantity of output made
available for export under these exceptional conditions
brought about the flooding of the British and other markets
with sugars at depressed prices, not unfrequently below the prime
cost of production, to the harassment of important industries
carried on by British refiners and sugar-growing colonies. In
these circumstances, the British government sent out invita-
tions on the 2nd of July 1887 for an international conference to
meet in London. The conference met, and on the 3Oth of August
1888 a convention was signed by all the powers represented
except France — namely, by Austria, Belgium, Germany, Great
Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Spain. France
withdrew because the United States was not a party to it. The
first article declared that " The high contracting parties engage
to take such measures as shall constitute an absolute and com-
plete guarantee that no open or disguised bounty shall be granted
on the manufacture or exportation of sugar." The seventh
article provided that bountied sugars (sucres primis) must be
excluded from import into. the territories of the signatory powers,
by absolute prohibition of entry or by levying thereon a special
duty in excess of the amount of the bounties, from which duty
sugars coming from the contracting countries, and not bounty-
fed, must be free. The convention was to be ratified on the
ist of August 1890, and was to be put in force on the ist of
September 1891.
The convention of 1888 was never ratified, and it is doubtful
whether its ratification was urged, for a bill introduced by the
British government in 1889 to give it effect was not pressed,
and it was manifest that there was hesitation — which presently
became refusal — to uphold the policy of the penalties on the
importation of bountied sugar imposed by the seventh article,
without which the convention would be so much waste paper.
Eight years later, on the ist of August 1896, the bounties
offered by the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary
were approximately doubled, and France had a bill in prepara-
tion to increase hers correspondingly, although it was computed
that they were even then equivalent to a grant of £3, 53. per ton.
So wrote Mr Chamberlain, the colonial secretary, on the gth
of November following, to the treasury. The minute plainly
stated that it had become a question whether the continued
enjoyment of advantages resulting from the importation of ,
cheap bounty-fed sugar to some British industries did not
involve the ruin of the British sugar-producing colonies; and
that he was not prepared, as secretary of state for the colonies,
to accept the responsibility of allowing matters to take their
course and to acquiesce in the policy of non-intervention hitherto
pursued in regard to the bounties without having satisfied
himself as to what such a policy might entail as regarded both
the colonies and the exchequer. Mr Chamberlain concluded
by asking whether the treasury would consent to sending a
royal commission to the West Indies to inquire into the effect
of the foreign sugar bounties on their principal industry.
The treasury accepted the proposal, and a royal commission
proceeded to the West Indies in December 1896, and reported a
few months later in 1897. Only one commissioner, however,
denounced the bounties as the real cause of the utter breakdown
of trade and of the grievous distress which all three had witnessed
SUGAR
45
and fully acknowledged. But the minute and commission were
not barren of result. A fresh conference of the powers assembled
at Brussels, on the invitation of the Belgian government, on the
7th of June 1898; and although the British delegates were not
empowered to consent to a penal clause imposing counter-
vailing duties on bounded sugar, the Belgian premier, who pre-
sided, was able to assure them that if Great Britain would agree
to such a clause, he could guarantee the accession of the govern-
ments of Germany, Austria, Holland and his own. Of all the
countries represented — Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium,
Spain, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia and
Sweden — only one, namely France, was opposed to the com-
plete suppression of all export bounties, direct or indirect;
and Russia declined to discuss the question of her internal
legislation, contending that her system did not amount to a
bounty on exportation.
Apart from the proceedings at the sittings, much of the actual
work of the conference was done by informal discussion, under-
taken to discover some means of arriving at a common under-
standing. Was a compromise possible which would bring about
a satisfactory settlement? The British delegates wrote that
it appeared that there were at that time but two methods of
securing the suppression of the bounty system — an arrangement
for limitation of the French and Russian bounties acceptable
to the other sugar-producing states, in return for the total
abolition of their bounties; or, a convention between a certain
number of these states, providing for the total suppression of
their bounties, and for the prohibition of entry into their terri-
tory of bounty-fed sugars, or countervailing duties prohibiting
importation.
The Belgian government thought a compromise might be
possible. A proposal was annexed to the prods-verbal of the
final sitting, and the president closed the first session of
the conference on the 2Sth of June 1898 with the expression
of a hope that the delegates would soon reassemble.
The annual aggregate output of cane and date sugar in India
was short of 4,000,000 tons. Exportation had long ceased,
partly owing to the bountied competition of beet sugar, and
partly because the people had become able to afford the con-
sumption of a greater quantity than they produced; and German
and Austrian sugars were pouring into the country to supply the
deficiency. But the importation of foreign sugar, cheapened
by foreign state aid to a price which materially reduced the
fair and reasonable profit of native cultivators, was a state of
things the Indian government could not accept. On the 2oth
of March 1899 an act, authorizing the imposition of countervail-
ing duties on bounty-fed articles at the port of importation,
was passed by the Council of India, and received the assent of
the governor-general.
This decisive step was not long in making itself felt in the
chanceries of Europe. In October 1900 a conditional agree-
ment for the reduction of the bounties was made in Paris
between France, Germany and Austria-Hungary; in February
1901 the Belgian government proposed a new session of the Con-
ference of 1898, and on the i6th of December following Brussels
welcomed once more the delegates of all the powers, with the
exception of Russia, to the eighth European Sugar Bounty Con-
ference since that of Paris in 1862. The discussion lasted over
eight sittings, but the conference, to which the British delegates
had come with powers to assent to a penal clause, arrived at an
understanding, and a convention was signed in March 1902.
This was ratified on the ist of February 1903, subject to a
declaration by Great Britain that she did not consent to
penalize bounty-fed sugar from the British colonies.
It was "agreed " to suppress the direct and indirect bounties
which might benefit the production or export of sugar, and not to
establish bounties of this kind during the whole duration of the
convention," which was to come into force on the ist of September
1903, and to remain in force five years, and thenceforward from
year to year, in case no state denounced it twelve months before
the 1st of September in any year. A permanent commission was
established to watch its execution.
Sugars polarizing
From .
To . .
75°
88°
88°
93°
65°
98°
90°
98°
88°
99°
93°
99i°
98°o
100°
100°
99i°
100°
Bounties (per
cwt.)
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d
s d-
* d
s d
s d
s d
Countries-
Russia .
Austria-
233
2 II
•i
34-65
Hungary
i
1
2
13
193
France .
4 4*
Crystals
4 <H
Refined
Germany
I
3
(6
193
Sugars classed as
(per cwt.)
Raw
Sugar.
Refined Sugar.
Countries —
s.
H.
s. d.
Belgium
I
10
2 2}
Denmark .
076
Sugars analysing in pure sugar (per cwt.)
Hard Dry Refined.
Less than .
98%
98 % and over
(Additional)
Country —
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
Holland . .
i 10-8
6
o
The full text in French, with an English translation, of the
Sugar Convention, signed at Brussels on the 5th of March 1902
by the plenipotentiaries of the governments of Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Belgium, Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, the Nether-
lands and Sweden, will be found in a return presented to parliament
in April 1902 (Miscellaneous, No. 5, 1902, Cd. 1013).
TABLE I. — Amounts (reduced to English money per cwt. avoir-
dupois) of the total net sugar bounties granted by European powers,
according to the computation issued by the secretary of the United
States treasury on the 1 2th of December 1898.
Sir H. Bergne reported on the 27th of July 1907 to Sir Edward
Grey that —
" The permanent session had met in special session on the 25th
of July, to consider the suggestion of His Britannic Majesty's
government to the effect that, if Great Britain could be relieved
from the obligation to enforce the penal provisions of the conven-
tion, they would be prepared not to give notice on the 1st of Sep-
tember next of their intention to withdraw on the 1st of September
1908 a notice which they would otherwise feel bound to give at
the appointed time "; and he added that " At this meeting, a very
general desire was expressed that, in these circumstances, arrange-
ments should, if possible, be made which would permit Great
Britain to remain a party to the Sugar Convention."
On the ist of August 1907 the Belgian minister in London
transmitted to Sir Edward Grey a draft, additional act pre-
pared by the commission for carrying out the proposal of His
Britannic Majesty's government, and on the 28th of August
following an additional act was signed at Brussels by the
plenipotentiaries of the contracting parties, by which they
undertook to maintain the convention of the $th of March
1902 in force for a fresh period of five years.
On the 2nd of December 1907 Sir H. Bergne wrote to the
foreign office from Brussels, reporting that a special session
of the permanent commission, established under the sugar
bounties convention, had opened on the i8th of November, and
the principal matter for its consideration had been the applica-
tion of Russia to become a party to the convention on special
terms. A protocol admitting Russia to the sugar convention
was signed at Brussels on the igth of December 1907.
Sir A. H. Hardinge on behalf of Great Britain made the
following declaration: —
" The assent of His Majesty's government to the present protocol
is limited to the provisions enabling Russia to adhere to the con-
vention, and does not imply assent to the stipulation tending to
restrict the importation of Russian sugar."
When, in April 1908, Mr Asquith became premier, and Mr
Lloyd George chancellor of the exchequer, the sugar convention
46
SUGAR
TABLE II.
The world's trade in cane and beet sugar in tons avoirdupois at decennial periods from 1840 to 1870, inclusive, and yearly from_ 1 871 to
1901 inclusive, with the percentage of beet sugar and the average price per cwt. in shillings and pence. Tons avoirdupois
of 2240 ft = ioi6 kilogrammes.
Year.
Cane.
Beet.
Total.
Per cent.
Beet.
Average
price
per cwt.
Year.
Cane.
Beet.
Total.
Per cent.
Beet.
Average
price
per cwt.
s. d.
s. d.
1840
,100,000
50,000
1,150,000
4-35
48 o
1884-1885
2,351,000
2,545,000
4,896,000
51-98
12 4
1850
,200,000
200,000
1,400,000
14-29
40 o
1885-1886
2,339.000
2,223,000
4,562,000
48-72
13 «
i860
,510,000
389,000
1,899,000
20-43
35 o
1886-1887
2,345,000
2,733.000
5,078,000
53-82
u 9
1870
,585,000
831,000
2,416,000
34-40
32 o
1887-1888
2,465,000
2,451,000
4,916,000
49-85
12 9
1871-1872
,599,000
,020,000
2,619,000
38-95
24 9
1888-1889
2,263,000
2,725,000
4,988,000
54-63
14 10
1872-1873
,793,000
,210,000
3,003,000
40-29
24 8
1889-1890
2,069,000
3,633,000
5,702,000
63-71
15 i
1873-1874
,840,000
,288,000
3,128,000
41-17
22 IO
1890-1891
2,555.000
3,710,000
6,265,000
59-21
14 o
1874-1875
,712,000
,219,000
2,931,000
41-59
2O I
1891-1892
2,852,000
3,501,000
6,353.000
55-10
13 6
1875-1876
,590,000
,343,000
2,933,000
45-78
18 i
1892-1893
3,045,000
3,428,000
6,473,000
52-95
14 3
1876-1877
,673,000
,045,000
2,718,000
38-44
22 8
1893-1894
3,490,000
3,890,000
7,380,000
52-7I
13 5
1877-1878
,825,000
,419,000
3,244,000
43-74
23 o
1894-1895
3,530,000
4,792,000
8,322,000
57-75
9 II
1878-1879
,010,000
,571,000
3,581,000
43-&9
19 2
1895-1896
2,830,000
4.315,000
7,145,000
50-30
10 7
1879-1880
,852,000
,402,000
3,254,000
43-08
19 3
1896-1897
2,864,000
4,954,000
7,818,000
56-18
9 3
1880-1881
,911,000
,748,000
3,659,000
46-13
20 4
1897-1898
2,898,000
4,872,000
7,770,000
62-70
II 9
1881-1882
2,060,000
,782,000
3,842,000
46-38
20 4
1898-1899
2,995,000
4,977,000
7,972,000
62-70
n 9
1882-1883
2,107,000
2,147,000
4,254,000
50-47
2O 2
1899-1900
2,904,000
5,510,000
8,414,000
65-48
ii 6
1883-1884
2,323,000
2,361,000
4,684,000
50-40
16 8
1900-1901
2,850,000
5,950,000
8,800,000
67-61
II 6
The quantities of cane sugar are based on the trade circulars of Messrs Willett & Gray of New York; those of beet sugar on the
trade circulars of Messrs F. O. Licht of Magdeburg; and the prices are obtained from statements supplied by importers into the
United States of the cost in foreign countries of the sugars which they import. The table has been adapted from the Monthly
Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, January 1902, prepared in the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department,
Washington Government Printing Office, 1902.
TABLE III.
Quantities of raw and refined cane and beet sugar in tons avoirdupois imported into the United Kingdom in 1870 and in 1875, and
yearly from 1880 to 1901 inclusive, with the consumption per head of the population in ft and the price per cwt. of raw
and refined sugar. •
Year.
Raw Cane.
Raw Beet.
Refined Cane.
Refined Beet.
Total.
Consumption per head.
Total.
Price per cwt.
Raw.
Refined.
Raw.
Refined.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
ft
ft
ft
s. d.
s. d.
1870
556,000
84,000
3,000
82,000
725,000
—
—
—
—
—
i875
705,000
107,000
16,000
128,000
956,000
50-64
8-88
59-52
21 2
30 4
1880
590,000
260,000
11,000
140,000
1,001,000
51-09
9-46
6o-55
21 9
29 5
1881
623,000
310,000
5,000
135,000
1,071,000
56-01
8-44
64-45
21 9
28 ii
1882
726,000
265,000
6,000
133,000
1,130,000
58-78
8-38
67-16
21 I
28 8
1883
597,000
420,000
7,000
157,000
1,183,000
58-73
9-87
68-10
2O I
27 2
1884
582,000
399,000
53,000
160,000
1,194,000
55-57
12-58
68-15
15 6
28 II
1885
561,000
410,000
114,000
152,000
1,237,000
55-46
15-75
71-21
13 10
18 2
1886
468,000
339,000
71,000
247,000
1,125,000
44-61
18-75
63-36
13 o
16 8
1887
439,000
461,000
39.000
311,000
,250,000
50-80
20-25
71-05
12 I
15 8
1888
574,000
319,000
2,000
342,000
,237,000
47-97
19-99
67-96
13 5
17 8
1889
470,000
407,000
1,000
448,000
,326,000
48-38
26-54
74-92
15 5
19 8
1890
283,000
503,000
15,000
484,000
,285,000
42-87
28-22
71-09
12 6
16 4
1891
349,000
461,000
27,000
540,000
,377,000
45-08
32-94
78-02
12 IO
16 6
1892
386,000
429,000
2,000
529,000
,346,000
44-58
30-63
75-21
13 o
i" i
1893
368,000
434,000
2,000
575,000
,379,000
42-41
33-17
75-58
14 2
18 4
1894
324,000
391,000
,000
696,000
,412,000
37-18
39-90
77-08
II 5
15 6
1895
388,000
463,000
,000
706,000
,558,000
45-28
40-10
85-38
9 7
13 4
1896
381,000
406,000
,000
738,000
,526,000
40-94
41-53
82-47
10 5
13 7
1897
242,000
434,000
,000
793,000
,469,000
34-52
43-92
78-44
9 o
12 3
1898
286,000
478,000
,000
825,000
,560,000
39-89
45-29
85-18
9 8
12 5
1899
186,000
469,000
,000
889,000
,545,000
35-63
^8-68
84-31
10 6
12 7
1900
150,000
512,000
,000
961,000
,624,000
35-48
52-23
87-71
10 5
12 Ift
1901
178,472
526,451
,000
1,079,553
,785,476
36-80
56-40
93-20
10 6
12 O
of 1902 had thus been renewed in a modified form. Great
Britain, instead of agreeing to prohibit the importation of
bounty-fed sugar, was allowed to permit it under certain limits.
Russia, which gave bounties, was to be allowed to send into
European markets not more than 1,000,000 tons within the
next five years, and Great Britain undertook to give certificates
guaranteeing that sugar refined in the United Kingdom and
exported had not been bounty-fed. The renewal of the con-
vention was disapproved by certain Liberal politicians, who in-
sisted that the price of sugar had. been raised by the convention;
and Sir Edward Grey said that the government had intended
to denounce the convention, but other countries had urged that
Great Britain had induced them to enter into it, and to alter
their fiscal system for that purpose, and it would be unfair to
upset the arrangement. Besides, denunciation would not have
meant a return to prior conditions; for other countries would
have continued the convention, and probably with success,
and would have proposed prohibitive or retaliatory duties in
respect of British sugar, with bad results politically. Still the
British government had been prepared to denounce the con-
vention in view of the penal clause which had ensured the ex-
clusion of bounty-fed sugar, either directly or through the
imposition of an extra duty. But this had been removed, and
it was now unreasonable to insist on denunciation. Russia
would have made the same arrangement she had obtained
had we seceded from the convention. She had formerly sent
to England about 40,000 tons of sugar yearly; she might now
send 200,000 tons. Was this limitation a reason for sacrificing
the advantages we had gained? Under the original terms
of the convention Great Britain might have been asked to close
her ports to sugar proceeding from one country or another.
This was now impossible.
SUGAR
TABLE IV.
47
The cane and beet sugar crops of the world fer 1909-1910, with the average of the crops for the seven preceding years from 1902-1903,
in tons of 2240 II).
A. — Cane sugar (compiled from the Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal of Messrs Willett & Gray of New York, and books and reports
published under the authority of the government of India).
Country.
Crop.
1909-1910
Average crop
for 7 years end-
ing 1908-1909.
Country.
Crop.
1909-1910
Average crop
for 7 years end-
ing 1908-1909.
Africa —
Egypt
Tons avoirdupois.
55.000
Tons avoirdupois.
67,592
Venezuela
Tons avoirdupois.
3.0OO
Tons avoirdupois.
3.OOO
Mauritius
220,000
183,688
Total in America .
3,955,000
3,107,252
Reunion
Natal
45,000
45,000
33-299
27,857
Total in Africa . . .
365,000
312,436
Asia —
America — .
Argentina
120,000
132,410
British India and Depen-
dencies
3,750,000
3,6OO,OOO
Brazil
276,000
218,214
China
1,000,000
1,000,000
British Colonies —
Trinidad
45,000
45.232
Dutch Colony —
Java and Madoera
1,200,000
1-019,739
Barbadoes ....
40,000
37,492
Japan and Formosa .
130,000
94,225
Jamaica
Antigua and St Kitts .
12,000
25,000
13,253
21.857
United States possession —
Philippine Islands
145,000
125,468
Demerara
Lesser Antilles
6.OOO
10,715
Siam
Total in Asia .
7,000
6 232 ooo
6,000
c 8d5 d.32
Total in British Colonies
Costa Rica
243,OOO
2,5OO
243,471
2,657
Cuba
I,7OO,OOO
1,180,203
Danish Colony, St Croix
IS.OOO
12,857
Dutch Colony, Surinam
15,000
13,149
French Colonies —
Martinique ....
4O,OOO
34,279
Queensland ....
New South Wales .
136,000
14,500
49,920
144,000
20,706
Guadeloupe ....
40,000
37,500
Total in Australia and
Total in French Colonies
8o,OOO
71-779
Polynesia ....
219,500
214,634
Ecuador
7,000
6,143
Guatemala
7,5oo
8,016
Europe —
Haiti and Santo Domingo .
90,000
56,043
Spain
16,000
19,473
Mexico
130,000
114,790
Total in Europe .
16,000
19,473
Nicaragua
4.500
4,260
Peru
150,000
H3,6i9
Summary —
Salvador
6,500
5,646
Africa
365,000
312.436
United States —
America
Asia
3,955,000
6 232 ooo
3,107,252
c gdC A12
Louisiana
Texas
325,000
10,000
300,714
9,571
Australia and Polynesia .
Europe
219,500
16 ooo
214,634
TO A*l\
Porto Rico ....
280,000
176,286
Hawaiian Islands .
490,000
404,424
Total production of cane
Total in United States .
1,105,000
890,995
sugar in the world
10,787,500
9,499,227
B. — Beet sugar (compiled from data furnished by the Statistisches Bureau fur die Rtibenzucker Industrie des Deutschen Reiches, of
Mr F. O. Licht, Magdeburg).
Country.
Crop,
1902-1903.
Crop,
1903-1904.
Crop,
1904-1905.
Crop,
1905-1906.
Crop,
1906-1907.
Crop,
1907-1908.
Crop,
1908-1909.
Estimated
crop,
1909-1910.
Average of 7
years 1902-1903
to 1908-1909.
Austria-Hungary .
Belgium ....
Denmark ....
France
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,040,987
220,550
36,004
820,050
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,149,516
200,233
46,258
70 1. 60 5
Tons
avoirdupois.
875-383
173,679
44,161
6l2.t;Q2
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,485,944
.323,577
64,958
I.O72.4.7'?
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,322,716
278,338
65,942
744.. I ^
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,402,157
228,682
53,H7
716 218
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,376,501
254,258
64,367
70,1 -IT 2
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,240,102
246,051
63,973
oil 97O
Tons
avoirdupois.
1,236,172
239,902
53-548
7Q7 0^8
Germany ....
Holland ....
Italy . ...
Russia
United States .
Other countries
1,734,624
100,793
82,433
1,236,469
192,376
201,510
1,897,234
121,600
128,794
1,187,848
204,847
249,254
1,572,923
134-394
77,143
938,565
206,410
205,548
2,379,959
203,912
92,433
953,204
279,236
246,384
2,203,810
178,551
104,702
1,417,386
426,171
289,220
2,095-959
172,417
133,818
1,387,732
433,248
268,498
2,049,951
210,958
l62,7OI
1.237,530
377,945
289,935
2,007,780
196,841
114,168
1,131,840
418,288
274,594
',990,637
160,375
111,718
1,194,105
302,890
250,050
Total crop of the world
5,665,796
5,977,189
4,840,798
7,102,080
7,030,989
6,891,876
6,818,458
6,505,607
6,332,455
The matter temporarily dropped, but certain Liberal members
of parliament continued to press for the withdrawal of Great
Britain from the convention, it being stated that a promise had
been privately given by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman that
the government would withdraw as soon as practicable. On
the ijth of July 1908, Mr Asquith said that Sir Edward Grey
had announced in the House of Commons on the 6th of June
1907 that the British government intended to negotiate with
the powers for the renewal of the convention, on condition that
they would relinquish the penal clause, and that none of
the obligations in the convention as renewed were penal or
required statutory authority.
Tables II., III. (p. 773) and IV. (p. 774) give statistics of cane
and beet sugar production.
The quantities for India have been computed from information fur-
nished by the India office, and publications made under authority
of the secretary of state and the commercial intelligence department
of the Indian government.
The whole of the sugar produced in India is consumed in the
country and sugar is imported, the bulk of it being cane sugar coming
from Mauritius and Java, and about 85% of the import is of high
quality resembling refined sugar.
SUGAR-BIRD—SUGGESTION
It would appear that the purchasing power of the ^inhabitants
of India has increased of late years, and there is a growing demand
for refined sugar, fostered by the circumstance that modern pro-
cesses of manufacture can make a quality of sugar, broadly speaking,
equal to sugar refined by animal charcoal, without using charcoal,
and so the religious objections to the refined sugars of old days
have been overcome. (A. CH. ; V. W. CH.)
SUGAR-BIRD, the English name commonly given in the West
India Islands to the various members of the genus Certhiola,
(belonging to the Passerine family Coerebidae1) for their habit
of frequenting the curing-houses where sugar is kept, apparently
attracted thither by the swarms of flies. They often come into
dwelling-houses, hopping from one piece of furniture to another
and carefully exploring the surrounding objects with intent to
find a spider or insect. In their figure and motions they remind
a northern naturalist of a nuthatch, while their coloration —
black, yellow, olive, grey and white — recalls to him a titmouse.
They generally keep in pairs and build a domed but untidy nest,
laying therein three eggs, white, blotched with rusty-red.
Many species are recognized, some of them with a very limited
range; three are continental, with a joint range extending from
southern Mexico to Peru, Bolivia and south-eastern Brazil,
while others are peculiar to certain of the Antilles, and several
of them to one island only. Thus C. caboti is limited, so far
as is known, to Cozumel (off Yucatan), C. tricolor to Old Provi-
dence, C. flaveola (the type of the genus) to Jamaica, and so
on, while islands that are in sight of one another are often
inhabited by different " species." The genus furnishes an ex-
cellent example of the effects of isolation in breaking up an
original form, while there is comparatively little differentiation
among the individuals which inhabit a large and continuous
area. The non-appearance of this genus in Cuba is very
remarkable. (A. N.)
SU6ER (c. 1081-1151), French ecclesiastic, statesman and
historian, was born of poor parents either in Flanders, at St
Denis near Paris or at Toury in Beauce. About 1091 he
entered the abbey of St Denis. Until about 1 104 he was educated
at the priory of St Denis de 1'Estree, and there first met his
pupil King Louis VI. From 1104 to 1106 Suger attended
another school, perhaps that attached to ^he abbey of St
Benoit-sur-Loire. In 1106 he became secretary to the abbot of
St Denis. In the following year he was made provost of Berneval
in Normandy, and in 1109 of Toury. In 1118 he was sent
by Louis VI. to the court of Pope Gelasius II. at Maguelonne,
and lived from 1121 to 1122 at the court of his successor,
Calixtus n. On his return from Italy Suger was appointed
abbot of St Denis. Until 1127 he occupied himself at court
mainly with the temporal affairs of the kingdom, while during
the following decade he devoted himself to the reorganization
and reform of St Denis. In 1137 he accompanied the future
king, Louis VII., into Aquitaine on the occasion of that prince's
marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, and during the second
crusade was one of the regents of the kingdom (1147-1149).
He was bitterly opposed to the king's divorce, having himself
advised the marriage. Although he disapproved of the second
crusade, he himself, at the time of his death, on the 3ist of
January 1151, was preaching a new crusade.
Suger was the friend and counsellor both of Louis VI.
and Louis VII. He urged the king to destroy the feudal
bandits, was responsible for the royal tactics in dealing with
the communal movements, and endeavoured to regularize the
administration of justice. He left his abbey, which possessed
considerable property, enriched and embellished by the con-
struction of a new church built in the nascent Gothic style.
Suger was the foremost historian of his time. He was the
1 Known in French as Guitguits, a name used for them also by
some English writers. The Guitguit of Hernandez (Rer. medic. N.
hisp. thesaurus, p. 56), a name said by him to be of native
origin, can hardly be determined, though thought by Montbeillard
(Hist. nat. oiseaux, v. 529) to be what is now known as Coereba.
caerulea, but that of later writers is C. cyanea. The name is probably
pnomatopoetic, and very likely analogous to the " quit applied
in Jamaica to several small birds.
author of a panegyric on Louis VI. (Vita Ludovici regis), and
part-author of the perhaps more impartial history of Louis VII.
(Hisloria gloriosi regis Ludovici). In his Liber de rebus in
administratione sua geslis, and its supplement Libellus de con-
secratione ecdesiae S. Dionysii, he treats of the improvements he
had made to St Denis, describes the treasure of the church, and
gives an account of the rebuilding. Suger's works served to
imbue the monks of St Denis with a taste for history, and
called forth a long series of quasi-official chronicles.
See O. Cartellieri, Abt Suger von Saint-Denis (Berlin, 1898); A.
Luchaire, Louis le Gros (Paris, 1890); F. A. Gervaise, Hisloire de
Suger (Paris, 1721).
SUGGESTION. By the older British writers on psychology
the words " suggest " and " suggestion " were used in senses very
close to those which they have in common speech; one idea was
said to suggest another when it recalled that other to mind or
(in the modern phrase) reproduced it. Modern studies in mental
pathology and hypnotism (q.v.) have led to the use of these
words by psychologists in a special and technical sense. The
hypnotists of the Nancy school rediscovered and gave general
currency to the doctrine that the most essential feature of the
hypnotic state is the unquestioning obedience and docility with
which the hypnotized subject accepts, believes, and acts in
accordance with every command or proposition of the hypno-
tizer. Commands or propositions made to the subject (they
may be merely implied by a gesture, a glance, or a chance
remark to a third person) and accepted with this peculiarly
uncritical and intense belief were called " suggestions "; and
the subject that accepted them in this fashion was said to be
" suggestible." It has also been made abundantly clear, chiefly
by the labours of French physicians, that a high degree of
" suggestibility " is a leading feature of hysteria, and that this
fact is the key to the understanding of very many of its protean
manifestations.
It is also becoming widely recognized that the suggestibility
of hypnosis and of hysteria is conditioned by a peculiar state of
the brain, namely a cerebral or mental dissociation, which in
hypnosis is temporarily induced by the operations of the
hypnotist, and in hysteria arises from some deficiency of energy
in the whole psycho-physical system. In respect to these points
there is now a wide consensus of opinion among the leading
authorities; but as to the range and scope of suggestion in our
mental life great differences of opinion still obtain. We may
distinguish three principal views. Firstly, it is maintained by
a number of physicians (notably by Professor Pierre Janet,
whose profound studies of hysterical patients are justly cele-
brated) that all hypnotizable persons are hysterical and that
suggestibility is a condition peculiar to hysterical subjects.
In view of the assertions in recent years of several physicians
of high repute to the effect that they find more than 90%
of all subjects hypnotizable, it would seem that this view can-
not be maintained, and that this restriction of suggestion to
hysterical subjects only, and the stigmatization of suggestibility
as in every case a morbid symptom, are errors arising from too
exclusive occupation with its manifestations in this field. A
second group consists of writers who admit that suggestion may
operate in normal minds, but who, while recognizing that it is
not an essentially pathological process, maintain that it is a
process of very peculiar and exceptional nature that has little
or no affinity with normal mental operations. They hold that
suggestion, whether it occurs in morbid or in healthy subjects,
always implies the coming into operation of some obscurely
conceived faculty or region of the mind which is present in all
men, but which usually lies hidden or submerged beneath the
flow of our more commonplace mental activities. This sub-
merged faculty or system of faculties, which is held by these
authors to be operative in all processes of suggestion, is variously
designated by them the secondary or submerged stratum of con-
sciousness, the subconscious or subliminal self (see SUBLIMINAL
SELF). The writers of this group insist upon the more start-
ling of the effects producible by suggestion, the more pro-
found changes of bodily and mental processes, such as paralysis,
SUGGESTION
49
contracture, hyperaesthesia, increased power of recollection
hallucinations (q.v.), &c.; and they regard dissociation as the
process by which the submerged and supernormal faculty (or
faculties) that they postulate is liberated from the dominance
of the normal waking self.
A third view has been rapidly gaining ground and is now
predominant. It connects itself with, and bases itself upon
the view of Professor Bernheim and his colleagues of the Nancy
school of hypnotism. According to this view all men are normally
suggestible under favourable conditions, and the hypnotic
subject and the hysteric patient differ from the normal human
being chiefly in that their normal suggestibility is more or less
(sometimes very greatly) increased, owing to the prevalence oi
the state of cerebral dissociation.
According to this third view, suggestion may be defined as the
communication of any proposition from one person (or persons)
to another in such a way as to secure its acceptance with
conviction, in the absence of adequate logical grounds for its
acceptance. The idea or belief so introduced to the mind of
the recipient is held to operate powerfully upon his bodily and
mental processes in proportion to the degree of its dominance
over all other ideas or mental processes; and the extraordinary
character of the effects, both bodily and mental, of suggestion
in hypnotic and hysterical subjects is held to be due to the fact
that, in these conditions of mental dissociation, the dominance
of the suggested idea is complete and absolute; whereas in the
absence of such dissociation the operation of the suggested idea
is always subject to some weakening or inhibition through the
influence of many opposed or incompatible tendencies and ideas,
even if these do not rise into explicit consciousness.
This third view seems justified by the facts that no sharp line
can be drawn between the suggestibility of normal men and
that of hypnotized or hysterical subjects, and that under favour-
able conditions many of the most striking results of suggestion
(e.g. hallucinations, contractures, inability to move, insensibility
of various sense-organs, and so forth) may be produced in
subjects who present at the time no other symptom of the
hypnotic or hysterical condition.
If, then, we recognize, as we must, that the alogical produc-
tion of conviction is the essence of suggestion, and that this
frequently occurs in normal minds as well as in those suffering
from various degrees of dissociation, it becomes necessary to
define the conditions that favour the operation of suggestion in
normal minds.
These conditions are resident, on the one hand, in the recipient
of the suggestion, and, on the other hand, in the source from
which the suggestion comes. Of the conditions of the former
class three seem to be of principal importance.
(a) Defect of knowledge: the defect may be quantitative or
qualitative, i.e. it may consist in the lack of knowledge or of
firmly established beliefs about the subject of the proposition,
or it may consist in the lack of systematic organization of such
knowledge as the mind possesses. The well-trained mind is
relatively insuggestible, firstly because it possesses large stores
of knowledge and belief; secondly, because this mass of know-
ledge and belief is systematically organized in such a way that
all its parts hang together and mutually support one another.
On the other hand, the young child, the uncultured adult, and
especially the savage, are apt to be suggestible in regard to
very many topics, first, because they have relatively little know-
ledge; secondly, because what little they have is of a low degree
of organization; i.e. it does not form a logically coherent system
whose parts reciprocally support one another. Suggestion in
such cases may be said to be conditioned by primitive credulity
or the suggestibility of ignorance, (b) But the same person
will not be found to be equally suggestible at all times under
similar external conditions. There are changes of mental state
which, without overstepping the limits of the normal, condition
varying degrees of increased suggestibility. A man is least
suggestible when his mind works most efficiently, when he is
most vigorous and most wide awake; every departure from this
state, due to fatigue, bodily ill-health, emotional perturbation,
drugs or any other cause, favours suggestibility, (c) Persons
of equal degrees of knowledge or ignorance will be found, even
at their times of greatest mental efficiency, to be unequally
suggestible owing to differences of native disposition; one person
is by nature more open than another to personal influence, more
easily swayed by others, more ready to accept their dicta and
adopt their opinions for his own. Differences of this kind are
probably the expression of differences in the native strength
of one of the fundamental instinctive dispositions of the human
mind, an instinct which is called into play by the presence of
persons of superior powers and the excitement of which throws
the subject into an attitude of submission or subjection towards
the impressive personality.
Considered from the side of the agent, suggestion is favoured
by whatever tends to render him impressive to the subject or
patient — great bodily strength or stature, fine clothes, a con-
fident manner, superior abilities of any kind, age and experience,
any reputation for special capacities, high social position or the
occupation of any position of acknowledged authority; in short,
all that is summed up by the term " personality," all that
contributes to make a personality " magnetic " or to give it
prestige renders it capable of evoking on the part of others the
submissive suggestible attitude. A group of persons in agreement
is capable of evoking the suggestible attitude far more effectively
than any single member of the group, and the larger the group
the more strongly does it exert this influence. Hence the
suggestive force of the popularly accepted maxims and well-
established social conventions; such propositions are collective
suggestions which carry with them all the immense collective
prestige of organized society, both of the present and the past;
they embody the wisdom of the ages. It is in the main through the
suggestive power of moral maxims, endowed with all the prestige
of great moral teachers and of the collective voice of society, that
the child is led to accept with but little questioning the code of
morals of his age and country; and the propagation of all religious
and other dogma rests on the same basis. The normal suggesti-
bility of the child is thus a principal condition of its docility,
and it is in the main by the operation of normal suggestion that
society moulds the characters, sentiments, and beliefs of its
members, and renders the mass of its elements harmonious and
homogeneous to the degree that is a necessary condition of its
collective mental life. Normal suggestion produces its most
striking effects in the form of mass-suggestion, i.e. when it
operates in large assemblies or crowds, especially if the members
have but little positive knowledge and culture. For, when a
belief is propagated by collective suggestion through the large
mass of men, each falls under the suggestive sway of the whole
mass; and under these conditions the operation of suggestion is
further aided by the universal tendency of mankind to imitation
and sympathy, the tendency to imitate the actions of, and to
experience the emotions expressed by, those about one.
Conditions very favourable to mass-suggestion prevailed
during the middle ages of European history; for these " dark
ages " were characterized by the existence of dense populations,
among whom there was free intercourse but very little positive
inowledge of nature, and who were dominated by a church
wielding immense prestige. Hence the frequent and powerful
operations of suggestion on a large scale. From time to time
'antastic beliefs, giving rise to most extravagant behaviour,
swept over large areas of Europe like virulent epidemics — epi-
demics of dancing, of flagellation, of hallucination, of belief in
:he miraculous powers of relics or of individuals, and so forth. In
;hese epidemics all the conditions favourable to normal sugges-
ion were generally present in the highest degree, with the result
that in great numbers of persons there were produced the more
extreme effects of suggestion, such as are usually associated with
he hysterical or hypnotic state. At the present time similar
manifestations occur in a modified form, as e.g. the popular
silgrimages to Lourdes, Holywell and other places that from
ime to time acquire reputations for miraculous curative powers.
Auto-suggestion. — Although auto-suggestion does not strictly
all under the definition of suggestion given above, its usage to
SUHL— SUICIDE
denote a mental process which produces effects very similar to
those producible by suggestion is now so well established that it
must be accepted. In auto-suggestion a proposition is formulated
in the mind of the subject rather than communicated from another
mind, and is accepted with conviction in the absence of adequate
logical grounds. Generally the belief is initiated by some external
event or some bodily change, or through some interpretation of
the behaviour of other persons; e.g. a man falls on the road and a
wagon very nearly passes over his legs, perhaps grazing them
merely; when he is picked up, his legs are found to be paralysed.
The event has induced the conviction that his legs are seriously
injured, and this conviction operates so effectively as to realize
itself. Or a savage, suffering some slight indisposition, interprets
the behaviour of some person in a way which leads him to the
conviction that this person is compassing his death by means of
magical practices; accordingly he lies down in deep despondency
and, in the course of some days or weeks, dies, unless his friends
succeed in buying off, or in some way counteracting, the malign
influence. Or, as a more familiar and trivial instance of auto-
suggestion, we may cite the case of a man who, having taken a
bread pill in the belief that it contains a strong purgative or
emetic, realizes the results that he expects.
LITERATURE. — H. Bernheim, De la Suggestion, et de ses applications
d la therapeutique (2nd ed., Paris, 1887); Pierre Janet, The Major
Symptoms of Hysteria (London, 1907) ; Otto Stoll, Suggestion und
Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1904);
Boris Sidis, The Psychology of Suggestion (New York, 1898) ; W. M.
Keatinge, Suggestion in Education (London, 1907) ; F. W. H. Myers,
Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death (London, 1903;
2nd ed., abridged, 1907); A. Binet, La Suggestibility (Paris, 1900).
See also literature under HYPNOTISM. (W. McD.)
SUHL, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian Saxony,
picturesquely situated on the Lauter, on the southern slope of the
Thuringian Forest, 6j m. N.E. of Meiningen and 29 m. S.W. of
Erfurt by rail. Pop. (1905), 13,814. The armourers of Suhl are
mentioned as early as the pth century, but they enjoyed their
highest vogue from 1550 to 1634. The knights of south Germany
especially prized the swords and armour of this town, and many
of the weapons used in campaigns against the Turks and in the
Seven Years' War are said to have been manufactured at
Suhl. It has suffered considerably in modern times from the
competition of other towns in this industry, especially since
the introduction of the breech-loading rifle. It still contains,
however, large factories for firearms military and sporting, and
side arms, besides ironworks, machine-works, potteries and
tanneries. The once considerable manufacture of fustian has
declined. A brine spring (Soolquelle) at the foot of the neigh-
bouring Domberg is said to have given name to the town.
Suhl, which obtained civic rights in 1527, belonged to the
principality of Henneberg, and formed part of the possessions of
the kingdom of Saxony assigned to Prussia by the Congress of
Vienna in 1815.
See Werther, Chronik der Stadt SuhTJ? vols., Suhl, 1846-1847).
SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from caedere,
to kill), the act of intentionally destroying one's own life. The
phenomenon of suicide has at all times attracted a large amount
of attention from moralists and social investigators. Its
existence is looked upon, in Western civilization, as a sign of the
presence of maladies in the body politic which, whether remediable
or not, deserve careful examination. It is, of course, impossible
to compare Western civilization in this respect with, say, Japan,
where suicide in certain circumstances is part of a distinct moral
creed. In Christian ethics and Christian law it is wrong, indeed
illegal, as a felo de se, self-murder. It is within comparatively
recent years that the study of suicide by means of the vital
statistics of various European countries has demonstrated that
while the act may be regarded as a purely voluntary one, yet
that suicide as a whole conforms there to certain general laws,
and is influenced by conditions other than mere individual
circumstances or surroundings. Thus it can be shown that each
country has a different suicide-rate, and that while the rate for
each country may fluctuate from year to year, yet it maintains
practically the same relative proportions to the rates of other
countries. The following table shows the suicide-rate for
various European countries (Bertillon): —
TABLE I.
Country.
Period of
Observation.
Annual Number
of Suicides
per Million
Inhabitants.
1878-1882
392
Denmark
Switzerland
1880-1882
1878-1882
251
239
198
Wurttemberg ....
1877-1881
189
France
1878-1882
180
1 66
Belgium
IOO
92
England and Wales
Norway
Scotland
1877-1881
75
69
49
Ireland
1878-1882
17
In addition to furnishing materials for an approximately
accurate estimate of the number of suicides which will occur in
any country in a year, statistics have demonstrated that the
proportion of male to female suicides is practically the same from
year to year, viz. 3 or 4 males to i female; that it is possible to
predict the month of greatest prevalence, the modes of death
adopted by men on the one hand and women on the other, and
even the relative frequency of suicide amongst persons following
different professions and employments; and that in most of the
countries of Europe the suicide-rate is increasing. In England
and Wales the annual death-rate per million from suicide has
steadily advanced, as is shown by the following figures for
quinquennial periods: —
65 per million living.
66
66
74
75
79
88
89
1861-1865
1866-1870
1871-1875
1876-1880
1881-1885
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1901-1905
The next table illustrates the continued increase in recent
years, and at the same time shows the total number and the
number of male and female suicides each year from 1886 to
1905.
TABLE II.
Total Suicides — Male and Female — in England and Wales,
1886— 1905, together with the annual rate per million living
(Registrar-General's Reports').
Suicide- rate
Year.
Male.
Female.
Total.
per Million
Living.
1886
1694
560
2254
82
1890
1635
57°
2205
77
1895
2071
726
2797
92
1896
1979
677
2656
86
1897
2090
702
2792
90
1898
2166
711
2877
91
1899
2121
723
2844
89
1900
2166
730
2896
90
1901
2318
803
3121
96
1902
2460
807
3267
99
1903
2640
871
35"
105
1904
2523
822
3345
99
1905
2683
862
3545
104
Total.
28,546
9564
38,110
The reason of the high suicide-rate in some countries as com-
pared with others, and the causes of its progressive increase, are
not easily determined. Various explanations have been offered,
such as the influence of climate, the comparative prevalence of
insanity, and the proportionate consumption of alcoholic drinks,
but none satisfactorily accounts for the facts. It may, however,
be remarked that suicide is much more common amongst
SUIDAS— SUITE
Protestant than amongst Roman Catholic communities, while
Jews have a smaller suicide-rate than Roman Catholics. A point
of considerable interest is the increase of suicide in relation to the
advance of elementary education. Ogle states that suicide is
more common among the educated than the illiterate classes. It
is also more prevalent in urban than in rural districts. A curious
feature in large towns is the sudden outbreak of self-destruction
which sometimes occurs, and which has led to its being described
as epidemic. In such cases force of example and imitation
undoubtedly play a considerable part, as it is well recognized that
both these forces exert an influence not only in causing suicide,
but also in suggesting the method, time and place for the act.
No age above five years is exempted from furnishing its quota of
suicidal deaths, although self-destruction between five and ten
years is very rare. Above this age the proportion of suicides
increases at each period, the maximum being reached between
fifty-five and sixty-five. Among females there is a greater
relative prevalence at earlier age periods than among males.
The modes of suicide are found to vary very slightly in different
countries. Hanging is most common amongst males; then
drowning, injuries from fire-arms, stabs and cuts, poison and
precipitation from heights. Amongst females, drowning comes
first, while poison and hanging are more frequent than other
methods entailing effusion of blood and disfigurement of the
person. The methods used in England and Wales by suicides
during 1888-1897, and in Scotland during the years 1881-1897,
are given in the following table: —
TABLE III.
Modes of Suicide in England and Wales, 1888-1897.
Order
of Fre-
quency.
Males.
Females.
Both Sexes.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
i
2
3
4
5
6
Hanging
Stab-cut
Drowning
Poison
Fire-arms
Otherwise
5669
3594
3443
2264
2152
1773
Drowning
Poison
Hanging
Stab-cut
Fire-arms
Otherwise
2089
1652
1336
771
52
527
Hanging
Drowning
Stab-cut
Poison
Fire-arms
Otherwise
7005
5532
4365
3916
2204
2300
Total
18,895
Total
6427
Total
25,322
Modes of Suicide in Scotland, 1881-1897.
Order
of Fre-
quency.
Males.
Females.
Both Sexes.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
Mode.
Num-
ber.
i
2
3
4
5
6
Hanging
Drowning
Stab-cut
Poison
Fire-arms
Otherwise
741
630
556
257
245
207
Drowning
Hanging
Poison
Stab-cut
Fire-arms
Otherwise
430
257
145
144
6
IOO
Drowning
Hanging
Stab-cut
Poison
Fire-arms
Otherwise
1060
998
700
402
251
307
Total
2636
Total
1082
Total
37i8
The season of the year influences suicide practically uniformly
in all European countries, the number increasing from the com-
mencement of the year to a maximum in May or June, and then
declining again to a minimum in winter. Morselli attempts to
account for this greater prevalence during what may well be
called the most beautiful months of the year by attributing it to
the influence of increased temperature upon the organism, while
Durkheim suggests that the determining factor is more probably
to be found in the length of the day and the effect of a longer
period of daily activity. The suicide-rate is higher in certain
male occupations and professions than in others (Ogle). Thus
it is high amongst soldiers, doctors, innkeepers and chemists,
and low for clergy, bargemen, railway drivers and stokers.
The suicide-rate is twice as great for unoccupied males as for
occupied males.
AUTHORITIES. — Morselli,// Suicidio (Milan, 1879); Legoyt, Le
Suicide ancien et modern (Paris, 1881) ; Westcott, Suicide: its History,
Literature, &c. (London, 1885); Ogle, "Suicides in England and
Wales, in relation to Age, Sex, Season, and Occupation, Journal
of the Statistical Society (1886), vol. xlix. ; Strahan, Suicide and
Insanity (London, 1893); Mayr, " Selbstmord statistik," in Hand-
worterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (Jena, 1895); Durkheim, Le
Suicide (Paris, 1897). (H. H. L.)
SUJfDAS, Greek lexicographer. Nothing is known of him,
except that he must have lived before Eustathius (i2th-i3th
century), who frequently quotes him. Under the heading
" Adam " the author of the lexicon (which a prefatory note states
to be " by Suidas ") gives a brief chronology.of the world, ending
with the death of the emperor John Zimisces (973), and under
" Constantinople " his successors Basil and Constantino are
mentioned. It would thus appear that Suidas lived in the latter
part of the loth century. The passages in which Michael
Psellus (end of the nth century) is referred to are considered later
interpolations. The lexicon of Suidas is arranged alphabetically
with some slight deviations, letters and combinations of letters
having' the same sound being placed together; thus, ai and« follow
6, and et, ij, i follow f . It partakes of the nature of a dictionary
and encyclopaedia. It includes numerous quotations from ancient
writers; the scholiasts on Aristophanes, Homer, Sophocles and
Thucydides are also much used. The biographical notices, the
author tells us, are condensed from the Onomatologion or Pinax
of Hesychius of Miletus; other sources were the excerpts of Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of Georgius Monachus,
the biographies of Diogenes Laertius and the works of Athenaeus
and Philostratus. The work deals with scriptural as well as
pagan subjects, from which it is inferred that the writer was a
Christian. A prefatory note gives a list of dictionaries from which
the lexical portion was compiled, together with the names of
their authors. Although the work is uncritical and probably
much interpolated, and the value of the articles is very unequal,
it contains much information on ancient history and life.
Editio princeps, by Demetrius Chalcondyles (1499) ; later editions
by L. Kuster (1705), T. Gaisford (1834), G. Bernhardy (1834-1853)
and I. Bekker (1854) ; see A. Daub, De S. Biographicorum origine
et fide (1880) and Studien zu den Biographika des S. (1882); and
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Cassical Scholarship (1906), p. 407.
SUIDUN (Chinese, Sui-din-cken) , a town of China, capital of
the province of Kulja. It is the residence of the governor-
general, and was founded in 1762 during the Mussulman rising,
and rebuilt in 1883. It is a military town, with provision stores,
an arsenal and an arms workshop. Its walls are armed with
steel guns.
SUINA, a group of non-ruminating artiodactyle ungulate
mammals typified by the swine (Suidae), but also including the
hippopotamus (Hippopotamidae), and certain extinct forms.
(See ARTIODACTYLA; HIPPOPOTAMUS; PECCARY; SWINE.)
SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita), in music, a group of
dance tunes, mostly in binary form, of a type which may be
described as " decorative " (see SONATA FORMS) ; constituting
that classical form of early iSth-century instrumental music
which most nearly foreshadows the later sonata. As understood
by Bach, it consists essentially of four principal movements with
the insertion of one or more lighter movements between the third
and the last. The first movement is the allemande, of solid and
intricate texture, in slow comr/lon time and rich flowing rhythm,
beginning with one or three short notes before the first full bar.
The second movement is the courante, of which there are two
kinds. The French courante is again an intricate movement, also
beginning with one or three notes before the main beat, and in a
triple time (|) which, invariably at the cadences and sometimes
elsewhere, drops into a crossing triple rhythm of twice the pace
(|). The effect is restless and confused, and was supposed to
form a contrast to the allemande; but it seldom did so effectively.
Bach's study of Couperin led him to use the French courante
frequently, but he was happier with the Italian type of correnle,
which did not owe its name, like the French type, to the use of
spasmodic runs, but was a brilliant continuously running piece
in quick triple time (| or f ), forming a clear and lively contrast
both to the allemande and to the third movement, which is
generally a sarabande.
SUKHUM-KALEH— SULCI
The sarabande is a slow movement in triple time beginning on
the full bar, and with at least a tendency to the rhythm
of which Handel's aria Lascia
'
J I
a C^'*° Pian&a ig a familiar example.
Bach's sarabandes are among the
most simply eloquent and characteristic of his smaller com-
positions. Then come the galanteries, from one to three in
number. These are the only suite-movements which ever have
an alternative section and a da capo (with the exception of
Couperin's courantes and the courante in Bach's first English
suite). The commonest galanteries are: (i) the minuet, often
with a second minuet which is called " trio" only when it
is in real three-part writing. It is a little faster than the stately
minuet in Mozart's Don Giovanni, but it is never so quick as the
lively minuets of Haydn's quartets and symphonies which led
to the Beethoven scherzo; and it invariably begins, unlike
many later minuets, on the full bar; (2) the gavotte, a lively
dance in a not too rapid alia breve time (the textbooks say
} time, but there is no case in Bach which could possibly be
played so slowly, whatever the time signature may be). The
gavotte always begins on the half-bar. A second alternating
gavotte is frequently founded on a pedal or drone-bass, and is
then called musette; (3) the bourrte, which is not unlike the
gavotte, but quicker, and beginning on the last quarter of the
bar; (4) the passepied, a lively dance in quick triple time,
beginning on the third beat. These dances are not always cast
in binary form, and there are famous examples of gavottes
and passepieds en rondeau. Other less common galanteries
are (5) the loure,1 a slow dance in | time and dotted rhythm
(dactylic in accent and amphimacer in quantity); (6) the
polonaise, a leisurely triple-time piece, either a shade quicker or
(as in the exquisite unattached examples of Friedemann Bach)
much slower than the modern dance-rhythm of that name, with
cadences on the second instead of the third beat of the bar; (7)
the air, a short movement, quietly flowing, in a more florid style
than its name would suggest. It sometimes precedes the sara-
bande. The suite concludes with a gigue, in the finest examples of
which the decorative binary form is combined with a light fugue
style of the utmost liveliness and brilliance. The gigue is gener-
ally in some triplet rhythm, e.g. f, |, |, \*; but examples in a
graver style may be found in slow square time with dotted rhythms,
as in Bach's first French suite and the sixth Partita of the Klavier-
iibung. In gigues in the typical fugato style Bach is fond of
making the second part either invert the theme of the first, or
else begin with a new subject to be combined with the first in
double counterpoint. The device of inversion is also prominent
in many of his allemandes and French courantes.
All suites on a large scale, with the exception of Bach's second
and fourth solo violin sonatas, begin with a great prelude in
some larger form. Bach's French Suites are small suites without
prelude. His English Suites all have a great first movement
which, except in the first suite, is in full da capo concerto form.
His clavier Partitas show a greater variety of style in the
dance movements and are preceded by preludes, in each case of a
different type and title. Some large suites have finales after the
gigue; the great chaconne for violin solo being the finale of a
partita (see VARIATIONS).
Handel's suites are characteristically nondescript in form, but,
in the probably earlier sets published after what is called his first
set, there is a most interesting tendency to make several of the
movements free variations of the first. Earlier composers had
already shown the converse tendency to make variations take
the forms of suite movements. In general Handel's suites are
effective groups of movements of various lengths,with a tendency
to use recognizable suite movements of a Franco-Italian type.
In modern times the term " suite " is used for almost any group
of movements of which the last is in the same key as the first,
and of which a fair proportion show traces of dance-rhythm, or at
least use dance titles. It is often said that the suite-forms have
shown more vitality under modern conditions than the classical
1 The loure of Bach's fifth French suite has in some editions been
called the second bourree, to the utter mystification of musicians.
sonata forms. But this only means that when composers do not
feel inclined to write symphonies or sonatas they give their
groups of movements the name of suite. Certainly there is no
such thing as a definite modern suite-form distinguishable from
the selection composers make, for use in concert rooms, of
incidental music written for plays, such as Grieg's Peer Gynt
suites. (D. F. T.)
SUKHUH-KALEH, a seaport of Russian Caucasia in the
government of Kutais. Pop. (1900), about 16,000. It is situated
106 m. N. of Batum, and has the best roadstead on the east coast
of the Black Sea, being sheltered by mountains on three sides and
never freezing. In spite of the difficulties of communication
with the .interior, and the malarial marshes which surround the
town, it has become important for the export of grain (chiefly
maize). There is also a trade in tobacco. It stands on the site
of the ancient Greek colony of Dioskurias. The annual mean
temperature is 59° F. There are here a cathedral and a
botanical garden. The town was captured by the Russians in
1809, but not formally relinquished by Turkey until 1829. In
1854 and again in 1877 it was occupied by the Turks.
SUKKUR, or SAKHAR, a town and district of British India, in
Sind, Bombay. The town is situated on the right bank of the
Indus, 24 m. N.W. of Skikarpur. Pop. (1901), 31,316. Sukkur
has always commanded the trade of Sind, and the river is now
crossed by a cantilever bridge carrying the North-Western
railway to Kotri. The town was ceded to the Khairpur mirs
between 1809 and 1824. In 1833 Shah Shuja defeated the
Talpurs here with great loss. In 1842 it came under British
rule.
The DISTRICT OF SUKKUR was created in 1901 out of part of
Shikarpur district, the remainder of which was formed into the
district of Larkana. Area, 5403 sq. m. It is chiefly alluvial
plain, but there are slight hills at Sukkur and Rohri. In the
higher-lying parts are salt lands (Kalar), or even desert in the
area known as the Registan. The climate is hot, dry and ener-
vating. The annual rainfall at Sukkur town averages only 45 in.
The population in 1901 was 523,345, showing an increase of 10%
in the decade. A considerable part of the district is irrigated,
the principal crops being wheat, millets, rice, pulses and oil seeds.
Earthen, leathern and metal ware, cotton cloth and tussore
silk are manufactured, also pipe-bowls, snuff-boxes and scissors.
Lines of the North-Western railway serve the district, and there
is a branch from Sukkur towards Quetta.
SULA ISLANDS (Sulla, Xuila; Dutch Soela), a chain of islands
forming a prolongation of the eastern peninsula of Celebes and
the Banggai Islands, Dutch East Indies. The three main islands
are long and narrow (Taliabu, 68 m. long, Mangoli or Mangala,
63 m. and Besi, 30 m.). The two first lie in line, separated by
the narrow Chapalulu Strait; Besi extends at right angles to the
south coast of Mangoli. The natives of Taliabu are allied to those
of the Banggai Islands and the eastern peninsula of Celebes; but
immigrant Malays are the principal inhabitants. Economically,
Besi is the most important island. A Dutch commissioner
resides at Sanana, at its northern extremity. It is fertile, and
produces wax and honey, and coal has been found.
SULCI, an ancient town (mod. S. Antioco), situated on the east
coast of an island on the south-west of Sardinia. The date of its
f oundationis not known, but it is certainly of Carthaginian origin.
The assumption that it was originally an Egyptian colony is not
justified. Its walls, of large rectangular blocks of stone, can be
traced for a circuit of upwards of a mile: it extended to the low
ground on the shore near the modern cemetery, where a dedica-
tory inscription set up by the people of Sulci in honour of Hadrian
in A.D. 128 was found (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli Scavi, 1897,
407). Various discoveries have been made within the circuit,
both of Phoenician and of Roman antiquities, including several
statues2 and inscriptions and many smaller objects, gems, &c.,
but at present few traces of ancient buildings are left, owing to
their continued destruction in medieval and modern times. A
cistern of fine masonry, perhaps dating from the Punic period,
1 A statue of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius (?) was found in
1908.
SULEIMAN I.— SULIMAN HILLS
53
in the low ground below the modern town, may be mentioned.
Close to it, among the houses of the modern town, a solid base
about 25 ft. square, belonging possibly to a lighthouse or a tomb,
records the existence of a temple of Isis and Serapis during the
imperial period. A bilingual inscription of the ist century B.C. (?)
in Latin and in neo-Punic records the erection of a statue to
Himilkat, who had carried out a decree of the local senatus for
the erection of a temple to a goddess (described in the Punic
version as domina dea — possibly Tanit herself) by his son
Himilkat (T. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. lat. x. 75131 TS1^)-
The Phoenician tombs consist of a chamber cut in the rock,
measuring about 14 ft. square and 8 ft. high, and approached by
a staircase: some of these have been converted into dwellings
in modern times. Many of the curious sculptured stelae found
in these tombs are now in the museum of Cagliari. On many of
them the goddessTanit is represented, often in a form resembling
Isis, which gave rise to the unfounded belief of the Egyptian
origin of Sulci. The Roman tombs, on the other hand, are
simply trenches excavated in the rock.
There are also several catacombs: a group still exists under
the church, in which was discovered the body of the martyr
St Antiochus, from whom the modern town takes its name.
The church is cruciform, with heavy pillars between nave and
aisles, and a dome over the crossing: it belongs to the Byzantine
period, and contains an inscription of Torcotorius, protospatarius
and Salusius, &p\iav, dating from the loth century A.D. (A.
Taramelli in Archivio storico sardo, 1907, 83 sqq.). Others
farther south-west were Jewish; they have inscriptions in red
painted on the plaster with which they are lined, and the seven-
branched candlestick occurs several times. The fort which
occupies the highest point — no doubt the acropolis of the
Punic period — is quite modern. The long, low isthmus which,
with the help of bridges, connects the island with the mainland,
is very likely in part or entirely of artificial origin; but neither
it nor the bridges show any definite traces of Roman date. On
either side of it ships could find shelter then as nowadays.
The origin of Sulci is attributed by Pausanias to the Cartha-
ginians, and the Punic antiquities found there go to indicate
the correctness of his account. It is mentioned in the account
of the First Punic War as the place at which the Carthaginian
admiral Hannibal took refuge after his defeat by C. Sulpicius,
but was crucified. In 46 B.C. the city was severely punished by
Caesar for the assistance given to Pompey's admiral Nasidius.
Under the empire it was one of the most flourishing cities of
Sardinia. It was attacked by the Vandals and Saracens, but
ceased to exist before the i3th century. Previously to this it
had been one of the four episcopal sees into which Sardinia was
divided. A castle in the low ground, attributed to the index
Torcotorius, to the south of the modern town, was destroyed in
modern times.
See A. Tarawelli in Notizie degli scam (1906), 135 ; (1908), 145, 192.
(T. As.)
SULEIMAN I.1 the "Magnificent" (1494-1566), sultan of
Turkey, succeeded his father Selim I. in 1520. His birth coin-
cided with the opening year of the loth century of Mussulman
chronology (A.H. 900), the most glorious period in the history
of Islam. Eventful as the age was both in Europe, where the
Renaissance was in full growth, and in India, where the splen-
dour of the emperor Akbar's reign exceeded alike that of his pre-
decessors and his successors, Suleiman's conquests overshadowed
all these. It is noteworthy that though in Turkey he is dis-
tinguished only as the law-giver (kanuni) , in European history
he is known by such titles as the Magnificent. He was the most
fortunate of the sultans. He had no rival worthy of the name.
From his father he inherited a well-organized country, a dis-
ciplined army and a full treasury. He united in his person the
best qualities of his predecessors, and possessed the gift of taking
full advantage of the talents of the able generals, admirals and
1 Suleiman, eldest 'son of Bayazid I., who maintained himself as
sultan at Adrianople from 1402 to 1410, is not reckoned as legiti-
mate by the Ottoman historiographers, who reckon Suleiman the
Magnificent as the first of the name. By others, however, the latter
is sometimes styled Suleiman II.
viziers who illustrated his reign. If his campaigns were not
always so wisely and prudently planned as those of some of his
predecessors, they were in the main eminently fortunate, and
resulted in adding to his dominions Belgrade, Budapest,
Temesvar, Rhodes, Tabriz, Bagdad, Nakshivan and Rivan,
Aden and Algiers, and in his days Turkey attained the
culminating point of her glory.
The alliance concluded by him with France reveals him at
once as rising superior to the narrow prejudices of his race and
faith, which rejected with scorn any union with the unbeliever,
and as gifted with sufficient political insight to appreciate
the advantage of combining with Francis I. against Charles V.
His Persian campaign was doubtless an error, but was due in
part to a desire to find occupation, distant if possible, for his
janissaries, who were always prone to turbulence while inactive
at the capital. He was perhaps wanting in firmness of character,
and the undue influence exercised over him by unscrupulous
ministers, or by the seductions of fairer but no less ambitious
votaries of statecraft, led him to make concessions which
tarnished the glory of his reign, and were followed by baneful
results for the welfare of his empire. It is from Suleiman's
time that historians date the rise of that occult influence of the
harem which has so often thwarted the best efforts of Turkey's
most enlightened statesmen.
Suleiman's claims to renown as a legislator rest mainly on
his organization of the Ulema, or clerical class, in its hierarchical
order from the Sheikh-ul-Islam downwards. He reformed and
improved the administration of the country both civil and mili-
tary, inaugurated a new and improved system for the feudal
tenures of limitary fiefs, and his amelioration of the lot of his
Christian subjects is not his least title to fame. He was also not
unknown to fame as a poet, under the pseudonym of '*• Muhibbr "
(see Hammer-Purgstall, Gesch. d. Osman. Reichs, ii. 331; and
further TURKEY: History).
Suleiman died on the sth of September 1566, at the age of
72, while conducting the siege of Szigetvar.
SULEIMAN II. (1641-1691), sultan of Turkey, was a son of
Sultan Ibrahim, and succeeded his brother Mahommed IV. in
1687. Forty-six years of enforced retirement had qualified him
for the cloister rather than for the throne, and his first feeling
when notified of his accession was one of terror for his brother's
vengeance. Nor were the circumstances following on his
elevation to the throne of a nature to reassure him, as one of
the most violent of the revolts of the janissaries ended in the
murder of the grand vizier and the brutal mutilation of his
family, with general massacre and pillage throughout Con-
stantinople. The war with Austria was for Turkey a suc-
cession of disasters. At this time, fortunately for the Ottoman
Empire, a third great kuprili (Mustafa) arose and re-estab-
lished order in the sorely-tried state (see KUPRILI). In the
reforms which followed, whereby the situation of the Christian
subjects of the Porte was greatly improved, Suleiman is at least
to be given the credit of having allowed Mustafa Kuprili a free
hand. With an improved administration Turkey's fortunes in
the war began to revive, and the reconquest of Belgrade late in
1690 was the last important event of the reign, which ended
in 1691 by Suleiman's death. (See also TURKEY: History.)
SULEIMANIEH, or SULEIMANIA, the chief town of a sanjak of
the same name in Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Mosul, situated
on a treeless plain in the Kurdistan Mountains, in the region
known as Shehrizor, some 40 or 50 m. from the Persian frontier,
at an elevation of 2895 ft- It is a military station, and was
founded towards the close of the nth century. The estimated
population is about 12,000, of whom n,ooo are Kurds, and the
majority of the remaining 1000 Jews.
SULIMAN HILLS, a mountain system on the Dera Ismail
Khan border of the north-west frontier of India. From the
Gomal river southward commences the true Suliman system, -
presenting an impenetrable barrier between the plains of the
Indus and Afghanistan. The Suliman Mountains finally merge
into the hills of Baluchistan, which are inhabited by the Marri
and Bugti tribes. The chief mass of the range is known as
SULINA— SULLA
Takht-i-Suliman or Solomon's throne. It may be seen on the
western horizon from Dera Ismail Khan, a grey, flat-looking
rampart rising from the lower line of mountains north and south
of it, slightly saddle-backed in the middle, but culminating in a
very well-defined peak at its northern extremity. The legend of
the mountain is that Solomon visited Hindostan to marry Balkis,
and that as they were returning through the air, on a throne
supported by genii, the bride implored the bridegroom to let her
look back for a few moments on her beloved land. Solomon
directed the genii to scoop out a hollow for the throne on the
summit of the mountain. The hollow is a cavity some 30 ft.
square cut out of the solid rock, at the southern extremity of the
mountain and is a place of pilgrimage for both Hindus and
Mahommedans. The actual shrine is about two m. south of the
highest peak. The whole mountain was traversed and surveyed
by the Takht-i-Suliman Survey Expedition of 1883 (see SHERANI)
and was found to consist of two parallel ridges running roughly
north and south, the southern end of the eastern ridge culminating
in a point 11,070 ft. high, which is the Takht proper on which the
shrine is situated, and the western ridge culminating at its north-
ern end in a point 1 1 ,300 ft. high known as Kaisargarh. Between
these two ridges is a connecting tableland about 9000 ft. high.
This plateau and the interior slopes of the ridges are covered
with chilghosa (edible pine) forests. The mass of the mountain
is composed of nummulitic limestone. No water is to be found
on the summit.
SULINA, a town in Rumania, at the mouth of the Sulina branch
of the Danube. Pop. (1900), 5611. Sulina is the only free port
on the Danube, and is much used for the transhipment into sea-
going vessels of grain which is brought down the river in large
lighters from Rumania, Russia, Bulgaria, Servia and Austria-
Hungary. No agricultural produce is grown in its neighbour-
hood, owing to the reed-covered swamps with which it is sur-
rounded. Sulina is the headquarters of the technical depart-
ment of the European Commission of the Danube (q.v.). Large
steamers navigate up to Galatz and Braila. In 1901 , 141 1 steamers
and sailing craft aggregating 1,830,000 tons register cleared from
Sulina for European ports carrying, besides other merchandise,
nearly 13,000,000 quarters of grain. Owing to the improvements
effected by the European Commission, there is a depth of
24 ft. of water on the bar, and of 18 to 22 ft. in the fairway. A
lighthouse overlooks the estuary. The town contains the only
English church in Rumania.
SULITELMA, a mountain on the frontier between Norway and
Sweden, forming a salient (6158 ft.) of the Kjol or " keel " of the
Scandinavian peninsula. The mass, composed of three peaks,
is situated in 67° 10' N., and covered with a snow-field from which
many glaciers descend. In these rise feeders of the Swedish
rivers Lilla Lule and Pite, flowing south-east. Westward, the
foothills descend upon the Skjerstad Fjord, above which are two
lakes, Nedre and Ovre Vand. From Sjonstaa steamers on the
Langvand and a light railway give communication between the
sea and Furulund, the headquarters of the Swedish Sulitelma
Mining Company. A mountain track descends from Sulitelma
to Kvickjock (or Kvikkjokk), a considerable village magnificently
situated on the Tarrajock, a head-stream of the Lilla Lule. This
is distant three days' journey on foot from Furulund.
SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138-78 B.C.), surnamed Felix,
Roman general, politician and dictator, belonged to a minor
and impoverished branch of the famous patrician Cornelian gens.
He received a careful education, and was a devoted student of
literature and art. His political advancement was slow, and
he did not obtain the quaestorship until 107, when he served in
the Jugurthine war under Marius in Africa. In this he greatly
distinguished himself, and claimed the credit of having terminated
the war by capturing Jugurtha himself. In these African
campaigns Sulla showed that he knew how to win the confidence
of his soldiers, and throughout his career the secret of his success
seems to have been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops,
whom he continued to hold well in hand, while allowing them to
indulge in plundering and all kinds of excess. From 104 to 101
he served again under Marius in the war with the Cimbri and
Teutones and fought in the last great battle in the Raudian
plains near Verona. It was at this time that Marius's jealousy
of his legate laid the foundations of their future rivalry and mutual
hatred. When the war was over, Sulla, on his return to Rome,
lived quietly for some years and took no part in politics. In
93 he was elected praetor after a lavish squandering of money,
and he delighted the populace with an exhibition of a hundred
lions from Africa. Next year (92) he went as propraetor of
Cilicia with special authority from the senate to make Mithra-
dates VI. of Pontus restore Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes, one of
Rome's dependants in Asia. Sulla with a small army soon won a
victory over the general of Mithradates, and Rome's client-king
was restored. An embassy from the Parthians now came to
solicit alliance with Rome, and Sulla was the first Roman who
held diplomatic intercourse with that remote people. In the
year 91, which brought with it the imminent prospect of sweeping
political change, with the enfranchisement of the Italian peoples,
Sulla returned to Rome, and it was generally felt that he was the
man to lead the conservative and aristocratic party.
Meanwhile Mithradates and the East were forgotten in the
crisis of the Social or Italic War, which broke out in 91 and
threatened Rome's very existence. The services of both Marius
and Sulla were given; but Sulla was the more successful, or, at any
rate, the more fortunate. Of the Italian peoples Rome's old
foes the Samnites were the most formidable; these Sulla van-
quished, and took their chief town, Bovianum. In recognition
of this and other brilliant services, he was elected consul in 88,
and brought the revolt to an end by the capture of Nola in
Campania. The question of the command of the army against
Mithradates again came to the front. The senate had already
chosen Sulla; but the tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus moved
that Marius should have the command. Rioting took place
at Rome at the prompting of the popular leaders, Sulla narrowly
escaping to his legions in Campania, whence he marched on
Rome, being the first Roman who entered the city at the head of
a Roman army. Sulpicius was put to death, and Marius fled;
and he and his party were crushed for the time.
Sulla, leaving things quiet at Rome, quitted Italy in 87, and
for the next four years he was winning victory after victory
against the armies of Mithradates and accumulating boundless
plunder. Athens, the headquarters of the Mithradatic cause,
was taken and sacked in 86 ; and in the same year, at Chaeroneia,
the scene of Philip II. of Macedon's victory more than two and a
half centuries before, and in the year following, at the neighbour-
ing Orchomenus, he scattered immense hosts of the enemy with
trifling loss to himself. Crossing the Hellespont in 84 into Asia,
he was joined by the troops of C. Flavius Fimbria, who soon
deserted their general, a man sent out by the Marian party, now
again in the ascendant at Rome. The same year peace was
concluded with Mithradates on condition that he should be put
back to the position he held before the war; but, as he raised
objections, he had in the end to content himself with being simply
a vassal of Rome.
Sulla returned to Italy in 83, landing at Brundisium, having
previously informed the senate of the result of his campaigns in
Greece and Asia, and announced his presence on Italian ground.
He further complained of the ill-treatment to which his friends
and partisans had been subjected during his absence. Marius
had died in 86, and the revolutionary party, specially represented
by L. Cornelius Cinna, Cn. Papirius Carbo and the younger
Marius, had massacred Sulla's supporters wholesale, confiscated
his property, and declared him a public enemy. They felt they
must resist him to the death, and with the troops scattered
throughout Italy, and the newly enfranchised Italians, to whom it
was understood that Sulla was bitterly hostile, they counted confi-
dently on success. But on Sulla's advance at the head of his
40,000 veterans many of them lost heart and deserted their
leaders, while the Italians themselves, whom he confirmed in
their new privileges, were won over to his side. Only the Sam-
nites, who were as yet without the Roman franchise, remained
his enemies, and it seemed as if the old war between Rome and
Samnium had to be fought once again. Several Roman nobles,
SULLIVAN, SIR A. S.
55
among them Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey the Great), Q. Caecilius
Metellus Pius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Marcus LiciniusLucullus,
joined Sulla, and in the following year (82) he won a decisive
victory over the younger Marius near Praeneste (mod. Palestrina)
and then marched upon Rome, where again, just before his defeat
of Marius, there had been a great massacre of his adherents, in
which the learned jurist Q. Mucius Scaevola perished. Rome
was at the same time in extreme peril from the advance of a
Samnite army, and was barely saved by Sulla, who, after a hard-
fought battle, routed the enemy under Pontius Telesinus at the
Colline gate of Rome. With the death of the younger Marius,
who killed himself after the surrender of Praeneste, the civil war
was at an end, and Sulla was master of Rome and of the Roman
world. Then came the memorable " proscription," when for
the first time in Roman history a list of men declared to be
outlaws and public enemies was exhibited in the forum, and a
reign of terror began throughout Rome and Italy. The title of
" dictator " was revived and Sulla was in fact emperor of Rome.
After celebrating a splendid triumph for the Mithradatic War,
and assuming the surname of " Felix " (" Epaphroditus,"
" Venus's favourite,"1 he styled himself in addressing Greeks), he
carried in 80 and 79 his great political reforms (see ROME : History,
II. " The Republic"). The main object of these was to invest the
senate, which he recruited with a number of his own party, with full
control over the state, over every magistrate and every province;
and the mainstay of his political system was to be the military
colonies which he had established with grants of land throughout
every part of Italy, to the ruin of the old Italian freeholders
and farmers, who from this time dwindled away, leaving whole
districts waste and desolate.
In 79 Sulla resigned his dictatorship and retired to Puteoli
(mod. Pozzuoli), where he died in the following year, probably
from the bursting of a blood-vessel. The story that he fell a
victim to a disease similar to that which cut off one of the Herods
(Acts xii. 23) is probably an invention of his enemies. The
" half lion, half fox," as his enemies called him, the " Don Juan
of politics " (Mommsen), the man who carried out a policy of
" blood and iron " with a grim humour, amused himself in his
last days with actors and actresses, with dabbling in poetry, and
completing the Memoirs (commentarii, ivo/u^aTa) of his event-
ful life (see H. Peter, Historicorum romanorum reliquiae, 1870).
Even then he did not give up his interest in state and local affairs,
and his end is said to have been hastened by a fit of passion
brought on by a remark of the quaestor Granius, who openly
asserted that he would escape payment of a sum of money due
to the Romans, since Sulla was on his death-bed. Sulla sent
for him and had him strangled in his presence; in his excitement
he broke a blood-vessel and died on the following day. He was
accorded a magnificent public funeral, his body being removed to
Rome and buried in the Campus Martius. His monument bore
an inscription written by himself, to the effect that he had always
fully repaid the kindnesses of his friends and the wrongs done him
by his enemies. His military genius was displayed in the Social
War and the campaigns against Mithradates; while his constitu-
tional reforms, although doomed to failure from the lack of suc-
cessors to carry them out, were a triumph of organization. But
he massacred his enemies in cold blood, and exacted vengeance
with pitiless and calculated cruelty; he sacrificed everything to
his own ambition and the triumph of his party.
The ancient authorities for Sulla and his time are his Life by
Plutarch (who made use of the Memoirs) ; Appian, Bell. civ. ; for
the references in Cicero see Orelli's Onomasticon Tullianum. Modern
treatises by C. S. Zacharia, L. Cornelius S. als Ordner des romischen
Freystaates (1834); T. Lau, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (1855); E.
Linden, De hello civili Sulla.no (1896); P. Cantalupi, La Guerra
civile Sullana in Italia (1892) ; C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen
(1902) ; F. D. Gerlach, Marius und Sulla (1856) ; J. M. Sunden, " De
tribunicia potentate a Lucio Sulla imminuta" in Skrifter utgifna
af k. humanistika Vetenskapssamfundet i Upsala, v., 1897, in which
it is argued against Mommsen that Sulla did not deprive the tribunes
of the right of proposing rogations. See also Mommsen's History
of Rome, vol. iii., bk. iv., ch., 8, 9; Drumann, Geschichte Roms,
1 A short epigram on Aphrodite in the Greek Anthology (Anth.
Pal., Appendix, i. 153) is ascribed to him.
2nd ed. by Groebe, ii. 364-432; Pauly-Wissowa, ReaUncyclopadie,
iv. 1522-1566 (Frohlich).
His nephew (as some say, though the degree of relationship
cannot be clearly established), PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SULLA was
consul in 66 B.C. with P. Autronius Paetus. Both were convicted
of bribery, and Paetus subsequently joined Catiline in his first
conspiracy. There is little doubt that Sulla also was implicated;
Sallust does not mention it, but other authorities definitely assert
his guilt. After the second conspiracy he was accused of having
taken part in both conspiracies. Sulla was defended by Cicero
and Hortensius, and acquitted. There is no doubt that, after his
first conviction, Sulla remained very quiet, and, whatever his
sympathies may have been, took no active part in the conspiracy.
When the civil war broke out, Sulla took the side of Caesar, and
commanded the right wing at the battle of Pharsalus. He died
in 45-
See Cicero, Pro Sulla, passim (ed. J. S. Reid, 1882); Ad Fam.
ix. 10, xv. 17; Dip Cassius xxxvi. 44, xxxvii. 25; Suetonius, Caesar,
9; Caesar, Bell, civ., iii. 51, 89; Appian, Bell. civ. ii. 76.
SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR SEYMOUR (1842-1900), English
musical composer, was born in London on the I3th of May 1842,
being the younger of the two sons of Thomas Sullivan, a culti-
vated Irish musician who was bandmaster at the Royal Military
College, Sandhurst, from 1845 to 1856, and taught at the Military
School of Music at Kneller Hall from 1857 till his death in 1866.
His mother, nie Mary Coghlan (1811-1882), had Italian blood in
her veins. Arthur Sullivan was brought up to music from boy-
hood, and he had learnt to play every wind instrument in his
father's band by the age of eight. He was sent to school at
Bayswater till he was twelve, and then, through Sir George
Smart, he was, at his own persistent request, made a Chapel
Royal chorister, andm entered Mr Helmore's school for Chapel
Royal boys in Cheyne Walk. He had a fine treble voice, and
sang with exceptional taste. In 1856 the Mendelssohn Scholar-
ship at the Royal Academy of Music was thrown open for the
first time for competition, and was won by Sullivan, his nearest
rival being Joseph Barnby. At the Academy he studied under
Sterndale Bennett, Arthur O'Leary and John Goss, and did so
well that he was given an extension of his scholarship for two
years in succession. In 1858, his voice having broken, he was
enabled by means of his scholarship to go to study at the con-
servatorium of Leipzig. There he had for teachers Moscheles
and Plaidy for pianoforte, Hauptmann for counterpoint, Rietz
and Reinecke for composition, and F. David for orchestral playing
and conducting. Among his fellow-students were Grieg, Carl
Rosa, Walter Bache, J. F. Barnett and Edward Dannreuther.
Instead of the Mendelssohn cultus which represented orthodoxy
in London, German musical interest at this period centred in
Schumann, Schubert and the growing reputation of Wagner,
whilst Liszt and Von Biilow were the celebrities of the day.
Sullivan thus became acquainted for the first time with master-
pieces which were then practically ignored in England. He
entered enthusiastically into the spirit of the place, and after two
years' hard study returned to London in April 1861. Before
doing so, however, he had composed his incidental music for
The Tempest, which he had begun as a sort of diploma work.
Sullivan set himself to find converts in London to the enthusiasms
he had imbibed at Leipzig. He became acquainted with
George Grove) then secretary of the Crystal Palace, and August
Manns, the conductor there; and at his instigation Schumann's
First Symphony was introduced at one of the winter concerts.
Early in 1862 Sullivan showed Grove and Manns his Tempest
music, and on the sth of April it was performed at the Crystal
Palace. The production was an unmixed triumph, and Sullivan's
exceptional gifts as a composer were generally recognized from
that moment. He had hitherto been occupying himself with
teaching, and he continued for some years to act as organist at
St Michael's, Chester Square, but henceforth he devoted most of
his time to composition. By 1864 he had produced his " Kenil-
worth " cantata (remembered chiefly for the lovely duet, " How
sweet the Moonlight "), the " Sapphire Necklace " overture, and
the five beautiful songs from Shakespeare, which include
SULLIVAN, SIR A. S.
" Orpheus with his Lute," " Oh Mistress Mine " and "The Willow
Song." His attractive personality, combined with his un-
doubted genius and brilliant promise, brought him many friends.
Costa, who was conductor at Covent Garden, gave him the post
of organist, and in 1864 he produced there his L'Jle Enchantee
ballet. Some of his spare time was spent in Ireland, where in
1863 he began the composition of his (" Irish ") Symphony in E,
which was produced at the Crystal Palace in 1866. The most
important event, however, at this period, as bearing upon his
later successes, was his co-operation with F. C. Burnand in the
musical extravaganza Cox and Box, which first showed his
capacity for musical drollery. This was acted privately in 1866,
and was completed for public performance in 1867, in which year
Sullivan again co-operated with Burnand in Contrabandista.
Meanwhile he was in request as a conductor, and was made
professor of composition at the Academy. His father's sudden
death in 1866 inspired him to write the fine " In Memoriam "
overture, which was produced at the Norwich Festival. In
1867, besides producing his " Marmion " overture, he and Grove
did a great service to their art by bringing to light at Vienna a
number of lost Schubert MSS., including the Rosamunds music.
About this time Sullivan induced Tennyson to write his song-
cycle " The Window," to be illustrated by Millais, with music
by himself. But Millais abandoned the task, and Tennyson
was not happy about his share; and the series, published in 1871,
never became popular, in spite of Sullivan's dainty setting.
In 1869 he brought out his oratorio The Prodigal Son at
Worcester, and in 1870 his overture " Di Hallo " at Birmingham.
In 1871 Sullivan had become acquainted with W. S. Gilbert
(q.v.), and in 1872 they collaborated in a piece for the Gaiety
Theatre, called Thespis; or, The Gods Grown Old, which was a
great success in spite of the limited vocal resources of the per-
formers. In 1875 R. D'Oyly Carte, then "acting as manager for
Selina Dolaro at the Royalty, approached Gilbert with a view
to his collaborating with Sullivan in a piece for that theatre.
Gilbert had already suggested to Sullivan an operetta with its
scene in a law court, and within three weeks of his completing
the libretto of Trial by Jury the music was written. The piece
succeeded beyond all expectation; and on the strength of its
promise of further successes D'Oyly Carte formed his Comedy
Opera Company and took the Opera Comique Theatre. There in
1877 The Sorcerer was produced, George Grossmith and Rutland
Barrington being in the cast. In 1878 H.M.S. Pinafore was
brought out at the Opera Comique. At first it did not attract
large audiences, but eventually it became a popular success, and
ran for 700 nights. In America it was enthusiastically received,
and the two authors, with D'Oyly Carte, went over to the States
in 1879, with a company of their own, in order to produce it in
New York. To secure the American rights for their next opera,
they brought out The Pirates of Penzance first at New York in
1879. In 1880, in London, it ran for nearly 400 nights. In
1 88 1 Patience was produced at the Opera Comique, and was
transferred later in the year to the Savoy Theatre. There all the
later operas came out: lolanthe (1882), Princess Ida (1884), The
Mikado — perhaps the most charming of all — (1885), Ruddigore
(1887), The Yeomen of the Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889).
This succession of pieces by Gilbert and Sullivan had made their
united names stand for a new type of light opera. Its vogue
owed something to such admirable performers as' George Gros-
smith— famous for his " patter songs " — Rutland Barrington,
Miss Jessie Bond, Miss Brandram, and later W. H. Denny and
Walter Passmore; but these artistes only took advantage of the
opportunities provided by the two authors. In place of the old
adaptations of French opera bouffe they had substituted a
genuinely English product, humorous and delightful, without
a tinge of vulgarity or the commonplace. But disagreements
now arose between them which caused a dissolution of partner-
ship. Sullivan's next Savoy opera, H addon Hall (1892), had
a libretto by Sydney Grundy; and the resumption of Gilbert's
collaboration in 1893 in Utopia, Limited, and again in 1896 in
The Grand Duke, was not as successful as before. Sullivan's
music, however, still showed its characteristic qualities in The
Chieftain (1894) — largely an adaptation of Contrabandista; The
Beauty Stone (1898), with a libretto by A. W. Pinero and
J. Comyns Carr; and particularly in The Rose of Persia (1900),
with Captain Basil Hood.
In the public mind Sir Arthur Sullivan (who was knighted in
1883) had during these years become principally associated with
the enormous success of the Savoy operas; but these by no means
exhausted his musical energies. In 1872 his Te Deum for
the recovery of the prince of Wales was performed at the Crystal
Palace. In 1873 he produced at the Birmingham|Musical Festival
his oratorio The Light of the World, in 1877 he wrote his
incidental music to Henry VIII., in 1880 his sacred cantata
The Martyr of Antioch, and in 1886 his masterpiece, The
Golden Legend, was brought out at the Leeds Festival. The
Golden Legend satisfied the most exacting critics that for
originality of conception and grandeur of execution English
music possessed in Sullivan a composer of the highest calibre.
In 1891, for the opening of D'Oyly Carte's new English opera-
house in Shaftesbury Avenue he 'wrote his "grand opera"
Ivanhoe to a libretto by Julian Sturgis. The attempt to put an
English opera on the stage for a long run was doomed to failure,
but Ivanhoe was full of fine things. In 1892 he composed inci-
dental music to Tennyson's Foresters. In 1897 he wrote a ballet
for the Alhambra, called Victoria and Merrie England. Among
his numerous songs, a conspicuous merit of which is their admir-
able vocal quality, the best known are " If Doughty Deeds "
(1866), " The Sailor's Grave " (1872), " Thou'rt Passing Hence "
(1875), " I would I were a King " (1878), " King Henry's Song "
(1878) and " The Lost Chord " (1877). This last, hackneyed as
it became, was probably the most successful English song of the
1 9th century. It was written in 1877, during the fatal illness of
Sullivan's brother Frederic, who, originally an architect, had
become an actor, and by means of his fine voice and powers as a
comedian (best shown as the Judge in Trial by Jury) had won
considerable success. Among Sullivan's many hymn tunes, the
stirring " Onward, Christian Soldiers! " (1872) is a permanent
addition to Church music. In 1876 he accepted the principalship
of the National Training School of Music, which he held for six
years; this was the germ of the subsequent Royal College. He
received the honorary degree of Mus. Doc. from Cambridge (1876)
and Oxford (1879). In 1878 he was a member of the royal com-
mission for the Paris Exhibition. He was conductor of the Leeds
Festivals from 1879 to 1898, besides being conductor of the
Philharmonic Society in 1885. Apart from his broad sympathy
and his practical knowledge of instruments, his work as a con-
ductor must always be associated with his efforts to raise the
standard of orchestral playing in England and his unwearying
exertions on behalf of British music and British musicians.
Sullivan liked to be associated in the public mind with patriotic
objects, and his setting of Rudyard Kipling's " Absent-minded
Beggar" song, at the opening of the Boer War in 1899, was, with
the exception of The Rose of Persia, the last of his compositions
brought out in his lifetime. He died somewhat suddenly of
heart failure on the 22nd of November 1900, and his burial in
St Paul's Cathedral was the occasion of a remarkable demon-
stration of public sorrow. He left unpublished a Te Deum
written for performance at the end of the Boer War, and an
unfinished Savoy opera for a libretto by Captain Hood, which,
completed by Edward German, was produced in 1901 as The
Emerald Isle.
Sullivan was the one really popular English composer of any
artistic standing in his time; and his celebrity as a public man
has somewhat interfered with a definite judgment as to his place
in the history of English music. In his own time, English
musical taste developed in a very remarkable degree; and musical
criticism in serious quarters was a little disinclined to do justice
to what was " popular." One of the most agreeable companions,
broad-minded, and free from all affectation, he was intensely
admired and loved in all circles of society; and though his health
was not robust, for he suffered during many years at intervals
from a painful ailment, he was a man of the world who enjoyed
the life which his success opened out to him without being spoilt
SULLIVAN, J.— SULLY, JAMES
by it. He was always a devoted and an industrious musician,
and from the day he left Leipzig his influence was powerfully
exerted in favour of a wider and fuller recognition of musical
culture. He was accused in some quarters of being unsympathetic
towards Wagner and the post-Wagnerians, yet he had been
one of the first to introduce Wagner's music to English audiences.
He was keenly appreciative of new talent, but his tastes were too
eclectic to satisfy the enthusiasts for any particular school; he
certainly had no liking for what he considered uninspired
academic writing. Serious critics deplored, with more justifica-
tion, that he should have devoted so much of his great natural gift
not merely to light comic opera, but to the production of a number
of songs which, though always musicianly, were really of the
nature of " pot-boiling." Sullivan was an extremely rapid worker,
and his fertility in melody made it easy for him to produce what
would please a large public. Moreover, it must be admitted that
his great social success, so early achieved, was not calculated to
nourish a rigidly artistic ideal. But when all is said, his genius
remains undisputed; and it was a genius essentially English.
His church music alone would entitle him to a high place
among composers; and The Golden Legend, Ivanhoe^ the In
Memoriam overture, the " Irish " symphony and the charming
" incidental music " to The Tempest and to Henry VIII. form
a splendid legacy of creative effort, characterized by the highest
scholarly qualities in addition to those beauties which appeal to
every ear. Whether his memory will be chiefly associated with
these works, or rather with the world-wide popularity of some of
his songs and comic operas, time alone can tell. The Savoy
operas did not aim at intellectual or emotional grandeur, but at
providing innocent and wholesome pleasure; and in giving
musical form to Gilbert's witty librettos Sullivan showed once
for all what light opera may be when treated by the hand of a
master. His scores are as humorous and fanciful qua music as
Gilbert's verses are qua dramatic literature. Bubbling melody,
consummate orchestration, lovely songs and concerted pieces
(notably the famous vocal quintets) flowed from his pen in un-
exhausted and inimitable profusion. If he had written nothing
else, his unique success in this field would have been a solid title
to fame. As it was, it is Sir Arthur Sullivan's special distinction
not only to have been prolific in music which went straight to the
hearts of the people, but to have enriched the English repertoire
with acknowledged masterpieces, which are no less remarkable
for their technical accomplishment.
See also Sir Arthur Sullivan: Life-story, Letters, and Reminiscences,
by Arthur Lawrence (London: Bowden, 1899). Besides being
largely autobiographical, this volume contains a complete list of
Sullivan's works, compiled by Mr Wilfrid Bendall, who for manv
years acted as Sir Arthur's private secretary. (H. CH.)
SULLIVAN, JOHN (1740-1795), American soldier and politi-
cal leader, was born in Somersworth, New Hampshire, on the
i8th of February 1740. He studied law in Portsmouth, N.H.,
and practised at Berwick, Maine, and at Durham, N.H. He was
a member of the New Hampshire Provincial Assembly in i774>
and in 1774-1775 was a delegate to the Continental Congress.
In 1772 he had been commissioned a major of New Hampshire
militia, and on the isth of December 1774 he and John Langdon
led an expedition which captured Fort William and Mary at
New Castle. Sullivan was appointed a brigadier-general in
the Continental army in June 1775 and. a major-general in
August 1776. He commanded a brigade in the siege of Boston.
In June 1776 he took command of the American army in Canada
and after an unsuccessful skirmish with the British at Three
Rivers (June 8) retreated to Crown Point. Rejoining Washing-
ton's army, he served under General Israel Putnam in the battle
of Long Island (August 27) and was taken prisoner. Released
on parole, he bore a verbal message from Lord Howe to the
Continental Congress, which led to the fruitless conference on
Staten Island. In December he was exchanged, succeeded
General Charles Lee in command of the right wing of Wash-
ington's army, in the battle of Trenton led an attack on the
Hessians, and led a night attack against British and Loyalists on
Staten Island, on the 22nd of August 1777. In the battle of
57
Brandywine (Sept. n, 1777) he again commanded the American
right; he took part in the battle of Germantown (Oct. 4, 1777);
in March 1778 he was placed in command in Rhode Island, and
in the following summer plans were made for his co-operation
with the French fleet under Count d'Estaing in an attack on
Newport, which came to nothing. Sullivan after a brief engage-
ment (Aug. 29) at Quaker Hill, at the N. end of the island of
Rhode Island, was obliged to retreat. In 1 7 79 Sullivan, with about
4000 men, defeated the Iroquois and their Loyalist allies at New-
town (now Elmira), New York, on the 29th of August, burned
their villages, and destroyed their orchards and crops. Although
severely criticised for his conduct of the expedition, he received,
in October 1779, the thanks of Congress. In November he
resigned from the army. Sullivan was again a delegate to the
Continental Congress in 1780-1781 and, having accepted a loan
from the French minister, Chevalier de la Luzerne, he was
charged with being influenced by the French in voting not to
make the right to the north-east fisheries a condition of peace.
From 1782 to 1785 he was attorney-general of New Hampshire.
He was president of the state in 1786-1787 and in 1789, and
in 1786 suppressed an insurrection at Exeter immediately pre-
ceding the Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts. He presided
over the New Hampshire convention which ratified the Federal
constitution in June 1788. From 1789 until his death at
Durham, on the 23rd of January 1795, he was United States
District Judge for New Hampshire.
See O. W. B. Peabody, " Life of John Sullivan "in Jared Sparks's
Library of American Biography, vol. iii. (Boston, 1844); T. C.
Amory, General John Sullivan, A Vindication of his Character as
a Soldier and a Patriot (Morrisania, N.Y., 1867); John Scales,
" Master John Sullivan of Somersworth and Berwick and his
Family," in the Proceedings of the New Hampshire Historical
Society, vol. iv. (Concord, 1906); and Journals of the Military
Expedition of Major-General John Sullivan against the Six Nations
of Indians (Auburn, N. Y., 1887).
SULLIVAN, THOMAS BARRY (1824-1891), Irish actor, was
born at Birmingham, and made his first stage appearance at
Cork about 1840. His earliest successes were in romantic
drama, for which his graceful figure and youthful enthusiasm
fitted him. His first London appearance was in 1852 in Hamlet,
and he was also successful as Angiolo in Miss Vandenhoff's
Woman's Heart, Evelyn in Money and Hardman in Lord
Lytton's Not so Bad as we Seem. Claude Melnotte — with Helen
Faucit as Pauline — was also a notable performance. A tour
of America in 1857 preceded his going to Australia (1861) for
six years, as actor and manager. He completed a trip round
the world in 1866. From 1868-1870 he managed the Holborn
theatre, where Beverley in The Gamester was one of his most
powerful impersonations. Afterwards he travelled over the
United States, Canada, Australia and England. Among his
later London performances were several Shakespearian parts,
his best, perhaps, being Richard III. He was the Benedick
of the cast of Much Ado About Nothing with which the Shake-
speare Memorial was opened at Stratford-on-Avon. He died
on the 3rd of May 1891.
SULLY, JAMES (1842- ), English psychologist, was born
on the 3rd of March 1842 at Bridgwater, and was educated at
the Independent College, Taunton, the Regent's Park College,
Gottingen and Berlin. He was originally destined for the
Nonconformist ministry, but in 1871 adopted a literary and
philosophic career. He was Grote professor of the philosophy
of mind logic at University College, London, from 1892 to
1903, when he was succeeded by Carveth *Read. An adherent
of the associationist school of psychology, his views had great
affinity with those of Alexander Bain. His monographs, as
that on pessimism, are ably and readably written, and his text-
books, of which The Human Mind (1892) is the most important,
are models of sound exposition.
WORKS.— Sensation and Intuition (1874), Pessimism (1877),
Illusions (1881; 4th ed., 1895), Outlines- of Psychology (1884;
many editions), Teacher's Handbook of Psychology (1886), Studies
of Childhood (1895), Children's Ways (1897), and An Essay on
Laughter (1902).
SULLY, DUG DE— SULLY, T.
SULLY, MAXIMILIEN DE BETHUNE, Due DE (1560-1641),
French statesman, was born at the chateau of Rosny near
Mantes, on the I3thof December 1560, of a noble family of Flemish
descent. His father, Francois de Bethune, baron de Rosny,
(1532-1575), was the son of Jean de Beihune, to whom in 1529
his wife Anne de Melun brought as part of her dowry a seigneurie
at Rosny-sur-Seine, which later (1601) was made a marquisate.
Brought up in the Reformed faith, Maximilien was presented to
Henry of Navarre in 1571 and was thenceforth attached to the
future king of France. The young baron de Rosny was taken
to Paris by his patron and was studying at the college of Bour-
gogne at the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew's Day,
from which he escaped by discreetly carrying a book of hours
under his arm. He then studied mathematics and history at
the court of Henry of Navarre, and on the outbreak of civil
war in 1575 he enlisted in the Protestant army. In 1576 he
accompanied the duke of Anjou on an expedition into the
Netherlands in order to regain the former Rosny estates, but
being unsuccessful he attached himself for a time to the prince of
Orange. Later rejoining Henry of Navarre in Guienne, he dis-
played bravery in the field and particular ability as an engineer.
In 1583 he was Henry's special agent in Paris. In 1584
he married Anne de Courtenay, a wealthy heiress, who died,
however, in 1589. On the renewal of civil war Rosny again
joined Henry of Navarre, and at the battle of Ivry (1590)
was seriously wounded. He counselled Henry IV.'s conversion
to Roman Catholicism, but steadfastly refused himself to become
a Roman Catholic. As soon as Henry's power was established,
the faithful and trusted Rosny received his reward in the shape
of numerous estates and dignities. On the death of D'O, the
superintendent of finances, in 1594, the king had appointed a
finance commission of nine members, to which he added Rosny
in 1596. The latter at once made a tour of inspection through
the generalities, and introduced some order into the country's
affairs. He was probably made sole superintendent of finances
in 1598, although this title does not appear in official documents
until the close of 1601. He authorized the free exportation of
grain and wine, reduced legal interest from 8| to 6|%, estab-
lished a special court for the trial of cases of peculation, forbade
provincial governors to raise money on their own authority,
and otherwise removed many abuses of tax-collecting, abolished
several offices, and by his honest, rigorous conduct of the country's
finances was able to save between 1600 and 1610 an average of
a million livres a year. His achievements were by no means
solely financial. In 1599 he was appointed grand commissioner
of highways and public works, superintendent of fortifications
and grand master of artillery; in 1662 governor of Mantes and
of Jargeau, captain-general of the queen's gens d'armes and
governor of the Bastille; in 1604 governor of Poitou; and in
1606 duke and peer of Sully, ranking next to princes of the
blood. He declined the office of constable because he would
not become a Roman Catholic. Sully encouraged agriculture,
urged the free circulation of produce, promoted stock-raising,
forbade the destruction of the forests, drained swamps, built
roads and bridges, planned a vast system of canals and
actually began the canal of Briare. He strengthened the French
military establishment; under his direction fivrard began the
construction of a great line of defences on the frontiers. Sully
opposed the king's colonial policy as inconsistent with the French
genius, and likewise showed little favour to industrial pursuits,
although on the urgent solicitation of the king he established
a few silk factories* He fought in company with Henry IV.
in Savoy (1600-1601) and negotiated the treaty of peace in
1602; in 1603 he represented Henry at the court of James I.
of England; and throughout the reign he helped the king to
put down insurrections of the nobles, whether Roman Catholic
or Protestant. It was Sully, too, who arranged the marriage
between Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis.
The political r61e of Sully practically ended with the assassi-
nation of Henry IV. "on the i4th of May 1610. Although a
member of the council of regency, his colleagues were not dis-
posed to brook his domineering leadership, and after a stormy
debate he resigned as superintendent of finances on the 26th
of January 1611, and retired to private life. The queen-
mother gave him 300,000 livres for his services and confirmed him
in possession of his estates. He attended the estates-general
in 1614, and on the whole was in sympathy with the policy and
government of Richelieu. He disavowed the plots at La
Rochelle, in 1621, but in the following year was arrested at
Moulins, though soon released. The baton of marshal of
France was conferred on him on the i8th of September 1634.
The last years of his life were spent chiefly at Villebon, Rosny
and Sully. He died at Villebon, on the 22nd of December
1641. By his first wife Sully had one son, Maximilien,
marquis de Rosny (1587-1634), who led a life of dissipation
and debauchery. By his second wife, Rachel de Cochefilet,
widow of the lord of Chateaupers, whom he married in 1592
and who turned Protestant to please him, he had nine children,
of whom six died young, and one daughter married in 1605
Henri de Rohan.
Sully was not popular. He was hated by most Roman
Catholics because he was a Protestant, by most Protestants
because he was faithful to the king, and by all because he was
a favourite, and selfish, obstinate and rude. He amassed a large
personal fortune, and his jealousy of all other ministers and
favourites was extravagant. Nevertheless he was an excellent
man of business, inexorable in punishing malversation and
dishonesty on the part of others, and opposed to the ruinous
court expenditure which was the bane of almost all European
monarchies in his day. He was gifted with executive ability,
with confidence and resolution, with fondness for work, and
above all with deep devotion to his master. He was implicitly
trusted by Henry IV. and proved himself the most able
assistant of the king in dispelling the chaos into which the
religious and civil wars had plunged France. To Sully, next
to Henry IV., belongs the credit for the happy transformation
in France between 1598 and 1610 by which agriculture and
commerce were benefited and foreign peace and internal order
were maintained.
Sully left a curious collection of memoirs written in the second
person and bearing the quaint title, Memoires des sages et royales
economies d'eslat, domestiques, poliliques, et militaires de Henry
le Grand, I'exemplaire des roys, le prince des vertus, des armes, et des
loix, et le pere en effet de ses peuples franQois; et des servitudes utiles,
obissances convenables, et administrations loyales de Maxim, de
Bethune, I'un des plus confidens, familiers, et utiles soldats et serviteurs
du grand Mars des Francois: dediees a la France, d tous les bans
soldats, et tous peuples fran$ois. The memoirs are very valuable
for the history of the time and as an autobiography cf Sully, in spite
of the fact that they contain many fictions, such as a mission under-
taken by Sully to Queen Elizabeth in 1601, and the famous " Grand
Design, ' a plan for a Christian republic, which some historians
have taken seriously. Two folio volumes of the memoirs were
splendidly printed, nominally at Amsterdam, but really under
Sully's own eye, at his chateau in 1638; two other volumes appeared
posthumously in Paris in 1662. The abb6 de 1'Ecluse rewrote the
memoirs in ordinary narrative form and edited them in 1745. The
best edition of the original is that in J. F. Michaud and J. J. F.
Poujoulat, Nouvelle collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de
France (1854), vols. xvi.-xvii. An English translation by Charlotte
Lennox appeared in 1756 and was later revised and republished
(4 vols., London, 1856).
See E. Lavisse, Sully (Paris, 1880); L. Dussieux, Stude bio-
graphique sur Sully (Paris, 1887); G. Fagniez, Economie sociale de la
France sous Henri IV. (Paris, 1897); B. L. H. Martin, Trois grands
ministres, Sully, Richelieu et Colbert (Paris, 1898); E. Lavisse, ed.
Histoire de France (Paris, 1905), vol. vi. ; P. Robiquet, Histoire muni-
cipals de Paris, vol. iii. Histoire de Henri IV. (Paris, 1904) ; E. Bonnal,
L'Economie politique au XVI' siecle: Sully economiste (Paris, 1872) ;
J. Gourdault, Sully et son temps (Tours, 1873); T. Kukelhaus, Der
Ursprung des Planes vom ewigen Frieden in den Memoiren des
Herzogs^von Sully (Berlin, 1892); C. Pfister, "Les ' (Economies
royales ' de Sully et le grand dessein de Henri IV." in Revue
htstorique (1894), vols. liv.-Tvi. ; Desclozeaux, " Gabrielle d'Estrees et
Sully " in Revue historique (1887), vol. xxxiii. (C. H. HA).
SULLY, THOMAS (1783-1872), American artist, was born at
Horncastle, England, on the 8th of June 1 783. His parents, who
were actors, took him to America when he was nine years old,
settling at Charleston, South Carolina, and he was first instructed
in art by a French miniature painter. Afterwards he was a
SULLY-PRUDHOMME, R. F.— SULMONA
59
pupil of Gilbert Stuart in Boston, and in 1809 he went to London
and entered the studio of Benjamin West. He returned in
1810, and made Philadelphia his home, but in 1837 again visited
London, where he painted a full length portrait of Queen
Victoria for the St George's Society of Philadelphia. Sully
was one of the best of the early American painters. He died
in Philadelphia on the sth of November 1872. Among his por-
traits are those of Commodore Decatur (City Hall, New York) ;
the actor George Frederick Cooke, as Richard III. (Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadephia) ; Lafayette (Indepen-
dence Hall); Thomas Jefferson (U.S. Military Academy, West
Point, New York); Charles and Frances Anne Kemble, and
Reverdy Johnson. His son ALFRED SULLY (1821-1879) an officer
in the United States army, was a brigade-commander in the
Army of the Potomac in 1862-63, and after 1863 commanded
the department of Dakota and conducted several campaigns
against hostile Indians in the north-west. In 1865 he was
breveted brigadier-general in the regular army and major-
general of volunteers.
SULLY-PRUDHOMME, RENE FRANCOIS ARMAND PRUD-
HOMME (1830-1907), French poet, was born in Paris on the
i6th of March 1839. He was educated at the Lycee Bonaparte,
where after a time he took his degree as Bachelier es Sciences.
An attack of ophthalmia then interrupted his studies and
necessitated an entire change in the course of his career. The
scientific habit of mind, however, which he had derived from
these years of technical study never left him; and it is in the
combination of this scientific bent, with a soul aspiring towards
what lies above and beyond science, and a conscience per-
petually in agitation, that the striking originality of Sully-
Prudhomme's character is to be found. He found employment
for a time in the Schneider factory at Creuzot, but he soon
abandoned an occupation to which he was eminently unsuited.
He subsequently decided to read law, and entered a notary's
office at Paris. It was during this period that he composed
those early poems which were not long in acquiring celebrity
among an ever-widening circle of friends. In 1865 he pub-
lished his first volume of poems, which had for sub-title Stances
et poemes. This volume was favourably reviewed by Sainte-
Beuve, to whose notice it had been brought by Gaston Paris.
It was at this moment that the small circle of which Leconte de
Lisle was the centre were preparing the Parnasse, to which
Sully-Prudhomme contributed several pieces. In 1866 Lemerre
published a new edition of the Stances et poemes and a collection
of sonnets entitled Les Epreuves (1866). From this time
forward Sully-Prudhomme devoted his life entirely to poetry.
It was in the volume of Les Eprewies that the note of melancholy
which was to dominate through the whole work of his life was
first clearly discernible. In 1869 he published a translation of
the first book of Lucretius with a preface, and Les Solitudes.
In 1870 a scries of domestic bereavements and a serious paralytic
illness resulting from the strain and fatigue of the winter of
1870, during which he served in the Garde Mobile, shattered
his health. In 1872 he published Les Ecuries d'augias, Croquis
italiens, Impressions de la guerre (1866-72) and Les Destins,
La Revolte des heurs in 1874, in 1875 Les Vaines tendresses,
in 1878 La Justice, in 1886 Le Prisme, and in 1888 Le Bonheur. All
these poems were collected and republished under the title of
Poesies, occupying four volumes of his (Euvres (6 vols., 1883-
1904). After the publication of Le Bonheur he practically ceased
to produce verse, and devoted himself almost entirely to philo-
sophy. He published two volumes of prose criticism L 'expression
dans les beaux arts (1884) and Reflexions sur I' art des vers
(1892). Various monographs by him appeared from time to
time in the philosophical reviews, and among them a remarkable
series of essays (Revue des deux mondes, Oct. isth, Nov. isth,
1890) on Pascal, and a valuable study on the " Psychologic
du libre arbitre " in the Revue de metaphysique et de morale (1906).
He was elected to the Academy on the Sth of December 1881.
On the loth of December 1901 he was awarded the Nobel prize
for literature, and devoted most of the money to the foundation
of a prize for poetry to be awarded by the Societe de gens de
lettres. He was one of the earliest champions of Captain
Dreyfus. In 1902 he wrote, in collaboration with Charles Richet,
Le Probleme des causes finales. During his later years he lived
at Chatenay in great isolation, a victim of perpetual ill-health,
and mainly occupied with his Vraie religion selon Pascal (1905).
He had been partially paralysed for some time when he died
suddenly on the 6th of September 1907. He left a volume of
unpublished verse and a prose work, Le Lien social, which was
a revision of an introduction which he had contributed to
Michelet's La Bible de I'humanile.
What strikes the reader of Sully-Prudhomme's poetry first
and foremost is the fact that he is a thinker; and moreover a
poet who thinks, and not a thinker who turns to rhyme for
recreation. The most strikingly original portion of his work
is to be found in his philosophic and scientific poetry. If he
has not the scientific genius of Pascal, he has at least the
scientific habit of mind and a delight in mathematic certainties.
In attempting to interpret the universe as science reveals it to
us he has created a new form of poetry which is not lacking
in a certain grandeur. One of his most beautiful poems,
" L'Ideal " (Stances et poemes), is inspired by the thought, which
is due to scientific calculations, of stars so remote from our
planet that their light has been on its way to us since thousands
of centuries and will one day be visible to the eyes of a future
generation. The second chief characteristic of Sully-Prud-
homme's poetry is the extreme sensibility of soul, the pro-
foundly melancholy note which we find in his love lyrics and
his meditations. Sully-Prudhomme is above all things intro-
spective; he penetrates into the hidden corners of his heart;
he lays bare the subtle torments of his conscience, the shifting
currents of his hopes and fears, belief and disbelief in face of
the riddle of the universe to an extent so poignant as to be
sometimes almost painful. And to render the fugitive phases
and tremulous adventures of his spirit he finds incomparably
delicate shades of expression, an exquisite and sensitive diction.
We are struck in reading his poems by the nobility of his ideas,
by a religious elevation like that of Pascal; for there is in his
work something both of Lucretius and of Pascal. Yet he is
far from being either an Epicurean or a Jansenist; he is rather
a Stoic to whom the deceptions of life have brought pity instead
of bitterness.
As an artist Sully-Prudhomme is remarkable for the entire
absence of oratorical effect; for the extreme simplicity and fas-
tidious precision of his diction. Other poets have been endowed
with a more glowing imagination; his poetry is neither exuberant
in colour nor rich in sonorous harmonies of rhyme. The grace
of his verse is a grace of outline and not of colour, his melody
one of subtle rhythm; his verse is as if carved in ivory, his music
like that of a perfect unison of stringed instruments. His
imagination is inseparable from his ideas, and this is the reason
of the extraordinary perspicuity of his poetic style. He extends
poetry to two extreme limits; on the one hand to the borderland
of the unreal and the dreamlike, as in a poem such as " Le
Rendezvous " (Vaines tendresses), in which he seems to express
the inexpressible in precise language; on the other hand, in his
scientific poems he encroaches on the province of prose. His
poetry is plastic in the creation of forms which fittingly express
his fugitive emotions and his elevated ideas. Both by the
charm of his pure and perfect phrase, by his consummate art,
and the dignity which informs all his work, Sully-Prudhomme
deserves rank among the foremost of modern poets. (E. G.)
See C. H6mon, La Philosophic de Sully-Prudhomme (1907), Sully-
Prudhomme by E. Zyromski (Paris 1907).
SULMONA, or SOLMONA (anc. Sulmo), a city and episcopal
see of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 40 m. by
rail S.E. by E. of that town, and 107 m. E. by N. of Rome
(75 m. direct). Pop. (1901), 13,372 (town), 18,247 (commune).
Sulmona is situated at a height of 1322 ft. above the sea on the
Gizio, a tributary of the Pescara, which supplies water-power
to its paper-mills, fulling-mills and copper-works. Its cathedral
of San Panfilio has a 14th-century portal. The interior has been
modernized, but in the crypt are some medieval sculptures.
6o
SULPHONAL— SULPHONIC ACIDS
Sulmona has also in S. Maria deUa Tomba a good example oi
pure Gothic. S. Francesco d'Assisi occupies the site of an
older and larger church, the Romanesque portal of which still
stands at the end of the Corso Ovidio, and forms the entrance
to the meat market. Opposite is a picturesque aqueduct of
1266 with pointed arches. S. Agostino has a good Gothic portal.
The Ospedale Civico, next to the church of the Annunziata,
begun in the first half of the isth century, shows an interesting
mixture of Gothic and Renaissance styles. The window of
the Palazzo Tabassi is similar, and both are due to Lombard
masters. In the court of the grammar school is a fine ist
century statue of Ovid, the most celebrated native of the town,
whose memory is preserved among the peasants in songs and
folk-lore. The Porta Napoli is an interesting gate of the early
I4th century. Innocent VII. was a native of the town. In
the vicinity of the town is Monte Morrone where Pietro di
Morone lived (c. 1254) as a hermit and founded a monastery
for his hermits, who after his elevation to the papacy as Celes-
tine V. took the name of Celestines; the monastery (S. Spirito)
remained till 1870, when it was transformed into a prison.
There are some ruins of the imperial period, attributed, ground-
lessly, to the house of Ovid near it. The church contains a
Gothic tomb of 1412 by a German master, in which Renaissance
influence is, according to Burckhardt, traceable for the first
time in south Italy in the realistic characterization of the
portrait figures.
Sulmo, a city of the Paeligni, is first mentioned during the
Second Punic War (211 B.C.). It was the second town of the
Paeligni in importance, Corfinium coming first. It became a
Roman colony probably in the reign of Augustus, and as a muni-
tipium it continued to flourish throughout the empire. It was
situated 7 m. south-east of Corfinium on the road to Aesernia,
and was famous for its ironsmiths. Hardly any remains of the
ancient city exist above ground, owing to frequent earth-
quakes. A number of discoveries of tombs (both archaic and of
the Roman period), &c., have however been made (cf. A. de
Nino, in Notizie degliScavi, passim). Charles V. erected it into
a principality, which he bestowed on Charles Lannoy, who had
captured Francis I. at the battle of Pavia. It ultimately
passed to the Corno and Borghese families. The bishopric is
known as that of Valva and Sulmona.
SULPHONAL, or acetone diethyl sulphone (CH3)2C(SO2C2H6)2,
a valuable hypnotic prepared by condensing acetone with
ethyl mercaptan in the presence of hydrochloric acid, the mer-
captol (CH3)2C(SC2H6)2 formed being subsequently oxidized by
potassium permanganate (E. Baumann, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2808).
It is also formed by the action of alcoholic potash and methyl
iodide on ethylidene diethyl sulphine, CH3-CH(SO2C2H6)2
(which is formed by the oxidation of dithioacetal with
potassium permanganate). It crystallizes in prisms melting
at 125° C., which are practically insoluble in cold water, but
dissolve in 15 parts of hot and also in alcohol and ether.
It is the sulphonalum of the B.P., and the sulphomethanum
of the U.S.P. It produces lengthened sleep in functional
nervous insomnia, and is also useful in insanity, being given with
mucilage of acacia or in hot liquids, owing to its insolubility,
or in large capsules. Its hypnotic power is not equal to that
of chloral, but as it is not a depressant to the heart or respiration
it can be used when morphine or chloral are contra-indicated.
It is, however, very uncertain in its action, often failing to
produce sleep when taken at bedtime, but producing
drowsiness and sleep the following day. The drowsiness the
next day following a medicinal dose can be avoided by a saline
laxative the morning after its administration. It is unwise to
use it continuously for more than a few days at a time, as it
tends to produce the sulphonal habit, which is attended by
marked toxic effects, disturbances of digestion, giddiness,
staggering gait and even paralysis of the lower extremities.
These effects are accompanied by skin eruptions, and the urine
becomes of a dark red colour (haematoporphinuria). Sulphonal
is cumulative in its effects. Many fatal cases of sulphonal
poisoning are on record, both from chronic poisoning and from
a single large dose. Trional (CH8)(C2H6)C(SO2C2H5)2, and
tetronal, (C2H,)2C(SO2C2Ht)2, are also hypnotics. They are
faster in action than sulphonal, and trional does not disorder
the digestion.
SULPHONIC ACIDS, in organic chemistry, a group of com-
pounds of the type R-SOjH, where R is an alkyl or an aryl
group.
Aliphatic Sulphonic Acids. — The members of this class may
be prepared by the direct sulphonation of some paraffins (I.
WorstaM, Amer. Chem. Journ., 1898, 20, p. 664) ; by the oxidation
of mercaptans with concentrated nitric acid (H. Kopp, Ann.,
1840, 35, p. 346) ; in the form of their salts from the alkyl halides
and alkaline sulphites, and as esters from the alkyl halides and
silver sulphite. They are colourless oils or crystalline solids
which are extremely hygroscopic, very soluble in water and
have a strongly acid reaction. They are unaffected by heating
with aqueous alkalis or acids and are stable towards concentrated
nitric acid. Phosphorus pentachloride converts them into the
corresponding acid chlorides, R-SO2C1, which are decomposed
slowly by water. These chlorides, on reduction by zinc and
sulphuric acid, pass readily into the mercaptans, whilst if zinc
dust and alcohol be used they are converted into the sulphinic
acids, R-SO2H.
Methyl sulphonic acid, CH3-SO3H, was obtained by H. Kolbe
(Ann., 1845, 54, p. 174) by reducing trichloromethyl sulphonic
chloride (formed from chlorine and carbon bisulphide in the presence
of water: CS2+5Cl2-i-2H2O = CCI3-SO2Cl+4HCl+SCl2) with sodium
amalgam. It is a colourless syrup which decomposes when heated
above 130° C. The corresponding acid chloride is an extremely
stable solid which melts at 135° C. It is formed by the action of
carbon bisulphide on potassium bichromate in the presence of
nitric and hydrochloric acids (Loew, Zeit. f. Chem., 1869, p. 82).
When heated under pressure it decomposes with the final produc-
tion of carbonyl and thionyl chlorides: CCl»-SO2Cl = CCl4+SO2 =
COCU+SOCU. Ethyl sulphonic acid, CjHj-SOjH, is a crystalline deli-
quescent solid formed by oxidizing ethyl mercaptan or by reducing
vinyl sulphonic acid, CH2:CH-SO3H (Kohler, Amer. Chem. Journ.,
1898, 20, p. 687).
Thiosulphonic acids of the type R-SO2-SH are formed by the
action of the sulphochlorides on a concentrated solution of potassium
sulphide: R-SO2C1 + K2S = R-SO2K+S + KCl =KC1+ R-SO,-SK;
or by the action of the salt of a sulphinic acid on an alkaline sulphide
in the presence of iodine (Otto, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 144).
Aromatic Sulphonic Acids. — The acids of this group are very
similar to the corresponding aliphatic ^ulphonic acids and are
usually obtained by the direct heating of an aromatic hydro-
carbon with concentrated sulphuric acid, fuming sulphuric acid
or sulphur chlorhydrin. After the action is completed they
may frequently be " salted out " by adding common salt to
the acid solution until no more dissolves, when the sodium salt
of the acid separates (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 2121).
They are also formed by oxidizing thiophenols or by decompos-
ing diazonium salts with sulphurous acid. The free acids are
usually hygroscopic, crystalline solids which are readily soluble
in water. ' When heated under pressure with concentrated
hydrochloric acid to about 150° C. they yield hydrocarbons
and sulphuric acid. The salts usually crystallize well, and
those of the alkali metals are employed in the preparation of
phenols, anto which they pass when fused with the caustic
alkalis. When distilled with potassium cyanide they yield the
aromatic nitriles. The sulphonic acids with phosphorus penta-
chloride are converted into sulphochlorides which are stable
to cold water, but with ammonia they yield sulphonamides,
R-SO2NH2, and with alcohols esters of the sulphonic acids.
Benzene sulphonic acid, C6H6-SO3H,1£H2O, crystallizes in small
plates and is very deliquescent. Benzene sulphochloride, C6H6 SO2C1
is a colourless fuming liquid which boils at 120° C. (10 mm.). The
ammobenzene sulphonic acids, particularly the meta and para
compounds, are of importance owing to their employment in the
colour industry. The direct sulphonation of aniline yields the para
acid, sulphantlic acid, C,H4(NH2)(SO3H), which crystallizes in small
plates and is sparingly soluble in cold water. When fused with
caustic potash it yields aniline, whilst oxidation with chromic acid
yields benzoqumone. In constitution it is probably to be regarded
/NH3V
as a cyclic ammonium salt, C«H4< >. When diazotized in
\SO,/
acid solution and coupled with dimethyl aniline it yields helianthine,
SULPHUR
61
the sodium salt of which is used as an indicator (q.v.). Metanilic
acid C6H<(NH2) (SOsH) [1.3], which crystallizes in prisms, is formed
by the reduction of meta-mtrobenzene sulphonic acid and is used
in the preparation of various azo dyes.
Sulphinic acids, R-SOjH, are formed by reducing sulpho-
chlorides with zinc dust; by the action of sulphur dioxide on
the zinc aikyls (Hobson, Ann, 1857, 102, p. 72; 1858, 106, p.
287) ; by the action of sulphochlorides on mercaptans in alkaline
solution; and by the action of the Grignard reagent on sulphur
dioxide or thionyl chloride (Rosenheim, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 2152;
Oddo, R. Accad. Lin., 1905 (5), 14 (i.), p. 169). The free acids
are unstable. They are readily oxidized to sulphonic acids
and reduced to mercaptans. Their alkali salts on treatment
with the alkyl halides yield sulphones, R2SO2. Ethyl sulphinic
acid, CjHj-SOjH, is a colourless syrup. Benzene sulphinic acid,
CeHs-SO^H, crystallizes in large prisms and acts as a reducing
agent. It decomposes when heated with water under pressure:
3C6H5-SO2H = C6H5-SO2H-f-C6H5-SGyS-C6H5+H20. The potas-
sium salt when fused with caustic potash yields benzene and
potassium sulphite.
SULPHUR [symbol S, atomic weight 32-07 (O = i6)], a
non-metallic chemical element, known from very remote times
and regarded by the alchemists, on account of its inflammable
nature, as the principle of combustion; it is also known as
brimstone (q.v.). The element occurs widely and abundantly
distributed in nature both in the free state and in combination.
Free or native sulphur, known also as " virgin sulphur," occurs
in connexion with volcanoes and in certain stratified rocks in
several modes, viz. as crystals, and as stalactitic, encrusting,
reniform, massive, earthy and occasionally pulverulent forms as
" sulphur meal." It seems rather doubtful whether the unstable
monoclinic modification of sulphur (/3-sulphur) is ever found
in a native state.
The crystals belong to the orthorhombic system, and have usually
a pyramidal habit (fig.), but may be sphenoidal or tabular. Twins
are rare. The cleavage is imperfect, but there is
a well-marked conchoidal fracture. The hardness
ranges from about I to 2, and the sp.gr. from I -9 to 2 -I.
Crystals of sulphur are transparent or translucent and
highly refractive with strong birefringence; they
have a resinous or slightly adamantine lustre, and
? resent the characteristic sulphur-yellow colour,
mpurities render the mineral grey, greenish or red-
dish, bituminous matter being often present in the
massive varieties. Sulphur containing selenium,
such as occurs in the isle of Vulcano in the Lipari Isles, may be
orange-red; and a similar colour is seen in sulphur which contains
arsenic sulphide, such as that from La Solfatara near Naples. The
presence of tellurium in native sulphur is rare, but is known in
certain specimens from Japan.
Volcanic sulphur usually occurs as a sublimate around or on the
walls of the vents, and has probably been formed in many cases
by the interaction of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Sub-
limed sulphur also results from the spontaneous combustion of
coal seams containing pyrites. Deposits of sulphur are frequently
formed by the decomposition of hydrogen sulphide, on exposure
to the atmosphere: hence natural sulphureous waters, especially
hot springs, readily deposit sulphur. The reduction of sulphates
to sulphides by means of organic matter, probably through the
agency of sulphur-bacteria, may also indirectly furnish sulphur, and
hence it is frequently found in deposits of gypsum. Free sulphur
may also result from the decomposition of pyrites, as in pyritic
shales and lignites, or from the alteration of galena: thus crystals
of sulphur occur, with anglesite, in cavities in galena at Monteponi
near Iglesias in Sardinia; whilst the pyrites of Rio Tinto in Spain
sometimes yield sulphur on weathering. It should be noted that
the oxidation of sulphur itself by atmospheric influence may give
rise to sulphuric acid, which in the presence of limestone will form
gypsum: thus the sulphur-deposits of Sicily suffer alteration of this
kind, and have their outcrop marked by a pale earthy gypseous
rock called briscale.
\
Some of the most important deposits of sulphur in the world
are worked in Sicily, chiefly in the provinces of Caltanisetta
and Girgenti, as at Racalmuto and Cattolica; and to a less
extent in the provinces of Catania, Palermo (Lercara) and
Trapani (Gibellina). The sulphur occurs in Miocene marls
and limestone, associated with gypsum, celestine, aragonite
and calcite. It was formerly believed that the sulphur had a
volcanic origin, but it is now generally held that it has either
been reduced from gypsum by organic agencies, or more pro-
bably deposited from sulphur-bearing waters. Liquid occasion-
ally enclosed in the sulphur and gypsum has been found by O.
Silvestri and by C. A. H. Sjogren to contain salts like those of
sulphur-springs. An important zone of sulphur-bearing Miocene
rocks occurs on the east side of the Apennines, constituting a
great part of the province of Forli and part of Pesaro, Cesena
and Perticara are well-known localities in this district, the latter
yielding crystals coated with asphalt. Sulphur is occasionally
found crystallized in Carrara marble; and the mineral occurs
also in Calabria. Fine crystals occur at Conil near Cadiz;
whilst in the province of Teruel in Aragon, sulphur in a compact
form replaces fresh-water shells and plant-remains, suggesting
its origin from sulphur-springs. Nodular forms of sulphur
occur in Miocene marls near Radoboj in Croatia, and near
Swoszowic, south of Cracow. Russia possesses large deposits
of sulphur in Daghestan in Transcaucasia, and in the Transcas-
pian steppes. Important deposits of sulphur are worked at
several localities in Japan, especially at the Kosaka mine in the
province of Rikuchiu, and at Yatsukoda-yama, in the province
of Mutsu. Sulphur is worked in Chile and Peru. A complete
list of localities for sulphur would include all the volcanic regions
of the world. In the United States, sulphur occurs in the
following states, in many of which the mineral has been worked:
Louisiana (g.v.), Utah.Colorado, California, Nevada, Alaska, Idaho,
Texas and Wyoming. The Rabbit Hole sulphur-mines are in
Nevada, and a great deposit in Utah occurs at Cove Creek,-
Beaver county. In the British Islands native sulphur is only
a mineralogical rarity, but it occurs in the Carboniferous
Limestone of Oughterard in Co. Galway, Ireland.1
In combination the element chiefly occurs as metallic sul-
phides and sulphates. The former are of great commercial
importance, being, in most cases, valuable ores, e.g. copper
pyrites (copper), galena (lead), blende (zinc), cinnabar (mer-
cury), &c. Of the sulphates we notice gypsum and anhydrite
(calcium) , barytes (barium) and kieserite (magnesium) . Gaseous
compounds, e.g. sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen,
are present in volcanic exhalations (see VOLCANO) and in many
mineral waters. The element also occurs in the animal and
vegetable kingdoms. It is present in hair and wool, and in
albuminous bodies; and is also a constituent of certain vegetable
oils, such as the oils of garlic and mustard. There is, in addition,
a series of bacteria which decompose sulphureous compounds
and utilize the element thus liberated in their protoplasm (see
BACTERIOLOGY).
Extraction: — As quarried or mined free sulphur is always
contaminated with limestone, gypsum, clay, &c.; the principle
underlying its extraction from these impurities is one of simple
liquation, i.e. the element is melted, either by the heat of its
own combustion or other means, and runs off from the earthy
residue.
In the simplest and crudest method, as practised in Sicily, a mass
of the ore is placed in a hole in the ground and fired ; after a time
.the heat melts a part of the sulphur which runs down to the bottom
of the hole and is then ladled out. This exceptionally wasteful
process, in which only one-third of the sulphur is recovered, has been
improved by conducting the fusion in a sort of kiln. A semicircular
or semi-elliptical pit (calcarone) about 33 ft. in diameter and 8 ft. deep
is dug into the slope of a hill, and the sides are coated with a wall
of stone. The sole consists of two halves slanting against each other,
the line of intersection forming a descending gutter which runs to
the outlet. This outlet having been closed by small stones and
sulphate of lime cement, the pit is filled with sulphur ore, which is
heaped up considerably beyond the edge of the pit and covered with
a layer of burnt-out ore. In building up the heap a number of
narrow vertical passages are left to afford a draught for the fire.
The ore is kindled from above and the fire so regulated (by making
or unmaking air-holes in the covering) that, by the heat produced
1 References.— A very full article (" Zolfo ") by G. Aichino, of the
Geological Survey of Italy, will be found in the Enciclopedia delle
arte e Industrie (Turin, 1898). This includes a full bibliography.
See also J. F. Kemp in Rothwell's Mineral Industry (1893), vol. ii. ;
Jules Brunfaut, De I' Exploitation des spufres (2nd eel., 1874) ; Georgio
Spezia, Sull' origine del solfo net giacementi solfiferi delta Sicilia
(Turin, 1892). For Japanese sulphur see T. Wada, Minerals of
Japan (Tokyo, 1904).
62
SULPHUR
by the combustion of the least sufficient quantity of sulphur, the
rest is liquefied. The molten sulphur accumulates on the sole,
whence it is from time to time run out into a square stone receptacle,
from which it is ladled into damp poplar-wood moulds and so brought
into the shape of truncated cones weighing no to 130 ft each.
These cakes are sent out into commerce. A calcarone with a capacity
of 28,256 cub. ft. burns for about two months, and yields about
200 tons of sulphur. The yield is about 50%. The immense
volumes of sulphurous acid evolved give rise to many complaints;
all the minor pits suspend work during the summer to avoid destruc-
tion of the crops. A calcarone that is to be used all the year round
must be at least 220 yds. from any inhabited place and .1*0 yds.
from any fiejd under cultivation.
More efficient is the Gill kiln which uses coke as a fuel. The kiln
consists of two (or more) connected cells which are both charged
with the ore. The first cell is heated and the products of combustion
are led into the second cell where they give up part of their heat
to the contained ore, so that by the time the first cell is exhausted
the mass in the second cell is at a sufficiently high temperature to
ignite spontaneously when air is admitted. Other methods have
been employed, but with varying commercial success. For example,
in the Gritti and Orlando processes the ore is charged into retorts
and the fusion effected by superheated steam, the sulphur being
run off as usual; or as was suggested by R. E. Bollman in 1867 the
ore may be extracted by carbon bisulphide.
Crude sulphur, as obtained from kilns, contains about 3% of
earthy impurities, and consequently needs refining. The following
apparatus (invented originally by Michel of Marseilles and improved
subsequently by others) enables the manufacturer to produce either
of two forms of " refined " sulphur which commerce demands. It
consists of a large stone chamber which communicates directly
with two slightly slanting tubular retorts of iron. The retorts are
.charged with molten sulphur from an upper reservoir, which is kept
at the requisite temperature by means of the lost heat of the retort
fires. The chamber has a safety value at the top of its vault, which
is so balanced that the least surplus pressure from within sends it
up. The first puff of sulphur vapour which enters the chamber
takes fire and converts the air of the chamber into a mixture of nitro-
gen and sulphur dioxide. The next following instalments of vapour,
getting diffused throughout a large mass of relatively cold gas,
condense into a kind of " snow," known in commerce and valued
as " flowers of sulphur " (flares sulphuris). By conducting the
distillation slowly, so that the temperature within the chamber
remains at a sufficiently low degree, it is possible to obtain the whole
of the product in the form of "flowers." If compact ("roll")
sulphur is wanted the distillation is made to go on at the quickest
admissible rate. The temperature of the interior of the chamber
soon rises to more than the fusing-point of sulphur (113° C.), and
the distillate accumulates at the bottom as a liquid, which is tapped
off from time to time to be cast into the customary form of rods.
The Louisiana deposits are worked by a process devised by Herman
Frasch in 1891. It consists in sinking a bore-hole, after the manner
of a petroleum well, and letting in four pipes centrally arranged, the
outer pipe being 10 in. in diameter, the next 6 in., the next 3 in. and
the innermost I in. The operation consists in forcing down the 3-in.
pipe superheated steam at 330° F. to melt the sulphur. Compressed
air is now driven down the i-in. pipe and bubbles into the melted
sulphur and water ; the specific gravity of which is greatly diminished,
so that it rises to the surface through the outer pipes; it is then run
off to settling tanks. The sulphur so obtained is 98 % pure.
In some places sulphur is extracted from iron pyrites by one of
two methods. The pyrites is subjected to dry distillation from
out of iron or fire-clay tubular retorts at a bright red heat. One-
third of the sulphur is volatilized — SFeSj = Fe3S4 + 2S — and
obtained as a distillate. The second method is analogous to the
calcarone method of liquation: the ore is placed in a limekiln-like
furnace over a mass of kindled fuel to start a partial combustion of
the mineral, and the process is so regulated that, by the heat gener-
ated, the unburnt part is decomposed with elimination of sulphur,
which collects in the molten state on an inverted roof-shaped sole
below the furnace and is thence conducted into a cistern. Such
pyrites sulphur is usually contaminated with arsenic, and conse-
quently is of less value than Sicilian sulphur, which is characteris-
tically free from this impurity.
Large quantities are also recovered from alkali waste (see ALKALI
MANUFACTURE) ; another source is the spent oxide of gas manufacture
(see GAS).
The substance known as " milk of sulphur " (lac sulphuris) is
very finely divided sulphur produced by the following, or some
analogous, chemical process. One part of quicklime is slaked with
6 parts of water, and the paste produced diluted with 24 parts of
water; 2-3 parts of flowers of sulphur are added; and the whole is
boiled for about an hour or longer, when the sulphur dissolves. The
mixed solution of polysulphides and thiosulphate of calcium thus
produced is clarified, diluted largely, and then mixed with enough of
pure dilute hydrochloric acid to produce a feebly alkaline mixture
when sulphur is precipitated. The addition of more acid would
produce an additional supply of sulphur (by the action of the HsSjO>
on the dissolved H2S) ; but this thiosulphate sulphur is yellow and
compact, while the polysulphide part has the desired qualities,
forming an extremely fine, almost white, powder. The precipitate
is washed, collected, and dried at a very moderate heat.
Properties. — Sulphur exists in several allotropic modifications,
but before considering these systematically we will deal with the
properties of ordinary (or rhombic) sulphur. Commercial
sulphur forms yellow crystals which melt at 113° and boil at
444-53° C. under ordinary pressure (H. L. Callendar, Chem.
News, 1891, 63, p. i); just above the boiling point the vapour
is orange-yellow, but on continued heating it darkens, being
deep red at 500° ; at higher temperatures it lightens, becoming
straw-yellow at 650°. These colour changes are connected with
a dissociation of the molecules. At 524° Dumas deduced the
structure Ss from vapour-density determinations, whilst for the
range 860° to 1040°, Sainte-Claire Deville and Troost deduced
the formula Sz. Biltz (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2013; 1901, 34, p.
2490) showed that the vapour density decreased with the tem-
perature, and also depended on the pressure. G. Preuner and
W. Schupp (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1909, 69, p. 157), in a study of
the dissociation isotherms over 30o°-8so°, detected molecules of
Sg, Se and 82, whilst Si appears to exist below pressures of 30 mm.
Boiling and freezing-point determinations of the molecular
weight in solution indicate the formula Sg. The density of
solid sulphur is 2-062 to 2-070, and the specific heat 0-1712;
it is a bad conductor of electricity and becomes negatively
electrified on friction. It ignites in air at 363° and in oxygen
at 275-280° (H. Moissan, Compt. rend., 1903, 137, p. 547),
burning with a characteristic blue flame and forming much
sulphur dioxide, recognized by its pungent odour. At the same
time a little trioxide is formed, and, according to Hempel
(Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1455), half the sulphur is converted into this
oxide if the combustion be carried out in oxygen at a pressure
of 40 to 50 atmospheres. Sulphur also combines directly with
most of the elements to form sulphides. The atomic weight
was determined by Berzelius, Erdmann and Marchand, Dumas
and Stas. Thomsen (Zeit. phys. Chem., 1894, 13, p. 726)
obtained the value 32-0606.
Allotropic Modifications. — Sulphur assumes crystalline, amor-
phous and (possibly) colloidal forms. Historically the most
important are the rhombic (Sa) and monoclinic (S0) forms,
discussed by E. Mitscherlich in 1822 (see Ann. chim. phys.,
1823, 24, p. 264). The transformations of these two forms are
discussed in CHEMISTRY: Physical. Rhombic sulphur may be
obtained artificially by slowly crystallizing a solution of sulphur
in carbon bisulphide, or, better, by exposing pyridine saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen to atmospheric oxidation (Ahrens,
Ber., 1890, 23, p. 2708). It is insoluble in water,1 but readily
soluble in carbon bisulphide, sulphur chloride and oil of tur-
pentine. The common monoclinic variety is obtained by
allowing a crust to form over molten sulphur by partially
cooling it, and then breaking the crust and pouring off the
still liquid portion, whereupon the interior of the vessel will
be found coated with long needles of this variety. Like S« it
is soluble in carbon bisulphide. Three other monoclinic forms
have been described. By acting upon a solution of sodium
hyposulphite with potassium bisulphate, Gernez (Compt. rend.,
1884, 98, p. 144) obtained a form which he termed nacre (or «
pearly) sulphur; the same modification was obtained by Sabatier
(ibid., 1885, 100, p. 1346) on shaking hydrogen persulphide
with alcohol or ether. It is readily transformed into rhombic
sulphur. Another form, mixed with the variety just described,
is obtained by adding 3 to 4 volumes of alcohol to a solution
of ammonium sulphide saturated with sulphur and exposing
the mixture to air at about 5°. Engel's monoclinic form
(Compt. rend., 1891, 112, p. 866) is obtained by mixing a solution
of sodium hyposulphite with double its volume of hydrochloric
acid, filtering and extracting with chloroform; the extract
yielding the variety on evaporation. A triclinic form is claimed
to be obtained by Friedel (Bull. soc. chim., 1879, 32, p. 14) on
subliming ordinary sulphur.
1 It is a common practice of keepers of dogs to place a piece of roll
sulphur in the animal's water but this serves no useful purpose
owing to this property.
SULPHUR
Amorphous sulphur or SY exists in two forms, one soluble in
carbon bisulphide, the other insoluble. Milk of sulphur (see
above), obtained by decomposing a polysulphide with an acid,
contains both forms. The insoluble variety may also be obtained
by decomposing sulphur chloride with water and by other re-
actions. It gradually transforms itself into rhombic sulphur.
The colloidal sulphur, Ss, described by Debus as a product
of the interaction of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur dioxide
in aqueous solution, is regarded by Spring (Rec. trail. Mm.,
1906, 25, p. 253) as a hydrate of the formula Ss-H2O. The
" blue sulphur," described by Orloff, has been investigated
by Paterno and Mazzucchelli (Abs. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1907,
ii. 451).
Molten Sulphur. — Several interesting phenomena are witnessed
when sulphur is heated above its melting point. The solid
melts to a pale yellow liquid which on continued heating grad-
ually darkens and becomes more viscous, the maximum vis-
cosity occurring at 180°, the product being dark red in colour.
This change is associated with a change in the spectrum (N.
Lockyer). On continuing the heating, the viscosity diminishes
while the colour remains the same. If the viscous variety be
rapidly cooled, or the more highly heated mass be poured into
water, an elastic substance is obtained, termed plastic sulphur.
This substance, however, on standing becomes brittle. The
character of molten sulphur has been mainly elucidated by the
researches of A. Smith and his collaborators. Smith (Abs.
Journ. Chem. Soc., 1907, ii. 20, 451, 757) regards molten sulphur
as a mixture of two isomers SA and SM in dynamic equilibrium,
SA being light in colour and mobile, and S^t dark and viscous. At
low temperatures SA predominates, but as the temperature
is raised S(i increases; the transformation, however, is retarded
by some gases, e.g. sulphur dioxide and hydrochloric acid,
and accelerated by others, e.g. ammonia. The solid derived
from SA is crystalline and soluble in carbon bisulphide, that
from Sn is amorphous and insoluble. As to the formation of
precipitated sulphur, Smith considers that the element first
separates in the liquid SM condition, which is transformed into
SA and finally into Sa; the insoluble (in carbon bisulphide) forms
arise when little of the S^ has been transformed; whilst the
soluble consist mainly of Sa. Similar views are adopted^by H.
Erdmann (Ann., 1908, 362, p. 133), but he regards SM as the
polymer 83, analogous to ozone 63; Smith, however, regards
S|» as Sg.
Compounds.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, H2S, a compound first examined by
C. Scheele, may be obtained by heating sulphur in a current of
hydrogen, combination taking place between 200" C. and 358° C.,
and being complete at the latter temperature, dissociation taking
place above this temperature (M. Bodenstein, Zeit. phys. Chem.,
1899, 29, p. 315) ; by heating some metallic sulphides in a current
of hydrogen; by the action of acids on various metallic sulphides
(ferrous sulphide and dilute sulphuric acid being most generally
employed) ; by the action of sulphur on heated paraffin wax or
vaseline, or by heating a solution of magnesium sulphydrate. It
is also produced during the putrefaction of organic substances
containing sulphur and is found among the products obtained in
the destructive distillation of coal. To obtain pure sulphuretted
hydrogen the method generally adopted consists in decomposing
precipitated antimony sulphide with concentrated hydrochloric
acid. As an alternative, H. Mpissan (Camp, rend., 1903, 137, p. 363)
condenses the gas by means of liquid air and fractionates the product.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colourless gas possessing an extremely
offensive odour. It acts as a strong poison. It burns with a pale
blue flame, forming sulphur dioxide and water. It is moderately
soluble in water, the solution possessing a faintly acid reaction.
This solution is not very stable, since on exposure to air it slowly
oxidizes and becomes turbid owing to the gradual precipitation
of sulphur. The gas is much more soluble in alcohol. It forms a
hydrate of composition HzS-yHjO. (De Forcrand, Compt. rend.,
1888, 106, p. 1357.) The gas may be liquefied by a pressure of about
17 atmospheres, the liquid so obtained boiling at — 61-8° C. ; and
by further cooling it yields a solid, the melting point of which is
given by various observers as —82° to — 86° C. (see Ladenburg, Ber.,
•900, 33, P- 637). It is decomposed by the halogens, with liberation
• of sulphur. Concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes it:
HiSO4+H2S = 2H2O+SO2-|-S. It combines with many metals
to form sulphides, and also decomposes many metallic salts with
consequent production of sulphides, a property which renders it
extremely useful in chemical analysis. It is frequently used as a
reducing agent: in acid solutions it reduces ferric to ferrous salts,
arsenates to arsenites, permanganates to manganpus salts, &c.,
whilst in alkaline sojution it converts many organic nitro compounds
into the corresponding amino derivatives. Oxidizing agents rapidly
attack sulphuretted hydrogen, the primary products of the reaction
being water and sulphur.
By the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on metallic polysulphides,
an oily product is obtained which C. L. Berthollet considered to
be Hsbs. L. Thenard, on the other hand, favoured the formula HjSj.
It was also examined by W. Ramsay (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1874, 12,
p. 857). Hofmann, who obtained it by saturating an alcoholic
solution of ammonium sulphide with sulphur and mixing the product
with an alcoholic solution of strychnine, considered the resulting
product to be H2Sj; while P. Sabatier by fractionating the crude
product in vacuo obtained an oil which boiled between 60° and
85° C. and possessed the composition H4Ss.
Several halogen compounds of sulphur are known, the most stable
of which is sulphur fluoride, SF«, which was first prepared by H.
Moissan and Lebeau (Compt. rend., 1900, 130, p. 865) by fractionally
distilling the product formed in the direct action of fluorine on
sulphur. It is tasteless, colourless and odourless gas, which is
exceedingly stable and inert. It may be condensed and yields a
solid which melts at —55° C. Sulphuretted hydrogen decomposes
it with formation of hydrofluoric acid and liberation of sulphur.
Sulphur chloride, S-jCU, is obtained as a by-product in the manufac-
ture of carbon tetrachloride from carbon bisulphide and chlorine, and
may also be prepared on the small scale by distilling sulphur in a
chlorine gas, or by the action of sulphur on sulphuryl chloride in
the presence of aluminium chloride (O. Ruff). It is an amber-
coloured, fuming liquid possessing a very unpleasant irritating smell.
It boils at 139° C. and is solid at —80° C. It is soluble in carbon
bisulphide and in benzene. It is gradually decomposed by water:
25,02 + 3H2O = 4HC1 + 2S + H2S,Oa, the thiosulphuric acid pro-
duced in the primary reaction gradually decomposing into water,
sulphur and sulphur dioxide. Sulphur chloride dissolves sulphur
with great readiness and is consequently used largely for vulcanizing
rubber; it also dissolves chlorine. The chloride SClj according to
the investigations of O. Ruff and Fischer (Ber., 1903, 36, p. 418)
did not appear to exist, but E. Beckmann (Zeit. phys. Chem.,
1909, 42, p. 1839) obtained it by distilling the product of the
interaction of chlorine and S2C12 at low pressures. The tetrachloride,
SC1<, is formed by saturating SiCli with chlorine at— 22° C. (Michaelis,
Ann., 1873, 170, p. i). It is a yellowish-brown liquid which dissoci-
ates rapidly with rise of temperature. On cooling it solidifies to
a crystalline mass which fuses at —80° C. (Ruff, ibid.). Water
decomposes it violently with formation of hydrochloric and sul-
phurous acids. Sulphur bromide, SjBrj, is a dark red liquid which
boils with decomposition at about 200° C. The products obtained
by the action of iodine on sulphur are probably mixtures, although
E. Mclvpr (Chem. News, 1902, 86, p. 5) obtained a substance of
composition S3I2 (which in all probability is a chemical individual)
as a reddish-coloured powder by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
on a solution of iodine trichloride.
Four oxides of sulphur are known, namely sulphur dioxide, SOt,
sulphur trioxide, SOa, sujphur sesquioxide, SjOs, and persulphuric
anhydride, S2O7. The dioxide has been known since the earliest
times and is found as a naturally occurring product in the gaseous
exhalations of volcanoes and in solution in some volcanic springs.
It was first collected in the pure condition by J. Priestley in 1775
and its composition determined somewhat later by A. L. Lavoisier.
It is formed when sulphur is burned in air or in oxygen, or when
many metallic sulphides are roasted. It may also be obtained
by heating carbon, sulphur and many metals with concentrated
sulphuric acid: C + 2H2SO, = 2SO« + Ca + 2H,O; S + 2H,SO4 =
3SO2 + 2H2O; Cu + 2H2SO4 = SOs + CuSO4 + 2H2O; and by
decomposing a sulphite, a thiosulphate or a thionic acid with a dilute
mineral acid. It is a colourless gas which possesses a characteristic
suffocating odour. It does not burn, neither does it support com-
bustion. It is readily soluble in alcohol and in water, the solution
in water possessing a strongly acid reaction. It is easily liquefied,
the liquid boiling at —8° C., and it becomes crystalline at — 72-7" C.
(Walden, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1902, 43, p. 432). Walden (ibid.) has
shown that certain salts dissolve in liquid sulphur dioxide forming
additive compounds, two of which have been prepared in the case
of potassium iodide: a yellow crystalline solid of composition,
KI-I4-SO2, and a red solid of composition, KI-4SOi. It is decom-
posed by the influence of strong light or when strongly heated.
It combines directly with chlorine to form sulphuryl chloride and
also with many metallic peroxides, converting them into sulphates.
In the presence of water it frequently acts as a bleaching agent,
the bleaching process in this case being one of reduction. It is
frequently used as an " antichlor," since in presence of water it has
the power of converting chlorine into hydrochloric acid : SO» + C12 +
2H2O = 2HC1 + H2SO«. In many cases it acts as a reducing agent
(when used in the presence of acids) ; thus, permanganates are reduced
to manganous salts, iodates are reduced with liberation of iodine, &c.,
2KMnO4 + 5SOj + 2H,O = K,SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4; 2KIOi+
5SO2 + 4H,O = Ia + 2KHS04 + 3H2SO4.
64
SULPHUR
It is prepared on the industrial scale for the manufacture of
sulphuric acid, for the preparation of sodium sulphate by the
Hargreaves process, and for use as a bleaching-disinfecting agent
and as a preservative. When compressed it is also used largely
as a refrigerating agent, and in virtue of its property of neither
burning nor supporting combustion it is also used as a fire extinctor.
The solution of the gas in water is used under the name of sulphurous
acid. The free acid has not been isolated, since on evaporation
the solution gradually loses sulphur dioxide. This solution possesses re-
ducing properties.and gradually oxidizes to sulphuric acid on exposure.
When heated in a sealed tube to 180° C. it is transformed into sul-
phuric acid, with liberation of sulphur. Numerous salts, termed
sulphites, are known. Since the free acid would be dibasic, two
series of salts exist, namely, the neutral and acid salts. The neutral
alkaline salts are soluble in water and show an alkaline reaction,
the other neutral salts being either insoluble or difficultly soluble
in water. The acid salts have a neutral or slightly acid reaction.
The sulphites are prepared by the action of sulphur dioxide on the
oxides, hydroxides or carbonates of the metals, or by processes of
precipitation. Sulphurous acid may have either of the constitutions
/OH O. /OH
O:S< or ^S< , or be an equilibrium mixture of these
\OH (X\H
two substances. Although the correct formula for the acid is not
known, sulphites are known of both types. Sodium sulphite is
almost certainly of the second and unsymmetrical type. Two ethyl
sulphites are known, the first or symmetrical form being derived
from sulphuryl chloride and alcohol, and the second and unsym-
metrical from sodium sulphite and ethyl iodide; the junction of
one ethyl group with a sulphur atom in the second salt follows
because it yields ethyl sulphpnic acid, also obtainable from ethyl
mercaptan, C2H6SH. Two isomeric sodium potassium sulphites
are known, and may be obtained by neutralizing acid sodium sulphite
with potassium carbonate, and acid potassium sulphite with sodium
carbonate; their formulae are : O2SK(ONa) and O2SNa(OK).
There are various haloid derivatives of sulphurous acid. Thionyl
fluoride, SOF2, has been obtained as a fuming gas by decomposing
arsenic fluoride with thionyl chloride (Moissan and Lebeau, Compt.
rend., 1900, 130, p. 1436). It is decomposed by water into hydro-
fluoric and sulphurous acids. Thionyl chloride, SOC12, may be ob-
tained by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on sodium sulphite ;
by the action of sulphur trioxide on sulphur dichloride at 75 — 80° C.
(Journ. Chem. Soc., 1903, p. 420) ; and by the action of chlorine
monoxide on sulphur at low temperature. It is a colourless, highly
refracting liquid, boiling at 78° ; it fumes on exposure to moist air.
Water decomposes it into hydrochloric and sulphurous acids. On
treatment with potassium bromide it yields thionyl bromide, SOBr2,
an orange-yellow liquid which boils at 68° C. (40 mm.) (Hartoz and
Sims, Chem. News, 1893, 67, p. 82).
Sulphur trioxide, SO3, mentioned by Basil Valentine in the 1 5th
century, was obtained by N. Lemery in 1675 by distilling green
vitriol. It may be prepared by distilling fuming sulphuric acid,
or concentrated sulphuric acid over phosphorus pentoxide, or by
the direct union of sulphur dioxide with oxygen in the presence of
a catalyst, such as platinized asbestos (see SULPHURIC ACID). This
oxide exists in two forms. The a- form is readily fusible and melts
at 14-8° C. It corresponds to the simple molecular complex SO3.
The 0- variety is infusible, but on heating to 50° C. is transformed
into the o- form. It corresponds to the molecular complex (SO3)2.
When perfectly dry this oxide has no caustic properties ; it combines
rapidly, however, with water to form sulphuric acid, with the
development of much heat. It combines directly with concentrated
sulphuric acid to form pyrosulphuric acid, H2S2O?. It reacts most
energetically with many organic compounds, removing the elements
of water in many cases and leaving a carbonized mass. It com-
bines directly with many elements and compounds and frequently
acts as energetic oxidizing agent. It finds considerable application
in the colour industry.
Sulphuryl fluoride, SO2F2, formed by the action of fluorine on sul-
phur dioxide (H. Moissan, Compt. rend. 132, p. 374), is an exceedingly
stable colourless gas at ordinary temperatures, becoming solid at
about —120° C. Sulphuryl chloride, SO2C12, first obtained in 1838
by Regnault (Ann. Mm. phys., 1838, (2), 69, p. 170), by the action
of chlorine on a mixture of ethylene and sulphur dioxide, may also
be obtained by the direct union of sulphur dioxide and chlorine
(especially in the presence of a little camphor); and by heating
chlorsulphonic acid in the presence of a catalyst, such as mercuric
sulphate (Pawlewski, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 765) : 2SO2C1-OH=SO2C12+
H2SO4- It is a colourless fuming liquid which boils at 69° C. and which
is readily decomposed by water into sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids. Fluorsulphonic acid, SO2F-OH, is a mobile liquid obtained
by the action of an excess of hydrofluoric acid on well-cooled sulphur
trioxide. It boils at 162-6° and is decomposed violently by water.
Chlorsulphonic acid, SO2C1-OH, first prepared by A. Williamson
(Proc. Roy. Soc., 1856, 7, p. n) by the direct union of sulphur
trioxide with hydrochloric acid gas, may also be obtained by distill-
ing concentrated sulphuric acid with phosphorus oxychloride:
2H2SO4+PqCl3 = 2SO2Cl-OH+HCl-|-HPO3. It is a colourless
fuming liquid which boils at 152-153° C. When heated under
pressure it decomposes, forming sulphuric acid, sulphuryl chloride, &c.
(Ruff, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3509). It is decomposed by water with
explosive violence. Disujphuryl chloride, SjO(Clz, corresponding
to pyrosulphuric acid, is obtained by the action of sulphur trioxide
on sulphur dichloride, phosphorus oxychloride, sulphuryl chloride
or dry sodium chloride : 6SO3 +2POCla = P2O6 +3S2O6C12; SjCl2 +
SSO, = SjOiCU + 5SO2 ; SO, + SO2C12 = S8O6C12 ; 2NaCl + 3SO, =
SjOsClj+Na^SOj. It may also be obtained by distilling chlor-
sulphonic acid with phosphorus pentachloride: 2SO2C1-OH+PCU =
SjOiClj + POC1, + 2HC1. It is a colourless, oily, fuming liquid
which is decomposed by water into sulphuric and hydrochloric acids.
An oxychloride of composition SiOiCU has been described.
Sulphur sesquioxide, S2O», is formed by adding well-dried flowers
of sulphur to melted sulphur trioxide at about 12-15° C. The
sulphur dissolves in the form of blue drops which sink in the liquid
and finally solidify in blue-green crystalline crusts. It is unstable
at ordinary temperatures and rapidly decomposes into its generators
on warming. It is readily decomposed by water with formation
of sulphurous, sulphuric and thiosulphuric acids, with simultaneous
liberation of sulphur. Hyposulphurous acid, H2S2O4, was first really
obtained by Berthollet in 1789 when he showed that iron left in
contact with an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide dissolved with-
out any evolution of gas, whilst C. F. Schonbein subsequently
showed the solution possessed reducing; properties. P. Schutzen-
berger (Compt. rend., 1869, 69, p. 169) obtained the sodium salt
by the action of zinc on a concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite :
Zn + 4NaHSO3 = NazSjO, + ZnSO3 + Na2SO3 + 2H2O, the salt
being separated from the sulphites formed by fractional precipita-
tion. A solution of the free acid may be prepared by adding
oxalic acid to the solution of the sodium salt. This solution is
yellow in colour, and is very unstable decomposing at ordinary
temperature into sulphur and sulphur dioxide. A pure zinc salt
has been prepared by Nabl (Monats., 1899, 20, p. 679) by acting
with zinc on a solution of sulphur dioxide in absolute alcohol, whilst
H. Moissan (Compt. rend., 1902, 135, p. 647) has also obtained salts
by the action of dry sulphur dioxide on various metallic hydrides.
Considerable controversy arose as to the constitution of the salts
of this acid, the formula of sodium salt, for example, being written
as NaHSO2 and Na2S2O4; but the investigations of C. Bernthsen
(Ann., 1881, 208, p. 142; 1882, 211, p. 285; Ber., 1900, 33, p. 126)
seem to decide definitely in favour of the latter (see also T. S. Price,
Journ. Chem. Soc. ; also Bucherer and Schwalbe, Zeit. angew. Chem.,
1904, 17, p. 1447). Although this acid appears to be derived from
an oxide S^Oi, it is not certain that the known sesquioxide is its
anhydride.
Persulphuric anhydride, SjOy, is a thick viscous liquid obtained
by the action of the silent discharge upon a mixture of sulphur
trioxide and oxygen. It solidifies at about o° C. to a mass of long
needles, and is very volatile. It is decomposed readily into sulphur
trioxide and oxygen when heated. Water decomposes it with forma-
tion of sulphuric acid and oxygen : 2S2O? + 4H2O = 4H2SO4 + Oj.
Persulphuric acid, HSO4, the acid corresponding to S2O7, has not
been obtained in the free state, but its salts were first prepared in
1891 by H. Marshall (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, p. 771) by electrolysing
solutions of the alkaline bisulphates. The potassium salt, after
recrystallization from warm water, separates in large tabular crystals.
Its aqueous solution gradually decomposes with evolution of oxygen,
behaves as a strong oxidant, and liberates iodine from potassium
iodide. Solutions of persulphates in the cold give no precipitate
with barium chloride, but when warmed barium sulphate is precipi-
tated with simultaneous liberation of chlorine : K&Os + BaCl2 =
BaSO4 + K2SO4 + C12. The conductivity measurements of G.
Bredig point to the salt possessing the double formula.
Thiosulphuric acid, formerly called hyposulphurous acid, H^Os,
cannot be preserved in the free state, since it gradually decomposes
with evolution of sulphur dioxide and liberation of sulphur : H2S2O3 =
S+SO2+H2O. The salts of the acid, however, are stable, the
sodium salt in particular being largely used for photographic purposes
under the name of " hypo." This salt may be prepared by digesting
flowers of sulphur with sodium sulphite solution or by boiling sulphur
with milk of lime. In this latter reaction the deep yellow solution
obtained is exposed to air when the calcium polysulphide formed
is gradually converted into thiosulphate by oxidation, and the
calcium salt thus formed is converted into the sodium salt by sodium
carbonate or sulphate. The thiosulphates are readily decomposed
by mineral acids with liberation of sulphur dioxide and precipitation
of sulphur: Na2S2O3 + 2HC1 = 2NaCl + S + SO2 + H2O. They
form many double salts and give a dark violet coloration with 'ferric
chloride solution, this colour, however, gradually disappearing on
standing, sulphur being precipitated. The acid is considered to
possess the structure O2S(SH) (OH) , since sodium thiosulphate reacts
with ethyl bromide to give sodium ethyl thiosulphate, which on
treatment with barium chloride gives presumably barium ethyl
thiosulphate. This salt, on standing, decomposes into barium
dithionate, BaSzOe, and diethyl disulphide, (CzHs)^, which points
to the presence of the SH group in the molecule.
The thionic acids are a group of sulphur-containing acids of general
formula H2S»O6, where n = 2, 3, 4, 5 and possibly 6. Dithipnic
acid, H^Oe, prepared by J. Gay-Lussac in 1819, is usually obtained
SULPHURIC ACID
in the form of its barium salt by suspending freshly precipitated
hydrated manganese dioxide in water and passing sulphur dioxide
into the mixture until all is dissolved; the barium salt is then pre-
cipitated by the careful addition of barium hydroxide. Much
manganese sulphate is formed during the reaction, and H. C. Car-
penter (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1902, 81, p. i) showed that this can be
almost entirely avoided by replacing the manganese oxide by hydrated
ferric oxide, the reaction proceeding according to the equation:
2Fe(OH), + 3SO2 = FeSjOe + FeSO3 + 3H2O. He points out that
the available oxygen in the oxides may react either as SO2 + H2O +
O = H2SO4 or as 2SO2 + H2O + O = HjSjOs; and that in the case
of ferric oxide 96% of the theoretical yield of dithionate is obtained,
whilst manganese oxide only gives about 75%. A solution of the
free acid may be obtained by decomposing the barium salt with
dilute sulphuric acid and concentrating the solution in vacua until
it attains a density of about 1-35 (approximately), further concentra-
tion leading to its decomposition into sulphur dioxide and sulphuric
acid. The dithionates are all soluble in water and when boiled with
hydrochloric acid decompose with evolution of sulphur dioxide and
formation of a sulphate. Trithionic acid, HjSjOe, is obtained in
the form of its potassium salt by the action of sulphur dioxide on a
solution of potassium thiosulphate : 2KAOJ + 3SO2 = 2KjSsO6 + S ;
or by warming a solution of silver potassium thiosulphate:
KAgS^Os = Ag2S + K2S3O6 ; whilst the sodium salt may be prepared
by adding iodine to a mixture of sodium thiosulphate and sulphite :
Na2SO3 + Na^Os + I2 = Na2S3O6 + 2NaI. The salts are un-
stable ; and a solution of the free acid (obtained by the addition of
hydrofluosilicic acid to the potassium salt) on concentration in vacua
decomposes rapidly: HjSsOe = H2SO4 + S + SO2. Tetrathionic
acid, H2S4p6, is obtained in the form of its barium salt by digesting
barium thiosulphate with iodine: 2Ba2S2Os + I2 = BaS4O6 + 2BaI,
the barium iodide formed being removed by alcohol; or in the
form of sodium salt by the action of iodine on sodium thiosulphate.
The free acid is obtained (in dilute aqueous solution) by the
addition of dilute sulphuric acid to an aqueous solution of the
barium salt. It is only stable in dilute aqueous solution, for on
concentration the acid decomposes with formation of sulphuric acid,
sulphur dioxide and sulphur.
Wackenroder's solution (Debus, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1888, 53, p. 278)
is prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas into a nearly
saturated aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide at about o° C. The
solution is then allowed to stand for 48 hours and the process repeated
many times until the sulphur dioxide is all decomposed. The
reactions taking place are complicated, and the solution contains
ultimately small drops of sulphur in suspension, a colloidal sulphur
(which Spring (Rec. trav. chim., 1906, 25, p. 253) considers to be a
hydrate of sulphur of composition Sg-H2O), sulphuric acid, traces of
trithionic acid, tetra-and pentathionic acids and probably hexathionic
acid. The solution obtained may be evaporated in vacua until it
attains a density of 1-46 when, if partially saturated with potassium
hydroxide and filtered, it yields crystals of potassium pentathionate,
K2S6CV3H2O. The formation of the pentathionic acid may be
represented most simply as follows : 5SO2 + 5H2S = H2SsOe + 5S +
4H2O. The aqueous solution of the acid is fairly stable at ordinary
temperatures. The pentathionates give a brown colour on the
addition of ammoniacal solutions of silver nitrate and ultimately
a black precipitate. Hexathionic acid, H2S6O6, is probably present
in the mother liquors from which potassium pentathionate is prepared.
The solution on the addition of ammoniacal silver nitrate behaves simi-
larly to that of potassium pentathionate, but differs from it in giving
an immediate precipitate of sulphur with ammonia, whereas the solu-
tion of the pentathionate only gradually becomes turbid on standing.
The per-acids of sulphur were first obtained in 1898 by Caro
(Zeit. angew. Chem., 1898, p. 845) who prepared monopersulphuric
acid by the action of sulphuric acid on a persulphate. This acid
may also be prepared by the electrolysis of concentrated sulphuric
acid, and it is distinguishable from persulphuric acid by the fact
that it immediately liberates iodine from potassium iodide. It
behaves as a strong oxidant and in aqueous solution is slowly
hydrolysed. It most probably corresponds to the formula H2SOs.
See H. E. Armstrong and Lowry, Chem. News (1902), 85, p. 193;
Lowry and West, Journ. Chem. Soc. (1900), 77, p. 950; H. E. Arm-
strong and Robertson, Proc. Roy. Soc., 50, p. 105; T. S. Price,
Ber., 1902, 35, p. 291 ; Journ. Chem. Soc. (1906), p. 53; A. v. Baeyer
and V. Villiger, Ber., passim.
Pharmacology. — The sources of all sulphur preparations used in
medicine (except calx sulphurata) are native virgin sulphur and the
sulphides of metals. Those contained in the British Pharmacopoeia
are the following : (i) Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur (U.S.P.),
which is insoluble in water. From it are made (a) confectio sulphuris ;
(b) unguentum sulphuris ; (c) sulphur praecipitatum, milk of sulphur
(U.S.P.) which has a sub-preparation trochiscus sulphuris each
lozenge containing 5 grs. of precipitated sulphur and I gr. of potassium
acid tartrate; (d) potassa sulphurata (liver of sulphur), a mixture
of salts of which the chief are sulphides of potassium; (e) sulphuris
iodidum (U.S.P.), which has a preparation unguentum sulphuris
iodidi, strength I in 25. From the heating of native calcium sulphate
and carbon is obtained calx sulphurata (U.S. and B.P.), or sulphurated
lime, a greyish-white powder.
XXVI. 3
Therapeutics. — Externally, sulphur is of use in skin affections.
Powdered, it has little effect upon the skin, but in ointment or used
by fumigation it has local therapeutic properties. In scabies (itch)
it is the best remedy, killing the male parasite, which remains on the
surface of the skin. To get at the female and the ova prolonged
soaking in soap and water is necessary, the epiderm being rubbed
away and the ointment then applied. Precipitated sulphur is also
useful in the treatment of acne, but sulphurated lime is more power-
ful in acne pustulosa and in the appearance of crops of boils. Inter-
nally, sulphur is a mild laxative, being converted in the intestine into
sulphides. Milk of sulphur, the confection and the lozenge, is
used for this purpose. Sulphur and sulphur waters such as those
of Harrogate, Aix-la-Chapelle and Aix-les-Bains, have a powerful
effect in congested conditions of the liver and intestines, haemor-
rhoids, gout and gravel. Sulphur is of use in chronic bronchial
affections, ridding the lungs of mucus and relieving cough. In
chronic rheumatism sulphur waters taken internally and used as
baths are effectual. Sulphur in some part escapes unchanged in
the faeces.
When sulphur is burned in air or oxygen, sulphur dioxide is
produced, which is a powerful disinfectant, used to fumigate rooms
which have been occupied by persons suffering from some infectious
disease.
SULPHURIC ACID, or OIL OF VITRIOL, H2S04, perhaps the most
important of all chemicals, both on account of the large quanti-
ties made in all industrial countries and of the multifarious uses
to which it is put. It is not found in nature in the free state
to any extent, and although enormous quantities of its salts,
especially calcium and barium sulphate, are found in many
localities, the free acid is never prepared from these salts, as
it is more easily obtainable in another way, viz. by burning
sulphur or a sulphide, and combining the sulphur dioxide thus
formed with more oxygen (and water).
Originally prepared by heating alum, green vitriol and other
sulphates, and condensing the products of distillation, sulphuric
acid, or at least an impure substance containing more or less
sulphur trioxide dissolved in water, received considerable at-
tention at the hands of the alchemists. The acid so obtained
from ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) fumes strongly in moist
air, hence its name " fuming sulphuric acid "; another name
for the same product is " Nordhausen sulphuric acid," on account
of the long-continued practice of this process at Nordhausen.
Ordinary sulphuric acid, H2SO4, may be prepared by dissolv-
ing sulphur trioxide in water, a reaction accompanied by a great
evolution of heat; by the gradual oxidation of an aqueous
solution of sulphur dioxide, a fact which probably explains
the frequent occurrence of sulphuric acid in the natural waters
rising in volcanic districts; or by deflagrating a mixture of
sulphur and nitre in large glass bells or jars, absorbing the
vapours in water and concentrating the solution. The latter
process, which was known to Basil Valentine, was commercially
applied by the quack doctor, Joshua Ward (1685-1761), of
Twickenham, England, to the manufacture of the acid, which
was known as " oil of vitriol made by the bell " or per campanum.
Dr John Roebuck (1718-1794), of Birmingham, replaced the glass
vessels by leaden ones, thereby laying the foundation of the
modern method of manufacture (see below).
Properties. — Pure sulphuric acid, H2SO4, is a colourless,
odourless liquid of an oily consistency, and having a specific
gravity of 1-8384 at 15°. It boils at 338°, and at about 400°
the vapour dissociates into sulphur trioxide and water; at a red
heat further decomposition ensues, the sulphur trioxide dis-
sociating into the dioxide and water. It freezes to a colourless
crystalline mass, melting at 10-5°. The acid is extremely
hygroscopic, absorbing moisture from the atmosphere with
great rapidity; hence it finds considerable application as a
desiccating agent. The behaviour of aqueous solutions of sul-
phuric acid is very interesting. The pure acid (100% HjSO^
cannot be prepared by boiling down a weaker acid under any
pressure (at least between 3 and 300 centimetres of mercury),
an acid of the composition H2SO4,11jH2O or 12SO3,13H2O
being invariably obtained. Neither is there any advantage
gained by mixing this hydrate with sulphur trioxide; for
when such a mixture is concentrated by evaporation, sulphur
trioxide is vaporized until the same hydrate is left. The pure
acid, however, may be obtained by strongly cooling this hydrate.
66
SULPHURIC ACID
when it separates in the form of white crystals, which melt at
10-5°, and on gentle heating evolve sulphur trioxide and again
form the same hydrate. When strong sulphuric acid is mixed
with water there is a great development of heat; the heat
evolved when four parts of acid are mixed with one of water being
sufficient to raise the temperature from o° to 100° C. (Hence
the laboratory precaution of always adding the acid to the water
and not the water to the acid.) In addition to the heat evolu-
tion there is also a diminution in volume, the maximum occurring
when the components are present in the ratio H2SO4:2H2O,
thus pointing to the existence of a hydrate H2SO4,2H2O.
A second hydrate, H2SO4,H2O, may be obtained as rhombic
crystals, which melt at 7° and boil at 205°, by diluting the strong
acid until it has a specific gravity of 1-78, and cooling the
mixture; this compound is sometimes known as glacial sulphuric
acid. Both the mono- and di-hydrates form freeing mixtures
with snow. Other hydrates have also been described.
Reactions. — Sulphuric acid has the widest commercial application
of all chemical reagents. Here only reactions of commercial
utility will be considered, and reference should be made to the article
SULPHUR for reactions which are more of a purely scientific interest.
In inorganic chemistry its principal applications are based on its
solvent power for metals, and its power of expelling other acids
from their salts. In the first group we have to notice the use of
iron or zinc and dilutesulphuric acid for the manufacture of hydro-
gen, which may be used directly, as for inflating balloons or for
purposes of combustion, or in the nascent condition, for reduction
purposes, as generally is the case in organic chemistry (see ANILINE).
It is worthy of notice that while many metals dissolve in cold
dilute sulphuric acid, with the liberation of hydrogen, in accordance
with the typical equation: M + H2SO4 = MSO4 + H2 (M denoting
one atom of divalent or two atoms of a monovalent metal), there
are several (copper, mercury, antimony, tin, lead and silver) which
are insoluble in the cold dilute acid, but dissolve in the hot
strong acid with evolution of sulphur dioxide, thus: M + 2Hj2SO4 =
MSO4 + SO« + 2H2O. Carbon decomposes hot strong sulphuric
acid on long continued boiling, with the formation of carbon dioxide
and sulphur dioxide. The power which sulphuric acid exhibits
for expelling other acids from their combinations, a power occasioned
by its comparative involatility and high degree of avidity, forms
the basis of a considerable number of commercial processes. Hydro-
chloric, hydrobromic, hydriodic, hydrofluoric, nitric, phosphoric
and many other acids are manufactured by the action of sulphuric
acid on their salts; the alkali and chlorine industries, and also
the manufacture of bromine and iodine, employ immense quantities
of this acid.
In organic chemistry sulphuric acid is extensively employed.
Its powerful affinity for the elements of water makes it a valuable
dehydrating and condensation agent. It extracts the elements
of water from formic acid, giving carbon monoxide; from oxalic
acid, giving a mixture of carbon monoxide and dioxide; from alcohol,
to give ether or ethylene according to the conditions of the experi-
ment ; and from many oxygenated compounds (e.g. sugar, tartaric
acid, &c.), with the production of charred masses. The formation
of esters and ethers are generally facilitated by the presence of this
acid. It also acts in an opposite manner in certain cases, adding
the elements of water to compounds; thus, nitriles are converted
into acid-amides, and various acetylene derivatives may be caused
to yield ketonic derivatives. As an oxidizing agent its application
is limited. The transformation of piperidine into pyridine by
W. Konigs, and the observation that anthraquinone yielded
oxyanthraquinones when treated in the cold with strong sulphuric
acid, and the recent introduction of fuming sulphuric acid for the
oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic acid, a process of great value
in the manufacture of artificial indigo, may be noted. But its
chief technical application depends upon the formation of sulphonic
acids when it reacts with aromatic hydrocarbon residues; these
compounds being important either as a step towards the preparation
of hydroxy-compounds, e.g. resorcin, the naphthols, alizarin, &c.,
or for preparing dye-stuffs in a more soluble form.
Sulphates. — Sulphuric acid, being a dibasic acid, forms two series
of salts with monovalent metals: an acid sulphate, MHSO4, and
a normal sulphate, M»SO4. Acid sodium sulphate, NaHSO4, has
been employed in the manufacture of sulphur trioxide. When
heated it loses water to form sodium pyrosulphate, Na^O?, which
on treatment with sulphuric acid yields normal sodium sulphate
and sulphur trioxide. The normal sulphates are the more impor-
tant, and occur widely and abundantly distributed in the mineral
kingdom; anhydrite, gypsum, anglesite, barytes, celestite and
kieserite are among .the commonest species. As a general class,
the sulphates are soluble in water, and exhibit well crystallized
forms. Of the most insoluble we may notice the salts of the metals
of the alkaline earths, barium, strontium and calcium, barium
sulphate being practically insoluble, and calcium sulphate sparingly
but quite appreciably soluble. Lead sulphate is very slightly
soluble in water, soluble in strong sulphuric acid, and almost
insoluble in alcohol.
Sulphates may be detected by heating the salt mixed with sodium
carbonate on charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe;
sodium sulphide is thus formed, and may be identified by the
black stain produced if the mass be transferred to a silver coin
and then moistened. In solution, sulphates are always detected
and estimated by the formation of a white precipitate of barium
sulphate, insoluble in water and all the common reagents.
Manufacture. — The first step in its manufacture is the com-
bustion of sulphur. Formerly this was employed exclusively in the
free state as brimstone, and this is still the case to a considerable
extent in some countries, notably in the United States, but the
great bulk of sulphuric acid is now made from metallic sulphides,
especially those of iron and zinc. Most of the brimstone of trade
comes from Sicily, but in the United States Louisiana sulphur is
playing an important part, and seems likely to oust the Sicilian
sulphur. Free sulphur is also contained as " gas sulphur " in the
" spent oxides " of gasworks, which are actually utilized for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid. Sulphur is also recovered in a very
pure state from the " alkali waste " of the Leblanc process, but
this " recovered sulphur " is too expensive to be burned for the
purpose in question. In the United Kingdom much gas sulphur
is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, together with a
limited quantity of Sicilian sulphur for the production of sulphuric
acid free from arsenic.
A much larger percentage of the sulphuric acid is made from
pyrites, i.e. more or less pure disulphide of iron which occurs in
large quantities in many countries. Great Britain produces very
little of it, Ireland a little more, but of poor quality. Most of the
pyrites consumed in the United Kingdom come from Spain; this
Spanish pyrites generally (not always) contains enough copper
(say 3 or 4%) to make its extraction from the residues (" cinders ")
a paying process, and this of course cheapens the price of the sulphur
to the acid manufacturer. Spain also supplies much pyrites to
Germany, France and America, all of which countries are them-
selves producers of this ore. Sweden and Norway are exporters
of it to all these countries. Good pyrites contains from 48 to 50 %,
exceptionajly up to 52 % of sulphur, of which all but from I to
4% is utilized when burning the ore. Another metallic sulphide,
blende, ZnS, is of importance for Germany, Belgium and the United
States, much less so for the United Kingdom, as a source of sulphur.
Blende contains only about half as much sulphur as good pyrites,
and this cannot be burned off as easily as from pyrites, but this
" roasting " has to be done somehow in any case in order to prepare
the ore for the extraction of the zinc.
Brimstone is easily burned without any extraneous help; indeed
the only precaution required is to take care lest the heat produced
by the burning sulphur should not volatilize part of it in the un-
burned state. This can never be entirely avoided, and sometimes
causes trouble in the succeeding apparatus.
The roasting of pyrites always takes place without using any
extraneous fuel, the heat given off by the oxidation of the sulphur
and the iron being quite sufficient to carry on the process. If the
ore is in pieces of the size of a walnut or upwards, it is roasted in
plain " kilns " or " burners," provided with a grating of suitable
construction for the removal of the cinders, with a side door in the
upper part for charging in the fresh ore on the top of the partially
burned ore, and with an arch-shaped roof, from which the burner-
gas is carried away in a flue common to a whole set of kilns. The
latter are always set in a row of twelve or more, and are one after
another charged once or twice a day at appropriate intervals,
so that a regular evolution of gas takes place all the day round. By
employing suitable precautions, a gas of approximately uniform
composition is obtained, containing from 6 to 8 % sulphur dioxide,
SO2, with a little trioxide, SOa, and about 12% of oxygen, which
is more than sufficient for converting later all the SO2 into SO> or
HjSO4. The burning of " smalls " or " dust " was formerly considered
much more difficult and incomplete than that of pieces, but this(
difficulty has been entirely overcome in various ways, principally
by the " shelf-burner," originally constructed by E. Maletra, and
mechanical burners, which were formerly almost entirely confined
to America, where the saving of labour is a primary consideration.
The first really successful mechanical pyrites-burner was constructed
many years ago by MacDougall Bros, of Liverpool. The drawbacks
still present in this burner caused it to be abandoned after a few
years, but they have since been overcome by several recent
inventors, principally American. The Hereshoff burner has been
most widejy introduced, both in America and in European countries.
The roasting of blende is nothing like so easy as that of pyrites,
since the heat developed by the oxidation of the zinc sulphide itself
is not sufficient for carrying on the process, and external heat must
be applied. It is now usually performed by a series of muffles, super-
posed one over another, so that the whole forms a kind of shelf-
burner, with internally heated shelves (the " Rhenania " furnace).
This operation is both more costly and more delicate than the
roasting of pyrites, but it is now perfectly well understood, and gas
is obtained from blende furnaces hardly inferior in quality to that
also
inde.
13 wuuuQU ii<Jiii uiciiuc luiiiai-ca udiuiy iiuciiui in ljuaiiiy LU i
yielded by pyrites kilns. In America, and quite exceptionally <
in Europe, mechanical furnaces are used for the roasting of bier
SULPHURIC ACID
67
The gas produced in the burning of sulphur ores, when issuing
from the burner, holds in mechanical suspension a considerable
quantity of " flue-dust," which must be removed as far as is practic-
able before the gas is subjected to further treatment. Flue-dust
contains principally ferric oxide, zinc oxide, arsenious and sulphuric
acids, and small quantities of the various metals occurring in the
raw ore. All the thallium and selenium on the market is obtained
from this source. Sometimes the burner-gas is employed directly
for the sake of the SO8 which it contains, principally in the manu-
facture of " sulphite cellulose " from wood. When the gas is to
be utilized for the manufacture of sulphuric acid the SO2 must be
combined with more oxygen, for which purpose an " oxygen carrier "
must be employed. Until recently the only agent practically used
for this purpose was furnished by the oxides of nitrogen; more
recently other oxygen carriers, acting by " contact processes," have
also come into use (see below).
The production of sulphuric acid by the assistance of the oxides
of the nitrogen is carried out in the " vitriol chambers." These
are immense receptacles, mostly from 100 to 200 ft. long, 20 to 30
ft. wide, and 15 to 25 ft. high, constructed of sheet-lead, the joints
of the sheets being made by " burning " or autogenous soldering,
i.e. fusing them together by a blow-pipe without the aid of spider
(which would be quickly destroyed by the acid). The vitriol
chambers must be supported on all sides by suitable wooden or
iron framework, and they are always erected at a certain height
over the ground, so that any leaks occurring can be easily detected.
In nearly all cases several of these chambers are connected so as to
form a set of a cubic capacity of from 100,000 to 200,000 cub. ft.
The burner gas is introduced at one end, the waste gases issue from
the other, the movement of the gases being impelled partly by their
own chemical reactions, partly by the draught produced by a
chimney (or tower), or by mechanical means. At the same time
water is introduced in a number of places in the shape of steam
or finely divided as a spray, to furnish the material for the reaction :
SOi + O + HjO = HjSCh. As this reaction of its own accord takes
place only to a very small extent, an " oxygen carrier " is always
introduced in the shape of the vapours of nitric acid or the lower
oxides of nitrogen. By the play of reactions induced in this way
practically the whole of the SO2 is ultimately converted into
sulphuric acid, and at the same time the nitrogen oxides are always
recovered with comparatively very slight losses and made to serve
over again.
The reactions taking place in the vitriol chambers are very
complicated, and have been explained in many different ways.
The view hitherto accepted by most chemists is that developed
by G. Lunge, according to which there are two principal reactions
succeeding each other, it may be in quite contiguous places, but
under different conditions. Where the nitrous fumes prevail and
there is less water present, sulphur dioxide combines with nitrous
icid and oxygen to form nitroso-sulphuric acid, a crystalline sub-
tance of the formula SO2(OH)(ONO). The reaction is therefore:
">. + O + HNO, = SO6NH. The solid substance is, however,
_.Jy exceptionally met with, as it at once dissolves in the mist
of sulphuric acid floating in the chamber and forms " nitrous
vitriol." Wherever this nitrous vitriol comes into contact with
liquid water (not steam), which is also present in the chamber in
the shape of mist, and practically as dilute sulphuric acid, it is
decomposed into sulphuric and nitrous acid, thus: SO2(OH)(ONO) +
HjO = H»SC>4 + HNO2. The re-formed nitrous acid, although not
stable, any more than is its anhydride, N2O3, is nevertheless the
" oxygen carrier " in question, as the products of its spontaneous
decomposition, when meeting with other compounds, always react
like nitrous acid itself and thus may transfer an indefinite quantity
of oxygen to the corresponding quantities of SOj and HjO, with
the corresponding formation of H2SO4. This theory at once explains,
among other things, why the acid formed in the vitriol chambers
always contains an excess of water (the second of the above-quoted
reactions requiring the " mass action " of this excess), and why the
external cooling produced by the contact of the chamber sides
with the air is of great importance (liquid water in the shape of
a mist of dilute sulphuric acid being necessary for the process).
In 1906 Lunge (in a paper published with Bert) to some extent
modified his views, by introducing an intermediate compound,
sulphonitronic acid, SOsNHj, which had been noticed by various
chemists for some time through its property of imparting a deep
blue colour to sulphuric acid. It is evident that the nitrous
gases " present in the vitriol chamber consist essentially of a mixture
of NO and NO«, the latter being formed from NO by the excess
of oxygen present. The NO2 (or NO + O) reacts upon SO2 + H2O,
forming SOsNH^ which, being extremely unstable, is at once oxidized
to SO^NH (nitroso-sulphuric acid). The latter is now either con-
verted by hydrolysis into sulphuric acid and nitrogen oxides:
2S06NH + H20 = 2HjSO, + NO + NO2, the latter acting as
before: or it reacts with more SO2, forming again sulphonitronic
acid: 2SO4NH + SO2 + 2H2O = H2SO4 + 2SO6NHj. The latter
,n also split up directly into NO and SO4H2.
Whatever be the true theory of the vitriol-chamber process,
there is no doubt about the way in which the reactions have to be
carried out in practice. Since the reactions occur among gases
and liquids in the nebulous state, vast spaces have to be provided
in which the process may be carried out as completely as possible
before the waste gases are allowed to escape into the outer air.
These spaces cannot be constructed in any other way than is actu-
ally done in the shape of the lead chambers ; neither iron nor brick-
work can be employed for this purpose/as they would be quickly
destroyed by the acid liquids and gases.
When issuing from the chambers, the gases still contain the whole
of the free nitrogen contained in the air which had entered into the
burners, together with about a third, or at least a fourth, of the
oxygen originally present therein, such excess of oxygen being re-
quired in order to carry out the conversion of the sulphur dioxide
into sulphuric acid as completely as possible. For similar reasons
it is necessary to employ much more water than is required to form
H2SO4l and this is all the more necessary as strong sulphuric acid
dissolves the nitrous compounds in the shape of nitroso-sulphuric
acid, and thus withdraws these oxygen carriers from the gas-space
of the chambers where the necessary reactions take place. It
follows from this that the acid collecting at the bottom of the
chambers must never exceed a certain concentration, say 70%,
H2SO4 having a specific gravity of 1-615, Dut it 's preferable to make
it only 66 to 67%, having a specific gravity of 1-57 to 1-58. On
the other hand, it should never go down below 60 % H2SO4, equivalent
to a specific gravity of 1-50.
The commercial production of sulphuric acid imperatively
requires that the nitrogen oxides (which originally were always
introduced in the shape of nitric acid) should be available as long
as possible, before being lost mechanically or by reduction to the
inactive forms of nitrous oxide or elementary nitrogen. The
first step towards securing this requirement was taken as early
as 1827 by Gay-Lussac, who discovered that the nitrous fumes,
otherwise carried away from the lead chambers by the waste atmo-
spheric nitrogen and oxygen, could be retained by bringing the
gases into contact with moderately strong sulphuric acid, the result
being the formation of nitroso-sulphuric acid: 2H2SO4 + N2O» =
2SO2(OH)(ONO) + H2O, and the latter remaining dissolved in
sulphuric acid as " nitrous vitriol." But this important invention
was of little use until John Glover, about 1866, found that the
nitrous vitriol could be most easily reintroduced into the process by
subjecting it to the action of burner-gas before this enters into
the lead chambers, preferably after diluting it with chamber
acid, that is, acid of from 65 to 70%, H2SO4, as formed in the lead
chambers. The reaction is then : 2SO2(OH)(ONO) + SO2 + 2H2O =
3H2SO4 + 2NO; that is to say, all the "nitre" is returned to
the chambers in the shape of NO; the sulphuric acid employed in
the Gay-Lussac process is not merely recovered, but an additional
quantity is formed from fresh SO2; as the heat of the burner-gases
also comes into play, much water is evaporated, which supplies part
of the steam required for the working of the chambers; and the
acid issues from the apparatus in a " denitrated " and sufficiently
concentrated state (78 to 80% H2SO4) to be used over again for
absorbing nitrous vapours or any other purpose desired. Since
that time, in every properly appointed sulphuric acid manufactory,
the following cycle of operations is carried out. To begin with,
in the burners pyrites (or, as the case may be, brimstone or blende)
is made to yield hot burner-gas containing about 7 % (in the case
of brimstone 10 or n %) of SO2. This, after having been deprived
of most of the flue-dust, is passed through the " Glover tower,"
i.e. an upright cylindrical or square tower, consisting of a leaden
shell lined with heat- and acid-proof stone or brick, and loosely
filled or " packed " with the same material, over which a mixture
of acid from the Gay-Lussac tower and from the chambers trickles
down in such proportions that it arrives at the bottom as denitrated
acid of from 78 to 80 % H2SO4. The gases now pass on to the lead
chambers, described above, where they meet with more nitrous
vapours, and with steam, or with water, converted into a fine dust
or spray. Here the reactions sketched above take place, so that
" chamber-acid " as already described is formed, while a mixture
of gases escapes containing all the atmospheric nitrogen, some
oxygen in excess, about 0-5% of the total SO2, and some oxides
of nitrogen. This gas is now passed through the Gay-Lussac tower,
which somewhat resembles the Glover tower, but is usually filled
with coke, over which sulphuric acid of about 80% H2SO4 trickles
down in sufficient quantity to retain the nitrous vapours. Ulti-
mately the waste gas is drawn off by a chimney, or sometimes by
mechanical means.
Of course a great many special improvements have been made
in the plant and the working of chamber systems; of these we mention
only some of the most important. By judiciously watching all
stages of the process, by observing the draught, the strength of
the acid produced, the temperature, and especially by frequent
analyses of the gases, the yield of acid has been brought up to
98% of the theoretical maximum, with a loss of nitre sometimes
as low as two parts to 100 of sulphur burned. The supply of the
nitric acid required to make up this loss is obtained in England
by " potting that is, by decomposing solid nitrate of soda by
sulphuric acid in a flue between the pyrites burners and the chambers.
On the continent of Europe makers generally prefer to employ
liquid nitric acid, which is run through the Glover tower together
68
SULPHURIC ACID
with the nitrous vitriol. Although this method appears more
troublesome, it allows the amount of nitre to be more easily and more
accurately regulated. The size of the Glover towers, and more
especially that of the Gay-Lussac towers, has been progressively
increased, and thereby the cube of the lead chambers themselves
has been diminished to a much greater extent. By improved
(From Thorpe's Inorg/mk Chemistry.)
Sulphuric Acid Plant.
A, Pyrites burners.
B, Nitre oven.
C, Glover tower.
D, Gay-Lussac tower.
E, Cooling pipes for Glover-
tower acid.
F, F, F, Vitriol chambers.
G, Steam boiler.
H, Acid eggs or reservoirs for
pumping the acid to top of
towers.
I, Steam engine and stone-
breaker for breaking up
pyrites.
fe
Chimney.
Engine for compressing air.
" packing " the towers have been rendered more durable, and in the
case of the Gay-Lussac tower the loss of nitre has been diminished
by avoiding the use of a coke packing, which acts upon that
substance as a reducing agent. Many attempts have been made
to reduce the chamber space by apparatus intended to bring about
a better mixture of the gases, and to facilitate the interaction of
the misty particles of nitrous vitriol and dilute acid floating in
the chamber with each other and with the chamber atmosphere.
The earliest really successful, and still the most generally applied
apparatus of this kind, is the Lunge-Rohrmann " plate columns "
or " reaction towers " placed between the chambers, but though
this and similar apparatus has proved to be very useful in the later
stages of the process, it has not been found practicable to do away
with the lead chambers entirely. The pumping of the acids up
to the top of the towers is now always performed by means of com-
pressed air, either in the old "acid eggs," or more economically
in " pulsometers."
Most of the sulphuric acid manufactured is not required to be of
higher strength than is furnished by the vitriol chambers, either
directly (65 to 70%), or after a passage through the Glover tower
(78 to 80%). This, for instance, holds good of the acid employed
in the manufacture of sulphate of soda and hydrochloric acid from
common salt, and in the manufacture of superphosphates. But
for many purposes more highly concentrated acid is required.
Formerly all such acid was made by boiling down the dilute acid,
for which purpose a great variety of apparatus was invented. The
first question is always that of material. Lead can be used for
the purpose only when the boiling-point of the acid is reduced by
means of a vacuum — a plan which has not met with much success.
Formerly glass vessels were generally employed and they still sur-
vive in England, but elsewhere they are not much used. Porcelain,
enamelled iron, for high concentrations even cast-iron without any
protection, are also in use. On the continent of Europe platinum
vessels have been for a long time almost universal, and they have
been greatly improved by an internal lining of gold. The second
consideration is the form of the vessels; these may be open pans
or dishes, or closed retorts, or combinations of both. We also note
the Faure and Kessler apparatus, which consists of a platinum
pan, surmounted by a double-walled leaden hood, in such a manner
that, while the hood is constantly cooled from the outside by water,
the thin acid condensing on its inside is carried away without being
allowed to flow back into the pan. The majority of acid makers,
however, prefer retorts made entirely of platinum, preferably pro-
vided by the Heraeus process with a dense, closely adherent coating
of gold, including the top or " dome." The new Kessler furnace is
a very ingenious apparatus, in which the fire from a gas-producer
travels over the sulphuric acid contained in a trough made of
Volvic lava, and surmounted by a number of perforated plates,
over which fresh acid is constantly running down ; the temperature
is kept down by the production of a partial vacuum, which greatly
promotes the volatilization of the water, whilst retarding that of
the acid. This furnace is also very well adapted for impure acids,
unsuitable for platinum or platinum-gold stills on account of the
crusts forming at the bottom of the retorts; and it is more and more
coming into use both in Great Britain and on the Continent. A third
consideration is the condensation of the vapours formed in the con-
centrating process; the further the concentration proceeds the more
sulphuric acid they contain. Condensation is a comparatively easy
task in the case of platinum apparatus, but with glass or porcelain
beakers or retorts it presents great difficulties. In this respect
the Kessler furnace has also proved to be very efficacious, so that
it is at the present time considered the best apparatus for the
concentration of sulphuric acid found in the trade.
The highest strength of sulphuric acid practically attainable by
boiling down is 98 % H2SO«, and this is only exceptionally reached,
since it involves much expenditure of fuel, loss of acid and wear and
tear of apparatus. The usual strength of the O.V. cf commerce,
mostly designated by its specific gravity as 168° Twaddell, is from
93 to 95, or at most 96% HjSO^ When attempts are made to push
the process beyond 98 % it is found that the acid which distils over
is as strong as that which remains behind. Real " monohydrate "
or acid approaching 100 % can be made by Lunge's process of cooling
strong O.V. down to — 16° C. when HjSOi crystallizes out, or by the
addition of anhydrous SOs in the shape of fuming acid.
Since the development of the contact processes the fuming acid
has become so cheap that it is now exclusively used for the prepara-
tion of the acids approaching the composition of " monohydrate."
Fuming or Nordhausen Oil of Vitriol, a mixture or chemical com-
pound of HjSOi, with more or less SO3, has been made for centuries
by exposing pyritic schist to the influence of atmospheric agents,
collecting the solution of ferrous and ferric sulphate thus formed,
boiling it down into a hard mass (" vitriolstein ") and heating this
to a low red heat in small earthenware retorts. Since about 1800
this industry had been confined to the north-west of Bohemia, and
it survived just till 1900, when it was entirely abandoned — not
because its product had become any less necessary, but, quite on
the contrary, because the enormously increasing demand for fuming
sulphuric acid, arising through the discovery of artificial alizarine
and other coal-tar colours, could not possibly be supplied by the
clumsy Bohemian process. Other sources of supply had accordingly
to be sought, and they were found by going back to a reaction known
since the first quarter of the iqth century, when J. W. Dobereiner
discovered the combination of SO2 and O into SOs by means of
spongy platinum. This reaction, now known by the name of the
catalytic or contact process, was made the subject of a patent by
Peregrine Phillips, in 1831, and was tried later in many ways, but
had been always considered as useless for practical purposes until
1875, when it was simultaneously and independently taken up by
Clemens Winkler in Freiberg, and by W. S. Squire and R. Messel in
London. Both these inventors began in the same way, viz. by
decomposing ordinary sulphuric acid by a high temperature into
SO2, O, and H2O (the last of course being in the shape of steam),
absorbing the water by sulphuric acid, and causing the SOj and O
to combine to SOs by means of moderately heated platinum in a fin.e
state of division. Winkler showed that this division was best
obtained by soaking asbestos with a solution of platinum chloride
and reducing the platinum to the metallic state, and he described
later a specially active kind of " contact substance," prepared from
platinum chloride at a low temperature. This revival of the
synthetical production of SOs, at a period when this article
had suddenly become of great importance, caused the greatest
excitement among chemists and led to numerous attempts in the
same direction, some of which were at once sufficiently successful
to compete with the Bohemian process. It was soon found that the
production of a mixture of SO2 and O from sulphuric acid, as above
described, was both too troublesome and costly, and after a number
of experiments in other directions inventors went back to the use
of ordinary burner-gas from pyrites and sulphur burners. For a
good many years the further development of this industry was
surrounded by great mystery, but it is now known that a satisfac-
tory solution of the difficulties existing in the above respect was
attained in several places, for instance, at Freiberg and in London,
by the labours of the original inventors, Professor Winkler and Dr
Messel. These difficulties were mostly caused by the solid impurities
SULPICIA— SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS
69
contained in the burner-gases in the shape of flue-dust, especially the
arsenic, which after a short time rendered the contact substance
inactive, in a manner not as yet entirely understood. Another
difficulty arose from the fact that the reaction SO2-fO=SOa is
reversible, the opposite reaction, SO3 = SO24O setting in but
little above the temperature required for the synthesis of SOa- As
far as is known (so much secrecy having been observed), the best
results obtained in various places, save one, did not exceed 67 % of
the theoretical quantity, the remaining 33% of SO2 having to be
converted into sulphuric acid in the ordinary lead chambers. As is
now known, the exception (undoubtedly the only one until 1899)
was the process discovered as early as 1889 by Dr R. T. J. Knietsch,
of the Badische Anilin-und Soda-Fabrik, at Ludwigshafen, but kept
strictly secret until 1899, when the patents were published. The
principal features of this invention are, first, a much more thorough
purification of the burner-gas than had been practised up to that
time, both in a chemical and a mechanical sense, and second, the
prevention of superheating of the contact substance, which lormerly
always occurred by the heat generated in the process itself. As the
Badische process effects this prevention by cooling the contact
apparatus by means of the gaseous mixture to be later submitted
to the catalytic action, the mixture is at the time heated up to the
requisite temperature, and a considerable saving of fuel is the conse-
quence. Altogether this process has been brought to such a pitch of
simplicity and perfection, that it is cheap enough, not merely for
the manufacture of fuming oil of vitriol of all strengths, but even for
that of ordinary sulphuric acid of chamber-acid strength, while
it is decidedly cheaper than the old process in the case of stronger
acids, otherwise obtained by concentration by fire. It should be
noted that these are not the results of a few years' working with an
experimental plant, but of many years' work with large plant, now
equal to a capacity of 120,000 tons of pyrites per annum. It is
therefore not too much to say that, in all probability, the contact
process will ultimately be employed generally for concentrated
acids. Still, for the reasons given in the beginning of this article,
the revolution thus impending will require a certain time for its
accomplishment. Since the Badische process has become known
several other new contact processes have come into the field, in some
of which ferric oxide is employed as contact substance, but we must
refrain from describing these in detail. (G. L.)
Medicine. — Sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol is a colourless oily-
looking liquid incompatible with alkalis and their carbonates, lead
and calcium. There are two medicinal preparations: (i) Acidum
sulphuricum dilutum, containing 13-65% of hydrogen sulphate, (2)
acidum sulphuricum aromaticum (elixir of vitriol), containing alcohol,
spirit of cinnamon and ginger and I3'8% of hydrogen sulphate.
Therapeutics — For external use, sulphuric acid is a powerful
irritant and caustic, acting by its powerful affinity for water and
therefore dehydrating the tissues and causing them to turn black.
It coagulates the albumen. Strong sulphuric acid is occasionally
used as a caustic to venereal sores, warts and malignant growths.
It is difficult, however, to limit its action, and glacial acetic and nitric
acids are preferable for this purpose. Considerable burns on the
face or body may result from the application of sulphuric acid in the
practice known as " vitriol-throwing," a brownish black eschar
serving to distinguish the burns produced by this acid from those of
other corrosive fluids. Internally, dilute sulphuric acid is used in
poisoning by alkalis as a neutralizing agent. Both it and the
aromatic solution are powerful intestinal astringents, and are there-
fore useful in diarrhoea of a serious type, being strongly recom-
mended both as a prophylactic and as a treatment during epidemics
of Asiatic cholera. Small doses of the aromatic acid also serve as
a prophylactic to those artisans who work in lead and as a treatment
in lead poisoning in order to form an insoluble sulphate of lead.
Sponging the body with very dilute solutions of sulphuric acid is
useful to diminish the night-sweats of phthisis.
Toxicology. — Given in toxic doses or in strong solution, sulphuric
acid is a severe gastro-intestinal irritant, causing intense burning
pain, extending from the mouth to the stomach, and vomiting of
mucous and coffee-coloured material. The effects of the ingestion
of large quantities may be so rapid that death may take place in a
couple of hours, owing to collapse, consequent on perforation of the
walls of the oesophagus or stomach, or from asphyxia due to swelling
of the glottis consequent on some of the acid having entered the
larynx. Should the patient survive the first twenty-four hours
death generally results later from stricture of the oesophagus or
intestine, from destruction of the glands of the stomach or from
exhaustion. Death has occurred in a child from the ingestion of
half a teaspoonful of the strong acid, but recovery is recorded after
half an ounce had been swallowed. The treatment consists in the
prompt neutralization of the acid, by chalk, magnesia, whiting,
plaster, soap or any alkaline substance at hand ; emetics or the
stomach pump should not be used. Morphine may be given
hypodermically to mitigate the pain. Should the patient survive
he will probably have to be fed by rectal enemata. The prognosis
of sulphuric acid poisoning is bad, 60 to 70% of the cases proving
fatal. The post-mortem appearances will be those of corrosive
poisoning. The buccal mucous membrane will be greyish, brown
" black in colour, due to the corrosive effects of the acid.
SULPICIA, the name of two Roman poets. The earlier lived
in the reign of Augustus, and was a niece of Messalla, the patron
of literature. Her verses, which were preserved with those of
Tibullus and were for long attributed to him, are elegiac poems
addressed to a lover called Cerinthus, possibly the Cornutus
addressed by Tibullus in two of his Elegies (bk. ii., 2 and 3 ; see
Schanz, Gesch. d. rom. Lilt. § 284; F. Plessis, La Potsie latine,
pp. 376-377 and references there given). The younger Sulpicia
lived during the reign of Domitian. She is praised by Martial
(x- 35, 38), who compares her to Sappho, as a model of wifely
devotion, and wrote a volume of poems, describing with consider-
able freedom of language the methods adopted to retain her
husband Calenus's affection. An extant poem (70 hexameters)
also bears her name. It is in the form of a dialogue between
Sulpicia and the muse Calliope, and is chiefly a protest against
the banishment of the philosophers by the edict of Domitian
(A.D. 94), as likely to throw Rome back into a state of barbarism.
At the same time Sulpicia expresses the hope that no harm will
befall Calenus. The muse reassures her, and prophesies the
downfall of the tyrant. It is now generally agreed that the
poem .(the MS. of which was discovered in the monastery of
Bobbio in 1493, but has long been lost) is not by Sulpicia, but
is of much later date, probably the 5th century; according to
some it is a isth-century production, and not identical with
the Bobbio poem.
Editions by O. Jahn (with Juvenal and Persius, revised by F.
Biicheler, 1893) and in E. Bahrens, De Sulpiciae quae vocalur satira
(1873) ; see also monograph by I. C. Boot (1868); R. E\\is in Academy,
(Dec. II, 1869) and Journal of Philology (1874), vol. v. ; O. Ribbeck,
Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892), vol. iii.; H. E. Butler,
Post-Augustan Poetry (1909), pp. 174-176; M. Schanz, Geschichte der
romischen Litteratur (1900), iii. 2 ; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900), p. 233, 6. There are English translations by L.
Evans in Bonn's Classical Library (prose, with Juvenal and Persius)
and by J. Grainger (verse, 1759).
SULPICIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS (c. 121-88 B.C.), Roman
orator and statesman, legate in 89 to Cn. Pompeius Strabo in
the Social War, and in 88 tribune of the plebs. Soon afterwards
Sulpicius, hitherto an aristocrat, declared in favour of Marius
and the popular party. He was deeply in debt, and it seems
that Marius had promised him financial assistance in the event
of his being appointed to the command in the Mithradatic War.
To secure the appointment for Marius, Sulpicius brought in a
franchise bill by which the newly enfranchised Italian allies
and freedmen would have swamped the old electors (see further
ROME, History, II. " The Republic "). The majority of the
senate were strongly opposed to the proposals; a justitium
(cessation of public business) was proclaimed by the consuls,
but Marius and Sulpicius got up a riot, and the consuls, in fear
of their lives, withdrew thejustitium. The proposals of Sulpicius
became law, and, with the assistance of the new voters, the
command was bestowed upon Marius, then a mere privates.
Sulla, who was then at Nola, immediately marched upon Rome.
Marius and Sulpicius, unable to resist him, fled from the city.
Marius managed to escape to Africa, but Sulpicius was discovered
in a villa at Laurentum and put to death; his head was sent to
Sulla and exposed in the forum. Sulpicius appears to have
been originally a moderate reformer, who by force of circum-
stances became one of the leaders of a democratic revolt. Al-
though he had impeached the turbulent tribune C. Norbanus
(q.v.), and resisted the proposal to repeal judicial sentences by
popular decree, he did not hesitate to incur the displeasure of
the Julian family by opposing the candidature for the consulship
of C. Julius Caesar (Strabo Vopiscus), who had never been praetor
and was consequently ineligible. His franchise proposals,
as far as the Italians were concerned, were a necessary measure
of justice; but they had been carried by violence. Of Sulpicius
as an orator, Cicero says (Brutus, 55) : " He was by far the most
dignified of all the orators I have heard, and, so to speak, the
most tragic; his voice was loud, but at the same time sweet and
clear; his gestures were full of grace; his language was rapid
and voluble, but not redundant or diffuse; he tried to imitate
Crassus, but lacked his charm." Sulpicius left no written
SULPICIUS RUFUS, SERVIUS— SUMATRA
speeches, those that bore his name being written by a certain
P. Canutius (or Cannutius). He is one of the interlocutors in
Cicero's De oratore.
See Appian, Bell. civ. i. 55-60; Plutarch, Sulla and Marius;
Veil. Pat. li. 18; Livy, Epit. 77; E. A. Ahrens, Die drei Volkstribunen
(Leipzig, 1836); Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. iv. ch. 7; Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic, vol. ii. ch. 17.
SULPICIUS RUFUS, SERVIUS (c. 106-43 B.C.), surnamed
Lemonia from the tribe to which he belonged, Roman orator
and jurist. He studied rhetoric with Cicero, and accompanied
him to Rhodes in 78 B.C. Finding that he would never be able
to rival his teacher he gave up rhetoric for law (Cic. Brut. 41).
In 63 he was a candidate for the consulship, but was defeated
by L. Licinius Murena (<?.».), whom he subsequently accused
of bribery; in 51 he was successful. In the Civil War, after
considerable hesitation, he threw in his lot with Caesar, who
made him proconsul of Achaea in 46. He died in 43 while on
a mission from the senate to Antony at Mutina. He was ac-
corded a public funeral, and a statue was erected to his memory
in front of the Rostra. Two excellent specimens of Sulpicius's
style are preserved in Cicero (Ad. Fam. iv. 5 and 12). Quintilian
(Instil, x. i, 1 1 6) speaks of three orations by Sulpicius as still
in existence; one of these was the speech against Murena, another
Pro or Contra Aufidium, of whom nothing is known. He is
also said to have been a writer of erotic poems. It is as a jurist,
however, that Sulpicius was chiefly distinguished. He left
behind him a large number of treatises, and he is often quoted
in the Digest, although direct extracts are not found (for titles
see Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. 174, 4). His chief
characteristics were lucidity, an intimate acquaintance with
the principles of civil and natural law, and an unrivalled power
of expression.
See R. Schneider, De Servio Sulpicio Rufo (Leipzig, 1834);
O. Karlowa, Romische Rechtsgeschichte, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1885); the
chief ancient authority is Cicero.
SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler,"
sultat, dominion), a title of honour borne by a great variety
of rulers of very varying powers and importance in Mahom-
medan Africa and the East. The word has thus no exact
equivalent in English, and was early imported into the language
in the Middle English form of soudan (from old Fr. soudan,
souldan). This title is that conventionally applied by foreigners
to the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan par excellence,
whose proper styles are, however, padishah (emperor) and
" commander of the faithful " (see AMIR). The feminine
form " sultana " is derived from the Italian (fern, of sultand).
SULTANPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Fyzabad division of the United Provinces. The town is on the
right bank of the river Gumti, midway between Benares and
Lucknow, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901),
9550.
The DISTRICT OF SULTANPUR has an area of 1713 sq. m.
The surface is generally level, being broken only by ravines
in the neighbourhood of the rivers. The central portion is
highly cultivated, while in the south are widespread arid plains
and swampy jhils or marshes. The principal river is the Gumti,
which passes through the centre of the district and affords a
valuable highway for commerce. Minor streams are the Kandu,
Pili, Tengha and Nandhia, the last two being of some importance,
as their channels form the outlet for the superfluous water of
the jhils, draining into the Sai. There are no forests in the
district, only stunted dhak jungles used for fuel. In 1901 the
population was 1,083,904, showing an increase of less than
i % in the decade. Sultanpur is a purely agricultural district
with a very dense population. The principal crops are rice,
pulses, wheat, barley, sugar-cane and a little poppy. The main
line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Rae
Bareli and Mogul Serai serves the south-western portion.
The only incident worthy of note in the history of the district
since the British annexation of Oudh is the revolt of the native
troops stationed at Sultanpur during the Mutiny. The troops
rose in rebellion on the 9th of June 1857, and, after murdering
two of their officers, sacked the station. Upon the restoration
of order Sultanpur cantonment was strengthened by a detach-
ment of British troops; but in 1861 it was entirely abandoned
as a military station.
See Sultanpur District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1903).
SUMACH. The Sumach of commerce is the finely ground
leaves of Rhus coriaria, a native of the North Mediterranean
region from Portugal to Asia Minor; it is a shrub or low tree
with hairy leaves composed of n to 15 elliptical leaflets with
large blunt teeth, and large loose panicles of whitish-green flowers.
Another species, Rhus cotinus, known as Venetian Sumach,
Sumach, Rhus coriaria. (\ nat. size.)
i. Flower (ij nat. size). 2. Cluster of fruit. 3. One fruit.
4. A seed. (2, 3, 4, J nat. size.)
also' a native of southern Europe and Asia Minor, yields the
yellow dye-wood known as young fustic; it is also known as the
Smoke-plant or Wig-tree, from the feathery or hairy appearance
of the flower-stalks, which become elongated and hairy after
the flowering. The genus Rhus is a member of the natural
order Anacardiaceae and contains about 120 species of trees
or shrubs mostly native in the temperature regions of both hemi-
spheres. The leaves are alternate and simple or compound,
with few to many entire-margined or serrated leaflets, and
terminal or axillary panicles of small flowers with parts in fours
or sixes. The species are mostly poisonous, some being especially
noxious. Such are Rhus toxicodendron, the North American
poison ivy, a shrub climbing on rocks and trees by means of
rootlets, and poisonous to the touch. R. venenata, the North
American poison elder sumach or dogwood, also contains an
extremely irritant poison. R. vermicijera is the Japan lacquer
or varnish-tree. Several species are cultivated in the British
Isles as store, greenhouse or hardy trees.
SUMATRA, the westernmost and, next to Borneo, the largest
of the Great Sunda Islands in the Malay Archipelago. It
stretches N.W. to S.E. from Malacca Passage to Sunda Strait,
between 5° 40' N. and 5° 59' S., and 95° 16' and 106° 3' 45* E.
Its length is about noo m., its extreme breadth 250 m., and its
area, including the neighbouring islands, except Banka and
Billiton, is 178,338 sq. m. The northern half runs roughly
parallel to the Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by
the Strait of Malacca, and the southern end is separated by the
SUMATRA
narrow Sunda Strait from Java. Unlike Java, Sumatra has
a series of considerable islands (Nias Islands, Mentawi Islands,
&c.) arranged like outworks in front of the west coast, which
faces the open Indian Ocean. The general physical features
of the island are simple: a chain of lofty mountain ranges
extends throughout its length, the western slopes descending
rapidly towards the ocean and the eastern looking out over a
vast alluvial tract of unusual uniformity.
Towards the north end of the island the spurs of the main
chain sometimes extend towards the neighbourhood of the east
coast and the eastern plain widens from north to south. Owing
to this configuration of the island the watercourses of the western
ftatiways..,..:
Boundaries of residencies ^ -,— ^
Chief towns of Residencies „„
'adang 2 — Lower Padang
Longitude liast too0 of Greenwich
B
side are comparatively short: only very few of them are large
enough to be navigable. Those of the eastern slope, on the
other hand, such as the Musi, Jambi, Indragiri, Kampar, Siak,
Rokan, Panei, Bila and Asahan, are longer, and with many
of their affluents are navigable in their middle and lower courses
over considerable stretches for craft drawing 6 to 10 ft. The
Musi and Jambi are navigable for 372 and 497 m. respectively.
As waterways all the rivers labour under the drawbacks of rapids,
mud-banks at their mouths, banks overgrown with forest,
sparse population, and currents liable to serious variations due
to irregularity of supply from the mountains and sudden rain-
falls. In their lower courses some of them form enormous
intercommunicating deltas. The mountainous regions contain
numerous lakes, many evidently occupying the craters of extinct
volcanoes. When, as sometimes happens, two or three of these
craters have merged into one, the lake attains a great size.
Among the larger lakes may be mentioned Toba; Maninyu,
west of Fort de Kock; Singkara, south-east of Fort de Kock;
Korinchi, inland from Indrapura; and Ranua, in the south-
west.
Ororraphy. — In order to appreciate the orography of the island
the following sections of Sumatra should be discriminated one from
,nother: (i) The valley of the Achin or Atjeh River. (2) Theplains
around the lake of Toba, which are of varied level and physical
character. Those on the south and north lie at an elevation of
4000 ft., having the character of steppes, with scanty forest-cover,
and, save in the narrow valleys and river-courses, are suitable for
cattle-rearing. The plains on the east and west lie at a lower level
and are eroded by larger rivers, clothed with forest, showing more
sawahs and ladangs, or dry ricefields, and, near the rivers, planted
with jagong (maize), coffee and fruits. Except on the south-east,
where the Asahan flows away to the east coast, Toba Lake is sur-
rounded by steep shores. According to R. D. M. Verbeek, P. van
Dyk, B. Hagen and W. Volz, the lake had its origin in the collapse of
a volcano. (3) The valley of the Batang Toru, with the plateau of
Sipirok in the east and the mountain chain of Tapanuli in the west.
On the south and south-east the valley is bounded by two volcanoes,
Lubuk Raja and Si Buwal Buwali, whence were derived the volcanic
tuffs of the valley and of the plateau of
Sipirok, with their lakes, which are drained
by the Batang Toru and its affluents. The
valley varies in breadth from si m. to half
a mile and less. Flowing in a deep bed cut
in the tuff strata, the river is not navi-
gable. (4) The longitudinal valley of the
Batang Gadis, with its affluent the Angkola,
and in the south the valley of the Sumpur,
the upper course of the Rokan, between
Lubuk Raja in the north and Mt Merapi
in the south. This valley is 64 m. long, with
a mean breadth of 4 to 5 m. All the rivers
of this valley, flowing in deep beds of
eroded diluvial tuffs, with a fall as much
sometimes as 330 to 660 ft. a mile, are
unnavigable. The valley is bounded east
and west by chains of slate and Palaeozoic
rocks. The bottom is in many parts the
diluvium of lakes drained by the rivers.
(5) The section of middle Sumatra between
the line of the three volcanoes, Singalang-
Tandikat, Merapi and Sago on the north,
and that of the three mountains Patah
Sembilan, Korinchi and Tujuh on the
south. This section is divided by the
Middengebergte or middle chain into a
northern half watered by the Ombilin or
upper Indragiri with its affluents, and a
southern halftraversed by the Batang Hari
or upper Jambi. To the north of the
volcanoes, which rise to 9500 ft. or more,
there is a high plateau of volcanic forma-
tion, whose elevation declines in a direction
from west to east from 2950 to 1640 ft.,
with the lake of Maninyu (about 40 sq. m.
in area) filling the hollow of an old volcano,
and with rivers which have eroded their
beds in the tuffs to a depth of 300 ft. and
more. South of the volcanoes the northern
affluents of the Ombilin — Sumpur, Sello
and Sinamar — flow through valleys parallel
to one another in a north-west to south-east
direction. Here, too, are found fertile tuffs,
and the valleys are densely populated. The
rivers, like those already characterized, and
for the same reason, are not available as
waterways. Singkara Lake (44 sq. m.) is of origin similar to that of
Maninyu. The Ombilin, issuing out of the lake on the east side and
flowing through a plateau of Eocene sandstone, has on its banks the
coalfields of Sungei Durian, &c., but is not serviceable as a waterway
for that part of Sumatra. The coal has to be transported by railway
via Solok to Padang (Emmahaven), a seaport on the west coast.
Soloklieson the Sumami, which, flowing from the south to the lake
of Singkara, prolongs the valley of the Sumpur to the Midden-
gebergte. Unlike the northern, the southern affluents of the Ombilin
do not follow longitudinal valleys hemmed in by the Barisan range
and ranges of slate, limestone and sandstone. Here prevailing
granite and diabase give rise to a complicated mountain system
through which the rivers cleave their way in a curved and irregular
course. South of the Middengebergte, however, the northern
affluents of the Batang Hari, the Seliti, Gumanti, Si Potar, Mamun
and Pangean, at least those in the west, again run in longitudinal
valleys. These affluents and the Batang Hari itself (except the part
at the mouth, Mamun-Simalidu) are navigable only by praus drawing
not more than 12 in. (6) South Sumatra, so far as known, presents
everywhere in its valleys the same character as that of the Batang
Toru, Batang Gadis, Sumpur, &c. They also are closed in on the
north and south by volcanoes which have here produced similar
masses of tuff, with lakes and rivers of the same formation as in the
north. Such are the valley of Korinchi, with the river of the same
name, between the peak of Korinchi and Mt Raja; the valleys
of Serampei and Sungei Tenang (as imperfectly known as that of
the Korinchi), in which are to be sought the sources of the Tambesi
and Asei, both affluents of the Jambi; the longitudinal valley of
Emery w.lkei K.
SUMATRA
Ketaun, in Lebong, flowing to the west coast, and of the upper
Musi, flowing to the east coast ; the valleys of Makakau and Selabung
or the upper Komering, an affluent of the Musi, between Sebelat
and Kaba. The Makakau and Selabung drain into Lake Ranau,
which on the south side is dammed by the volcano Seminung. The
southernmost longitudinal valley of Sumatra is that of the Semangka,
which flows into the bay of the same name. Generally the lower
valleys of the rivers lie at elevations of 600 to 1000 ft.; higher up
they rise to 2500 or 3000 ft. ; the mountain chains rise to 5500 ft. ;
the volcanoes tower up from 6500 to nearly 10,000 ft. (7) The
section of south Sumatra between the eastern chain of old rocks
and the east coast with its numerous river mouths is formed of the
alluvium of sea and rivers. In the river-beds, however, and at some
distance from the sea, older strata and eruptive rocks underlie the
alluvium. The strata near the mountain chains and volcanoes
consist of diluvial tuffs.
Geology. — The oldest rocks are gneiss, schist and quartzite, the
schist often containing gold. They probably belong to several
geological periods, but all were folded and denuded before the
Carboniferous beds were deposited. They form the backbone of the
island, and crop out on the surface at intervals along the mountain
chain which runs parallel to the west coast. Here and there they
are penetrated by granitic intrusions which are also Pre-Carbom-
ferous. The next series of rocks consists of slates below and lime-
stones above. It lies unconformably upon the older rocks; and the
limestone contains Fusulina, Phillipsia and Pro&uclus, indicating
that it belongs to the Upper Carboniferous. These beds are found
only in northern Sumatra. They are accompanied by intrusions
of diabase and gabbro, and they are sometimes folded, sometimes
but little disturbed. No Permian beds are known, and for many
years Mesozoic deposits were supposed to be entirely absent, but
Triassic clays and sandstones with Daonella have been found in
the upper part of the basin of the Kwalu (East Sumatra). They
rest unconformably upon the Carboniferous beds, and have them-
selves been tilted to a steep angle. Cretaceous beds also have been
recorded by Bucking. Tertiary deposits are very widely spread
over the plains and low-lying country. They consist of breccias,
conglomerates, sandstones, marls, and limestones, with seams of
coal and lignite. The most valuable coal occurs in the Eocene beds.
At the close of the Eocene period great eruptions of augite-andesite
took place from two fissures which ran along the west coast. The
Miocene consists chiefly of marls, with occasional beds of lignite and
limestone. On the east coast it sometimes yields petroleum. The
Pliocene occurs chiefly in the low-lying land and is generally covered
by drift and alluvium. Sometimes it contains thick seams of lignite
or brown coal.
The present volcanoes lie along a line (with offshoots) which runs
Earallel to the west coast, but some distance to the east of the fissures
•om which the early Tertiary lavas were poured. Lava streams are
seldom emitted from these volcanoes, the material erupted consisting
chiefly of ash and scoriae, which are spread over a very wide extent
of country. Augite-andesite predominates, but basalt and rhyolite
also occur.
Climate. — As throughout the whole of the Malayan Archipelago,
so in Sumatra, which lies about equally balanced on both sides
of the equator, the temperature stands at a high level subject to
but slight variations. The monthly temperature mounts only
from 77° F. in February to 80-6° in May, August and November.
In the distribution of the rainfall, as dependent on the direction of
the winds, the following parts of Sumatra must be distinguished:
(1) south-east Sumatra, on which, as on Banka and Billiton, the
heaviest rainfall occurs during the north-west monsoon, the
annual volume of rainfall increasing from 98-4 in. in the east to
139 in. in the west. Of the 139 in. of yearly rainfall, 91-7 in. are
brought by the north-west and 47-3 in. by the south-east monsoon.
(2) The west coast. Here the rainfall for the year increases from
the southern and northern extremities towards the middle. Ben-
kulen, e.g. gets 126 in.; Singkel (2° 15' N.), 172 in.- and Padang
184 in. in the year. Here, too, the prevailing rainfall is brought
by the north-west monsoon, but in this belt its prevalence is not so
pronounced, Padang_ getting 94 in. of rain during the north-west
monsoon, against 90 in. during the south-east. The mountain chain
immediately overhanging it, the high temperature of the sea wash-
ing it, the frequent thunderstorms to which it is subject, the moist
atmosphere of its equatorial situation, and the shorter regime of the
dry south-east wind are the principal causes of the heavier rainfall
on the west coast. The higher stations of middle Sumatra, on the
lee side of the western mountain chain, have a yearly rainfall of only
78-7 in. (3) The northern and north-eastern parts of Sumatra
are swept by a variety of winds. The south-east wind, however,
predominates. Blowing over land and in the direction of the
longitudinal valleys, the south-east wind is comparatively dry, and
thus favours the formation of steppes in the north such as the Toba
plains. The north-east and south-west winds, on the other hand,
being laden with the moisture of the sea, bring rain if they blow for
any length of time.
Fauna. — Though Sumatra is separated from Java by so narrow a
strait, both the zoologist and the botanist at once find that they have
broken new ground on crossing to the northern island. The Pachy-
dermata are strongly characteristic of the Sumatran fauna : not only
are the rhinoceros (Rh. sumatranus), the Sus vittatus, and the tapir
common, but the elephant, altogether absent from Java, is repre-
sented in Sumatra by a species considered by some to be peculiar.
The Sumatran rhinoceros differs from the Javanese in having two
horns, like the African variety. It is commonest in the marshy
lowlands, but extends to some 6500 ft. above sea-level. The
range of the elephant does not extend above 4900 ft. The wild
Bos sundaicus does not appear to exist in the island. An antelope
(kambing-utan) occurs in the loneliest parts of the uplands. The
common Malay deer is widely distributed, Cervus muntjac less so. The
orang-utang occurs, rarely, in the north-east. Thesiamang(5iajnanga
syndactyla) is a great ape peculiar to the island. The ungko (Hylo-
bates agilis) is not so common. A fairly familiar form is the simpei
(Semnoptihecus melalophus). The chigah (Cercocebus cynomolgus) is
the only ape found in central Sumatra in a tame state. The pig-
tail ape (Macacus nemestrinus) — as Raffles described it in his
" Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoological Collection made in Sumatra,"
Trans. Linn. Soc. (1820), xiii. 243 — is trained by the natives of
Benkulen to ascend coco-nut trees to gather nuts. The Galeo-
pithecus volans (kubin, flying cat or flying lemur) is fairly common.
Bats of some twenty-five species have been registered; in central
Sumatra they dwell in thousands in the limestone caves. The
Pteropus edulis (kalong, flying fox) is to be met with almost every-
where, especially in the durian trees. The tiger frequently makes
his presence felt, but is seldom seen ; he prefers to prowl in what the
Malays call tiger weather, that is, dark, starless, misty nights.
The clouded tiger or rimau bulu (Felts macroscelis) is also known,
as well as the Malay bear and wild dog. Paradoxurus musanga
(" coffee-rat " of the Europeans) is only too abundant. The
Sumatran hare (Lepus netscheri), discovered in 1880, adds a second
species to the Lepus nigricollis, the only hare previously known in
the Malay Archipelago. The Manis javanicus is the only repre-
sentative of the Edentata. Some 350 species of birds are known,
and the avifauna closely resembles that of the Malay Peninsula
and Borneo, including few peculiar species.
Flora. — Rank grasses (lalang, glaga), which cover great areas
in Java, have an even wider range in Sumatra, descending to within
700 or 800 ft. of sea-level ; wherever a space in the forest is cleared
these aggressive grasses begin to take possession of the soil, and
if once they are fully rooted the woodland has great difficulty in
re-establishing itself. Among the orders more strongly represented
in Sumatra than in Java are the Dipterocarpaceae, Chrysobalanaceae,
sclerocarp Myrtaceae, Melastomaceae, Begonias, Nepenthes, Oxali-
daceae, Myristicaceae, Ternstromiaceae, Connaraceae, Amyridaceae,
Cy'rtandraceae, Epacridaceae and Eriocaulaceae. Many of the
Sumatran forms which do not occur in Java are found in the Malay
Peninsula. In the north the pine tree (Pinus Merkusii) has
advanced almost to the equator, and in the south are a variety of
species characteristic of the Australian region. The distribution
of species does not depend on elevation to the same extent as
in Java, where the horizontal zones are clearly marked; and there
appears to be a tendency of all forms to grow at lower altitudes
than in that island. A remarkable feature of the Sumatran
flora is the great variety of trees that vie with each other in
stature and beauty, and as a timber-producing country the
island ranks high even among the richly wooded lands of the
archipelago. Forest products — gums and resins of various sorts,
such as gutta-percha — are valuable articles of export. The pro-
cess of reckless deforestation is perceptible in certain districts,
the natives often destroying a whole tree for a plank or rafter.
The principal cultivated plants, apart from sugar-cane and coffee,
are rice (in great variety of kinds), the coco-nut palm, the areng palm,
the areca and the sago palms, maize, yams, and sweet potatoes; and
among the fruit trees are the Indian tamarind, pomegranate, guava,
Eapaw, orange and lemon. Even before the arrival of Europeans
umatra was known for its pepper plantations; and these still form
the most conspicuous feature of the south of the island. For the
foreign market coffee is the most important of all the crops, the Padang
districts being the chief seat of its cultivation. Benzoin was formerly
obtained almost exclusively from Sumatra from the Styrax benzoin.
Population. — The following table gives the area and estimated
population of the several political divisions of Sumatra and of
the island as a whole (excluding the small part belonging to
the Riouw-Lingga residency): —
Division.
Area in sq. m.
Population.
1900.
Sumatra, West Coast ....
Sumatra, East Coast ....
Benkulen
31-649
35,312
9,399
11,284
53-497
20,471
1,527,297
42 1 ,090
162,396
142,426
804,299
110,804
Lampong Districts
Palemban'g
Achin (Atjeh)
Total
161,612
3,168,312
SUMATRA
73
Of the total population, about 5000 are Europeans, 93,000
Chinese, 2500 Arabs, 7000 foreigners of other nations, and the rest
natives. In 1005 the total population was given as 4,029,505.
The natives of the mainland of Sumatra are all of Malay stock
(those of the north being the most hybrid), but it is doubtful
to what extent Malay has here absorbed pre-Malay blood. The
different tribes vary in language, customs and civilization.
No race of true Negrito type has been found. The Kubus (q.v.),
a savage forest people of the highlands, were believed by some
to be Negrito owing to the frizzled character of their hair, but
it appears certain that they are Malayan. The north of Sumatra
is occupied by the Achinese (see ACHIN). South of Achin and
west of Lake Toba is the country of the Battas (q.v.) or Battaks.
In the hill-country south of the lake are two forest tribes,
Orang-ulu and Orang-lubu, pure savages of whom practically
nothing is known, affiliated by most authorities to the Battas.
The plains east of this territory are occupied by the Siaks, and
farther south on the east coast are the Jambis, both Malays.
Above Padang are the several tribes of the prosperous and com-
paratively civilized Menangkabos (q.v.). The Korinchis live
among the mountains south of Padang. and farther south on
the borders of Palembang and Benkulen are the Rejangers, a
peculiar tribe who employ a distinctive written character which
they cut with a kris on bamboo or lontar. The same character
is employed by their immediate neighbours to the south, the
Pasumas, who bear traces of Javanese influence. In the extreme
south are the Lampong people, who claim descent from the
Menangkabos, but have also an admixture of Javanese blood.
The inhabitants of the islands west of Sumatra are of mixed
origin. Simalu is peopled partly by Achinese and partly by
Menangkabo settlers. They profess Mahommedanism but are
practically savages. Nias (q.v.) has an interesting native
population, apparently of pre-Malayan origin; and the Mentawi
islands (q.v.) are inhabited by a race generally held to be a
Polynesian settlement which has escaped fusion with Malayan
stock. As regards education and the spread of Christianity
among the natives, the west coast division is far in advance
of the rest of the island. Here about 32,000 natives profess
Christianity and there are about 300 schools; elsewhere schools
are comparatively few and the adhesion to Christianity very
slight.
Administrative Divisions and Towns. — In the west coast lands
European influence, fertile soil, comparatively good roads, agricul-
ture, timber, and coalfields have created populous settlements on
the coast at Padang (the capital of the west coast, with 35,158 inhabi-
tants in 1897, of whom 1640 were Europeans), Priaman, Natal,
Ayer Bangis, Siboga, Singkel, and also on the plateaus at Fort de
Kock, Payokombo, &c. In the east coast lands it is only at the
mouths of rivers — Palembang at the mouth of the Musi, with 53,000
inhabitants, and Medan in Deli, the residence of the highest civil
and military officials of the east coast, in which a fine government
house has been erected — that considerable centres of population are
to be found. Nine-tenths of the natives of Sumatra live by agri-
culture, the rest by cattle-rearing, fishing, navigation, and, last but
not least, from the products of the forests; they are therefore
little concentrated in towns.
The Dutch government of the west coast, extending along the shore
of the Indian Ocean from 2° 53' N. to 2° 25' S., comprises the
residencies of the Padang lowlands, Tapanuli and the Padang
highlands. The governor has his residence at Padang, which
is also the capital of the lowlands residency. Padang Sidempuan,
the chief town of Tapanuli, lies inland, south of Mt Lubu Raja. The
town of Siboga has considerable commercial importance, the bay
on which it stands being one of the finest in all Sumatra. Bukit
Tinggi, or, as it is commonly called, Fort de Kock, is the capital
of the residency of the Padang highlands. To the government of
the west Coast belong the following islands: Simalu; Banyak
Islands, a small limestone group, well wooded and sparsely peopled ;
Nias; Batu Islands (Pulu Pini, Tana Masa, Tana Bala, &c.);
Mentawi and Pegeh or Nassau Islands. The residency of Bankulen
(i.e. Bang Kulon,_ " west coast ") lies along the west coast from the
southern extremity of the west coast government to the south-
western end of the island. The capital, Benkulen, is on the coast
near Pulu Tiku, or Rat Island, in a low and swampy locality, and
on an open roadstead. This was the chief establishment possessed
by the British East India Company in Sumatra. Among other
noteworthy places are Mokko-Mokko, with the old British fort
Anna; Pasar Bintuhan, and Lais (Laye), the former seat of the
British resident.
The residency of the Lampong districts is the southernmost
in the island, being separated from Palembang by the Masuji River.
It is partly mountainous, partly so flat as to be under water in the
rainy season. The more important places are Telok Betong, chief
town of the residency, Menggala (with a good trade), Gunung Sugi,
Sukadana, Tanjong Karang, and Kota Agung.
The residency of Palembang consists of the former kingdom of
this name and various districts more or less dependent on that
monarchy. Between the mainland dependency of the Riouw-
Lingga residency and the residency of Palembang lies Jambi, an
extensive sultanate, of which a portion belongs to the residency of
Palembang as a protectorate, the sultan having in his capital (also
called Jambi) a Dutch " comptroller," who represents the resident
of Palembang; another portion is claimed by a quasi-independent
sultan who reigns in the interior. Of this interior very little was
known until the scientific expedition despatched by the Dutch
Royal Geographical Society towards the end of the 'seventies, but
in 1901 an armed Dutch expedition, necessitated by frequent dis-
turbances, penetrated right into the Jambi hinterland, the Gajo
districts, where until then no European had ever trod. The town of
Palembang is a large place on the river Musi, with 50,000 inhabitants
(2500 Chinese), extensive barracks, hospitals, &c., a mosque (1740),
considered the finest in the Dutch Indies, and a traditional tomb
of Alexander the Great. The residency of Riouw, which embraces
many hundreds of islands, great and small, also includes a portion
of the Sumatra mainland, between the residencies of Palembang to
the south and the east coast of Sumatra to the north. This is the
old kingdom of Indragiri, and lies on either hand of the river
of that name.
The residency of the east coast was formed in 1873 °f the territory
of Siak and its dependencies and the state of Kampar. In includes
perhaps the richest and best-developed districts of northern Sumatra,
namely, Deli (with an assistant-resident), Langkat, Serdang, &c. —
districts little known in 1873, but by the beginning of the 2Oth
century famous among the chief tobacco-producing countries in the
world. Belawan is the harbour to Deli, but the capital is Medan,
where the sultan and the Dutch resident reside. Belawan is
connected with Medan by a railway, constructed before 1890 by a
private company, almost entirely dependent for its earnings upon
the numerous tobacco plantations, several of which belong to
British corporations. The plantation labourers are almost entirely
alien coolies, largely Chinese, and the Malays are comparatively few
in number. The tobacco plantations o_f British North Borneo were
nearly all started by planters from Deli.
The government of Achin (q.v.) occupies the northern part of the
island. No little progress has been made by the Dutch even in this
war-ridden territory. There is a railway in the lower valley of the
Achin River, connecting the capital, Kotaraja, and neighbourhood
with Olehleh, a good, free port, with an active trade, carried on by
numerous steamers, both Dutch and foreign. Edi on the north-east
coast, with another harbour, is capital of a sultanate which formerly
owed allegiance to the sultan of Achin. but has formed a political
division of the government of Achin since 1889, when an armed
expedition restored order. Edi is a centre of the still extensive
pepper trade, carried on mainly with the Chinese at Singapore and
Penang, which island faces Edi.
Products and Industry. — Forests and natural vegetation cover
a much larger part of Sumatra than of Java. Whereas in Java
tall timber on the mountains keeps to altitudes of not less than
3000 ft., the tall timber on the mountains of Sumatra commonly
descends below 1000 ft., and in many cases right down to the coast.
In Sumatra, as in Java, the vegetation of the lowlands up to nearly
looo ft. is distinct from the vegetation of the mountain slopes and
plateaus from that elevation up to 4000 ft. and over. The principal
exports from all the regencies alike are black and white pepper,
bamboo (rotan), gums, caoutchouc, copra, nutmegs, mace and
gambir. From the west coast and Palembang coffee is also
exported, and from Deli, tobacco. The system of compulsory
cultivation of coffee was abolished in Sumatra in 1908.
Sumatra possesses various kinds of mineral wealth. Gold occurs
in the central region, where it is worked at a profit, and it has also
been worked in the Menangkabo district and the interior of Padang.
Tin is known, especially in Siak. Copper has been worked in
the Padang highlands (most largely in the district of Lake Singkara)
and at Muki in Achin. Iron is not infrequent. The most important
mineral economically, however, is coal. Coal seams exist in the
Malabuh valley (Achin), in the Sinamu valley, and on both sides of
the Ombilin River; the Ombilin field was brought into especial
notice by D. D. Veth of the 1877-79 expedition. The production
of this field increased from 1730 tons in 1892 to 78,500 metric tons
in 1899. The profit on the working, which is carried on by the state,
is slight. Lignite of good quality is found in several localities.
The production of petroleum began to be strongly developed towards
the close of the igth century; on the Lepan River in Langkat
it mounted from 362,880 gallons in 1891 to 20,141,000 gallons in
1899. Muara Enim in Palembang also produces petroleum. Perlak,
formerly a tributary state of Achin and now a political division of
the Achin government, has become one of the chief centres of the
oetroleum industry. The crude oil is conveyed in pipes to Aru Bay,
74
SUMBA
on the east coast, and refined in the island of Sembilan. Arsenic,
saltpetre, alum, naphtha and sulphur may be collected in the volcanic
districts. A systematic mineralogical survey has been undertaken
in central Sumatra.
Roads and Railways. — In the west, with its long line of coast and
numerous valleys, the transport of coffee has induced the construc-
tion of very good roads as far as the Lake of Toba, owing to the
want of navigable rivers. There is a railway connecting not only
the coalfields of the Ombilin valley with Padang, but also the
Ombilin river and the Lake of Singkara with the most productive
and densely populated plateaus and valleys, north and south of
the line of the volcanoes Singalang, Merapi and Sago. A second
railway in the district of Deli connects the inland plantations with
the coast ; and there is another, as already indicated, in the lower
Achin valley. Good roads traverse the broad plains of Benkulen,
Palembang and the Lampong districts.
History. — As far as is known, Sumatran civilization and culture
are of Hindu origin; and it is not improbable that the island
was the first of all the archipelago to receive the Indian immi-
grants who played so important a part in the history of the
region. Certain inscriptions discovered in the Padang high-
lands seem to certify the existence in the 7th century of a power-
ful Hindu kingdom in Tanah Datar, not far from the site of
the later capital of Menangkabo. In these inscriptions Sumatra
is called the " first Java." The traces of Hindu influence still
to be found in the island are extremely numerous, though far
from being so important as those of Java. There are ruins of
Hindu temples at Butar in Deli, near Pertibi, on the Panbi
river at Jambi, in the interior of Palembang above Lahat, and
in numerous other localities. One of the principal Hindu ruins
is at Muara Takus on the Kampar river. The buildings (includ-
ing a stupa 40 ft. high) may possibly date from the nth century.
At Paga.r Rujung are several stones with inscriptions in Sanskrit
and Menangkabo Malay. Sanskrit words occur in the various
languages spoken in the island; and the Ficus rdigiosa, the sacred
tree of the Hindu, is also the sacred tree of the Battas. At a
later period the Hindu influence in Sumatra was strengthened
by an influx of Hindus from Java, who settled in Palembang,
Jambi and Indragiri, but their attachment to Sivaism prevented
them from coalescing with their Buddhist brethren in the north.
In the I3th century Mahommedanism began to make itself felt,
and in course of time took a firm hold upon some of the most
important states. In Menangkabo, for instance, the Arabic
alphabet displaced the Kavi (ancient Javanese) character
previously employed. Native chronicles derive the Menangkabo
princes from Alexander the Great; and the Achinese dynasty
boasts its origin from a missionary of Islam. The town of
Samudera was at that period the seat of an important principality
in the north of the island, whose current name is probably a
corruption of this word. There is a village called Samudra
near Pasei which possibly indicates the site.
Sumatra, first became known to Europeans through the
Portuguese, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, in 1508. The Portuguese
were the first to establish trading posts on the island, but at
the end of the century they were driven out by the Dutch. At
this time the most powerful native state in the island was Achin
(q.v.) . Elsewhere Dutch sovereignty was gradually extended — in
1664 over Indrapura; in 1666 over Padang, until by 1803 it
was established over much of the southern part of the eastern
lands, including Palembang. Meanwhile, in 1685 the British
had acquired a footing in Benkulen, and between them and the
Dutch there was always much jealousy and friction until in
1824 a treaty was made under which the British vacated Sumatra
in favour of the Dutch, who reciprocated by giving up Malacca.
In May 1825 Benkulen was taken over from the British. In
the second half of the ipth century the Dutch found a succession
of armed expeditions necessary to consolidate their power.
Thus in 1851 a revolt was suppressed in Palembang, and an
expedition was sent to the Lampong districts. In 1853 Raja
Tiang Alam, ringleader of the revolt in Palembang, surrendered.
In 1858 an expedition was sent against Jambi; the sultan was
dethroned and a treaty made with his successor. In 1860
Rejang was added to the Palembang residency. In 1863 there
was an expedition against Nias, and in 1865 another against
Asahan and Serdang (east coast). In 1873 war was declared
against Achin. In 1876 there was an expedition against Kota
Jutan (east coast) and the emancipation of slaves was carried
out on the west coast. In 1878 Benkulen was made a residency,
and the civil administration of Achin and dependencies was
entrusted to a governor. From 1883 to 1894 the government,
with the help of missionaries, extended its authority over the
south-east and south-west of the island, and also over some of
the lands to the east and north of Toba lake, including the
districts of Toba, Silindong and Tanah Jawa, and in 1895 over
the southern part of the peninsula of Samosir in Toba lake.
Its jurisdiction was also extended over Tamiang, till then the
northern frontier of the Dutch east coast of Sumatra. By
military expeditions (1890-95) the Dutch influence on the
Batang Hari, or Upper Jambi, was increased; as also in 1899 in
the Lima Kotas * in central Sumatra, included within the territory
of Siak. The war in Achin did not materially retard the develop-
ment of Sumatra, and although the titular sultan of Achin
continued a desultory guerrilla warfare against the Dutch in
the mountainous woodlands of the interior, the almost inacces-
sible Pasei country, really active warfare has long ceased. All
along the main coasts of the former sultanate of Achin military
posts have been established and military roads constructed;
even in Pedir, on the north coast, until 1899 the most actively
turbulent centre of resistance of the sultan's party, and still
later only pacified in parts, Dutch engineers were able to build
a highway to connect the west with the east coast, and other
works have been successfully carried out. Practically the whole
of the island is now more or less explored and under control.
The literature dealing with Sumatra is very extensive. Of the
older works the best known is W. Marsden, History of Sumatra
(London, 1811). A full list of other older authorities will be found
in P. J. Veth's Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederl. Indie
(1869). Among later works one of great importance is Midden-
Sumatra; Reizen en Onderzoekingen der Sumatra Expeditie, 1877-
1879 (Leiden, 1881, sqq.), edited by P. J. Veth. See also Brau de
Saint-Pol Lias, lie de Sumatra (Paris, 1884) ; E. B. Kielstra, Beschrij-
ving van der AtjehOorlog (1885-1 886), and " Sumatras West-Kust van
1819-1825," in Bijd. tot Land-,&c., Kunde (1887) ; on the history of
Palembang, west coast and the war in Achin, in Indisch militair
Tijdschrift (1886-1889); Tijdschr. bat. Gen. (1887-1892). For topo-
graphy and geology, see R. Fennema, " Topographische en geoloj
gische Beschrijving van het Noordelijk gedeelte . . . Westkust, &c.,"
Jaarb. v. het Mijnwezen (1887); R. D. M. Verbeek, Topographische
en geologische Beschrijving van een Deel van Sumatra's Westkust,
with atlas (Batavia, 1883) ; similar work dealing with south Sumatra,
Jaarb. v. het Mijnwezen (1881), and Supplement (1887). W. Volz,
" Beitrage zur geolpgischen Kenntniss von Nord-Sumatra," Zeitschr.
deutsch. geol. Gesell. (1899), vol. li.; H. Bucking, "Zur Geologic
von Nord- und Ost-Sumatra," Samml. geol. Reichs-Mus. 1st series, vol.
viii., with map and five plates (Leiden, 1904); D. J. Erb, " Beitrage
zur Geologic und Morphologic der sudlichen West-Kuste von
Sumatra," Z. Ges. E. Berlin (1905); J. F. Hoekstra, Die Oro- und
Hydrographie Sumatras (Groningen, 1893); J. W. Ijzerman, &c.,
Dwars door Sumatra, Tocht van Padang naar Siak (Haarlem, 1895);
A. Maas, Quer durch Sumatra (Berlin, 1904) ; E. Otto, Pflanzen- und
Jdgerleben auf Sumatra (Berlin.Ugos) ; B. Hagen, " Die Gajo-Lander,"
Jahresb. Frankfurter V.G., Ixvi., Ixvii. (1901-1903) ; Climate : J. P. van
der Stok, Regenwaarnemingen and Atlas of Wind and Weather
(Batavia, 1897). Consult further Tijd. Aardr. Gen., Tijd. Batav.
Gen., Jaarb. van het Mijnwezen, and Koloniale Verslagen, passim.
(See also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.)
SUMBA (TJENDANA, or SANDALWOOD) , one of the Lesser Sunda
Islands in the Dutch East Indies, lying south of Flores, from
which it is separated by Sumba strait, about 10° S., 120° E.
It has an area of about 4600 sq. m., consists of a plateau with
an extreme elevation of about 3300 ft., and appears to be
composed mainly of sedimentary rocks. It has a large Malay
population (estimated at 200,000). Some trade is carried on
in cotton, ponies, edible birds' nests, tortoiseshell, &c., mainly
by Bugis and Arabs, the chief centre for which is Waingapu or
Nangamessi on the north-east coast. Sumba is included in
the Dutch residency of Timor, together with the lesser island
of Savu, to the east. From this last island the sea is enclosed
by Timor, Sumba and the islands between them, and Flores
and the chain of islands east of it is called the Savu Sea.
1 " Kota " means settlement or township, and a great many
districts have been named from the number of kotas they contain;
e.g. the VII. Kotas, the VIII. Kotas, &c.
SUMBAWA— SUMER AND SUMERIAN
75
SUMBAWA (Dutch Soembawa), one of the Little Sunda islands
in the Dutch East Indies, east of Lombok, from which it is
separated by the narrow Alas Strait. It has an area of 4300
sq. m., or, including the neighbouring islands, 5240 sq. m. The
deep bay of Sale or Sumbawa on the north divides the island
into two peninsulas, and the isthmus is further reduced by the
narrower Bay of Chempi on the south. The eastern peninsula
is deeply indented on the north by the Bay of Bima. Four
mountain chains cross the island in a west to east direction.
The northern, as in Bali and Lombok, is of volcanic origin.
Tambora, forming a minor peninsula east of Sumbawa Bay,
is said to have lost a third of its elevation in the eruption of
1815, but is still 9055 ft. high. In the southern chain is found
a limestone formation analogous to that in Bali, Lombok and
Java. Between these two chains are round hills consisting of
lavas or sometimes of volcanic tuffs, covered with the long silvery
grass which also clothes vast prairies in Java and Sumatra.
There are no navigable streams. The climate and productions
are not unlike those of Java, though the rains are heavier, the
drought more severe, and the fertility less. Sulphur, arsenic,
asphalt and petroleum exist. The natives live solely by agri-
culture. But out of a total population of about 75,000 there
are 11,000 foreigners, living mostly by trade and navigation.
The natives consist of Sumbawans proper, a people of Malayan
stock; of Buginese and Macassar immigrants, and of wild tribes
of the mountains of whom nothing is known. Mahommedanism
prevails throughout the island, except among the mountain
tribes.
Politically Sumbawa, with its four independent states, belongs
to the confederated states of the government of Celebes and its
dependencies, a situation to be explained by the fact of the old
supremacy of the Macassaresi over Sumbawa, Flores and Sumba.
The independent states are Sumbawa proper, Dompo, Sangar and
Bima. Two other states on the northern extremity of the island
were so far devastated by the Tambora eruption of 1815 that their
territory, after lying for long uninhabited, was in 1866 divided
between Dompo and Sangar. Sumbawa proper occupies the
western peninsula. The residence of the sultan is Sumbawa on the
north coast. It is surrounded with a palisade and ditches. The
inhabitants of this state employ sometimes the Malay and sometimes
the Macassar character in writing. A considerable trade is carried
on in the export of horses, buffaloes, goats, dinding (dried flesh),
skins, birds' nests, wax, rice, katyang, sappanwood, &c. Sumbawa
entered into treaty relations with the Dutch East India Company
in 1674. Dompo is the western half of the eastern peninsula. The
capital of the state, Dompo, lies in the heart of the country, on a
stream that falls into Chempi Bay. Bada, the sultan's residence,
is farther west. Sangar occupies the north-western promontory
of the island, and Bima the extreme east. Bima or Bodjo, the chief
town of the latter state, lies on the east side of the Bay of Bima; it
has a stone-walled palace and a mosque, as well as a Dutch fort.
See Zollinger, " Soembawa," in Verhandelingen van het Batav.
Genootschap, xxiii.; Ligtvoet, " Anteekeningen betreffende den
economischen Toestand en de Ethnographic van Soembawa," in
Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. xxiii.
SUMBUL, or SUMBAL, also called Musk Root, a drug occasion-
ally employed in European medical practice. It consists of
the root of Ferula sumbul, Hook., a tall Umbelliferous plant
found in the north of Bokhara, its range apparently
extending beyond the Amur. It was first brought to Russia
in 1835 as a substitute for musk; and in 1867 was introduced
into the British pharmacopoeia. The root as found in com-
merce consists of transverse sections an inch or more in
thickness and from i to 3 or more inches in diameter. It has
a dark thin papery bark, a spongy texture, and the cut surface
is marbled with white and blackish or pale brown; it has a
musky odour and a bitter aromatic taste. The action and
uses of the drug are the same as those of asafetida (q.v.) It
owes its medicinal properties to a resin and an essential oil.
Of the former it contains about 9% and of the latter £ %.
The resin is soluble in ether and has a musky smell, which is
not fully developed until after contact with water.
Under the name of East Indian sumbul, the root of Dorema
ammoniacum, Don., has occasionally been offered in English com-
merce. It is of a browner hue, has the taste of ammoniacum, and
gives a much darker tincture than the genuine drug; it is thus
easily detected. The name " sumbal " (a word of Arabic origin,
signifying a spike or ear) is applied to several fragrant roots in the
East, the principal being Nardpstachys jatamansi, D.C. (see SPIKE-
NARD). West African sumbul is the root of a species of Cyperus.
SUMER and SUMERIAN. The Babylonian name Shumer
was used in the cuneiform inscriptions together with Akkad,
viz. mat Shumeri u Akkadi, " land of S. and A.," to denote
Babylonia in general (see AKKAD). In the non-Semitic ideo-
graphic documents the equivalent for Shumer is Kengi, which
seems to be a combination of ken, " land " + gi, " reed,"
i.e. " land of reeds," and appropriate designation for Babylonia,
which is essentially a district of reedy marshes formed by the
Tigris and Euphrates. It was formerly thought that Shumer
was employed especially to denote the south of Babylonia,
while Akkad was used only of the north, but this view is no
longer regarded as tenable. It is more probable that the expres-
sion Shumer designated the whole of Babylonia in much the
same manner as did Akkad, and that the two words " Shumer
and Akkad " were used together as a comprehensive term.
That Shumer actually did mean all Babylonia appears evident
from the biblical use of Shinar= Shumer to describe the district
which contained the four chief Babylonian cities, viz. Babel,
Erech, Accad and Calneh (Gen. x. 10), which, according to the
Old Testament account, constituted the beginnings of Nimrod's
kingdom. The identity of Shinar and Shumer is also demon-
strated by the Septuagint rendering .of Shinar in Isaiah xi. n by
" Babylonia." In short, there can be no doubt that the biblical
name Shinar was practically equivalent to the mat Shumeri u
A kkadt = non-Semitic K$ngi-Urioi the Babylonian inscriptions.
Furthermore, the fact that the Syriac Sen'ar= Shinar was
later used to denote the region about Bagdad (northern Baby-
lonia) does not necessarily prove that Shinar-Shumer rr.eant
only northern Babylonia, because, when the term Sen'ar was
applied to the Bagdad district the great southern Babylonian
civilization had long been forgotten and " Babylonia " really
meant only what we now know as northern Babylonia.
The actual meaning of the word Shumer is uncertain. Dr
T. G. Pinches has pointed out1 that Shumer may be a dialectic
form of an as yet unestablished non-Semitic form, Shenger,
just as the non-Semitic word dimmer, " god," is equivalent to
another form, dingir. Others have seen in the ancient Baby-
lonian place-name Gir-su an inversion of Su-gir=Su-figir,
which has also been identified with Shumer. In this connexion
Hommel's theory2 should be mentioned, that the word Shumer
was a later palatalization of Ki-imgir, " land of Imgir "=Shi-
imgir, subsequently Shingi with palatalized k=sh and elision
of the final r. The form imgir (imgur), however, as a place-name
for Babylonia is uncertain. All that can be said at present about
this difficult etymology is that in the non-Semitic Babylonian
the medial m represented quite evidently an indeterminate nasal
which could also be indicated by the combination ng. Hence
we find Shumer, probably pronounced Shuwer, with a sound
similar to that heard to-day in the Scottish Gaelic word lamh,
" hand "; viz. a sort of nasalized w. This gave rise to the later
inaccurate forms: Greek, Senaar; Syriac, Sen'ar; and biblical
Hebrew, Shinar = Shingar.
The so-called " Sumerian problem," which has perplexed
Assyriologists for many years, may be briefly stated as follows.
In a great number of Babylonian inscriptions an idiom has long
been recognized which is clearly not ordinary Semitic in character.
This non-Semitic system, which is found, in many instances,
on alternate lines with a regular Semitic translation, in other
cases in opposite columns to a Semitic rendering, and again
without any Semitic equivalent at all, has been held by one
school, founded and still vigorously defended by the distinguished
French Assyriologist, Joseph Hal6vy, to be nothing more than
a priestly system of cryptography based, of course, on the then
current Semitic speech. This cryptography, according to some
of the Halevyans, was read aloud in Semitic, but, according to
other expositors, the system was read as an " ideophonic,"
secret, and purely artificial language.
The opposing school (the Sumerists) insists that these
1 Hastings's Diet. Bible, iv. 503. * Ibid. i. 224b.
76
SUMER AND SUMERIAN
non-Semitic documents were evidently in an agglutinative
language, naturally not uninfluenced by Semitic elements, but
none the less essentially non-Semitic in origin and fundamental
character. Scholars of this opinion believe that this language,
which has been arbitrarily called " Akkadian " in England and
" Sumerian " on the European continent and in America, was
primitively the speech of the pre-Semitic inhabitants of the
Euphratean region who were conquered by the invading Semites.
These invaders, according to this latter view, adopted the religion
and culture of the conquered Sumerians; and, consequently,
the Sumerian idiom at a comparatively early date began to
be used exclusively in the Semitic temples as the written vehicles
of religious thought in much the same way as was the medieval
Latin of the Roman Church. The solution of this problem is
of vital importance in connexion with the early history of
man's development in the Babylonian region.
The study of the Sumerian vocabulary falls logically into three
divisions. These are (i) the origin of the cuneiform signs,
(2) the etymology of the phonetic values, and (3) the elucidation
of the many and varied primitive sign-meanings.
Previous to Professor Friedrich Delitzsch's masterly work on
the origin of the most ancient Babylonian system of writing,1
no one had correctly understood the facts regarding the be-
ginnings of the cuneiform system, which is now generally recog-
nized as having been originally a pure picture writing which
later developed into a conventionalized ideographic and syllabic
sign-list. In order to comprehend the mysteries of the Sumerian
problem a thorough examination of the beginning of every one
of these signs is, of course, imperative, but it is equally necessary
that every phonetic Sumerian value and word-combination
be also studied, both in connexion with the equivalent signs and
with other allied phonetic values. This etymological study
of Sumerian is attended with incalculable difficulties, because
nearly all the Sumerian texts which we possess are written in
an idiom which is quite evidently under the influence of Semitic.
With the exception of some very ancient texts, the Sumerian
literature, consisting largely of religious material such as hymns
and incantations, shows a number of Semitic loanwords and
grammatical Semitisms, and in many cases, although not always,
is quite patently a translation of Semitic ideas by Semitic priests
into the formal religious Sumerian language. Professor Paul
Haupt may be termed the father of Sumerian etymology, as
he was really the first to place this study on a scientific basis
in his Sumerian Family Laws and Akkadian and Sumerian
Cuneiform Texts? It is significant that all phonetic and gram-
matical work in Sumerian tends to confirm nearly every one
of Haupt's views. Professors Peter Jensen and Zimmern have
also done excellent work in the same field and, together with
Haupt, have established the correct method of investigating
the Sumerian vocables, which should be studied only in relation
to the Sumerian literature. Sumerian words should by no means
be compared with words in the idioms of more recent peoples,
such as Turkish, in spite of many tempting resemblances.3
Until further light has been thrown on the nature of Sumerian,
this language should be regarded as standing quite alone, a
prehistoric philological remnant, and its etymology should be
studied only with reference to the Sumerian inscriptions them-
selves. On the other hand, grammatical and constructional
examples may be cited from other more modern agglutinative
idioms, in order to establish the truly linguistic character of
the Sumerian peculiarities and to disprove the Halevyan
contentions that Sumerian is really not a language at all.4
It is not surprising that Halevy's view as to the cryptographic
nature of Sumerian should have arisen. In fact, the first
impression given by the bewildering labyrinth of the Sumerian
1 Die Entstehune des dltesten Schriftsystems oder der Ursprung der
Keilschriftzeichen (Leipzig, 1897).
2 Die sumerischen Familiengesetze (1879). Die akkadische Sprache
(Berlin, 1883). Akkadische und sumerische Keilschrifttexte (Leipzig,
1881). See especially his Sumerian grammar in this latter work,
pp. 133-147.
3 Cf. A. H. Sayce's interesting article in Philological Society
(1877-1878), pp. 1-20.
4 Prince, Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, pp. 18, 21.
word-list is the conclusion that such a vocabulary could never
have arisen in a regularly developed language. For example,
anyone studying Brunnow'sZ,is<6 will find the same sign denot-
ing pages of meanings, many of which have apparently no con-
nexion with any other meaning belonging to the sign in question.
A great multiplicity of meanings is also attributed, apparently
quite arbitrarily, to the same sign, sound-value or word. In
these instances, however, we can explain the difficulty away
by applying that great fundamental principle followed by the
Semitic priests and scribes who played with and on the Sumerian
idiom, and in the course of many centuries turned what was
originally an agglutinative language into what has almost
justified Halevy and his followers in calling Sumerian a crypto-
graphy. This principle is that of popular etymology, i.e. of
sound-association and idea-association which has brought
together in the word-lists many apparently quite distinct
meanings, probably primarily for purposes of mnemonic aid.
The present writer in his Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon has
mentioned this ruling phenomenon again and again. A very
few examples, however, will suffice here. Thus the word
ag=the sign RAM = r<lwM, "love" (proper meaning) is
associated with ramdmu, " to roar," for phonetic reasons only.
The word a= the sign A= " water " (original meaning) can
indicate anything whatever connected with the idea moisture.
Thus, o=" water, moisture, weep, tears, inundate, irrigate," &c.
The word a can also mean " shining, glistening," an idea
evidently developed from the shining rippling of water. Note that
in Turkish su means both " water " and " the lustre of a jewel,"
while in English we speak of " gems of the first water." The
combination a-md-tu, literally " water enter ship," means abubu,
" deluge," ordinarily, but in one passage a-ma-lu is made the
equivalent of shabubu, " flame," a pure pun on abubu, " deluge."
Examples of this, the leading principle which was followed by
the framers of the Sumerian system, might be cited almost
ad infinitum.
Facts of this character taken by themselves would perhaps
be sufficient to convince most philologists that in Sumerian we
have an arbitrarily compounded cryptography just as Halevy
believes, but these facts cannot be taken by themselves, as the
evidences of the purely linguistic basis of Sumerian are stronger
than these apparent proofs of its artificial character.
Briefly considered there are six most striking proofs that the
Sumerian was based on a primitive agglutinative language.
These may be tabulated concisely as follows: —
i. Sumerian presents a significant list of internal phonetic
variations which would not have been possible in an arbitrarily
invented language. Thus, taking the vowels alone; e=a by
the principle of umlaut. Hence, we find the words ga and ge,
a and e for the same idea respectively. The vowel i could
become e as de = di, &c. Consonantal variation is most
common. Thus, b — m, as barun—marun. Compare the
modern Arabic pronunciation Maalbek for Baalbek. Perhaps
the most interesting of these consonantal interchanges is that
occurring between n and the sibilants sh and z; ner=sher;
na=za, which by some scholars has been declared to be pho-
netically impossible, but its existence is well established between (
the modern Chinese colloquial idioms. For example, Pekingese
zhen, Hakka nyin, Fuchow nong, Ningpo zhing and nying,
Wonchow zang and nang all =" man." This demonstrates
beyond a doubt the possibility of a strongly palatalized n
becoming a palatal sibilant or vice versa, between which
utterances there is but a very slight tongue movement.
The discussion of these phenomena brings us to another point
which precludes the possibility of Sumerian having been merely
an artificial system, and that is the undoubted existence in this
language of at least two dialects, which have been named,
following the inscriptions, the Eme-ku, " the noble or male
speech," and the Erne-sal, " the woman's language." The
existence and general phonetic character of the " woman's
language " were first pointed out by Professor Paul Haupt,
6 R. E. Briinnow, A Classified List of all Simple and Compound
Ideographs (1889).
SUMMANUS
77
who cited, for example, the following very common interdia-
lectic variations: Eme-ku gir = Erne-sal meri, " foot "; Eme-ku
ner = Eme-sal sher, "ruler"; Eme-ku duga= Erne-sal zeba,
" knee," &c. Such phonetic and dialectic changes, so different
from any of the Semitic linguistic phenomena, are all the more
valuable because they are set before us only by means of Semitic
equivalents. Certainly no cryptography based exclusively on
Semitic could exhibit this sort of interchange.
It should be added here in passing that the geographical
or tribal significance of these two Sumerian dialects has never
been established. There can be no doubt that Erne-sal means
" woman's language," and it was perhaps thus designated
because it was a softer idiom phonetically than the other dialect.
In it were written most of the penitential hymns, which were
possibly thought to require a more euphonious idiom than, for
example, hymns of praise. It is doubtful whether the Erne-sal
was ever really a woman's language similar in character to that
of the Carib women of the Antilles, or that of the Eskimo women
of Greenland. It is much more likely that the two dialects were
thus designated because of their respectively harsh and soft
phonetics.1
2. Sumerian has a system of vowel harmony strikingly like
that seen in all modern agglutinative languages, and it has also
vocalic dissimilation similar to that found in modern Finnish
and Esthonian. Vocalic harmony is the internal bringing
together of vowels of the same class for the sake of greater
euphony, while vocalic dissimilation is the deliberate insertion
of another class of vowels, in order to prevent the disagreeable
monotony arising from too prolonged a vowel harmony. Thus,
in Sumerian we find such forms as numunnib-bi, " he speaks
not to him," where the negative prefix nu and the verbal prefix
mun are in harmony, but in dissimilation to the infix nib, " to
him," and to the root bi, " speak," which are also in harmony.
Compare also an-sud-dam, " like the heavens," where the ending
dam stands for a usual dim, being changed to a hard dam under
the influence of the hard vowels in an-sud.
3. Sumerian has only postpositions instead of prepositions,
which occur exclusively in Semitic. In this point also Sumerian
is in accord with all other agglutinative idioms. Note Sumerian
e-da, " in the house " (e, " house," +da, " in," by dissimilation),
and compare Turkish ev, " house," de, " in," and evde, " in the
house."
4. The method of word formation in Sumerian is entirely non-
Semitic in character. For example, an indeterminative vowel,
a, e, i or u, may be prefixed to any root to form an abstract;
thus, from me, "speak," we get e-me, "speech"; from ra,
" to go," we get a-ra, " the act of going," &c. In connexion
with the very complicated Sumerian verbal system2 it will
be sufficient to note here the practice of infixing the verbal
object which is, of course, absolutely alien to Semitic. This
phenomenon appears also in Basque and in many North
American languages.
5. Sumerian is quite devoid of grammatical gender. Semitic,
on the other hand, has grammatical gender as one of its basic
principles.
6. Furthermore, in a real cryptography or secret language,
of which English has several, we find only phenomena based
on the language from which the artificial idiom is derived.
Thus, in the English " Backslang," which is nothing more than
ordinary English deliberately inverted, in the similar Arabic
jargon used among school children in Syria and in the Spanish
thieves' dialect, the principles of inversion and substitution
play the chief part. Also in the curious tinker's " Thary "
spoken still on the English roads and lanes, we find merely
an often inaccurately inverted Irish Gaelic. But in none of
these nor in any other artificial jargons can any grammatical
development be found other than that of the language on which
they are based.
7. All this is to the point with regard to Sumerian, because
these very principles of inversion and substitution have been
1 Prince, Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, p. 14.
2 Ibid. pp. 20-34.
cited as being the basis of many of the Sumerian combinations.
Deliberate inversion certainly occurs in the Sumerian documents,
and it is highly probable that this was a priestly mode of writing,
but never of speaking; at any rate, not when the language was
in common use. It is not necessary to imagine, however, that
these devices originated with the Semitic priesthood. It is
quite conceivable that the still earlier Sumerian priesthood
invented the method of orthographic inversion, which after
all is the very first device which suggests itself to the primitive
mind when endeavouring to express itself in a manner out of the
ordinary. For example, evident Sumerian inversions are Cibil,
" the fire god," for Bil-gi; ushar for Sem. sharru, " king," &c.
It is, moreover, highly probable that Sumerian had primitively
a system of voice-tones similar to that now extant in Chinese.
Thus, we find Sumerian ab, "dwelling," "sea"; ab, "road,"
and -ab, a grammatical suffix, which words, with many others of
a similar character, were perhaps originally uttered with different
voice-tones. In Sumerian, the number of conjectural voice-
tones never exceeds the possible number eight.
It is also clear that Sumerian was actually read aloud, probably
as a ritual language, until a very late period, because we have
a number of pure Sumerian words reproduced in Greek trans-
literation; for example, Delephat = Dilbat, "the Venus-star";
lllinos = the god 7//# = Bel; aidd = ilu, "month," &c.
In view of the many evidences of the linguistic character of
Sumerian as opposed to the one fact that the language had
engrafted upon it a great number of evident Semitisms, the
opinion of the present writer is that the Sumerian, as we have
it, is fundamentally an agglutinative, almost polysynthetic,
language, upon which a more or less deliberately constructed
pot-pourri of Semitic inventions was superimposed in the course
of many centuries of accretion under Semitic influences. This
view stands as a connecting link between the extreme idea of
the Halevyan school and the extreme idea of the opposing
Sumerist school.
LITERATURE. — Radau, Early Babylonian History; Lenormant,
Etudes accadiennes, ii. 3, p. 70 ; Eberhardt Schrader, Keilinschriften
u. das Alte Testament, ii. 118 sqq., Keilinschriften u. Geschichts-
forschung, pp. 290, 533; Weissbach, Zur Losung der sumerischen
Frage; T. G. Pinches, " Language of the Early Inhabitants of
Mesopotamia," in Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc. (1884), pp. 301 sqq.;
" Sumerian or Cryptography," ibid. (1900), pp. 75 sqq., 343, 344,
551. 552; article Shinar " in Hastines's Diet. Bible, iv. 503-505;
HaleVy, Journal asiatique (1874), 3rd series, vol. iv. pp. 461 sqq.;
Comptes rendus, 3rd series, vol. iv. p. 477; 3rd series, vol. iv. pp. 128,
130; Journal asiatique, 7th series, vol. viii. pp. 201 sqq.; Recherches
critiques sur Vorigine de la civilisation babylonienne (Paris, 1876);
J. D. Prince, Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxv. 49-
67; American Journal of Semitic Languages, xix. 203 sqq.;
Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, with grammatic introduction
(Leipzig, 1905—1907). Compare also the material cited in the foot-
notes above, and note the correspondence between Briinnow and
Hal6vy in the Revue semitique (1906). (J. D. PR.)
SUMMANUS, according to some, an old Sabine or Etruscan
deity; the name, however, is Latin, formed by assimilation
from sub-mdnus (cf. mane, Matuta), signifying the god of the
time " before the morning." His sphere of influence was the
nocturnal heavens, thunderstorms at night being attributed
to him, those by day to Jupiter. Summanus had a temple at
Rome near the Circus Maximus, dedicated at the time of the
invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus (278), when a terra-
cotta image of the god (or of Jupiter himself) on the pediment
of the Capitoline temple was struck by lightning and hurled
into the river Tiber. Here sacrifice was offered every year to
Summanus on the 2oth of June, together with cakes called
summanalia baked in the form of a wheel, supposed to be sym-
bolical of the car of the god of the thunderbolt. In Plautus
(Bacchides iv. 8, 54) Summanus and the verb summanare
are used for the god of thieves and the act of stealing, with
obvious reference to Summanus as a god of night, a time
favourable to thieves and their business. The later explanation
that Summanus is a contraction from Summus Manium (the
greatest of the Manes), and that he is to be identified with Dis
Pater, is now generally rejected.
See Augustine, De civitate dei, iv. 23; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 729: Festus,
78
SUMMARY JURISDICTION
s.v. Provorsum fulgor; G. WIssowa, Religion und Kultus der Ranter
(1902); W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals (1899).
SUMMARY JURISDICTION. In the widest sense this phrase
in English law includes the power asserted by courts of record
to deal brevi manu with contempts of court without the interven-
tion of a jury. Probably the power was originally exercisable
only when the fact was notorious, i.e. done in presence of the
court. But it has long been exercised as to extra curial contempts
(see CONTEMPT or COURT). , The term is also applied to the
special powers given by statute or rules to the High Court of
Justice and to county courts for dealing with certain classes
of causes or matters by methods more simple and expeditious
than the ordinary procedure of an action (see SUMMONS). But
the phrase in modern times is applied almost exclusively to
certain forms of jurisdiction exercised by justices of the peace
out of general or quarter sessions, and without the assistance
of a jury.
Ever since the creation of the office of justice of the peace (q.v.)
the tendency of English legislation has been to enable them to
deal with minor offences without a jury. Legislation was
necessary because, as Blackstone says, except in the case of
contempts the common law is a stranger to trial without a jury,
and because even when an offence is created by statute the
procedure for trying must be by indictment and trial before
a jury, unless by the statute creating the offence or some other
statute another mode of trial is provided. In one remarkable
instance power is given by an act of 1725 (12 Geo. I. c. 29, s. 4)
to judges of the superior courts summarily to sentence to trans-
portation (penal servitude) a solicitor practising after conviction
of barratry, forgery or perjury (Stephen, Dig. Crim. Law, 6th ed.,
113). In other words all the summary jurisdiction of justices of
the peace is the creation of statute. The history of the gradual
development of the summary jurisdiction of justices of the peace
is stated in Stephen's Hist. Crim. Law, vol. i. ch. 4. The result
of legislation is that summary jurisdiction has been conferred
by statutes and by-laws as to innumerable petty offences of
a criminal or quasi-criminal character (most of which in French
law would be described as contraventions) , ranging through every
letter of the alphabet. The most important perhaps are those
under the Army, Game, Highway, Licensing, Merchant Shipping,
Post Office, Public Health, Revenue and Vagrancy Acts.
A court of summary jurisdiction is defined in the Inter-
pretation Act 1889 as " any justice or justices of the peace or
other magistrate, by whatever name called, to whom jurisdiction
is given by, or who is authorized to act under, the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts, whether in England, Wales or Ireland, and
whether acting under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts or any
of them or any other act or by virtue of his commission or under
the common law " (52 & 53 Viet. c. 63, s. 13 [u]). This defini-
tion does not apply to justices of the peace sitting to hold a
preliminary inquiry as to indictable offences, or in the discharge
of their quasi-administrative functions as licensing authority.
The expression " Summary Jurisdiction Acts " means as to
England and Wales the Summary Jurisdiction Acts of 1848
(n & 12 Viet. c. 42) and 1879 (42 & 43 Viet. c. 49) and any act
amending these acts or either of them. These acts define the
procedure to be followed by justices in those cases in which they
are empowered by statute to hear and determine civil or criminal
cases without the intervention of a jury or the forms of an
action or indictment at law or a suit in equity. Besides these
two acts the procedure as to the exercise of summary jurisdiction
is also regulated by acts of 1857 (20 & 21 Viet. c. i, c. 43), 1884
(47 & 48 Viet. c. 43) and 1899 (62 & 63 Viet. c. 22), and by the
Summary Jurisdiction Process Act 1881 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 24).
The act of 1848 repealed and consolidated the provisions
of a large number of earlier acts. The act of 1857 provided a
mode of appeal to the High Court by case stated as to questions
of law raised in summary proceedings. The act of 1879 amended
the procedure in many details with the view of uniformity, and
enlarged the powers of justices to deal summarily with certain
classes of offences ordinarily punishable on indictment. The
act gives power to make rules regulating details of procedure.
The rules now in force were made in 1886, but have since been
amended in certain details. The act of 1884 swept away special
forms of procedure contained in a large number of statutes,
and substituted the procedure of the Summary Jurisdiction
Acts. The act of 1899 added the obtaining of property by false
pretences to the list of indictable offences which could sub modo
be summarily dealt with. The statutes above mentioned form
a kind of code as to procedure and to some extent also as to
jurisdiction.
As already stated, to enable a justice to deal summarily with an
offence, whether created by statute or by-law, some statutory
authority must be shown. A very large number of petty offences
(contraventions) have been created (e.g. poaching, minor forms of
theft, malicious damage and assault), and are annually being
created (i) by legislation, or (2) by the by-laws of corporations made
under statutory authority, or (3) by departments of state acting
under such authority. The two latter classes differ from the first
in the necessity of proving by evidence the existence of the by-law
or statutory rule, and if need be that it is intra vires.
In the case of offences which are primarily made punishable only
on summary conviction, the accused, if the maximum punishment
is imprisonment for over three months, can elect to be tried by a
jury (act of 1879, s. 17).
In the case of offences which are primarily punishable only on
indictment, power to convict summarily is given in the following
cases : —
1. All indictable offences (except homicide) committed by children
over seven and under twelve, if the court thinks it expedient and the
parent or guardian does not object (1879, s. 10).
2. All indictable offences (except homicide) committed by young
persons of twelve and under sixteen, if the young person consents
after being told of his right to be tried by a jury (1879,5. n;
1899,3.2).
3. The indictable offences specified in sched. i, col. 2 of the act
of 1879 and in the act of 1899, if committed by adults, if they consent
to summary trial after being told of their right to be tried by a jury
(1879,3.12).
4. The indictable offences specified in sched. i, col. i of the act
of 1879 and the act of 1899, if committed by an adult who pleads
guilty after due caution that if he does so he will be summarily
convicted (1879, s. 13).
Adults cannot be summarily dealt with under 3 or 4 if the offence
is punishable by law with penal servitude owing to previous convic-
tion or indictment of the accused (1879,8. 14).
It will be observed that as to all the indictable offences falling
under heads I to 4, the summary jurisdiction depends on the consent
of the accused or a person having authority over him after receiving
due information as to the right to go to a jury, and that the punish-
ments on summary conviction in such cases are not those which
could be imposed after conviction or indictment, but are limited as
follows : —
Case i. Imprisonment for not more than one month or fine not
exceeding 405. and (or) whipping of male children (not more than
six strokes with a birch) ; sending to an industrial school or reforma-
tory.
Case 2. Imprisonment with or without hard labour for not more
than three months or fine not exceeding £10 and (or) whipping of
males (not more than twelve strokes with a birch) ; sending to an
industrial school or reformatory.
Case 3. Imprisonment for not more than three months with or
without hard labour or fine not exceeding £20.
Case 4. Imprisonment with or without hard labour for not over
six months.
These limitations of punishment have had a potent effect in
inducing culprits to avoid the greater risks involved in a jury trial.
Where the offence is indictable the accused is brought before the
justices either on arrest without warrant or on warrant or summons
under the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and the summary juris-
diction procedure does not apply till the necessary option has been
taken.
Where the offence is indictable only at the election of the accused
the summary jurisdiction procedure applies until on being informed
of his option the accused elects for jury trial (act of 1879,5. 17).
In the case of an offence punishable on summary conviction the
proced ure is ordinarily as follows : —
Information, usually oral, is laid before one or more justices of
the peace alleging the commission of the offence. An information
must not state more than a single offence, but great latitude is
given as to amending at the hearing any defects in the mode of
stating an offence. Upon receipt of the information the justice
may issue his summons for the attendance of the accused at a time
and place named to answer the charge. It is usual to summon
to a petty sessional court (i.e. two justices or a stipendiary magistrate,
or, in the city of London, an alderman). The summons is usually
served by a constable. If the accused does not attend in obedience
to the summons, after proof of service the court may either issue
a warrant for his arrest or may deal with the charge in his absence.
SUMMARY JURISDICTION
Occasionally a warrant is issued in place of a summons in the first
instance, in which case the information must be laid in writing and
be verified by oath. The proceedings must be begun, i.e. by laying
the information, not later than six months after the commission
of the offence, unless by some particular statute another period
is named or unless the offence is what is called a continuing offence.
In a certain number of summary cases the accused is arrested
under statutory authority without application to a justice, e.g.
in the case of rogues and vagabonds and certain classes of offences
committed in the street in view of a constable or by night. Whether
the accused is brought before the court on arrest with or without
warrant or attends in obedience to summons, the procedure at the
hearing is the same. The hearing is ordinarily before a petty ses-
sional court, i.e. before two or more justices sitting at their regular
place of meeting or some place temporarily appointed as the sub-
stitute for the regular court-house, or before a stipendiary magis-
trate, or in the city of London an alderman, sitting at a place where
he may by law do alone what in other places may be done by two
justices (1879, s. 20; 1889, s. 13). A single justice sitting alone
in the ordinary court-house or two or more justices sitting together
at an occasional court-house have certain jurisdiction to hear and
determine the case, but cannot order a fine of more than 2os. or
imprisonment for more than fourteen days (1879, s. 20 [7]). The
hearing must be in open court, and parties may appear by counsel
or solicitor. If both parties appear, the justices must hear and
determine the case. If the defendant does not appear, the court
may hear and determine in his absence, or may issue a warrant
and adjourn the hearing until his apprehension. Where the defen-
dant is represented by solicitor or counsel but is not himself present
it is usual, except in serious cases, to proceed in his absence. If
the defendant is present the substance of the information is stated
to him and he is asked whether he is guilty or not guilty. If he
pleads guilty the court may proceed to conviction. If he does not
the court hears the case, and witnesses for the prosecution and
defence are examined and cross-examined. If the complainant
does not appear, the justices may dismiss the complaint or adjourn
the hearing.
If necessary rebutting evidence may be called. The prosecutor
is not allowed to reply in the case of the defendant. On the com-
pletion of the evidence the court proceeds to convict or acquit.
Where the case is proved but is trifling the court may, without
proceeding to conviction, make an order dismissing the information
subject to payment of damages for injury or compensation for loss
up to £10 or any higher limit fixed by statute as to the offence, and
costs, or discharging the accused conditionally on his giving security
for good behaviour and on paying damages and costs (1907,0. 17, s. l).
To this order probationary conditions may be attached (s. 2). Subject
to this provision the punishment which may be enforced depends
as a general rule on the statute or by-law defining the offence, and
consists in imprisonment and (or) fine, except in cases where a
minimum fine is stipulated for by a treaty, &c., with a foreign
state, e.g. in sea fishery conventions. The court may mitigate the
fine in the case of a first offence, even in a revenue case, or may
reduce the period of imprisonment and impose it without hard
labour, or substitute a fine not exceeding £25 for imprisonment. A
scale is prescribed for imprisonment on failure to pay money,
fines, or costs, adjudged to be paid on a conviction, or in default
of a sufficient distress to satisfy the sum adjudged (1879, s. 5).
Instead of sending the defendant to prison for not paying fine and
costs the court may direct its levy by distress warrant, or may
accept payment by instalments. In the case of distress the wearing
apparel and bedding of the defendant and his family, and to the
value of £5 the tools and implements of his trade, may not be taken
(act of 1879, s. 2l). If the defendant after going to prison can pay
part of the money his imprisonment is reduced proportionally
(Prison Act 1898, s. 9). The imprisonment is without hard labour
unless hard labour is specially authorized by the act on which the
conviction is founded. The maximum term of imprisonment
without the option of a fine is in most cases six months, but depends
on the particular statute. Imprisonment under order of a court
of summary jurisdiction is in the common gaol (5 Hen. IV. c. 10),
i.e. in a local prison declared by the home secretary to be the common
gaol for the county, &c., for which the court acts. The place of
imprisonment during remands or in the case of youthful offenders
may in certain cases be elsewhere than in a prison.
The court has power to order costs to be paid by the prosecutor
or the defendant. Where the order is made on a conviction it
is enforceable by imprisonment in default of payment or sufficient
distress.
The extent of the local jurisdiction of justices exercising summary
jurisdiction is defined by s. 46 of the act of 1879 with reference to
offences committed on the boundaries of two jurisdictions or during
journeys or on the sea or rivers or in harbours.
Proceedings under the Bastardy Acts are regulated by special
legislation, but as to proof of service and the enforcement of orders
and appeals are assimilated to convictions under the Summary
Jurisdiction Acts. The same rule applies (except as to appeals)
to orders made under the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women)
Act 1895, as amended by the Licensing Act 1902.
79
A warrant of arrest is executed by the constable or person to
whom it is directed within the local jurisdiction of the issuing
court; or a fresh pursuit within seven miles of its boundaries, with-
out endorsement, in the rest of England and Wales, and in Scotland,
the Channel Islands and Isle of Man after endorsement by a com-
petent magistrate of the place where the accused is, and in Ireland
by a justice of the peaceor an inspector of constabulary. An English
summons to a defendant or witness, except in respect of civil
debts, is served in Scotland after endorsement by a competent
magistrate there (Summary Jurisdiction Process Act 1881, 44 and
45 Viet. c. 24). The attendance of a witness who is in prison
is obtained by writ of habeas corpus or by a secretary of state's
order under the Prison Act 1898. If a witness will not attend on
summons he can be brought to the court by warrant, and if he
will not answer questions lawfully put to him may be sent to prison
for seven days or until he sooner consents to answer.
Civil Jurisdiction. — In cases where justices have a summary
civil jurisdiction, e.g. as to certain civil debts recoverable summarily,
or to make orders to do or to abstain from doing certain acts, e.g.
with reference to nuisances and building, the procedure differs in
certain details from that in criminal cases.
1. The summons is issued on a complaint which need not be in
writing nor on oath, and not on an information, and warrants of
arrest cannot be issued.
2. The rules as to the evidence of the defendant and his or her
spouse are the same as in civil actions.
3. The court's decision is by order and not by conviction.
4. The order if for payment of a civil debt or costs in connexion
therewith is enforceable by distress and sale of the defendant's
effects or by imprisonment, but only on proof that the defendant
has had since the order means of paying and has refused or neglected
to pay (1879,3. 35).
Proceedings for the enforcement of local rates are not affected
by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts except as to the power of sub-
mitting to the High Court questions of law arising on a summons to
enforce rates (re Allen, 1894, 2 Q.B., 924). The functions of justices
as to such rates are sometimes but not quite accurately described
as ministerial, for their powers of inquiry though limited are judicial
and of a quasi-criminal character.
Appeal. — The orders and convictions of a court of summary
jurisdiction are in many cases appealable to quarter sessions. The
right to appeal is always dependent on the specific provisions of a
statute. The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 gives a general power
of appeal against an adjudication on conviction (but not on plea
of guilty) to imprisonment without the option of a fine, whether
as punishment for an offence or for failure to do or abstaining from
doing any act, other than compliance with an order to pay money
or find security or enter into recognizances or to find sureties
(1879, s. 19). The procedure on the appeals is regulated and made
uniform by the acts of 1879, ss. 31, 32; and 1884. These provisions
are supplementary of the particular provisions of many statutes
authorizing an appeal.
The decisions of courts of summary jurisdiction on points of
law are generally reviewed by a case stated for the opinion of the
High Court under the acts of 1857 and 1879, but are occasionally
corrected by the common law remedies of mandamus, prohibition
or certiorari. The application of the last-named remedy is restricted
by many statutes. The court of appeal has jurisdiction to review
judgments and orders of the High Court dealing with appeals, &c.,
from the decisions of justices in the exercise of their civil juris-
diction; but not when the subject-matter is a criminal cause or
matter.
In proceedings between husband and wife for separation orders
there is a special form of appeal on facts as well as law to the probate,
divorce and admiralty division of the High Court (Summary
Jurisdiction [Married Women] Act 1895; Licensing Act 1902,
s-5)-
SCOTLAND. Civil. — In the Court of Session there are certain
forms of summary civil proceedings _by petition, e.g.with reference
to entails, custody of children, guardians and factors of minors and
lunatics, which are applications for exercise of the nobile officium or
extraordinary jurisdiction of the court (see Mackay, Court of Session
Practice, i. 209, ii. 353). Summary jurisdiction is given to justices
of the peace as to the recovery of small debts.
Criminal and Quasi-criminal. — The only act relating to summary
jurisdiction procedure common to England and Scotland is the
Summary Jurisdiction Process Act 1881. Summary jurisdiction
in Scotland, depends chiefly upon the Summary Jurisdiction (Scot-
land) Acts 1864 and 1881. The acts follow, to some extent, the lines
of English legislation, but the sheriff and his deputies and substitutes
are included in the definition of the court, as are stipendiary magis-
trates (1897, c. 48). The acts also apply to proceedings before
burgh courts, or burgh magistrates, and to justices of the peace
where they have by other statutes power to try offences or enforce
penalties. All proceedings for summary conviction or for recovery
of a penalty must be by way of complaint according to one of the
forms in the schedule to the act of 1864. The English summons and
warrant are represented in Scotland by the warrant of citation and
the warrant of apprehension. Where no punishment is fixed for a
8o
SUMMIT— SUMMONS
statutory offence, the court cannot sentence to more than a fine of
£5 or sixty days' imprisonment, in addition to ordering caution to
keep the peace. The act of 1881 adopts certain of the provisions
of the English act of 1879 as to mitigation of fines, terms of imprison-
ment, &c., and also gives a discretion as to punishment to a sheriff
trying by jury in cases where the prosecution might have been
by complaint under the acts. _By the youthful Offenders Act 1901,
Scottish courts of summary jurisdiction have acquired the same
jurisdiction as to offences by children as was conferred on English
justices in 1879. Appeals from courts of summary jurisdiction
are now mainly regulated by the act of 1875 (38 and 39 Viet, c. 62),
and proceed on case stated by the inferior judge. A bill was sub-
mitted to parliament in 1907 for consolidating and amending the
Scottish summary procedure.
IRELAND. — In Ireland the High Court has the same summary
powers in cases of contempt, and the term " court of summary
jurisdiction " has the same meaning as in England (Interpretation
Act 1889, s. 13 [n]), subject to the definition of the Summary
Jurisdiction (Ireland) Acts, which are, as regards the Dublin metro-
politan police district, the acts regulating the powers and duties
of justices of the peace or of the police of that district, and as respects
any other part of Ireland the Petty Sessions (Ireland) Act 1851
(14 and 15 Viet. c. 93) and any act amending the same. The acts
are more extensive in their purview than the English acts, as they
form in a great degree a code of substantive law as well as of pro-
cedure. By an act of 1884 the same jurisdiction was given as to
offences by children as by the act of 1879 in England. Stipendiary
or resident magistrates may be appointed in the place of unpaid
justices under an act of 1836 (6 & 7 W. IV. c. 13). The exceptional
political circumstances of Ireland have led to the conferring at
different times on courts of summary jurisdiction of an authority,
generally temporary, greater than that which they can exercise
in Great Britain. Recent instances are the Peace Preservation
Act 1881, and the Prevention of Crimes Act 1882, both expired,
and the Criminal Law and Procedure (Ireland) Act 1887.
BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS. — The legislation of
British possessions as to summary jurisdiction follows the lines of
English legislation, but, and especially in crown colonies, there
is a disposition to dispense with the jury more than under English
procedure, and in most colonies stipendiary magistrates are more
freely employed than unpaid justices of the peace (see British
Guiana, Ord. No. 10 of 1893). Many of the colonial criminal
codes include a number of offences punishable on summary convic-
tion. The procedure closely follows English models, but has in
many cases been consolidated and simplified (e.g. Victoria, Justices
Act 1890, No. 1105; British Guiana, Ord. No. 12 of 1893). In
many colonies stipendiaries and justices of the peace exercise civil
jurisdiction as to matters dealt with in England by the county
court (e.g. British Guiana, Ord. No. II of 1893).
UNITED STATES. — By art. iii. s. 2 of the constitution, the trial
of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, is to be by jury. By
art. v. of the amendments no person can be held to answer for a
capital or otherwise infamous crime unless on a presentment or
indictment of a grand jury. Considerable changes have been made
by state legislation in the direction of enlarging the powers of courts
of summary jurisdiction.
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. — On the continent of Europe trial of
criminal cases by a bench of judges without a jury is the original
and normal method, and continues except in those cases as to
which under the penal and procedure codes jury trial is made
necessary. In France the place of courts of summary jurisdiction
is filled by tribunaux correctionels. (W. F. C.)
SUMMIT, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in
the north-east of the state, about 21 m. W. of New York City.
Pop. (1900) 5302, of whom 1397 were foreign-born; (1905) 6845;
(1910) 7500. It is served by the Morris & Essex and the
Passaic & Delaware divisions of Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western railroad, and by the Rahway Valley railroad extending
to Roselle, 9 m. distant. Summit is picturesquely situated on
the crest of a ridge called Second Mountain, with a mean eleva-
tion of 450 ft. It is a residential suburb of New York, and
attracts a number of summer residents. Among its institu-
tions are a public library (1874), a home for blind children,
the Overlook hospital and the Kent Place school (1894) for
girls. On Hobart Hill there is a monument marking the
site of a beacon light and a signal gun used during the War
of Independence. Summit was incorporated as a township in
1869 from parts of the townships at Springfield and New
Providence, and was chartered as a city in 1899.
SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat.
summonere, summonitio), in English law (i) a command by a
superior authority to attend at a given time or place or to do
some public duty; (2) a document containing such command,
and not infrequently also expressing the consequences entailed
by neglect to obey. The oral summons or citation seems to
have preceded the written summons in England, just as in
Roman law in jus vocatio existed for centuries before the libellus
conventionis. The antiquity and importance of the summons
as a legal form in England is shown by the presence of the
" sompnour," or summoner of the ecclesiastical court, as one
of the characters in the Canterbury Tales, and in The History
of Sir John Oldcastle, where the sumner is made to eat a citation
issued from the bishop of Rochester's court. The term is used
with reference to a demand for the attendance of a person in
the high court of parliament. As regards English courts of
justice it is equivalent to what in the civil and canon law and
in Scots law, and in English courts deriving their procedure
from those sources, is known as " citation." That term is still
preserved in English ecclesiastical courts and in matrimonial
causes.
It is an essential principle of justice that a court should not
adjudicate upon any question without giving the parties to
be affected or bound by the adjudication the opportunity of
being heard and of bringing their witnesses before the court.
The most usual term in English law for the process by which
attendance is commanded or required is the " summons."
Civil Proceedings. — In the High Court of Justice, civil actions
are begun by obtaining from the officers of the court a document
known as a " writ of summons." In this document are stated
the names of the parties and the nature of the claim made (which
in the case of liquidated sums of money must be precise and particu-
lar). It is sealed and issued to the party suing it out, and served
on the opposing party, not by an officer of the court but by an agent
of the plaintiff. The tenor of the writ is to require the defendant
to appear and answer the claim, and to indicate the consequences
of non-appearance, viz. adjudication in default.
Many proceedings in the High Court and some in the county
court are initiated by forms of summons different from the writ
of summons. Of those issued in the High Court three classes merit
mention : —
1. For determining interlocutory matters of practice and pro-
cedure arising in " a pending cause or matter. These are now
limited as far as possible to a general summons for directions, intro-
duced in 1883 so as to discourage frequent and expensive applica-
tions to the masters or judges of the High Court on questions of
detail. These summonses are sealed and issued on application at
the offices of the High Court. The matters raised are dealt with by
a master or judge in chambers summarily. In matters of practice
and procedure there is no appeal from a judge at chambers without
leave from him or from the court of appeal.
2. For determining certain classes of questions with more
despatch and less cost than is entailed by action or petition. This
kind of summons is known as an " originating summons," because
under it proceedings may be originated without writ for certain
kinds of relief specified in the rules (R. S. C., O. 55, r. 3). The
originating summons may be used in all divisions of the High Court,
but is chiefly employed in the chancery division, where it to a great
extent supersedes actions for the administration of trusts or ol the
estates of deceased persons;1 and for the foreclosure of mortgages
a similar but not identical procedure was created by the Vendor
and Purchaser Act 1874, and the Conveyancing Act 1881, with
reference to questions of title, &c., to real property. In the king's
bench and probate divisions the originating summons is used for
determining summarily questions as to property between husband
and wife, or the right to custody of children, and many other matters
(O. 54, rr. 4 8-4 F). The proceedings on an originating summons
are conducted summarily at chambers without pleadings, and the
evidence is usually written. In the chancery division where the
questions raised are important the summons is adjourned into
court. An appeal lies to the court of appeal from decisions on
originating summonses.
The forms of summonses and the procedure thereon in civil cases
in the High Court are regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court
1883 to 1907.
3_. ^Certain proceedings on the crown side of the king's bench
division are begun by summons, e.g. applications for bail; and in
vacation writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition and certiorari
are asked for by summons as the full court is not in session. (See
Crown Office Rules, 1906).
In the county courts an action is begun by plaint and summons.
Two kinds of summons are in use — the ordinary summons used for
every form of county court action, and the default summons, which is
an optional remedy of the plaintiff in actions for debts or liquidated
demands exceeding £5, and in all actions for the price or hire of goods
1 A similar practice existed before 1883 under the powers given by
15 & 16 Viet. c. 86, but was very limited in its operation, as it applied
simply to the personal estate of a deceased person.
SUMMUM BONUM— SUMNER, C.
81
sold or let to the defendant to be used in the way of his calling. It
may also issue by leave of the judge or registrar in other cases, with
the single exception that no leave can be given in claims under £5
where the claim is not for the price or hire of goods sold or let as
above, if the affidavit of debt discloses that the defendant is a servant
or person engaged in manual labour. The advantage of a default
summons is that judgment is entered for the plaintiff without hearing
unless the defendant gives notice of defence within a limited time.
A default summons must as a rule be served personally on the
defendant; an ordinary summons need nor be served personally,
but may in most cases be delivered to a person at the defendant's
house or place of business. A summons is also issued to a witness
in the county court. Forms of summons are given in the County
Court Rules 1903. These include certain special forms used in
admiralty and interpleader actions and in proceedings under the
Friendly Societies Acts and the Married Women's Property Acts.
Summonses issued from county courts are usually served by a
bailiff of the court and not by the party suing them out.
Justices of the peace have power to issue summonses to persons
accused of indictable offences, or of offences summarily punishable,
for their attendance, for preliminary inquiry or summary trial
according to the nature of the charge, and also to persons against
whom a complaint of a civil nature within the justices' jurisdiction
is made. On failure to attend on summons, attendance may be
enforced by warrant; and in the case of indictable offences this is
the course always adopted. The forms in use for indictable offences
are scheduled to the Indictable Offences Act 1848, and those for
other purposes to the Summary Jurisdiction Rules 1886 (see
SUMMARY JURISDICTION). The attendance of witnesses before
justices of the peace may be required by witness summons, enforced
in the event of disobedience by arrest under warrant (see WITNESS).
The attendance of jurors in civil or criminal trials is required by
jury summons sent by registered post.
In courts for the trial of indictable offences the attendance of
the accused and of the witnesses is not secured by summons. Both
ordinarily attend in obedience to recognizances entered into before
justices for their attendance. In the absence of recognizances the
attendance of the accused is enforced by bench warrant of the
court of trial, or by justices' warrant, and that of the witnesses by
writ of subpoend issued from the crown office of the High Court.
Disobedience to the writ is punished as contempt of court.
Scotland. — Summons is a term confined in strictness to the
beginning of an action in the Court of Session. The summons is a
writ in the sovereign's name, signed by a writer to the signet, citing
the defender to appear and answer the claim. The " will of the
summons " is the conclusion of a writ containing the will of the
sovereign or judge, charging the executive officer to cite the party
whose attendance is required. It is regulated by several acts, e.g.
The Debtors (Scotland1! Act 1838 (i & 2 Viet. c. 114) and the
Court of Session ("Scouand) Act 1868 (31 & 32 Viet. c. 100). A
privileged summoiis is one where the induciae are shortened to six
days against defenders within Scotland (Court of Session [Scotland]
Act 1825, s. 53). Defects in the summons are cured by amendment
or by a supplementary summons. The summons goes more into detail
than the English writ of summons, though it no longer states, as it
once did, the grounds of action, now stated in the condescendence
and pursuer's pleas in law annexed to the summons. The form of
the summons is regulated by the Court of Session (Scotland) Act
1850, s. i and schedule A. After the action has been set on foot by
summons, the attendance of the parties and witnesses is obtained by
citation. The Citation Amendment Acts 1871 and 1882 give
additional facilities for the execution of citations in civil cases by
means of registered letters, instead of by the old process known as
" lock hole citation." In the act of 1871 the term " summons "
is used to denote part of the process of inferior civil courts.
In the sheriff court an action is now begun by writ (Sheriff Courts
[Scotland] Act 1907), and not as formerly by petition or summons.
In criminal cases the summons of the accused, or of witnesses, is
by warrant of citation, and of jurors by citation sent by registered
post (1868, c. 95, s. 10).
Ireland. — In Ireland summonses are used substantially for the
same purposes and in the same manner as in England, but generally
speaking under statutes and rules applying only to the Irish courts.
(W. F. C.)
SUMMUM BONUM (Lat. for " highest good "), in ethics, the
ideal of human attainment. The significance of the term depends
upon the character of the ethical system in which it occurs. It
may be viewed as a perfect moral state: as pleasure or happiness
(see HEDONISM; EUDAEMONISM) ; as physical perfection; as
wealth, and so forth. If, however, we abandon intuitional
ethics, it is reasonable to argue that the term summum bonum
ceases to have any real significance inasmuch as actions are
not intrinsically good or bad, while the complete sceptic strives
after no systematic ideal.
SUMNER, CHARLES (1811-1874), American statesman, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 6th of January 1811.
He graduated in 1830 at Harvard College, and in 1834 graduated
at the Harvard Law School. Here, in closest intimacy with
Joseph Story, he became an enthusiast in the study of juris-
prudence: at the age of twenty-three he was admitted to the
bar, and was contributing to the American Jurist, and editing
law texts and Story's court decisions. What he saw of Congress
during a month's visit to Washington in 1834 filled him with
loathing for politics as a career, and he returned to Boston
resolved to devote himself to the practice of law. The three
years (1837-1840) spent in Europe were years of fruitful study
and experience. He secured a ready command of French,
German and Italian, equalled by no American then in public
life. He formed the acquaintance of many of the leading
statesmen and publicists, and secured a deep insight into
continental systems of government and of jurisprudence. In
England (1838) his omnivorous reading in literature, history
and jurisprudence made him persona grata to leaders of thought.
Lord Brougham declared that he " had never met with any man
of Sumner's age of such extensive legal knowledge and natural
legal intellect." Not till many years after Sumner's death
was any other American received so intimately into the best
English circles, social, political and intellectual.
In his thirtieth year, a broadly cultured cosmopolitan, Sumner
returned to Boston, resolved to settle down to the practice of
his profession. But gradually he devoted less of his time to
practice and more to lecturing in the Harvard Law School, to
editing court reports and to contributions to law journals, especi-
ally on historical and biographical lines, in which his erudition
was unsurpassed. In his law practice he had disappointed
himself and his friends, and he became despondent as to his
future. It was in a 4th of July oration on " The True
Grandeur of Nations," delivered in Boston in 1845, tnat ne first
found himself. His oration was a tremendous arraignment
of war, and an impassioned appeal for freedom and for peace,
and proved him an orator of the first rank. He immediately
became one of the most eagerly sought orators for the lyceum
and college platform. His lofty themes and stately eloquence
made a profound impression, especially upon young men; his
platform presence was imposing, for he was six feet and four
inches in height and of massive frame; his voice was clear and
of great power; his gestures unconventional and individual,
but vigorous and impressive. His literary style was somewhat
florid. Many of his speeches were monuments of erudition,
but the wealth of detail, of allusion, and of quotation, often
from the Greek and Latin, sometimes detracted from their
effect.
Sumner co-operated effectively with Horace Mann for the
improvement of the system of public education in Massachusetts.
Prison reform and peace were other causes to which he gave
ardent support. In 1847 the vigour with which Sumner de-
nounced a Boston congressman's vote in favour of the Mexican
War Bill made him the logical leader of the " Conscience Whigs,"
but he declined to accept their nomination for Congress. He
took an active part in the organizing of the Free Soil party, in
revolt at the Whigs' nomination of a slave-holding southerner
for the presidency; and in 1848 was defeated as a candidate for
the national House of Representatives. In 1851 control of
the Massachusetts legislature was secured by the Democrats
in coalition with the Free Soilers, but after filling the state
offices with their own men, the Democrats refused to vote for
Sumner, the Free Soilers' choice for United States senator, and
urged the selection of some less radical candidate. A deadlock
of more than three months ensued, finally resulting in the election
(April 24) of Sumner by a majority of a single vote.
Sumner thus stepped from the lecture platform to the Senate,
with no preliminary training. At first he prudently abstained
from trying to force the issues in which he was interested, while
he studied the temper and procedure of the Senate. In the
closing hours of his first session, in spite of strenuous efforts to
prevent it, Sumner delivered (Aug. 26, 1852) a speech, " Free-
dom national; Slavery sectional," which it was immediately
felt marked a new era in American history. The conventions
SUMNER, C. R.
of both the great parties had just affirmed the finality of every
provision of the Compromise of 1850. Reckless of political
expediency, Sumner moved that the Fugitive Slave Act be
forthwith repealed; and for more than three hours he denounced
it as a violation of the constitution, an affront to the public
conscience, and an offence against the divine law. The speech
provoked a storm of anger in the South, but the North was
heartened to find at last a leader whose courage matched his
conscience. In 1856, at the very time when " border ruffians "
were drawing their lines closer about the doomed town of Law-
rence, Kansas, Sumner in the Senate (May 19-20) laid bare the
" Crime against Kansas." He denounced the Kansas-Nebraska
Bill as in every respect a swindle, and held its authors, Stephen
A. Douglas and Andrew P. Butler, up to the scorn of the world
as the Don Quixote and Sancho Panza of " the harlot, Slavery."
Two days later (May 22) Preston S. Brooks (1819-1857), a
congressman from South Carolina, suddenly confronted Sumner
as he sat writing at his desk in the Senate chamber, denounced
his speech as a libel upon his state and upon Butler, his relative,
and before Sumner, pinioned by his desk, could make the slight-
est resistance, rained blow after blow upon his head, till his
victim sank bleeding and unconscious upon the floor. That
brutal assault cost Sumner three years of heroic struggle to
restore his shattered health — years during which Massachusetts
loyally re-elected him, in the belief that in the Senate chamber
his vacant chair was the most eloquent pleader for free speech
and resistance to slavery. Upon returning to his post, in 1859,
the approaching presidential campaign of 1860 did not deter
him from delivering a speech, entirely free from personal rancour,
on " The Barbarism of Slavery " — to this day one of the most
comprehensive and scathing indictments of American slavery
ever presented.
In the critical months following Lincoln's election Sumner was
an unyielding foe to every scheme of compromise. After the
withdrawal of the Southern senators, Sumner was made chair-
man of the committee on foreign relations (March 8, 1861), a
position for which he was pre-eminently fitted by his years of
intimate acquaintance with European politics and statesmen.
While the war was in progress his letters from Cobden and
Bright, from Gladstone and the duke of Argyll, at Lincoln's
request were read by Sumner to the cabinet, and formed a chief
source of light as to political thought in England. In the turmoil
over the " ' Trent' affair," it was Sumner's word that convinced
Lincoln that Mason and Slidell must be given up, and that
reconciled the public to that inevitable step. Again and
again Sumner used the power incident to his chairmanship to
block action which threatened to embroil the United States in
war with England and France. Sumner openly and boldly
advocated the policy of emancipation. Lincoln described
Sumner as " my idea of a bishop," and used to consult him as
an embodiment of the conscience of the American people.
The war had hardly begun when Sumner put forward his
theory of reconstruction: that the seceded states by their own
act had " become felo de se," had " committed state suicide,"
and that their status and the conditions of their readmission
to membership in the Union lay absolutely at the determination
of Congress, as if they were Territories and had never been
states. He resented the initiative in Reconstruction taken by
Lincoln, and later by Johnson, as an encroachment upon the
powers of Congress. Throughout the war Sumner had con-
stituted himself the special champion of the negro, being the
most vigorous advocate of emancipation, of enlisting the blacks
in the Union army, and of the establishment of the Freedmen's
Bureau. The credit or the blame for imposing equal suffrage rights
for negroes upon the Southern states as a condition of Reconstruc-
tion must rest with Charles Sumner more than with any other one
man. Heedless of the teachings of science as to the slow evolu-
tion of any race's capacity for self-government, he insisted on
putting the ballot forthwith into the hands of even the most
ignorant blacks, lest their rights be taken from them by their
former masters and the fruits of the war be lost. But it
must be remembered that in Sumner's plan equal suffrage was
to be accompanied by free homesteads and free schools for
negroes.
In the impeachment proceedings against Johnson, Sumner
was one of the president's most implacable assailants. Sumner's
opposition to Grant's pet scheme for the annexation of San
Domingo (1870), after the president mistakenly supposed
that he had secured a pledge of support, brought upon him the
president's bitter resentment. Sumner had always prized
highly his popularity in England, but he unhesitatingly sacri-
ficed it in taking his stand as to the adjustment of claims against
England for breaches of neutrality during the war. Sumner
iaid great stress upon " national claims." He held that'
England's according the rights of belligerents to the Confederate
states had doubled the duration of the war, entailing inestimable
loss. He therefore insisted that England should be required
not merely to pay damages for the havoc wrought by the
" Alabama " and other cruisers fitted out for Confederate service
in her ports, but that, for " that other damage, immense and
infinite, caused by the prolongation of the war," the withdrawal
of the British flag from this hemisphere could " not be abandoned
as a condition or preliminary of such a settlement as is now
proposed." (At the Geneva arbitration conference these
" national claims " were abandoned.) Under pressure from the
president, on the ground that Sumner was no longer on speaking
terms with the secretary of state, he was deposed on the loth
of March 1871 from the chairmanship of the committee on
foreign relations, in which he had served with great distinc-
tion and effectiveness throughout the critical years since 1861.
Whether the chief cause of this humiliation was Grant's vin-
dictiveness at Sumner's opposition to his San Domingo project
or a genuine fear that the impossible demand, which he insisted
should be made upon England, would wreck the prospect of a
speedy and honourable adjustment with that country, cannot
be determined. In any case it was a cruel blow to a man already
broken by racking illness and domestic sorrows. Sumner's
last years were further saddened by the misconstruction put
upon one of his most magnanimous acts. In 1872 he introduced
in the Senate a resolution providing that the names of battles
with fellow citizens should not be placed on the regimental
colours of the United States. The Massachusetts legislature
denounced this battle-flag resolution as " an Insult to the loyal
soldiery of the nation " and as " meeting the unqualified con-
demnation of the people of the Commonwealth." For more
than a year all efforts — headed by the poet Whittier — to rescind
that censure were without avail, but early in 1874 it was annulled.
On the loth of March, against the advice of his physician,
Sumner went to the Senate — it was the day on which his
colleague was to present the rescinding resolution. With those
grateful words of vindication from Massachusetts in his ears
Charles Sumner left the Senate chamber for the last time. That
night he was stricken with an acute attack of angina pectoris,
and on the following day he died.
Sumner was the scholar in politics. He could never be in-
duced to suit his action to the political expediency of the moment.
" The slave of principles, I call no party master," was the proud
avowal with which he began his service in the Senate. For the
tasks of Reconstruction he showed little aptitude. He was less
a builder than a prophet. His was the first clear programme
proposed in Congress for the reform of the civil service. It was
his dauntless courage in denouncing compromise, in demanding
the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Act, and in insisting upon
emancipation, that made him the chief initiating force in the
struggle that put an end to slavery.
See Sumner's Works (15 vols., Boston, 1870-1883), and Edward
L. Pierce's Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner (4 vols., Boston,
1877-1893). Briefer biographies have been written by Anna L.
Dawes (New York, 1892); Moorfield Storey (Boston, 1900); and
George H. Haynes (Philadelphia, 1909).
SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874), English bishop,
was born at Kenilworth on the 2 2nd of November 1790, and
was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
graduated B.A. in 1814, M.A. in 1817, and was ordained deacon
SUMNER, E. V.— SUMPTUARY LAWS
and priest. In the two winters of 1814-1816 he ministered to
the English congregation at Geneva, and from i8i6to 1821 was
curate of Highclere, Hampshire. In 1820 George IV. wished to
appoint him canon of Windsor, but the prime minister, Lord
Liverpool, objected; Sumner received instead a royal chaplaincy
and Hbrarianship, and other preferments quickly followed,
till in 1826 he was consecrated bishop of Llandaff and in 1827
bishop of Winchester. In his long administration of his latter
diocese he was most energetic, tactful and munificent. Though
evangelical in his views he by no means confined his patronage
to that school. In 1869 he resigned his see, but continued to
live at the official residence at Farnham until his death on the
1 5th of August 1874. He published a number of charges and
sermons, and The Ministerial Character of Christ Practically
Considered (London, 1824). He also edited and translated
John Milton's De doctrina Christiana, which was found in the
State Paper office in 1823, and formed the text of Macaulay's
famous essay on Milton.
See the Life, by his son, G. H. Sumner (1876).
SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (1797-1863), American soldier,
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, and entered the United States
army in 1819. He served in the Black Hawk War and in
various Indian campaigns. In 1838 he commanded the cavalry
instructional establishment at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. He took
part in the Mexican War as a major, and for his bravery at
Molino del Rey he received the brevet rank of colonel. In 1857
he commanded an expedition against the Cheyenne Indians.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, four years later, Sumner had
just been promoted brigadier-general U.S.A. and sent to replace
Sidney Johnston in command on the Pacific coast. He thus
took no part in the first campaign of the Civil War. But in the
autumn he was brought back to the East to command a division,
and soon afterwards, as a major-general U.S.V., a corps in the
army that was being organized by McClellan. This corps,
numbered II., retained its independent existence throughout
the war, and under the command of Sumner, Couch,. Han-
cock and Humphreys it had the deserved reputation of being the
best in the Union army. Sumner, who was by far the oldest
of the generals in the army of the Potomac, led his corps through-
out the peninsular campaign, was wounded during the Seven
Days' Battle, and received the brevet of major-general U.S.A.,
and was again wounded in the battle of Antietam. When
Burnside succeeded to the command of the army of the Potomac
he grouped the corps in " grand divisions," and appointed
Sumner to command the right grand division. In this capacity
the old cavalry soldier took part in the disastrous battle of
Fredericksburg, in which the II. corps suffered most severely.
Soon afterwards, on Hooker's appointment to command the
army, Sumner was relieved at his own request. He died
suddenly, on the 2ist of March 1863, while on his way to
assume supreme command in Missouri.
SUMNER, JOHN BIRD (1780-1862), English archbishop,
elder brother of Bishop Charles Sumner, was born at Kenilworth,
Warwickshire, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. In
1802 he became a master at Eton, and in the following year he
took orders. He was elected a fellow of Eton in 1817, and in
1818 the college presented him to the living of Maple Durham,
Oxfordshire. After holding a prebendaryship of Durham for
some years, he was consecrated bishop of Chester in 1828.
During his episcopate many churches and schools were built
in the diocese. His numerous writings were much esteemed,
especially by the evangelical party, to which he belonged; the
best known are his Treatise on the Records of Creation and the
Moral Attributes of the Creator (London, 1816) and The Evidence
of Christianity derived from its Nature and Reception (London,
1821). In 1848 he was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury,
in which capacity he dealt impartially with the different church
parties. In the well-known "Gorham case"1 he came into
1 George Cornelius Gorham (1787-1857) was refused institution
by Bishop Phillpotts because of his Calvinistic views on baptismal
regeneration. The court of arches upheld the bishop, but its
decision was reversed by the privy council.
conflict with Bishop Henry Phillpotts of Exeter (1778-1869),
who accused him of supporting heresy and refused to com-
municate with him. He supported the Divorce Bill in parlia-
ment, but opposed the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill and the bill
for removing Jewish disabilities.
SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840-1910), American
economist, was born, of English parentage, in Paterson, New
Jersey, on the 3oth of October 1840. He was brought up in
Hartford, Connecticut, graduated at Yale College in 1863,
studied French and Hebrew in Geneva in 1863-1864 and divinity
and history at Gottingen in 1864-1866, and in 1866-1869 w&»
a tutor at Yale. He was ordained a priest of the Protestant
Episcopal Church in 1869, was assistant rector of Calvary
Church, New York City, and in 1870-1872 was rector of the
Church of the Redeemer, Morristown, New Jersey. From 1872
to 1909, when he became professor emeritus, he was professor
of political and social science at Yale. In 1909 he was president
of ths American Sociological Society. He died at Englewood,
New Jersey, on the I2th of April 1910.
He was notable especially as an opponent of protectionism, and
was a great teacher. He wrote: History of American Currency
(1874^; Lectures on the History of Protection in the United States
(1875) I Life of Andrew Jackson (1882), in the " American Statesmen
Series"; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883); Collected
Essays in Political and Social Sciences (1885); Protection ism (1885);
Alexander Hamilton (1891) , and Robert Morris (1891), in the" Makers
of America Series "; The Financier and Finances of the American
Revolution (2 vols., 1891); A History of Banking in the United States
(1896); and Folkways: a Study of the Sociological Importance of
Usages, Manners, Customs, Mores and Morals (1907), a valuable
sociological summary.
SUMPTER, a pack-horse or mule, a beast for carrying burdens,
particularly for military purposes. There were two words once
in use, which in sense, if not in form, have coalesced. These are
" sommer " or " summer " and " sumpter." The first comes
through the Old French sommier, a pack-horse, the other
through sommetier, a pack-horse driver. Both come ultimately
from Late Lat. salma, from sagma, a pack, burden, Old French
somme, saume; Greek cay pa, burden, (r&TTfiv, to load.
" Sumpter " in the sense of a driver of a pack-horse is rare, and
the word is always joined with another explanatory word.
SUMPTUARY LAWS (from Lat. sumptuarius, belonging to
cost or expense, sumptus), those laws intended to limit or
regulate the private expenditure of the citizens of a community.
They may be dictated by political, or economic, or moral con-
siderations. They have existed both in ancient and in modern
states. In Greece, it was amongst the Dorian races, whose
temper was austere and rigid, that they most prevailed. All
the inhabitants of Laconia were forbidden to attend drinking
entertainments, nor could a Lacedaemonian possess a house or
furniture which was the work of more elaborate implements
than the axe and saw. Among the Spartans proper simple and
frugal habits of life were secured rather by the institution of the
pheidilia (public meals) than by special enactments. The
possession of gold or silver was interdicted to the citizens of
Sparta, and the use of iron money alone was permitted by the
Lycurgean legislation. " Even in the cities which had early
departed from the Doric customs," says K. O. Miiller, " there
were frequent and strict prohibitions against expensiveness of
female attire, prostitutes alone being wisely excepted." In the
Locrian code of Zaleucus citizens were forbidden to drink
undiluted wine. The Solonian sumptuary enactments were
directed principally against the extravagance of female apparel
and dowries of excessive amount; costly banquets also were
forbidden, and expensive funeral solemnities. The Pytha-
goreans in Magna Graecia not only protested against the luxury of
their time but encouraged legislation with a view to restraining it.
At Rome the system of sumptuary edicts and enactments
was largely developed, whilst the objects of such legislation
were concurrently sought to be attained through the exercise
of the censorial power. The code of the Twelve Tables con-
tained provisions limiting the expenditure on funerals. The
most important sumptuary laws of the Roman commonwealth
are the following: —
84
SUMPTUARY LAWS
(l) The Oppian law, 215 B.C., provided that no woman should
possess more than half an ounce of gold, or wear a dress of different
colours, or ride in a carriage in the city or within a mile of it except
on occasions of public religious ceremonies. This law, which had
been partly dictated by the financial necessities of the conflict with
Hannibal, was repealed twenty years later, against the advice of
Cato. Livy (xxxiv. 1-8) gives an interesting account of the com-
motion excited by the proposal of the repeal, and of the exertions
of the Roman women against the law, which almost amounted to a
female emeute. (2) The Orchian law, 187 B.C., limited the number
of guests at entertainments. An attempt being made to repeal
this law, Cato offered strong opposition and delivered a speech on
the subject, of which some fragments have been preserved. (3)
The Fannian law, 161 B.C., limited the sums to be spent on enter-
tainments; it provided amongst other things that no fowl should
be served but a single hen, and that not fattened. (4) The Didian
law, 143 B.C., extended to the whole of Italy the provisions of the
Fannian law, and made the guests as well as the givers of entertain-
ments at which the law was violated liable to the penalties. After
a considerable interval, Sulla anew directed legislation against the
luxury of the table and also limited the cost of funerals and of
sepulchral monuments. We are told that he violated his own law
as to funerals when burying his wife Metella, and also his law on
entertainments when seeking to forget his grief for her loss in
extravagant drinking and feasting (Plut. Still. 35). Julius Caesar,
in the capacity of praefeclus moribus, after the African War re-
enacted some of the sumptuary laws which had fallen into neglect ;
Cicero implies (Ep. ad Alt. xiii. 7) that in Caesar's absence his legis-
lation of this kind was not attended to. Suetonius tells us that
Caesar had officers stationed in the market-places to seize such
provisions as were forbidden by law, and sent lictors and soldiers
to feasts to remove all illegal eatables (Jul. 43). Augustus fixed
anew the expense to be incurred in entertainments on ordinary and
festal days. Tiberius also sought to check inordinate expense on
banquets, and a decree of the senate was passed in his reign forbid-
ding the use of gold vases except in sacred rites, and prohibiting the
wearing of silk garments by men. But it appears from Tacitus
(Ann. iji. 5, where a speech is put into his mouth very much in
the spirit of Horace's" Quid leges sine moribus vanae proficiunt?")
that he looked more to the improvement of manners than to direct
legislative action for the restriction of luxury. Suetonius mentions
some regulations made by Nero, and we hear of further legislation
of this kind by Hadrian and later emperors. In the time of
Tertullian the sumptuary laws appear to have been things of the past
(Apol. c. vi.).
In modern times the first important sumptuary legislation
was: in Italy that of Frederick II.; in Aragon that of James I.,
in 1234; in France that of Philip IV.; in England that of
Edward II. and Edward III. In 1294 Philip IV. made provisions
as to the dress and the table expenditure of the several orders of
men in his kingdom. Charles V. of France forbade the use of
long-pointed shoes, a fashion against which popes and councils
had protested in vain. Under later kings the use of gold and
silver embroidery, silk stuffs and fine linen wares was restricted
— at first moral and afterwards economic motives being put
forward, the latter especiaUy from the rise of the mercantile
theory. In England we hear much from the writers of the i4th
century of the extravagance of dress at that period. They
remark both on the great splendour and expensiveness of the
apparel of the higher orders and on the fantastic and deforming
fashions adopted by persons of all ranks. The parliament held
at Westminster in 1363 made laws (37 Edw. III. c. 8-14) to
restrain this undue expenditure and to regulate the dress of the
several classes of the people. These statutes were repealed in
the following year, but similar ones were passed again in the
same reign. They seem, however, to have had little effect, for in
the reign of Richard II. the same excesses prevailed, apparently
in a still greater degree. Another statute was passed in the
year 1463 (3 Edw. IV. c. 5) for the regulation of the dress of
persons of all ranks. In this it was stated that " the commons
of the realm, as well men as women, wear excessive and inordi-
nate apparel to the great displeasure of God, the enriching of
strange realms, and the destruction of this realm." An act of
1444 had previously regulated the clothing, when it formed part
of the wages, of servants employed in husbandry: a bailiff or
overseer was to have an allowance of 53. a year for his clothing,
a hind or principal servant 43., and an ordinary servant 35. 4d.—
sums equivalent respectively to 503., 405. and 333. 4d. of our
money (Henry). Already in the reign of Edward II. a proclama-
tion had been issued against the " outrageous and excessive
multitude of meats and dishes which the great men of the king-
dom had used, and still used, in their castles," as well as " per-
sons of inferior rank imitating their example, beyond what their
stations required and their circumstances could afford"; and
the rule was laid down that the great men should have but two
courses of flesh meat served up to their tables, and on fish days
two courses of fish, each course consisting of but two kinds. In
1336 Edward III. attempted also to legislate against luxurious
living, and in 1363, at the same time when costumes were
regulated, it was enacted that the servants of gentlemen,
merchants and artificers should have only one meal of flesh or
fish in the day, and that their other food should consist of milk,
butter and cheese. Similar acts to those above mentioned were
passed in Scotland also. In 1433 (temp. James I.), by an act
of a parliament which sat at Perth, the manner of living of all
orders in Scotland was prescribed, and in particular the use of
pies and baked meats, which had been only lately introduced
into the country, was forbidden to all under the rank of
baron. In 1457 (temp. James II.) an act was passed against
" sumptuous cleithing." A Scottish sumptuary law of 1621
was the last of the kind in Great Britain.
In Japan sumptuary laws have been passed with a frequency
and minuteness of scope such as has no parallel in the history
of the western world. At the beginning of the i ith century we
find an Imperial edict regulating the size of a house and even
imposing restrictions as to the materials of which it is to be
built. But it was during the Tokugawa period that sumptuary
laws and regulations were passed in the most bewildering
profusion; every detail of a man's life was regulated down to
the least particular — from the wearing of a beard or the dressing
of the hair down to the cost of his wife's hairpins or the price of
his child's doll.1
A. Ferguson and others have pointed out that " luxury " is a term
of relative import and that all luxuries do not deserve to be dis-
couraged. Roscher has called attention to the fact that the nature
of the prevalent luxury changes with the stage of social develop-
ment. He endeavours to show that there are three periods in the
history of luxury — one in which it is coarse and profuse; a second
in which it aims mainly at comfort and elegance; and a third,
proper to periods of decadence, in which it is perverted to vicious
and unnatural ends. The second of these began, in modern times,
with the emergence of the Western nations from the medieval
period, and in the ancient communities at epochs of similar transi-
tion. Roscher holds that the sumptuary legislation which regularly
appears at the opening of this stage was then useful as promoting
the reformation of habits. He remarks that the contemporary
formation of strong governments, disposed from the consciousness
of their strength to interfere with the lives of their subjects, tended
to encourage such legislation, as did also the jealousy felt by the
hitherto dominant ranks of the rising wealth of the citizen classes,
who are apt to imitate the conduct of their superiors. It is certainly
desirable that habits of wasteful expenditure and frequent and
wanton changes of fashion should be discouraged. But such action
belongs more properly to the spiritual than to the temporal rx>wer.
In ancient, especially Roman, life, when there was a confusion of
the two powers in the state system, sumptuary legislation was more
natural than in the modern world, in which those powers have been
in general really, though imperfectly, separated. Political econo-
mists are practically unanimous in their reprobation of the policy
of legislative compulsion in these matters. In a well-known passage
Adam Smith protests against the " impertinence and presumption
of kings and ministers in pretending to watch over the economy of
private people and to restrain their expense, being themselves always
and without any exception the greatest spendthrifts in the society."
Yet he does not seem to have been averse from all attempts to influ-
ence through taxation the expenditure of the humbler classes. The
modern taxes on carriages, coats of arms, male servants, playing
cards, &c., ought perhaps not to be regarded as resting on the
principle of sumptuary laws, but only as means of proportioning
taxation to the capacity of bearing the burden.
The loci classici on Roman sumptuary laws are Gellius, Npctes
alticae, ii. 24, and Macrobius, Saturn, iii. 17. For Great Britain
see Henry of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum (" Rolls Series," ed. T.
Arnold, 1879); W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and
1 See Captain F. Brinkley's Japan, its History, Arts and Litera-
ture (1904), i. 138, 205, 140-144, ii. 98, 99, iv. 157-162; Trans,
of the Asiatic Soc. of Japan, vol. xix., " Notes on Land Tenure and
Local Institutions in Old Japan," ed. by Professor J.H.Wigmore;
vol. xx., " Materials for the Study of Private Law in Old Japan."
by Professor Wigmore.
SUMTER, T.— SUN
Commerce; W. J. Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History
and Theory (1893); W. Denton, England in the Fifteenth Century
(1888). One of the best extant treatments of the whole subject is
that by Roscher, in his essay, Vber den Luxus, republished in his
Ansichten der Volkswirthschaft auf dem geschichtlichen Standpunkte
(3rd ed., 1878). (J. K. I.)
SUMTER, THOMAS (1736-1832), American soldier, was born
in Hanover county, Virginia, on the I4th of July 1736. He
served in the Virginia militia during the French and Indian War
and was present at Braddock's defeat (1755). Some time after
1762 he removed to South Carolina. He is best known for his
service during the War of Independence, but he saw little
active service until after the fall of Charleston in May 1780.
In July 1780 he became a brigadier-general of state troops.
During the remainder of the war he carried on a partisan cam-
paign, and earned the sobriquet of the " Gamecock." He failed
in an attack upon Rocky Mount (Chester county) on the ist of
August 1780, but on the 6th defeated 500 Loyalists and regulars
at Hanging Rock (Lancaster county), and on the I5th inter-
cepted and defeated a convoy with stores between Charleston
and Camden. His own regiment, however, was almost annihilated
by Lieut.-Colonel Banastre Tarleton (1754-1833) at Fishing
Creek (Chester county) on the i8th. A new force was soon
recruited, with which he defeated Major James Wemys at
Fishdam (Union county) on the night of the Sth-pth of Novem-
ber, and repulsed Tarleton's attack at Blackstock (Union county)
on the 20th, when he was wounded. In January 1781 Congress
formally thanked him for his services. He was a member of
the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution
for South Carolina in 1788, he himself opposing that instrument;
of the national House of Representatives in 1780-1793 and again
in 1797-1801, and of the United States Senate from 1801 to 1810.
At the time of his death at South Mount, South Carolina, on the
ist of June 1832, he was the last surviving general officer of the
War of Independence.
See Edward McCrady, The History of South Carolina in the Revolu-
tion (2 vols., New York, 1901-1902).
SUMTER, a city and the county-seat of Sumter county,
South Carolina, U.S.A., 42 m. by rail E. by S. of Columbia.
Pop. (1900) 5673 (3160 negroes); (1910) 8109. Sumter is
served by several divisions of the Atlantic Coast line and by the
Southern railways. It is the seat of St Joseph's Academy
(Roman Catholic) for girls. The region produces tobacco,
vegetables and cotton, and there are various manufactories in
the city. Sumter was founded in 1800 and was named in honour
of General Thomas Sumter; it was first chartered as a city
in 1887.
SUMY, a town of Little Russia, in the government of
Kharkov, 122 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Kharkov, founded
in 1658. Pop. (1900), 28,519. It is an important centre for the
trade of Great Russia with Little Russia — cattle and. corn being
sent to the north in exchange for manufactured and grocery
wares. It has important sugar manufacture, and a technical
school.
SUN (O. Eng. sunnc, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr.
rJXtos, from which comes helio- in various English compounds),
the name of the central body of the solar system, the luminous
orb from which the earth receives light and heat ; (see SUNSHINE) ;
hence by analogy other heavenly bodies which form the centre
of systems are called suns.
To understand the phenomena of the sun, we should reproduce
them upon the earth ; but this is clearly impossible since they
take place at temperatures which volatilize all known substances.
Hence our only guides are such general laws of mechanics and
physics as we can hardly believe any circumstances will falsify.
But it must be remembered that these require extrapolation
from experience sometimes sufficiently remote, and it is possible
they may lead to statements that are obscure, if not contra-
dictory. The body of the sun must consist of uncombined gases;
at the surface the temperature is some 2000° C. above the boiling
point of carbon, and a little way within the body it may probably
exceed the critical point at which increase of pressure can produce
the liquid state in any substance. But as the mean density
exceeds that of water, and probably falls but little from the centre
to the surface, these gases are gases only in the sense that if the
pressure of neighbouring and outward parts gravitating to-
wards the centre were relaxed, they would expand explosively,
as we see happening in the eruptive prominences. They have
lost completely the gaseous characteristic of producing a line
spectrum, and radiate like incandescent solids. The surface
region which yields a continuous spectrum is called the photo-
sphere; it possesses optically a sharp boundary, which is gener-
ally a perfect sphere, but shows occasionally at the rim slight
depressions or more rarely elevations. Enclosing the photo-
sphere is a truly gaseous envelope which is called the chromo-
sphere, and which shows a spectrum of bright lines when we can
isolate its emission from that of the photosphere. This envelope
is also sharply defined, but its normal appearance is compared
to the serrations which blades of grass show on the skyline of a
hill, and it is disturbed by the outbursts, called prominences, of
which details are given below. Outside this again is an envelope
of matter of enormous extent and extreme tenuity, whether
gaseous or partly minute liquid or solid drops, which is called the
corona. It has no sharp boundary, its brightness diminishes
rapidly as we recede from the limb, and such structure as it
shows consists of long streaks or filaments extending outwards
from the limb in broad curved sweeps. Finally there is the
envelope of still vaster extent and of unknown constitution which
gives the zodiacal light (q.ii.); its greatest extent is along the
ecliptic, but it can also be certainly traced for 35° in a perpen-
dicular direction. The lower gaseous cloaks absorb a large part
of the light admitted by the photosphere, and especially at the
limb and for the more refrangible rays the loss of intensity is
very marked.
In the instants when a sharp image of the photosphere is seen
or photographed, it shows a granulated appearance like white
flakes strewed fairly evenly upon a dark ground. The figs,
i, 2, 3, 4 (plate) show enlargements from photo- General
graphs by Hansky at Pulkowa (June 25, 1905); Appearance
they are separated by intervals from 25 to 80 oiPhoto-
seconds, and he has succeeded in showing identity sp ere'
in many of the granules, or more properly, clouds represented.
Thus they exhibit at once general appearance and its changes.
The diameters range from 400 m. or less up to 1200 m., and the
speeds relative to the spot range up to 2 or 3 m. per second.
M. Hansky believes these motions may be the consequences
of matter rising from below and thrusting the surface groups
aside. Usually the changes are such that it is impossible even
to recognize the formations in successive photographs. Besides
granulations the sun's disk shows, as a rule, one or more spots or
groups of spots. Each spot shows with more or less completeness
a ring-shaped penumbra enclosing a darker umbra; the umbra,
which looks black beside the photosphere, is actually about as
brilliant as limelight. In the neighbourhood surrounding the
penumbra the granules appear to be packed more closely, forming
brilliant patches called faculae. In the shape of a spot there is
neither rule nor permanence, though those that are nearly circular
seem to resist change better than the others. They arise from
combinations of smaller spots, or from nothing, in a short period,
say a day. They are never wholly quiescent. Bridges, more
brilliant than the rest of the photosphere, form across them, and
they may divide into two parts which separate from one another
with great velocity. The largest spots are easily seen by the
naked eye, if the brilliancy of the disk is veiled; the umbra may
be many — ten or more— diameters of the earth in breadth.
The length of their life is difficult to assign, because there is
some tendency for a new group to arise where an old one has
disappeared; but one is recorded which appeared in the same
place for eighteen months; the average is perhaps two months.
They are carried across the disk by the sun's rotation, partaking
in the equatorial acceleration; they also show marked dis-
placements of their own, whether with, or relative to, the neigh-
bouring photosphere does not appear; at the beginning of their
life they usually outrun the average daily rotation appropriate
to their latitude. Spots are rarely found on the equator, or
86
SUN
more than 35° N. or S. of it, and at 45° are practically
unknown. Their occurrence within these zones follows statisti-
cally a uniform law (see AURORA). Other information about
the spots is given below, in connexion with their spectra. It
may be said that nothing definite has been established as to
what they are. The statement known as A. Wilson's theory
(1774), that they are hollows in the photosphere, long supposed
to be proved by perspective effects as the spot approached the
limb, is discredited by F. Hewlett's careful drawings, which,
however, do not establish the contrary. To draw a trustworthy
conclusion it is necessary that the spot should be quiescent,
show a well-developed and fairly symmetrical penumbra, and be
observed near the limb and also near the centre, and these
conditions are satisfied in so few cases as to withdraw all
statistical force from the conclusion. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8 (plate)
are reproductions of the Greenwich photographs of the sun
from the 3Oth of January to the 8th of February 1905.
The first, taken alone, might seem to bear out Wilson's
theory, but the others show that the penumbra is really
very unsymmetrical and much broader on the side towards
the limb, apart from anything which perspective may have
to say. The photosphere does not rotate in one piece, lower
latitudes outrunning higher. This was discovered by R. C.
Carrington from observations of the spots, extending from 1853
Rotation of to 1 86 1, from which he determined also the position
the Photo- of the sun's axis. But conclusions from the spots
sphere. are f^ of anomalies. E. W. Maunder and Mrs
Maunder found that different spots in the same zone differ more
than do the means for different zones, while a long-lived spot
settles down to give more consistent results than are furnished
by spots of one apparition. In the span of two complete sun-
spot periods no evidence was found of periodic or other change
with lapse of time. The problem still awaits complete discussion.
The irregularities incidental to use of the spots are escaped by
comparing the relative Doppler displacements of the same
spectral line as given by the receding and advancing limbs of
the sun. The observation is a delicate one, and was first success-
fully handled by N. C. Duner in 1890. But his determinations,
repeated recently (Ada upsal. IV. vol. i., 1907) as well as those
of J. Halm at Edinburgh (Asl. Nach. vol. 173, 1907), are super-
seded by a photographic treatment of the problem by W. S.
Adams (Astrophys. Journ., xxvi., 1907).
The diagram (fig. 9) shows Adams's value for the angular velocity
£ for different latitudes <j>, the dots representing the actual observa-
tions. Fig. 10 shows the consequent distortion of a set of meridians
after one revolution (at lat. 30°). An important feature added to
the discussion by Adams is the different behaviour of spectral lines
880
860'
840
800
780'
760'
740'
730'
700
0' 10' 10' 30' 40' 50' 60' 70' 80T 90"
FIG. 9.
which are believed to originate at different levels. The data given
above refer to the mean reversing layer. Lines of lanthanum and
carbon which are believed to belong to a low level showed system-
atically smaller angular velocity than the average. This promises
to be a fertile field for future inquiry. Pending more conclusive
evidence from the spectroscope, the interpretation of the peculiar
surface rotation of the sun appears to be that the central parts
of the body are rotating faster than those outside them ; for if
such were the case the observed phenomenon would arise. For
FIG. 10.
consider first a frictionless fluid. The equations of surfaces of equal
angular motion would be of the form r = R (i — t cos'fl), where
« is proportional to the square of the angular motion, supposed
small, and R increases as c diminishes. Consider the traces these
surfaces cut on any sphere r = a: we have J«/<iff = 2<sin0cos0/|cosJe —
aR~»(iR/</«|, which is positive and has a maximum in the middle
latitudes; so that, proceeding
from the pole to the equator
along any meridian, the angujar
velocity would continually in-
crease, at a rate which was
jreatest in the middle latitudes.
This is exactly what the ob-
servations show. Now if this
state be supposed established in
a frictionless fluid, the con-
sideration of internal friction
would simply extend the char-
acteristics found at any spot to
the neighbourhood, and there-
fore if the boundary were a
sphere and so for a frictionless
fluid an exception, it would
cease to be an exception when
we allow for viscosity. But this
theory gives no clue to the results relating to hydrogen, which
belongs to a high level, and which Adams has shown to move with
an angular •velocity decidedly greater than the equatorial angular
velocity below it, and not to snow any sign of falling off towards
the poles.
It is useful to form a conception of the mechanical state within
the sun's body. Its temperature must be dominated directly
or indirectly by the surface radiation, and since the Mechanical
matter is gaseous and so open to redistribution, the State
same is true of density and pressure. It is true that laierttaUy-
within the body radiations must be stifled within a short
distance of their source; none the less, they will determine
a temperature gradient, falling from the centre to the borders,
though for the most part falling very slowly, and we may ask
what relative temperatures in different parts would maintain
themselves if once established. Stefan's law of radiation ac-
cording to the fourth power of the temperature is too difficult
to pursue, but if we are content with cognate results we can
follow them out mathematically in a hypothetical law of the
first power. We then find that the density would increase
as we go outwards, at first slowly, but finally with extreme
rapidity, the last tenth of the radius comprising half the mass.
The radiation from such a body would be practically nil, no
matter how hot the centre was. Of course such a state would
be statically unstable. It would never get established because
currents would arise to exchange the positions of the hotter,
less dense, inner parts and the cooler, more dense, outer ones.
By this interchange the inner parts would be opened out and the
total radiation raised. Since the only cause for these convection
currents is the statical instability produced by radiation, and
the rapid stifling of radiations within the body produces there
a temperature gradient falling very slowly, they would be for the
most part extremely slight. Only near the surface would they
become violent, and only there would there be a rapid fall of
temperature and density. Through the main body these would
remain nearly constant. Indeed it seems that, in the final
distribution of density throughout the part which is not subject
to violent convection currents, it must increase slightly from
the centre outwards, since the currents would cease altogether
as soon as a uniform state was restored. In the outer strata
a different state must prevail. Rapidly falling temperature
must (and visibly does) produce furious motions which wholly
outrun mere restoration of statical balance. Portions change
places so rapidly and so continually, that we may take it, where
any average is reached, the energy is so distributed that there is
neither gain nor loss when such a change occurs. This is the
law of convective equilibrium. But in the sun's atmosphere
gravitation alone is a misleading guide. Convective equilibrium,
which depends upon it, gives far too steep a temperature
gradient, for it yields a temperature of 6000° only 200 m.
within the free surface, whereas the chromosphere is of an average
thickness of 5000 m., and attains that temperature only at its
base. Probably the factor which thus diminishes the effective
SUN
PLATE L
(l) 1905, June 25<i. 4h. l6m. 153.
(2) 1905, June 25d. 4h. I7m. 155.
(3) 1905, June 25d. 4h. lym. 403.
(4) 1905, June 25d. 4h. igm. os.
ENLARGED PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SOLAR SURFACE. Taken by M. A. Hansky at the Observatory of Pulkowa
(1905, June 25), at intervals from 255. to 8os.
XXVI. 86.
PLATE IL
SUN
'90S. Jan. 30d. I2h. 8m. 273.
1905, Jan. Jld. nh. 17111. 275.
1905, Feb. 2d. loh. 5001. 28s.
1905, Feb. 8d. I3h. am. 5=.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SUN, TAKEN AT THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH.
Observer: E. W. Maunder. Instrument, Thompson Photoheliograph. Focal length, 9 ft. Aperture, 9 in.
SUN
condensing power of gravitation at the sun's borders is the
pressure of radiation.
The radiations from the sun must be considered in two parts,
corresponding respectively to the continuous spectrum and the
line-spectrum. The latter is considered below;
Body8""* il ** indicativeof the chemical elements from which
the lines can proceed, and its state at the time of
emission; the former is indicative only of the rate of loss of
energy from the sun by radiation, and is inwoven with a remark-
able group of physical theory and experiment, known as
the theory of the black body, or as black radiation. The
" black body " is an ideal body with surface so constituted
as to reflect no part of any radiations that fall upon it; in the
case of such a body Kirchhoff and Balfour Stewart showed that
unless energy were to be lost the rate of emission and absorption
must be in fixed ratio for each specific wave-length.
The name has no reference to the appearance of the body to the
eye ; when emitting energy, its radiations will be of all wave-lengths,
and if intense enough will appeal to the eye as luminous between
about wave-lengths 7600 and 4000 tenth-metres; this intensity is
a question of temperature, and as it is exquisitely inappropriate to
speak of the bulk of the solar radiations as black, the writer will
speak instead of amorphous radiations from an ideal radiator. The
ideal radiator is realized within any closed cavity, the walls of which
are maintained at a definite temperature. The space within is
filled with radiations corresponding to this temperature, and these
attain a certain equilibrium which permits the energy of radiation
to be spoken of as a whole, as a scalar quantity, without express
reference to the propagation or interference of the waves of which it
is composed. It is then found both by experiment and by thermo-
dynamic theory that in these amorphous radiations there is for each
temperature a definite distribution of the energy over the spectrum
according to a law which may be expressed by 064>(0X)dX, between the
wave-lengths X, X+dX; and as to the form of the function <t>, Planck
has shown (Sitzungsber. Berlin Akad. 544) that an intelligible theory
can be given which leads to the form <t>(6\) = ci/|e*p(c2/X0) — ij,
a form which agrees in a satisfactory way with all the experi-
ments. Fig. II shows the resulting
distribution of energy. The enclosed
area for each temperature represents the
total emission of energy for that tem-
perature, the abscissae are the wave-
lengths, and the ordinates the corre-
sponding intensities of emission for that
wave-length. It will be seen that the
maximum ordinates lie upon the curve
X0= constant dotted in the figure, and
so, as the temperature of the ideal body
rises, the wave-length of most intense
radiation shifts from the infra-red
\ towards the luminous part of the
P spectrum. When we speak of the sun's
radiation as a whole, it is assumed that
it is of the character of the radiations from an ideal radiator at an
appropriate temperature.
The first adequate determination of the character as well
as amount of solar radiation was made by S. P. Langley in
1893 at Mount Whitney in California (14,000 ft.), with the
bolometer, an exceedingly sensitive instrument which he in-
vented, and which enabled him to feel his way
thermally over the whole spectrum, noting all the
chief Fraunhofer lines and bands, which were shown
by sharp serrations, or more prolonged depressions of the
curve which gave the emissions, and discovering the lines
and bands of the invisible ultra-red portion. The holograph
thus obtained must be cleared of the absorption of the earth's
atmosphere, and that of the transmitting apparatus — a spectro-
scope and siderostat. The first in itself requires an elaborate
study. The first essential is an elevated observatory; the next
is a long series of holographs taken at different times of the year
and of the day, to examine the effect of interposing different
thicknesses of air and its variation in transparency (chiefly
due to water vapour). It is found that atmospheric absorption
is generally greater in summer than in winter, a difference of
20% being found between March and August; morning hours
show a rapid and often irregular increase of transparency,
culminating shortly after noon, after which the diminution is
slow and comparatively regular.
The resulting allowances and conclusion are illustrated in fig. 12,
The Solar
Constant.
:aken from an article by Langley in the Astrophysicol Journal
[1903). xvii. 2. The integrated emission of energy is given by the
area of the outer smoothed curve (4), and the conclusion from this
one holograph is that the " solar constant " is 2-54 calories. The
meaning of this statement is that, arguing away the earth's atmo-
sphere, which wastes about one-half what is received, a square
!From Astrophysical Journal, xvii. 2, by permission of the
University of Chicago Press.)
FlG. 12.
centimetre, exposed perpendicularly to the sun's rays, would receive
sufficient energy per minute to raise 2-54 grams of water l° C.
Langley's general determination of the constant was greater than
this — 3-0 to 3-5 calories; more recently C. G. Abbot at Mount
Wilson, with instruments and methods in which Langley's expe-
rience is embodied, has reduced it greatly, having proved that one
of Langley's corrections was erroneously applied. The results
vary between 1-89 and 2-22, and the variation appears to be solar,
not terrestrial. Taking the value at 2-1 the earth is therefore
receiving energy at the rate of 1-47 kilowatts per square metre,_or
1-70 horse-power per square yard. The corresponding intensity
at the sun's surface is 4-62X10* as great, or 6-79X10* kilowatts per
square metre = 7-88X10* horse-power per square yard — enough to
melt a thickness of 13-3 metres (=39-6 ft.) of ice, or to vaporize
1-81 metres ( = 5-92 ft.) of water per minute.
If we assume that the holograph of solar energy is simply a graph
of amorphous radiation from an ideal radiator, so that the con-
_ stants Ci, c2, of Planck's formula determined terrestrially
'n apply to it, the hyperbola of maximum intensity is X0 =
or the Sun. 2.g2iXlo7; and as the sun's maximum intensity occurs
for about X = 4900, we find the absolute temperature to be 5960° abs.
If we calculate from the total energy emitted, and not from the
position of maximum intensity, the same result is obtained within
a few degrees. But to call this the temperature of the sun's surface
is a convention, which sets aside some material factors. We may
ask first whether the matter of which the surface is composed _is
such as to give an ideal radiator; it is impossible to answer this,
but even if we admit a departure as great as the greatest known
terrestrial exception, the estimated temperature is diminished only
some 10%. A second question relates to the boundaries. The
theory refers to radiation homogeneous at all points within a single
closed boundary maintained at uniform temperature; in the actual
case we have a double boundary, one the sun's surface, and the other
infinitely remote, or say, non-existent, and at zero temperature;
and it is assumed that the density of radiation in the free space
varies inversely as the squares of the distance from the sun.
Though there is no experiment behind this assumption it can hardly
lead to error.
A third question is more difficult. The temperature gradient at
the confines of the photosphere must certainly ascend sharply at
first. When we say the sun's_ temperature is 6000°, of what level
are we speaking ? The fact is that radiation is not a superficial
phenomenon but a molar one, and Stefan's law, exact though it be,
is not an ultimate theory but only a convenient halting-place, and the
radiations of two bodies can only be compared by it when their surf aces
are similar in a specific way. One characteristic of such surfaces
is fixity, which has no trace of parallel in the sun. _ The confines
of the sun are visibly in a state of turmoil, for which a sufficient
cause can be assigned in the relative readiness with which the outer
portions part with heat to space, and so condensing produce a
state of static instability, so that the outer surface of the sun in place
of being fixed is continually circulating, portions at high tempera-
tures rising rapidly from the depths to positions where they will
part rapidly with their heat, and then, whether perceived or not,
descending again. It is clear that at least a considerable part of
the solar radiations comes from a more or less diffuse atmosphere.
With the help of theory and observation the part played by this
atmosphere is tolerably precise. Its absorptive effects upon the
radiations of the inner photosphere can be readily traced progres-
sively from the centre to the rim of the sun's disk, and it has
been measured as a whole by Langley, W. E. Wilson and others, and
for each separate wave-length by F. W. Very (Astrophys. Journ.,
vol. xvi.). The entries in the table on following page express the
reduction of intensity for different wave-lengths X, when the slit is set
at distances -yXradius from the centre of the disk.
Building upon these results A. Schuster has shown (Astrophys.
Journ., 'vol. xvi.) that, if for the sake of argument the solar atmo-
sphere be taken as homogeneous in temperature and quality, forming
a sheet which itself radiates as well as absorbs, the radiation which an
unshielded ideal radiator at 6000° would give is represented well,
both in sum and in the distribution of intensity with respect to
wave-length, by another ideal radiator — now the actual body of
SUN
the sun — at about 6700°, shielded by an atmosphere at an average
temperature of 5500°, and that such an atmosphere itself provides
about 0-3 of the total radiations that reach us.
In connexion with this subject it may be mentioned that the highest
measured temperature produced terrestrially, that of the arc, is
about 3500° to 4000° abs.
X.
7=0-5.
7 = 0-75.
7=0-95-
mm.
1500
1010
781
615
550
468
• 416
0-959
0-943
0-941
0-948
0-933
0-902
0-858
0-950
0-894
0-885
0-845
0-831
0-764
0-744
0-856
0-765
0-749
0-681
0-587
0-462
0-471
The energy which the sun pours out into space is, so far as we
know, and except for the minute fraction intercepted by the disks
Are of the °^ t^le P^anets (jsrniiinrini) absolutely lost for the pur-
poses of further mechanical effect. The amount is such
that, supposing the average specific heat of the sun's
body as high as that of water, there would result a general fall of
temperature of 2-0° to 2-5° C. in the lapse of each year. Hence,
if no other agency is invoked, at an epoch say *Xiooo years
ago, the sun's heat would have been greater than now by the
factor I+3C/3M, where nX6ooo° is taken for the sun's present mean
temperature. It seems possible that n is not a large number, and
if we take x equal, say, to 200, we come to the most recent estimate —
the astronomical — of the date of the earth's glacial epoch, when the
sun's radiation was certainly not much more than it is now, while this
factor would differ materially from unity. Hence loss does not go on
without regeneration, and we are apparently at a stage when there
is an approximate balance between them. It is in fact an impossi-
bility that loss should go on without regeneration, for if any part of
the sun's body loses heat, it will be unable to support the pressure
of neighbouring parts upon it; it will therefore be compressed, in
a general sense towards the sun's centre, the velocities of its mole-
cules will rise, and its temperature will again tend upwards. In
consequence of the radiation of heat the whole body will be more
condensed than before, but whether it is hotter or colder than before
will depend on whether the contraction set up is more or less than
enough to restore an exact balance. If we are dealing with com-
paratively recent periods there is no evidence of progressive change,
but if we go to remote epochs and suppose the sun to have once been
diffused in a nebulous state, it is clear that its shrinkage, in spite
of radiation, has left it hotter, so that the shrinkage has outrun
what would suffice to maintain its radiation. It is equally clear
that there is a point beyond which contraction cannot go, and
thereafter, if not before, the body will begin to grow colder. There
is thus a turning-point in the life of every star. The movement
towards contraction and consequent rise of temperature which
radiation sets up, like other motions, overruns the equilibrium-
point, only however by a minute amount ; the accumulated excesses
from all past time now stored in the sun would maintain its radia-
tions at their present rate for nXsooo years, that is, for a few
thousand years only.
There is a superior limit to the quantity of energy which can be
derived from contraction. If we suppose the sun's mass once
existed in a state of extreme diffusion, the energy yielded by collect-
ing it into its present compass would not suffice to maintain its
present rate of radiation for more than 17,000,000 years in the past;
nor if its mean density were ultimately to rise to eight times its
present amount, for more than the same period in the future. This
supposes the present density nearly uniform; if it is not uniform,
any amount added to the former period is subtracted from the
latter. _ A contraction of p-2* or 90 m. in the sun's radius would
maintain the present emission for 3500 years. Such a rate of
change would be quite insensible, and we can affirm that for recent
times there is no reason to look for any other factor than contraction ;
but if we consider the remote past it is a different matter. We know
nothing quantitatively of the radiations from a nebulous body:
and it is quite possible that the loss of radiant energy in this early
stage was very small ; but it is at least as certain as any other physical
inference that 17,000,000 years ago the earth itself was of its present
dimensions, a comparatively old body with sea and living creatures
upon it, and it is impossible to believe that the sun's radiations were
wholly different; but, if they were not, they have been maintained
from some other source than contraction.
The fall of meteoric matter into the sun must be a certain source
of energy; if considerable, this external supply would retard the
sun's contraction and so increase its estimated age, but tP bring
about a reconciliation with geological theory, very nearly the whole
amount must be thus supplied. It is easy to calculate that this
would be produced by an annual fall of matter equal to one nineteen
millionth of the sun s mass, which would make an envelope eight
metres thick, at the sun's mean density; this would be collected
during the year from a spherical space extending beyond the orbit
of Jupiter. The earth would intercept an amount of it proportional
to the solid angle it subtends at the sun; that is to say, it would
receive a deposit of meteoric matter about one-tenth of a millimetre,
of density say 2, over its whole surface in the course of the year.
So far there is nothing impossible in the theory. But there are two
fatal objections. The sun is a small target for a meteorite
coming from infinity to hit, and if this considerable quantity
reaches its mark, a much greater amount will circulate round the
sun in parabolas, and there is no evidence of it where it would
certainly make itself felt, in perturbations of the planets. A second
objection is that it fails in its purpose, because 20,000,000 years ago
it would give a sun quite as much changed as the contraction
theory gave. If we examine chemical sources for maintenance of
the sun s heat, combustion and other forms of combination are
out of the question, because no combinations of different elements
are known to exist at a temperature of 6000°. A source which
seems plausible, perhaps only because it is less easy to test, is
rearrangement of the structure of the elements' atoms. An atom
is no longer figured as indivisible, it is made up of more or less
complex, and more or less permanent, systems in internal circulation.
Now under the law of attraction according to the inverse square
of the distance, or any other inverse power beyond the first, the
energy of even a single pair of material points is unlimited, if their
possible closeness of approach to one another is unlimited. If the
sources of energy within the atom can be drawn upon, and the
phenomena of radio-activity leave no doubt about this, there is
here an incalculable source of heat which takes the cogency out of
any other calculation respecting the sources maintaining the sun's
radiation. An equivalent statement of the same conclusion may
be put thus: supposing a gaseous nebula is destined to condense
into a sun, the elementary matter of which it is composed will develop
in the process into our known terrestrial and solar elements, parting
with energy as it does so.
The continuous spectrum leads to no inference, except that of the
temperature of the central globe; but the multitude of dark lines
by which it is crossed reveal the elements composing _. ,
the truly gaseous cloaks which enclose it. A table of
these lines is a physical document as exact as it is
intricate. The visual portion extends from about W.1-37OO to 7200
tenth-metres; the ultra-violet begins about 2970, beyond which
point our atmosphere is almost perfectly opaque to it; the infra-
red can be traced for more than ten times the visual length, but
the gaps which indicate absorption-lines have not been mapped
beyond 9870. The ultra-violet and the visual' portion are re-
corded photographically; Rowland's classical work shows some
5700 lines in the former, and 14,200 in the latter, on a graduated
scale of intensities from loop to o, or oopo, for the faintest lines;
between a quarter and a third of these lines have been identified,
fully 2000 belonging to iron, and several hundred to water vapour
and other atmospheric absorption. The infra-red requires special
appliances; it has been examined visually by the help of phosphor-
escent plates (Becquerel), and with special photographic plates
(Abney); but the most efficient way is to use the bolometer or
radiomicrometer; by this means some 500 or 600 lines have been
mapped.
The first problem of the spectrum is to identify the effects of
atmospheric absorption, especially oxygen, carbonic acid and
water vapour; this is done generally by comparing the spectra of the
sun at great and small zenith-distances, or by reducing the atmo-
spheric effect by observing from a great elevation, as did P. J. C.
Janssen from the summit of Mont Blanc, but the only unquestion-
able test is to find those lines which are not touched by Doppler
effect when the receding and advancing limbs of the sun are com-
pared (Cornu) ; by this method H. F. Newall has verified the presence
of cyanogen in the photosphere, and it had previously served to
disprove the solar origin of certain oxygen lines. In fact, doubt long
surrounded the presence of oxygen in the sun, and was not set at
rest until K. D. T. Runge and F. Paschen in 1896 identified an
unmistakable oxygen triplet in the infra-red, which is shown terres-
trially only in the vacuum tube, where the spectrum is very different
from that of atmospheric absorptions. The absence of lines of the
spectrum of any element from the solar spectrum is no proof that
the element is absent from the sun; apart from the possibility that
the high temperature and other circumstances may show it trans-
formed into some unknown mode, which is perhaps the explanation
of the absence of nitrogen, chlorine and other non-metals; if the
element is of high atomic weight we should expect it to be found
only in the lowest strata of the sun's atmosphere, where its tempera-
ture was nearly equal to that of the central globe, and so any absorp-
tion line which it showed would be weak. This is undoubtedly the
case with lead and silver, and probably with mercury also. In
Rowland's table lines from the arc-spectra of the following are
identified. The order is approximately that of the numbers of
identified lines. Excepting strontium, those which are low upon
the list are represented also by lines of small intensity. The chromo-
sphere adds the three last of the list. The strongest lines are
those due to calcium, iron, hydrogen, sodium, nickel, in the order
named.
SUN
89
Iron
Nickel
Titanium
Manganese
Chromium
Cobalt
Carbon
Vanadium
Zirconium
Cerium
Calcium
Scandium
Neodymium
Lanthanum
Yttrium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Palladium
Magnesium
Sodium
Silicon
Hydrogen
Strontium
Barium
Aluminium
Cadmium
Rhodium
Erbium
Zinc
Copper
Silver
Germanium
Glucinum
Tin
Lead
Potassium
Bismuth (?)
Tellurium
Indium
Oxygen
Tungsten
Mercury (?)
Helium
Ytterbium
Europium
The spectrum taken near the limb of the sun shows increased
general absorption, but also definite peculiarities of great interest in
connexion with the spectra of the spots, which it will be convenient
to describe first.
When the slit of the spectroscope is set across a spot, it shows, as
might be expected, a general reduction of brightness as we pass from
the photosphere to the penumbra; and a still greater one
s'iai as we Pass to tlle um^ra- This is not a uniform shade
over the whole length of the spectrum, but shows in
bands or flutings of greater or less darkness, which in places and at
intervals have been resolved by Young, Duner and other unques-
tionable observers into hosts of dark lines. Besides this the
spectrum shows very many differences from the mean spectrum
of the disk, the interpretation of which is at present far from clear.
Generally speaking, the same absorption lines are present, but with
altered intensities, which differ from one spot to another. Some
lines of certain elements are always seen fainter or thinner than on
the photosphere, or even wholly obliterated ; others sometimes show
the same features, but not always; other lines of the same elements,
perhaps originating at a level above the spot, are not affected ; there
are also bright streaks where even the general absorption of the spot
is absent, and sometimes such a bright line will correspond to a dark
line on the photosphere; most generally the lines are intensified,
generally in breadth, sometimes in darkness, sometimes in both
together, sometimes in one at the expense of the other; certain lines
not seen in the photosphere show only across the umbra, others
cross umbra and penumbra, others reach a short distance over the
photosphere. A few of the lines show a double reversal, the dark
absorption line being greatly increased in breadth and showing a
bright emission line in its centre. The umbra of a spot is generally
not tormented by rapid line-of -sight motions; where any motion has
been found G. E. Hale and W. S. Adams make its direction down-
wards ; but round the rim and on bridges the characteristic distortions
due to eruptive prominences are often observed. There appears to
be some connexion between prominences and spots; quiescent promi-
nences are sometimes found above the spots, and W. M. Mitchell
records an eruptive prominence followed next day in the same place
by the appearance of a small spot. It does not appear that the
affected lines follow in any way the sun-spot cycle. The radiation
from a spot changes little as it approaches the sun's limb; in fact
Hale and Adams find that the absorption from the limb itself differs
from that of the centre of the disk in a manner exactly resembling
that from a spot, the same lines being strengthened or weakened
in the same way, though in much less degree, with, however, one
material exception : if a line is winged in the photosphere the wings
are generally increased in the spot, but on the limb they are weakened
or obliterated. If the spot spectrum is compared with that of the
chromosphere it appears that the lines of most frequent occurrence
in the latter are those least affected in the spot, and the high level
chromospheric lines not at all ; the natural interpretation is that the
spot is below the chromosphere. As to whether the spots are regions
of higher or lower temperature than the photosphere, the best
qualified judges are reserved or discordant, but recent evidence seems
to point very definitely to a lower temperature. Hale and Adams
have shown that the spectrum contains, besides a strong line-
spectrum of titanium, a faint banded spectrum which is that of
titanium oxide, and a second banded part remarked by Newall has
been identified by A. L. Fowler as manganese hydride. The band
spectrum, which corresponds to the compound or at least to the
molecule of titanium, certainly belongs to a lower temperature than
the line spectrum of the same metal. Hence above the spots there
are vapours of temperature low enough to give the banded spectra
of this refractory metal, while only line spectra of sodium, iron and
others fusible at more moderate temperatures are found (see also
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH).
The chromosphere, which surrounds the photosphere, is a cloak
of gases of an average depth of 5000 m., in a state of luminescence
less intense than that of the photosphere. Hence when
the photosphere is viewed through it an absorption
spectrum is shown, but when it can be viewed separately
a bright line spectrum appears. Most of the metallic vapours that
produce this lie too close to the photosphere for the separation to be
made except during eclipses, when a Hash spectrum of bright lines
shines out for, say, five seconds after the continuous spectrum has
disappeared, and again before it reappears (see ECLIPSE). F. W.
Dyson has measured some eight hundred lines in the lower chromo-
sphere and identified them with emission spectra of the following
Chromo-
sphere,
elements: hydrogen, helium, carbon with the cyanogen band,
sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, calcium, scandium, tita-
nium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, zinc, strontium,
yttrium, zirconium, barium, lanthanum, cerium, neodymium,
ytterbium, lead, europium, besides a few doubtful identifications;
it is a curious fact that the agreement is with the spark spectra of
these elements, where the photosphere shows exclusively or more
definitely the arc lines, which are generally attributed to a lower
temperature. In the higher chromosphere the following were
recognized: helium and parhelium, hydrogen, strontium, calcium,
iron, chromium, magnesium, scandium and titanium.
In the higher chromosphere on occasions metallic gases are carried
up to such a level that without an eclipse a bright line spectrum of
many elements may be seen, but it is always possible to see those
of hydrogen and helium, and by opening the slit of the spectroscope
so as to weaken still further the continuous spectrum from the
photosphere (now a mere reflection) the actual forms of the gaseous
structures called prominences round the sun's rim may be seen.
In the visual spectrum there are four hydrogen lines and one helium
line in which the actual shapes may be examined. The features seen
differ according to the line used, as the circumstances prevailing at
different levels of the chromosphere call out one line or another with
greater intensity. The helium formations do not reach the sun's
limb, and it is another puzzling detail that the spectrum of the disk
shows no absorption line of anything like an intensity to correspond
with the emission line of helium in the chromosphere. The promi-
nences are of two kinds, quiescent and eruptive. Some of the Former
are to be seen at the limb on most occasions; they may hang for days
about the same place; they reach altitudes of which the average is
perhaps 20,000 m.,' and show the spectral lines of hydrogen and
helium. Sometimes they float above the surface, sometimes they
are connected with it by stems or branches, and they show delicate
striated detail like cirrus cloud. The eruptive prominences, called
also metallic, because it is they which show at their bases a complete
bright line spectrum of the metallic elements, rush upwards at speeds
which it is difficult to associate with transfers of matter; the velocity
often exceeds 100 m. a second; W. M. Mitchell watched one rise at
250 m. a second to the height of 70,000 m., and in five minutes after
it had faded away and the region was quiet. This is remarkable
only in point of velocity. Much greater heights occur. Young
records one which reached an elevation of 350,000 m., or more than
three-quarters of the sun's radius. Since identification of spectral
lines is a matter of extreme refinement, any cause which may displace
lines from their normal places, or otherwise change their features,
must be examined scrupulously. We have seen above numerous
applications of the Doppler effect. Two other causes of displace-
ment call for mention in their bearing on the solar spectrum —
pressure and anomalous dispersion. The pressure which produces
a continuous spectrum in gases at a temperature of 6000° must be
very great. Recent experiments on arc spectra at pressures up to
100 atmospheres by W. J. Humphreys and by W. C.
Duffield show several suggestive peculiarities, though
their bearing on solar phenomena is not yet determined.
The lines are broadened (as was already known), the
intensity of emission is much increased, but some
are weakened and some strengthened, nor is the amount of
broadening the same for all lines, nor is it always symmetrical,
being sometimes greater on the red side; but besides the effect of
unsymmetrical broadening, every line is displaced towards the red;
different lines again behave differently, and they may be arranged
somewhat roughly in a few groups according to their behaviour;
reversals are also effected, and the reversed line does not always
correspond with the most intense part of the emission line. For
example, in the iron spectrum three groups about wave-length
4500 are found by Duffield to be displaced respectively 0-17, 0-34,
0-66 tenth-metres, at too atmospheres. This shift towards the
red J. Larmor suggests is due to relaxation of the spring of the sur-
rounding ether by reason of the crowding of the molecules; a shift of
0-17 tenth-metres would, if interpreted by Doppler's principle, have
been read as a receding velocity of n km. per second. It is clear
that these results may give a simple key to some puzzling anomalies,
and on the other hand, they may throw a measure of uncertainty
over absolute determinations of line-of -sight velocities.
The possible applications of anomalous dispersion are varied
and interesting, and have recently had much attention given to
them. W. H. Julius holds that this sole fact robs of .
objective reality almost all the features of the sun, ^topers/on
including prominences, spots, faculae and flocculi, and
even the eleven-year period. Though few follow him so far, an ex-
planation of the principle will make it clear that there are numerous
possible opportunities for anomalous dispersion to qualify inferences
from the spectrum. Theoretically anomalous dispersion is insepar-
able from absorption. When a system vibrating in a free period
of its own encounters, say through the medium of an enveloping
aether, a second system having a different free period, and sets it in
vibration, the amplitude of the second vibration is inconsiderable,
except when the periods approach equality. In such a case the
two systems must be regarded as a single more complex one, the
absorbed vibration becomes large, though remaining always finite,
and the transmitted vibration undergoes a remarkable change in
Effectof
Pressure on
Spectral
Lines.
9o
SUN
its period. This is illustrated in fig. 13, where the effect of a single
absorbing system upon vibrations of all wave-lengths is shown.
The line ij shows the factor by
which the index of refraction of
the transmitted vibration is
multiplied, and the curve p the
intensity of the absorbed vibra-
tion for that wave-length. The
relative increase of index takes
place on the side where the wave-
length is greater than that of the
•. ^ absorbing system. The effect of
—" such a change may be to bend
**IG- '3- back the coloured ribbon of the
spectrum upon itself, but just where this is done all its light will be
robbed to maintain the absorbing system in vibration. Theory is here
much less intricate than fact, but it seems to cover the most important
features and to be well confirmed. Omitting extreme examples,
like fuchsin, where the spectrum is actually cut in two, it is of more
general importance to detect the phenomenon in the ordinary
absorption lines of the metallic elements. This has been done most
completely by L. Puccianti, who measured it by the interferometer
in the case of more than a hundred lines of different metals; he found
its degree to differ much in different lines of the same spectrum.
Differences of refractive index produce their greatest dispersive
effects when incidence on the refracting surface is nearly tangential.
W. H. Julius has used this fact in an admirable experiment to make
the effects visible in the case of the D lines of sodium. A burner
was constructed which gave a sheet of flame 750 mm. long and
i mm. thick and to which sodium could be supplied in measured
quantity. Light from an arc lamp was so directed that only that
part reached the spectroscope which fell upon the flame of the
burner at grazing incidence, and was thereby refracted. As the
supply of sodium was increased, the lines, besides becoming broader,
did so unsymmetrically, and a shaded wing or band appeared on
one side or the other according as the beam impinged on one side
or the other of the flame. These bands Julius calls dispersion
bands, and then, assuming that a species of tubular structure pre-
vails within a large part of the sun (such as the filaments of the
corona suggest for that region), he applies the weakening of the light
to explain, for instance, the broad dark H and K calcium lines,
and the sun-spots, besides many remoter applications. But it
should be noted that the bands of his experiment are not due to
anomalous dispersion in a strict sense. They are formed now on one
side, now on the other, of the absorption line ; but the rapid increase
of refractive index which accompanies true anomalous dispersion,
•and might be expected to produce similar bands by scattering the
ifgbt, appears both from theory and experiment to belong to the
side of greater wave-length exclusively. Julius's phenomenon
seems inseparable from grazing incidence, and hence any explanation
it supplies depends upon his hypothetical tubular structure for layers
of equal density. There are other difficulties. In calcium, for
instance, the g line shows in the laboratory much stronger anomalous
dispersion than H and K; but in the solar spectrum H and K are
broad out of all comparison to g. Hale has pointed out other
respects in which the explanation fails to fit facts. In connexion
with the question whether the phenomena of the sun are actually
very different from what they superficially appear, A. Schmidt's
theory of the photosphere deserves mention; it explains how the
appearance of a sharp boundary might be due to a species of mirage.
Consider the rays which meet the eye (at unit distance)
at an angle d from the centre of the sun's disk; in their
previous passage through the partially translucent por-
tions of this body we have the equation sin d = rn sin »'
(fig. 14). Now generally it will decrease as r increases,
but the initial value of M is not likely to be more than, say, twice
its final value of unity, while r increases manifold in the same range,
hence in general r/t will increase with r, and therefore for a given
value of d, i will continually increase as we go inwards up to 90°,
which it will attain for a certain value of r, and this will be the deepest
Schmidt's
Theory of
the Photo-
tphere.
FIG. 14.
level of the sun's body from which rays will reach the eye at the
given angle d. But if there is a region, say from r' to r* throughout
which rp decreases as r increases, any ray which cuts the outer
envelope r' at an acute angle will cut the inner one r" also, and can
be traced still further inwards before the angle i amounts to 90°.
The Sun'*
Distance.
Apart then from absorption there will be a discontinuous change
in brightness in the apparent disk at that value of the angular
radius d which corresponds to tangential emission from the upper
lever r' of this mirage-formjng region. Of course we are unable to
say whether such a region is an actuality in the sun, on the earth
it is an exception and transient, but the greater the dimensions of
the body the more probable is its occurrence. The theory can be
put to a certain test by considering its implications with respect to
colour. The greater M is, the greater would be the value of d, the
apparent angular radius, corresponding to horizontal emission from
a given levelr, and that whether we accept Schmidt's theory or not.
Hence if the sun's diameter were measured through differently
coloured screens, the violet disk must appear greater than the red.
Now measures made by Auwers with the Cape heliometer showed
no difference, amounting to o-i", and so far negative the idea that
the rays reach us after issuing from a level where M is sensibly differ-
ent from unity. Presumably, then, the inner emissions are absorbed
and those which reach us start from very near the surface.
The sun's distance is the indispensable link which connects
terrestrial measures with all celestial ones, those of the moon alone
excepted; hence the exceptional pains taken to deter-
mine it. The transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882 were
observed by expeditions trained for the purpose before-
hand with every possible foresight, and sent out by the British,
French and German governments to occupy suitable stations
distributed over the world, but they served only to demonstrate
that no high degree of accuracy can ever be expected from this
method. It is the atmosphere of Venus that spoils the observation.
Whatever be the subsequent method of reduction, the instant is
required when the planet s disk is in internal contact with that of the
sun ; but after contact has plainly passed it still remains connected
with the sun's rim by a " black drop," with the result that trained
observers using similar instruments set up a few feet from one another
sometimes differed by half a minute of time in their record. It is
little wonder, then, that the several reductions of the collected results
were internally discordant so as to leave outstanding a considerable
" probable error," but showed themselves able to yield very different
conclusions when the same set was discussed by different persons.
Thus from the British observations of 1874 Sir G. B. Airy deduced
a parallax of 8-76' and E. J. Stone 8-88'; from the French observa-
tions of the same date Stone deduced 8-88* andV. Puiseux 8-91*.
The first really adequate determinations of solar parallax were those
of Sir David Gill, measured by inference from the apparent diurnal
shift of Mars among the stars as the earth turned diurnally upon its
axis; the observations were made at the island of Ascension in 1878.
The disk of Mars and his colour are certain disadvantages, and Gill
afterwards superseded his own work by treating in the same way
the three minor planets Victoria, Iris and Sappho — the last was
observed by W. L. Elkin. These planets are more remote than Mars,
but that loss is more than outweighed by the fact that they are
indistinguishable in appearance from stars. The measures were
made with the Cape heliometer and have never been superseded,
for the latest results with the minor planet Eros exactly confirm
Gill's result — 8-80* — while they decidedly diminish the associated
probable error. The planet Eros was discovered in 1899, and
proved to have an orbit between the earth and Mars, while every
one of the other five or six hundred known asteroids lies between
Mars and Jupiter. Its mean distance from the sun is ^1-46 times
that of the earth; but, besides, the eccentricity of its orbit is
large (0-22), so that at the most favourable opportunity it can
come within one-seventh of the distance of the sun. This favour-
able case is not realized at every opposition, but in 1900 the distance
was as little as one-third of that of the sun, and it was observed trom
October 1900 to January 1901 photographically upon a concerted
but not absolutely uniform plan by many observatories, of which
the chief were the French national observatories, Greenwich,
Cambridge, Washington and Mount Hamilton. The planet showed
a stellar disk varying in magnitude from 9 to 12. On some plates
the stars were allowed to trail and the planet was followed, in others
the reverse procedure was taken; in either case the planet's position
is measured by referring it to " comparison stars " of approximately
its own magnitude situated within 25' to 30' of the centre of the
plate, while these stars are themselves fixed by measurement from
brighter " reference stars," the positions of which are found by
meridian observations if absolute places are desired. The best
results seem to be obtained by comparing an evening's observations
with those of the following morning at the same observatory; the
reference can then be made to the same stars and errors in their
position are therefore virtually eliminated ; even if the observations
of a morning with those of the following evening are used the prob-
able error is doubled. The observations at Greenwich thus reduced
gave errors ±0-0036* and ±0-0080* respectively. The general
result is 8-800* ±0-0044*. To collate the whole of the material accu-
mulated at different parts of the world is a much more difficult task;
it requires first of all a most carefully constructed star-catalogue,
upon which the further discussion may be built. The discussion
was completed in 1909 by A. R. Hinks, and includes the material from
some hundreds of plates taken at twelve observatories; in general
it may be said the discussion proves that the material is distinctly
SUN-BIRD
91
heterogeneous, and that in places where it would hardly be expected.
The result is nearly the same as found at Greenwich alone, 8-806*
±0-0026*, or a mean distance of 92,830,000 m. =1-493X10" cm.
wfth an error which is as probably below as above 30,000 miles.
The sun's distance enters into other relations, three of which
permit of its determination, viz. the equation of light, the constant
of aberration, and the parallactic inequality of the moon ; the value
of the velocity of propagation of light enters in the reduction of the
two first, but as this is better known than the sun's parallax, no
disadvantage results. The equation of light is the time taken by
light to traverse the sun's mean distance from the earth ; it can be
found by the acceleration or retardation of the eclipses of Jupiter's
satellites according as Jupiter is approaching opposition or conjunc-
tion with the sun; a recent analysis shows that its value is 498-6",
which leads to the same value of the parallax as above, but the
internal discrepancies of the material put its authority upon a
much lower level. The constant of aberration introduces the sun's
distance by a comparison between the velocity of the earth in its
orbit and the velocity of light. Its determination is difficult, be-
cause it is involved with questions of the changing orientation of the
earth's axis of rotation. S. C. Chandler considers the value 20-52"
is well established; this would give a parallax of 8-78". The chief
term in the lunar longitude which introduces the ratio of the
distances of the sun and moon from the earth explicitly is
known as the parallactic inequality ; by analysis of the observations
P. H. Cowell finds that its coefficient is 124-75*, which according to
E. W. Brown's lunar theory would imply a parallax 8-778*.
The best discussion of the sun's apparent diameter has been
made by G. F. J. A. Auwers, in connexion with his reduction of
the German observations of the transit of Venus of
TheSuas jg.,^ amj l8g2 jt was foun(j that personality played
0/mcns/ofls.an important part; tne average effect might be l",
but frequently it reached 3", 4", 5* or even 10*, with the same
instrument and method, nor was it fixed for the same observer.
Some 15,000 observations, from 1851 to 1883, taken by one hundred
observers at Greenwich, Washington, Oxford and Neuchatel,
cleared as far as possible of personal equation, showed no sign of
change that could with probability be called progressive or periodic,
particularly there was no sign of adhesion to the sun-spot period.
Better determinations of the actual value came from the neliometer,
and gave an angular diameter of 31' 59-26"±o-lo", and the value
of the polar diameter exceeded the equatorial by 0-038" ±0-023".
The conclusion is that the photosphere is very sharply defined and
shows no definite departure from a truly spherical shape. Using
the parallax 8-80*, the resulting diameter of the sun is 864,000 m.
= 1-390X10" cm.
If we regard the sun as one of the stars, the first four questions
we should seek to answer are its distance from its neighbours,
proper motion, magnitude and spectral type. In some
The Sun as respects tne systematic prosecution of these inquiries
has only begun, and properly considered they involve
vast researches into the whole stellar system. It would take us
too far to treat them at any length, but it may be convenient to
summarize some of the results. The sun's nearest neighbour is
« Centauri, which is separated from it by 270,000 times the earth's
distance, a space which it would take light four years to traverse.
It is fairly certain that not more than six stars lie within twice this
distance. No certain guide has been found to tell which stars are
nearest to us; both brightness and large proper motion, though of
course increased by proximity, are apparently without systematic
average relation to parallax.
The sun's proper motion among the stars has been sought in the
past as the assumption that the universe of stars showed as a whole
no definite displacement of its parts, and, on this assumption,
different methods of reduction which attributed apparent relative
displacement of parts to real relative displacement of the sun agreed
fairly well in concluding that the " apex of the sun's way " was
directed to a point in right ascension 275°, declination + 37° (F. W.
Dyson and W. G. Thackeray), that is to say, not far from the star
Vega in the constellation Lyra, and was moving thither at a rate of
twelve miles per second. But recent researches by J. C. Kapteyn and
A. S. Eddingtpn, confirmed by Dyson, show that there is better
ground for believing that the universe is composed mainly of two
streams of stars, the members of each stream actuated by proper
motions of the same sense and magnitude on the average, than that
the relative motions of the stars with one another are fortuitous
(see STAR). This removes completely the ground upon which the
direction of the sun's way has hitherto been calculated, and leaves
the question wholly without answer.
A star is said to rise one unit in magnitude when the logarithm of
its brightness diminishes by 0-4. Taking as a star of magnitude
I a Tauri or a Aquilae, where would the sun stand in this scale ?
Several estimates have been made which agree well together;
whether direct use is made of known parallaxes, or comparison is
made with binaries of well-determined orbits of the same spectral
type as the sun, in which therefore it may be assumed there is the
same relation between mass and brilliancy (Gore), the result is found
that the sun's magnitude is —26-5, or the sun is 10" times as brilliant
as a first magnitude star; it would follow that the sun viewed from
a Centauri would appear as of magnitude 0-7, and from a star of
average distance which has a parallax certainly less than o-l", it
would be at least fainter than the fifth magnitude, or, say, upon the
border-line for naked-eye visibility. We cannot here do more than
refer to the spectral type of the sun. It is virtually identical with
a group known as the yellow stars," of which the most prominent
examples are Capella, Pollux and Arcturus; this is not the most
numerous group, however; more than one half of all the stars whose
spectra are known belong to a simpler type in which the metallic
lines are faint or absent, excepting hydrogen and sometimes helium,
which declare themselves with increased prominence. These are
the white stars, and the most prominent examples are Sirius, Vega
and Procyon. It is commonly though not universally held that the
difference between the white and yellow stars arises from their
stages of development merely, and that the former represent the
earlier stage. This again is disputed, and there is indeed as yet
slight material for a decisive statement.
Summary of Numerical Data.
Parallax : 8-806* =*= 0-003*.
Mean distance from earth: 92,830,000 m. = i -493X10" cm.
(Time taken by light to traverse this distance: 498-6*).
Diameter: Angular, at mean distance, 1919-3*.
Linear, logXearth's equatorial diameter = 864 ,000
m. = I-390XIO11 cm.
Mass: 332,oooXmass of the earth.
Mean density: •256Xmean density of earth = 1-415.
Equator ; inclination to ecliptic: 7 15'.
Longitude of ascending node (1908-0), 74' 28-6'.
Rotation period ; latitude o° : 24'46d
30°:26-43<J
6o°:29-63<i
8o°:30-56d
Solar constant, or units of energy received per minute per square
centimetre at earth's mean distance: 2-1 calories.
Effective temperature, as an ideal radiator or " black body":
6000° abs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Nearly all the chief data respecting the sun have
lately been and still are under active revision, so that publications
have tended to fall rapidly out of date. The most important series
is the Astrophysical Journal, which is indispensable, and in itself
almost sufficient ; among other matter it contains all the publications
of Mount Wilson Solar Observatory (Professor G. E. Hale), H. A.
Rowland's Tables of Wave-Lengths, many theoretical papers, and some
reproductions of important papers issued elsewhere. But there are also
papers which cannot be disregarded in Monthly Notices and Memoirs
of the Royal Astronomical Society, and in Astronomische Nachrichttf.'
S. P. Langley's Researches on Solar Heat are published by the Wdr
Department (Signal Service, xv.) (Washington, 1884), .and Gill's
parallax researches in Cape Annals, vols. vi., vii. Auwer's discussion
of the sun's diameter is in the discussion of the transit of Venus
observations for 1874 and 1882. The best single volume upon the
whole subject is C. A. Young's The Sun, 2nd ed. (Inter. Sci. Series), and
an excellent summary of solar spectroscopy, as far as rapid progress
permits, is in Frost's translation of Scheiner, Astronomical Spectro-
scopy (1894). Schemer's volume, Strahlung u. Temperatur d. Sonne
(1899), contains a great quantity of interesting matter carefully
collected and discussed. For authoritative declarations upon the
latest moot points the Transactions of the International Union for
Solar Research (Manchester) may be consulted, vol. i. having been
issued in 1906, and vol. ii. in 1908. (R. A. SA.)
SUN-BIRD, a name more or less in use for many years,1 and
now generally accepted as that of a group of over 100 species
of small birds, but when or by whom it was first applied is un-
certain. Those known to the older naturalists were for a long
while referred to the genus Certhia (TREE-CREEPER, q.v.) or
some other group, but they are now fully recognized as forming
a valid Passerine family Nectariniidae, from the name Nec-
tar inia invented in 1881 by Illiger. They inhabit the Ethiopian,
Indian, and Australian regions,2 and, with some notable
exceptions, the species mostly have but a limited range. They
are considered to have their nearest allies in the Meliphagidae
(see HONEY-EATER) and the members of the genus Zoster ops;
1 Certainly since 1826 (cf. Stephens, Gen. Zoology, vol. xiv. pt. I,
p. 292). W. Swainson (Nat. Hist., and Classif. Birds, i. 145) says
they are " so called by the natives of Asia in allusion to their splendid
and shining plumage," but gives no hint as to the nation or language
wherein the name originated. By the French they have been much
longer known as " Spuimangas," from the Madagascar name of one
of the species given in 1658 by Flacourt as Soumangha.
* One species occurs in Baluchistan, which is perhaps outside of
the Indian region, but the fact of its being found _there may be a
reason for including that country within the region, just as the
presence of another species in the Jordan valley induces zoographers
to regard the Ghor as an outlier of the Ethiopian region.
SUN-BITTERN
but their relations to the last require further investigation.
Some of them are called " humming-birds " by Anglo-Indians
and colonists, but with that group, which, as before indicated
(see HUMMING-BIRD), belongs to the Picariae, the sun-birds,
being true Passeres, have nothing to do. Though part of the
plumage in many sun-birds gleams with metallic lustre, they
owe much of their beauty to feathers which are
not lustrous, though almost as vivid,1 and the
most wonderful combination of the brightest
colours — scarlet, purple, blue, green and yellow
— is often seen in one and the same bird. One
group, however, is dull in hue, and but for the
presence in some of its members of yellow or
flame-coloured precostal tufts, which are very
characteristic of the family, might at first sight
be thought not to belong here. Graceful in form
and active in motion, sun-birds flit from flower to
flower, feeding on small insects which are attracted
by the nectar and on the nectar itself; but this
is usually done while perched and rarely on the
wing as is the habit of humming-birds. The
extensible tongue, though practically serving the same end in
both groups, is essentially different in its quasi-tubular
structure, and there is also considerable difference between
this organ in the Nectariniidae and the Meliphagidae.2 The
nests of the sun-birds, domed with a penthouse porch, and
pensile from the end of a bough or leaf, are very neatly built.
The eggs are generally three in number, of a dull white covered
with confluent specks of greenish grey.
The Nectariniidae form the subject of a sumptuous Monograph
by G. E. Shelley (410, London, 1876-1880), in the coloured plates of
which full justice is done to the varied beauties which these gloriously
arrayed little beings display, while almost every available source of
information has been consulted and the results embodied. This
author divides the family into three sub-families: Neodrepaninae,
consisting of a single genus and species peculiar to Madagascar;
Nectariniinae, containing 9 genera, one of which, Cinnyns, has more
than half the number of species in the whole group ; and Arachno-
therinae (sometimes known as "spider-hunters"), with 2 genera
including 1 1 species — all large in size and plain in hue. To these he
also adds the genus Promerops,3 composed of 2 species of South
African birds, of very different appearance, whose affinity to the rest
can as yet hardly be taken as proved. According to E. L. Layard,
the habits of the Cape Promerops, its mode of modification, and the
character of its eggs are verv unlike those of the ordinary Nectari-
niidae. In the British M\iseum Catalogue of Birds (ix. 1-126
and 291) H. J. Gadow has more recently treated of this family,
reducing the number of both genera and species, though adding a
new genus discovered since the publication of Shelley's work.
(A. N.)
SUN-BITTERN, the Eurypyga helias of ornithology, a bird
that has long exercised systematists; and one whose proper
place can scarcely yet be said to have been determined to
everybody's satisfaction.
According to Pallas, who in 1781 gave (N. nordl. Beytrage,\o\.\i.
pp. 48-54, pi. 3) a good description and fair figure of it, calling it the
Surinamische Sonnenreyger," Ardea helias, the first author to
notice this form was Fermin, whose account of it, under the name of
" Sonnenvogel," was published at Amsterdam in 1759 (Descr.,
&c., de Surinam, ii. 192), but was vague and meagre. In 1772,
however, it was satisfactorily figured and described in Rozier's
Observations sur la physique, &c. (vol. v. pt. I, p. 212, p[.l~), as the Petit
poon des roseaux — by which name it was known in French Guiana.4
A few years later D'Aubenton figured it in his well-known series (PI.
Enl., p. 782), and then in 1781 came Buffon (H.N., Oiseaux, vol. viii.
pp. 169, 170, pi. xiy.), who, calling it " Le Caurlcl ou petit paon des
roses," announced it as hitherto undescribed and placed it among the
Rails. In the same year appeared the above-cited paper by Pallas,
who, notwithstanding his remote abode, was better informed as to
its history than his great contemporary, whose ignorance, real or
affected, of his fellow-countryman's priority in the field is inexplic-
able; and it must have been by inadvertence that, writing " roses "
1 Cf. H. J. Gadow, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1882), pp. 409-421, pis.
xxvii., xxviii.
1 Ibid. (1883), pp. 62-69, pl- xvi.
* According to M. J. Brisson (Ornithologie, ii. 460), this name was
the invention of Reaumur. It seems to have become Anglicized.
4 This figure and description were repeated in the later issue of
this work in 1777 (vol. i. pp. 679-781, pi. i).
for " roseaux," Buffon turned the colonial name from one that had
a good meaning into nonsense. In 1783 Boddaert, equally ignorant
of what Pallas had done, called it Scolopax Solaris,* and in referring
it to that genus he was followed by Latham (Synopsis, iii. 156), bv
whom it was introduced to English readers as the ' Caurale Snipe.
Thus within a dozen years this bird was referred to three perfectly
distinct genera, and in those days genera meant much more than
(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ix., " Birds. ' by permission of
Macinillan & Co., Ltd.)
FIG. i. — Sun-Bittern (Eurypyga helias).
they do now. Not until 1811 was it recognized as forming a genus
of its own. This was done by Illiger, whose appellation, Eurypyga
has been generally accepted.
The sun-bittern is about as big as a small curlew, but with
much shorter legs and a rather slender, straight bill. The
wings are moderate, broad, and rounded, the tail rather long
and broad. The head is black with a white stripe over and
another under each eye, the chin and throat being also white.
The rest of the plumage is not to be described in a limited space
otherwise than generally, being variegated with black, brown,
chestnut, bay, buff, grey and white — so mottled, speckled and
belted either in wave-like or zigzag forms as somewhat to
resemble certain moths. The bay colour forms two conspicu-
ous patches on each wing, and also an antepenultimate bar
on the tail, behind which is a subterminal band of black. The
irides are red; the bill is greenish olive; and the legs are pale
yellow. As in the case of most South American birds, very
little is recorded of its habits in freedom, except that it fre-
quents the muddy and wooded banks of rivers, feeding on small
fishes and insects. In captivity it soon becomes tame, and has
several times made its nest and reared its young (which, when
hatched, are clothed with mottled down; Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1866, p. 76, pl. ix. fig. i) in the Zoological Gardens (London),
where examples are generally to be seen and their plaintive
piping heard. It ordinarily walks with slow and precise steps,
keeping its body in a horizontal position, but at times, when
excited, it will go through a series of fantastic performances,
spreading its broad wings and tail so as to display their beauti-
ful markings. This species inhabits Guiana and the interior of
Brazil; but in Colombia and Central America occurs a larger
and somewhat differently coloured form which is known as
E. major.
For a long while it seemed as if Eurypyga had no near ally, but on
the colonization of New Caledonia by the French, an extremely
curious bird was found inhabiting most parts of that island, to
which it is peculiar. This the natives called the Kagu, and it is
the Rhinochetus jubatus of ornithology. Its original describers,
MM. Jules Verreaux and Des Murs, regarded it first as a heron and
then as a crane (Rev. et Mag. de Zoologie, 1860, pp. 439^-441, pl. 21 ;
1862, pp. 142-144) ; but, on Mr George Bennett sending two live
examples to the Zoological Gardens, Mr Bartlett quickly detected
in them an affinity to Eurypyga (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1862, pp. 218,
219, pl. xxx.), and in due time anatomical investigation showed
him to be right. The kagu, however, would not strike the ordi-
nary observer as having much outward resemblance to the sun-
bittern, of which it has neither the figure nor posture. It is rather a
long-legged bird, about as large as an ordinary fowl, walking quickly
s Possibly he saw in the bird's variegated plumage a resemblance
to the painted snipes, Rhynchaea. His specific name shows that he
must have known how the Dutch in Surinam called it.
SUNBURY— SUN COPYING
93
and then standing almost motionless, with bright red bill and legs,
large eyes, a full pendent crest, and is generally of a light slate-colour,
paler beneath, and obscurely barred on its longer wing-coverts and
tail with a darker shade. It is only when it spreads its wings that
these are seen to be marked and spotted with white, rust-colour, and
FIG. 2. — Kagu (Rhinochetus jubatus).
black, somewhat after the pattern of those of the sun-bittern. Like
that bird, too, the kagu will, in moments of excitement, give up its
ordinary placid behaviour and execute a variety of violent gesticu-
lations, some of them even of a more extraordinary kind, for it will
dance round, holding the tip of its tail or one of its wings in a way
that no other bird is known to do. Its habits in its own country
were described at some length in 1863 by M. Jouan (Mem. Soc. Sc.
Nat. Cherbourg, ix. 97 and 235), and in 1870 by M. Marie (Actes Soc.
Linn. Bordeaux, xxvii. 323-326), the last of whom predicts the speedy
extinction of this interesting form, a fate foreboded also by the
statement of Messrs Layard (Ibis, 1882, pp. 534, 535) that it has
nearly disappeared from the neighbourhood of the more settled and
inhabited parts.
The internal and external structure of both these remarkable
forms is now fully known and it appears that they, though separable
as distinct families, Eurypygidae and Rhinochetidae, must be deemed
the relics of very ancient and generalized types more or less related
to the Rallidae (see RAIL), and Psophiidae (see TRUMPETER). It is
only to be remarked that the eggs of both Eurypyga and Rhinochetus
have a very strong ralline appearance — stronger even than the
figures published (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1868, pi. 12) would indicate.
(A.N.)
SUNBURY, a borough and the county seat of Northumber-
land county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river
about 53 m. by rail N. by E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900), 9810,
of whom 197 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 13,770. It
is served by the Pennsylvania, the Northern Central (controlled
by the Pennsylvania) and the Philadelphia & Reading railways.
Sunbury's principal industry is the manufacture of silk; the
Pennsylvania railway has repair shops here. The total value
of the borough's factory products increased from $1,868,157
in 1900 to $2,592,829 in 1905, or 38-8%. The borough stands
on the site of the old Indian village, Shamokin, which was
occupied by Delawares, Senecas and Tutelos, and was long the
most prominent Indian village in the province; in 1747-1755
there was a Moravian mission here. Owing to the strategic
importance of the place the provincial government erected
Fort Augusta here in 1756; during the War of Independence
many of the fugitives from the Wyoming Massacre tame to this
fort. Sunbury was first surveyed in 1772 and was incorporated
as a borough in 1797.
SUNBURY-ON-THAMES, an urban district in the Uxbridge
parliamentary division of Middlesex, England, 17 m. S.W. of
St Paul's Cathedral, London, on a branch of the London &
South Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4544. It is a favourite
riverside resort and has grown considerably as a residential
district. The church of St Mary, Byzantine in style, dates
from 1752. There are pumping works and filtration beds for
the water-supply of London. To the north-east is Kempton
Park, the manor-house of which was a royal residence early
in the I4th century. The park is famous for its race-meetings,
the principal fixture being the Jubilee Handicap, established
in 1887. The manor was granted by Edward the Confessor to
Westminster Abbey, and passed in the i3th century to the see of
London and in the i6th to the Crown; but was not so held later
than 1603.
SUN COPYING, or PHOTO COPYING, the name given to that
branch of photographic contact printing which is carried out
without the aid of a camera-made negative. It is now used
very extensively for copying documents, especially the plans
of architects and engineers.
The earliest discovered process, the ferroprussiate, is still
the one most largely used, on account of its economy and per-
manence, combined with a simplicity of manipulation that
renders it highly suitable for office use; it was invented in 1840
by Sir John Herschel. This method has the disadvantage that
the copies are blue in colour, and, as it is a negative process, the
black lines of the original become the white lines of the print;
the development is by washing in water, so that the important
feature of accuracy of scale is lost. The next step of importance
was in 1864, when William Willis of Birmingham, the father
of the inventor of the platinotype system of photographic
printing, invented the aniline process. In this method a paper
sensitized with bichromate of potassium is exposed to light,
with the document (generally a tracing) in front of it; the un-
protected lines are bleached out, but the protected ones remain
and are developed by contact with vapour of aniline, a sub-
sequent washing for the removal of chemicals completing the
print. For twenty years this process was successfully used
with little opposition other than that of the blue prints pre-
viously referred to, and of the Pellet process, which gave a blue
line on a white ground, the inventor being associated throughout
with the firm of Vincent Brooks, Day & Son; but since that time
a large number of other methods have come into use, some
requiring a paper negative in the first instance and some
not, but all much aided by improved methods of applying
electric light. The earliest of these improved systems
utilizing electric light was that invented by Mr B. J. Hall,
whose photo-copier consists of two semi-circular glasses forming
a cylinder, which may be revolved, and through which an arc
lamp travels, while the tracing and sensitized paper are strapped
to its outer surface.
Between 1900 and 1908 attention was chiefly directed to
overcoming the variation of scale that is inevitable in all systems
that require a final washing in water either for development or
for the removal of chemicals; and at least four excellent systems
have arisen. While Mr F. R. Vandyke was perfecting the system
which he patented in 1901 and which has been adopted by the
Ordnance Survey Department at Southampton, Messrs Vincent
Brooks, Day & Son were working along somewhat similar lines,
the outcome of which was their " True-to-Scale Photo Litho "
system. In both these methods a reversed positive print is
secured on zinc, from which copies can be made in printer's
ink of any colour by the usual lithographic method on almost
any material that may be desired. The plates prepared by these
methods are so sensitive to light that excellent results can be
secured from drawings made even on semi-transparent material
such as drawing paper, and of course the plates when made are
capable of alteration or addition and can be stored for reprints.
An admirable process had since been invented by MM.
Dorel Freres of Paris, which is even more expeditious, and
being less in prime cost is more suitable when only a small
number of prints is required. In this case a large sheet of thin
zinc is coated with chemically-treated gelatin, with the result
that when a ferroprussiate print is pressed down on it either
with the hand or by a roller the protected lines affect the gelatin
in such a way that the parts that have been in contact with them
receive a greasy ink while the remainder of the surface rejects
it, so that a small number (not generally exceeding six) of very
excellent prints can be secured. The inventors refrained from
taking out a patent either in France or elsewhere, preferring to
94
SUNDA ISLANDS— SUNDAY
work their invention as a secret process, but the formula appears
either to have leaked out or to have been discovered, so that the
process is, perhaps with slight variations, used under numerous
names. With the aid of the various systems of rotary copiers,
by which blue prints of almost any length can be secured,
Dorel prints identical in scale with the originals have been made
of the length of 22 feet. An interesting kindred process but
with well defined variations is known as velography.
For the technical and chemical details of the various methods
reference may be made to Ferric and Heliographic Processes by G. E.
Brown (Dawbarn & Ward). (F. V. B.)
SUNDA ISLANDS, the collective name of the islands in the
Malay Archipelago which extend from the Malay Peninsula to
the Moluccas. They are divided into the Great Sunda Islands —
i.e. Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Banka and Billiton,
with their adjacent islands — and the Little Sunda Islands,
of which the more important are Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa,
Flores, Sumba and Timor.
Sunda Strait is the channel separating Sumatra from Java
and uniting the Indian Ocean with the Java Sea. It is 15 m.
broad between the south-eastern extremity of Sumatra and
the town of Anjer in Java. In the middle is the low-lying
well-wooded island of Dwars-in-den-Weg (" right in the way "),
otherwise Middle Island or Sungian. In 1883 Sunda Strait was
the scene of the most terrific results of the eruption of Krakatoa
(?.».), a volcanic island further west in the strait.
SUNDARBANS, or SUNDERBUNDS, a tract of waste country in
Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the Gangetic
delta. It has never been surveyed, nor has the census been
extended to it. It stretches for about 165 m., from the
mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna, and is bordered
inland by the three settled districts of the Twenty-four Parganas,
Khulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water)
is estimated at 6526 sq. m. It is a water-logged jungle, in which
tigers and other wild beasts abound. Attempts at reclamation
have not been very successful. The forest department realizes
a large revenue, chiefly by tolls on produce removed. The
characteristic tree is the sundri (Heriliera littoralis), from which
the name of the tract has probably been derived. It yields a
hard wood, used for building, and for making boats, furniture,
&c. The Sundarbans are everywhere intersected by river
channels and creeks, some of which afford water communication
between Calcutta and the Brahmaputra valley, both for steamers
and for native boats.
SUNDAY, or the LORD'S DAY (ft TOV i^Xiou •fii^pa, dies solis;
-fl KvpLaK-?i fifjtepa, dies dominica, dies dominicus1), in the Chris-
tian world, the first day of the week, celebrated in memory of
the resurrection of Christ, as the principal day for public worship.
An additional reason for the sanctity of the day may have been
found in its association with Pentecost or Whitsun.2 There is
no evidence that in the earliest years of Christianity there was
any formal observance of Sunday as a day of rest or any general
•cessation of work. But it seems to have from the first been
set apart for worship. Thus according to Acts xx. 7, the
disciples in Troas met weekly on the first day of the week for
exhortation and the breaking of bread; i Cor. xvi. 2 implies
at least some observance of the day; and the solemn com-
memorative character it had very early acquired is strikingly
indicated by an incidental expression of the writer of the Apoca-
lypse (i. 10), who for the first time gives it that name (" the
Lord's Day ") by which it is almost invariably referred to by
all writers of the century immediately succeeding apostolic
times.* Indications of the manner of its observance during
this period are not wanting. Teaching of the Apostles (c. 14)
1 The Teutonic and Scandinavian nations adopt the former
designation (Sunday, Sonntag, Sondag, &c.), the Latin nations the
latter (dimanche, domcnica, domingo, &c.).
J From an expression in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. 15), it would
almost seem as if the Ascension also was believed by some to have
taken place on a Sunday.
1 In the Epistle of Barnabas already referred to (c. 15) it is called
" <.!,*> «;nv.tv, A™ " • " \\re keep the eighth day with joyfulness, the
' the eighth day '
day also in which Jesus rose again
Martyr, Dial. c. Tryph. c. 138.
from the dead." Cf. Justin
contains the precept; " And on the Lord's day of the Lord
(xard mipuiK^v tcvplov) come together and break bread and
give thanks after confessing your transgressions, that your
sacrifice may be pure." Ignatius (Ad Magn. c. 9) speaks of
those whom he addresses as " no longer Sabbatizing, but living
in the observance of the Lord's day (wird Kvpuucfiv fwirts) on
which also our life sprang up again."4 Eusebius (H.E. iv. 23)
has preserved a letter of Dionysius of Corinth (A.D. 175) to Soter,
bishop of Rome, in which he says: " To-day we have passed the
Lord's holy day, in which we have read your epistle ", and the
same historian (H.E. iv. 26) mentions that Melito of Sardis
(A.D. 170) had written a treatise on the Lord's day. Pliny's
letter to Trajan in which he speaks of the meetings of the Chris-
tians " on a stated day " need only be alluded to. The first
writer who mentions the name of Sunday as applicable to the
Lord's day is Justin Martyr; this designation of the first day of
the week, which is of heathen origin (see SABBATH), had come
into general use in the Roman world shortly before Justin
wrote. He describes (Apol. i. 67) how "on the day called
Sunday " town and country Christians alike gathered together
in one place for instruction and prayer and charitable offerings
and the distribution of bread and wine; they thus meet together
on that day, he says, because it is the first day in which God
made the world, and because Jesus Christ on the same day rose
from the dead.
As long as the Jewish Christian element continued to have
any influence in the Church, a tendency to observe Sabbath as
well as Sunday naturally persisted. Eusebius (H.E. iii. 27)
mentions that the Ebionites continued to keep both days, and
there is abundant evidence from Tertullian onwards that so far
as public worship and abstention from fasting are concerned
the practice was widely spread among the Gentile churches.
Thus we learn from Socrates (H.E. vi. c. 8) that in his time
public worship was held in the churches of Constantinople on
both days; the Apostolic Canons (can. 66 [65]) sternly prohibit
fasting on Sunday or Saturday (except Holy Saturday) ; and the
injunction of the Apostolic Constitutions (v. 20; cf. ii. 59, vii. 23)
is to " hold your solemn assemblies and rejoice every Sabbath
day (excepting one), and every Lord's day." Thus the earliest
observance of the day was confined to congregational worship,
either in the early morning or late evening. The social con-
dition of the early Christians naturally forbade any general
suspension of work. Irenaeus (c. 140-202) is the first of the
early fathers to refer to a tendency to make Sunday a day of
rest in his mention that harvesting was forbidden by the Church
on the day. Tertullian, writing in 202, says " On the Lord's
day we ought abstain from all habit and labour of anxiety,
putting off even our business." But the whole matter was
placed on a new footing when the civil power, by the constitu-
tion of Constantine mentioned below, began to legislate as to
the Sunday rest. The fourth commandment, holding as it
does a conspicuous place in the decalogue, the precepts of which
could not for the most part be regarded as of merely transitory
obligation, and never of course escaped the attention of the
fathers of the Church; but, remembering the liberty given in
the Pauline writings " in respect of a feast day or a new moon
or a Sabbath " (Col. ii. 16; cf. Rom. xiv. 5, Gal. iv. 10, n), they
usually explained the " Sabbath day " of the commandment as
meaning the new era that had been introduced by the advent
of Christ, and interpreted the rest enjoined as meaning cessation
from sin. But when a series of imperial decrees had enjoined
with increasing stringency an abstinence from labour on Sun-
day, it was inevitable that the Christian conscience should be
roused on the subject of the Sabbath rest also, and in many
minds the tendency would be such as finds expression in the
Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 33): "Let the slaves work five
days; but on the Sabbath day and the Lord's day let them have
4 The longer recension runs: " But let every one of you keep the
Sabbath after a spiritual manner . . . And after the observance of
the Sabbath let every friend of Christ keep the Lord's day as a fes-
tival, the resurrection day, the queen and chief of all the days.
The writer finds a reference to the Lord's day in the titles to Ps. vi.
and xii., which are " set to the eighth."
SUNDAY
95
leisure to go to church for instruction in piety." There is evi-
dence of the same tendency in the opposite canon (29) of the
council of Laodicea (363), which forbids Christians from Judaiz-
ing and resting on the Sabbath day, and actually enjoins them
to work on that day, preferring the Lord's day and so far as
possible resting as Christians. About this time accordingly
we find traces of a disposition in Christian thinkers to distinguish
between a temporary and a permanent element in the Sabbath
day precept; thus Chrysostom (loth homily on Genesis) discerns
the fundamental principle of that precept to be that we should
dedicate one whole day in the circle of the week and set it apart
for exercise in spiritual things. The view that the Christian
Lord's day or Sunday is but the Christian Sabbath transferred
from the seventh to the first day of the week does not find
categorical expression till a much later period, Alcuin being
apparently the first to allege of the Jewish Sabbath that " ejus
observationem mos Christianus ad diem dominicam compe-
tentius transtulit " (cf. DECALOGUE).
LAW RELATING TO SUNDAY
The earliest recognition of the observance of Sunday as a
legal duty is a constitution of Constant ine in 321 A.D., enacting
that all courts of justice, inhabitants of towns, and workshops
were to be at rest on Sunday (venerabili die solis), with an
exception in favour of those engaged in agricultural labour.
This was the first of a long series of imperial constitutions, most
of which are incorporated in the Code of Justinian, bk. iii. tit.
12 (De feriis). The constitutions comprised in this title of the
code begin with that of Constantine, and further provide that
emancipation and manumission were the only legal proceedings
permissible on the Lord's day (die dominico), though contracts
and compromises might be made between the parties where no
intervention of the court was necessary. Pleasure was forbidden
as well as business. No spectacle was to be exhibited in a
theatre or circus. If the emperor's birthday fell on a Sunday,
its celebration was to be postponed. The seven days before
and after Easter were to be kept as Sundays. In Cod. i. 4, 9,
appears the regulation that prisoners were to be brought up for
examination and interrogation on Sunday. On the other hand,
Cod. iii. 12, 10, distinctly directs the torture of robbers and
pirates, even on Easter Sunday, the divine pardon (says the law)
being hoped for where the safety of society was thus assured.
After the time of Justinian the observance of Sunday appears
to have become stricter. In the West, Charlemagne forbade
labour of any kind. A century later in the Eastern Empire No.
liv. of the Leonine constitutions abolished the exemption of
agricultural labour contained in the constitution of Constantine;
but this exemption was specially preserved in England by a
constitution of Archbishop Meopham. The canon law followed
the lines of Roman law. The decrees of ecclesiastical councils
on the subject have been numerous. Much of the law is con-
tained in the Decretals of Gregory, bk. ii. tit. 9 (De feriis), c. i
of which (translated) runs thus: " We decree that all Sundays
be observed from vespers to vespers (a vespera ad vesperam),
and that all unlawful work be abstained from, so that in them
trading or legal proceedings be not carried on, or any one con-
demned to death or punishment, or any oaths be administered,
except for peace or other necessary reason." Works of necessity
(especially in the case of perishable materials or where time
was important, as in fishing) were allowed, on condition that a
due proportion of the gain made by work so done was given
to the church and the poor. The consent of parties was in-
sufficient to give jurisdiction to a court of law to proceed on
Sunday, though it was sufficient in the case of a day sanctified
by the ecclesiastical authority for a temporary purpose, e.g.
a thanksgiving for vintage or harvest.
In England legislation on the subject began early and con-
tinues down to the most modern times. As early as the 7th
century the laws of Ina, king of the West Saxons, provided that,
if a " theowman " worked on Sunday by his lord's command,
he was to be free and the lord to be fined 305.; if a freeman
worked without his lord's command, the penalty was forfeiture
of freedom or a fine of 6os., and twice as much in the case of a
priest. The laws of /Ethclstan forbade marketing, of /Ethelred
folkmoots and hunting, on the Sunday. In almost all the pre-
Conquest compilations there are admonitions to keep the day
holy. The first allusion to Sunday in statute law proper is in
1354 (28 Edw. III. c. 14 rep.), forbidding the sale of wool at the
staple on Sunday. The mass of legislation from that date
downwards may be conveniently, if not scientifically, divided
into five classes — ecclesiastical, constitutional, judicial, social
and commercial. The terms " Sunday " and " Lord's day "
are used in the statutes, but the term " Sabbath " occurs only
in ordinances of the Long Parliament. " Sabbath-breaking "
is sometimes used to describe a violation of the Sunday obser-
vance acts, but is objected to by Blackstone as legally incorrect.
Good Friday and Christmas Day are as a rule in the same legal
position as Sunday. In English law Sunday is reckoned from
midnight to midnight, not as in canon law a vespera ad vesperam.
The acts to be mentioned are still law unless the contrary is
stated.
Ecclesiastical. — Before the Reformation there appears to be
little or no statutory recognition of Sunday, except as a day on
which trade was interdicted or national sports directed to be
held. Thus the repealed acts of 1388 (12 Ric. II. c. 6) and 1400
(n Hen. IV. c. 4) enjoined the practice of archery on Sunday.
The church itself by provincial constitutions and other means
declared the sanctity of the day, and was strong enough to visit
with its own censures those who failed to observe Sunday. At
the Reformation it was thought necessary to enforce the obser-
vance of Sunday by the state in face of the question mooted at
the time as to the divine or merely human institution of the day
as a holy day. Sunday observance was directed by injunctions
as well as by statutes of Edward VI. and Elizabeth. The
second Act of Uniformity of 1551 (5 &6 Edw. IV. c. i.) enacted
that all inhabitants of the realm were to endeavour themselves
to resort to their parish church or chapel accustomed, or upon
reasonable let thereof to some usual place where common prayer
is used every Sunday, upon pain of punishment by the censures
of the church. The same principle was re-enacted by the Act
of Uniformity of 1558 (i Eliz. c. 2), with the addition of a tem-
poral punishment, viz. a fine of twelve pence for each offence.
This section of the act is, however, no longer law, and it appears
that the only penalty now incurred by non-attendance at church
is the shadowy one of ecclesiastical censure. Protestant dis-
senters, Jews and Roman Catholics were in 1846 (9 & 10,
Viet. c. 59) exempted from the act, and the pecuniary penalties
were abrogated as to all persons; but the acts as to Sundays
and holy days are still binding on members of the Church of
England [Marshall v. Graham, 1907, 2 K.B. 112].
An act of 1551 (5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 3) directed the keeping of all
Sundays as holy days, with an exception in favour of husbandmen,
labourers, fishermen and other persons in harvest or other time of
necessity. Canon 13 of the canons of 1603 provides that " all
manner of persons within the Church of England shall celebrate
and keep the Lord's day, commonly called Sunday, according to
God's holy will and pleasure and the orders of the Church of England
prescribed in that behalf, that is, in hearing the word of God read
and taught, in private and public prayers, in acknowledging their
offences to God and amendment of the same, in reconciling them-
selves charitably to their neighbours where displeasure hath been,
in oftentimes receiving the communion of the body and blood of
Christ, in visiting the poor and sick, using all godly and sober con-
versation." The Long Parliament, by an ordinance of 1644, c. 51,
directed the Lord's day to be celebrated as holy, as being the
Christian Sabbath. Ordinances of 1650, c. 9, and 1656, c. 15, con-
tained various minute descriptions of crimes against the sanctity of
the Lord's day, including travelling and " vainly and profanely
walking." These ordinances lapsed at the Restoration. The
Act of Uniformity of 1661 (13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4) enforced the reading
on every Lord's day of the morning and evening prayer according
to the form in the Book of Common Prayer — a duty which had been
previously enjoined by canon 14 of 1603. By the Church Building
Act 1818, the bishop may direct a third service, morning or evening,
where necessary, in any church built under the act (s. 65). By the
Church Building Act 1838, he may order the performance of two
full services, each if he so direct to include a sermon (s. 8). The
Burial Laws Amendment Act 1880, which authorizes burials in
churchyards of the Church of England without the use of the funeral
96
SUNDAY
office of that church, does not allow such burials to take place on
Sunday, Good Friday or Christmas Day if the parson of the church
objects. Under the Metropolitan Police and Streets Acts, the
Town Police Clauses Act 1841 and the Public Health Acts, street
traffic may be regulated during the hours of divine service.
Constitutional. — Parliament has occasionally sat on Sunday
in cases of great emergency, as on the demise of the Crown.
Occasionally divisions in the House of Commons have taken
place early on Sunday morning. The Ballot Act 1872 enacts
that in reckoning time for election proceedings Sundays are to
be excluded. A similar provision is contained in the Municipal
Corporations Act 1882, as to proceedings under that act.
Judicial. — As a general rule Sunday for the purpose of judicial
proceedings is a dies non juridicus on which courts of justice do
not sit (9 Co. Rep. 666). By s. 6 of the Sunday Observance Act
1677 legal process cannot be served or executed on Sunday, except
in cases of treason, felony or breach of the peace. Proceed-
ings which do not need the intervention of the court are good,
e.g. service of a citation or notice to quit or claim to vote. By
s. 4 of the Indictable Offences Act 1848 justice may issue a
warrant of . apprehension or a search warrant on Sunday. The
rules of the Supreme Court provide that the offices of the
Supreme Court shall be closed on Sundays, that Sunday is not
to be reckoned in the computation of any limited time less than
six days allowed for doing any act or taking .any proceeding,
and that, where the time for doing any act or taking any
proceeding expires on Sunday, such act or proceeding is good
if done or taken on the next day. In the divorce rules Sundays
are excluded from compilation. In the county court rules
they are excluded if the time limited is less than forty-eight
hours, and the only county court process which can be
executed on Sunday is a warrant of arrest in an Admiralty
action. Where a time is fixed by statute, the Sundays are
counted in. Where a term of imprisonment expires on Sunday,
Christmas Day or Good Friday, the prisoner is entitled to
discharge on the day next preceding (Prison Act 1898, s. n).
Social. — Under this head may be grouped the enactments
having for their object the regulation of Sunday travelling and
amusements. The earliest example of non-ecclesiastical inter-
ference with recreation appears to be the Book of Sports issued
by James I. in 1618. Royal authority was given to all but
recusants to exercise themselves after evening service in dancing,
archery, leaping, vaulting, May-games, Whitsun-ales, morris-
dances and setting up of Maypoles; but bear and bull-baiting,
interludes and bowling by the meaner sort were prohibited.
The Sunday Observance Act 1625 (i Car. I. c. i), following the
lines of the Book of Sports, inhibited meetings, assemblies or
concourse of people out of their own parishes on the Lord's day
for any sports and pastimes whatsoever, and any bear-baiting,
bull-baiting, interludes, common plays or other unlawful exer-
cises and pastimes used by any person or persons within their
own parishes, under a penalty of 33. 4d. for every offence. The
right to enforce ecclesiastical censures is left untouched by the
act. The act impliedly allows sports other than the excepted
ones as long as only parishioners take part in them. In 1897
some lads were prosecuted at Streatley under this act for
playing football in an adjoining parish, but the justices dismissed
the charge, treating the act as obsolete. But in 1906 the Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals instituted a prosecu-
tion under the act with the object of preventing extra-parochial
rabbit-coursing on Sundays. The Game Act 1831 (i & 2
Will. IV. c. 32, s. 3) makes it punishable to kill or take game,
or to use a dog, net or other instrument (e.g. a snare), for that
purpose on Sunday. The prohibition only applies to game proper
and does not extend to rabbits.
There is no law in England against fishing on Sunday except
as to salmon. Fishing for salmon on Sunday by any means
other than a rod and line is prohibited by the Salmon Fishery
Act 1861, and free passage for salmon through all cribs, &c.,
used for fishery is to be left during the whole of Sunday.
The Sunday Observance Act 1781 (21 Geo. III. c. 49), drawn
by Dr Porteus, bishop of London, enacts that any place opened
or used for public entertainment and amusement or for public
debate upon any part of the Lord's day called Sunday, to which
persons are admitted by payment of money or by tickets sold
for money, is to be deemed a disorderly house. The keeper is
to forfeit £200 for every day on which it is opened or used as
aforesaid on the Lord's day, the manager or master of the cere-
monies £100 and every doorkeeper or servant £50. The adver-
tising or publishing any advertisement of such an entertainment
is made subject to a penalty of £50. Proceedings under this
act for penalties may be instituted by a common informer
within six months of the offence. It was held in 1868 that a
meeting the object of "which was not pecuniary gain (though
there was a charge for admission), but an honest intention to
introduce religious worship, though not according to any estab-
lished or usual form, was not within the act. The hall used
was registered for religious worship. On this principle, forms
of worship such as Mormonism or Mahommedanism are pro-
tected. In 1875 actions were brought against the Brighton
Aquarium Company and penalties recovered under the act.
As doubts were felt as to the power of the Crown to remit the
penalties in such a case, an act was passed in 1875 to remove
such doubts and to enable the sovereign to remit in whole or
in part penalties recovered for offences against the act of 1781.
The substantive effect of the act is to hit all Sunday exhibitions
or performances where money is charged for admission. In 1895
it was decided that the chairman of a meeting held to hear a lecture
was not liable as manager of the meeting, and the solicitor of the
liquidator of a company was held not to be liable for merely letting
the hall for the meeting. In 1906 an attempt was unsuccessfully
made to apply the act of 1781 to open-air meetings for rabbit-
coursing. The rules for the government of theatres and places of
public entertainment, and the terms of the licences issued, usually
prohibit performances on Sundays. The lessees of certain places
of public resort in London have in some cases obtained their licences
from the London County Council on condition that they do not hold
Sunday concerts, but the recent policy of the Council has been not
to interfere with or restrict the giving of Sunday concerts unless they
are given for private gain or by way of trade. The Council has no
legal authority to dispense with the Sunday Observance Act 1781,
which enforces penalties on giving entertainments to which persons
are admitted by payment of money or by tickets sold for money.
The law has been judicially interpreted, however, to mean that
charges for reserved seats are not incompatible with free admission.
In consequence of this ruling Sunday concerts have been regularly
given at the Albert Hall, which is not under the licensing jurisdiction
of the London County Council, and at the Queen's Hall and other
places within that jurisdiction. No charge is made for admission,
but those who wish for seats must pay for them, and the proceeds
of the concerts are not made the subject of profit. At the licensing
sessions conflicts have annually arisen on this subject between the
advocates and opponents of Sunday music.
Bands play on Sundays in most of the parks in London, whether
royal or under municipal control ; and it is said that local authorities
cannot make bylaws forbidding bands of music in the streets on
Sunday (Johnson v. Croydon (Corporation, 1886, 16 Q.B.D. 708).
Libraries, museums and gymnasiums maintained by local authorities
may, it would seem, be lawfully opened on Sundays, and the national
galleries and museums are now so open for part of Sunday.
Commercial. — At common law a contract made on Sunday is
not void, nor is Sunday trading or labour unlawful, and enlist-
ment of a soldier on a Sunday has been held valid. At an early
period, however, the legislature began to impose restrictions,
at first by making Sunday trade impossible by closing the
places of ordinary business, later by declaring certain kinds
of trade and labour illegal, still later by attempting to prohibit
all trade and labour. 28 Edw. III. c. 14 (1354, now repealed)
closed the wool market on Sunday. An act of 1448 (27
Hen. VI. c. 5) prohibits fairs and markets on Sunday (necessary
victual only excepted) , unless on the four Sundays in harvest — .
an exemption repealed in 1850 (by 13 & 14 Viet. c. 23) 4
Edw. IV. c. 7 (1464 rep.) restrained the shoemakers of London
from carrying on their business on Sunday. An act of 1627 (3
Car. I. c. 2) imposes a penalty of 203. on any carrier, wagoner
or drover travelling on the Lord's day, and a penalty of 6s. 8d.
on any butcher killing or selling on that day. The act does not ,
apply to stage coaches. Both this and the act of 1625 were
originally passed only for a limited period, but by subsequent
legislation they have become perpetual. Next in order is the
Sunday Observance Act 1677 (29 Car. II. c. 7), " An act for
SUNDAY
97
the better observance of the Lord's day, commonly called
Sunday."
After an exhortation to the observation of the Lord's day by exer-
cises in the duties of piety and true religion, publicly and privately,
the act provides as follows: No tradesman, artificer, workman,
labourer or other person (ejusdem generis) whatsoever shall do or
exercise any worldly labour, business or work of their ordinary
callings upon the Lord's day or any part thereof (works of necessity
and charity only excepted) ; and every person being of the age of
fourteen years or upwards offending in the premises shall for every
such offence forfeit the sum of 5s. ; and no person or persons what-
soever shall publicly cry, show forth or expose to sale any wares,
merchandises, fruit, herbs, goods or chattels whatsoever upon the
Lord's day or any part thereof upon pain that every person so
offending shall forfeit the same goods so cried, or showed forth, or
exposed to sale (s. i). A barber was held in 1900 not to be a trades-
man, artificer, &c. within the act, and to be free to shave customers
on Sunday1; nor is a farmer. No drover, horse-courser, wagoner,
butcher, higgler or any of their servants, shall travel or come into
his or their lodging upon the Lord's day or any part thereof, upon
pain that each and every such offender shall forfeit zos. for every
such offence; and no person or persons shall use, employ or travel
upon the Lord's day with any boat, wherry, lighter or barge, except
it be upon extraordinary occasion to be allowed by some justice of
the peace, &c., upon pain that every person so offending shall forfeit
and lose the sum of 53. for every such offence. In default of distress
or non-payment of forfeiture or penalty the offender may be set
publicly in the stocks for two hours (s. 2), a punishment now obsolete.
Nothing in the act is to prohibit the dressing of meat in families,
or the dressing or selling of meat in inns, cooks' shops — which in-
clude fried fish shops (Bullen v. Ward, 1905, 74 L.J.K.B. 916) —
or victualling houses for such as cannot be otherwise provided, nor
the crying or selling of milk before nine in the morning or after four
in the afternoon (s. 3). Prosecutions must be within ten days
after the offence (s. 4). The hundred is not responsible for robbery
of persons travelling upon the Lord's day (s. 5). This act has fre-
quently received judicial construction. The use of the word
ordinary " in section I has led to the establishment by a series of
decisions of the principle that work done out of the course of the
ordinary calling of the person doing it is not within the act. Thus
the sale of a horse on Sunday by a horse-dealer would not be en-
forceable by him and he would be liable to the penalty, but these
results would not follow in the case of a sale by a person not a horse-
dealer. Certain acts have been held to fall within the exception as
to works of necessity and charity, e.g. baking provisions for customers
(but not baking bread in the ordinary course of business), running
stage-coaches, or hiring farm-labourers. The legislature also inter-
vened to obviate some of the inconveniences caused by the act.
By 10 Will. III. c. 13 (1698) mackerel was allowed to be sold before
and after service. By n Will. III. c. 21 (1699), forty watermen
were allowed to ply on the Thames on Sunday. By 9 Anne, c. 23
(1710), licensed coachmen or chairmen might be hired on Sunday.
By an act of 1794 (34 Geo. III. c. 61), bakers were allowed to bake
and sell bread at certain hours. These acts are all repealed. Still
law are the acts of 1762 (2 Geo. III. c. 15 s. 7), allowing fish carriages
to travel on Sunday in London and Westminster; 1827 (8 Geo. IV.
c- 75)i repealing s. 2 of the act of 1677 as far as regards Thames
boatmen. The Bread Acts of 1822 (3 Geo. IV. c. 106) allow bakers
in London, and of 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37) allow bakers out of
London, to carry on their trade up to 1.30 p.m. Since 1871, by an
act annually continued (34 & 35 Viet. c. 87), no prosecution or
proceeding for penalties under the act of 1677 can be instituted
except with the consent in writing of the chief officer of a police dis-
trict or the consent of two justices or a stipendiary magistrate,
which must be obtained before beginning the prosecution, i.e. before
applying for a summons (Thorpe v. Priestnall, 1897, I, Q.B. 159).
The act of 1871 does not apply to breaches of the Bread Acts
(R. v. Mead, 1902, 2 K.B. 212).
A good many bills have been introduced with respect to Sun-
day trading. Most have been directed to the closing of public-
houses on that day; but the Shop Hours Bill introduced in 1907
contained clauses for closing shops on Sundays, with the excep-
tion of certain specified trades. The result of the act of 1871
in London has been in substance to make the Lord's Day acts
a dead letter as to Sunday trading. The commissioner of police
rarely if ever allows a prosecution for Sunday trading. Sunday
markets are usual in all the poorer districts, and shopkeepers
and hawkers are allowed freely to ply their trades for the sale
of eatables, temperance drinks and tobacco. But the conditions
1 It is curious that by an order in council of Hen. VI. to regulate
the sanctuary of St Martin-le-Grand it was provided that all artificers
dwelling within the said sanctuary (as well barbers as others) keep
holy the Sundays and other great festival days without breach or
exercising their craft as do the citizens of London (Gomme, Govern-
ance of London, 1907, p. 329).
XXVI. 4
of licences for the sale of intoxicants and for refreshment houses
are strictly enforced with respect to Sunday. In districts
where the town councils have control of the police, prosecutions
for Sunday trading are not infrequent; but they seem to be
instituted rather from objection to the annoyance caused by
street traders than from religious scruples. The limitation of the
time for prosecution to ten days, and the necessity of the previous
consent of the chief constable, have a great effect in restricting
prosecutions. In most districts there is a distinct disposition
to refrain from enforcing the strict letter of the older law, and
to permit the latitude of what is described as the " Continental
Sunday," except in the case of businesses carried on so as to
interfere with the public comfort. In most districts liberality
in administration has progressed pari passu with a change in
public opinion as to the uses to which Sunday may properly
be put; it is becoming less of a holy day and more of a holiday.
There is great activity among those interested in different
theories as to the proper use of Sundays. On the one side,
Lord's day observance societies and the organizations concerned
in the promotion of " temperance " (i.e. of abstinence from
alcoholic drinks) have been extremely anxious to enforce the
existing law against Sunday trading and against the sale of
intoxicants to persons other than bona fide travellers, and to
obtain legislation against the sale of any alcohol on Sundays.
On the other side, the Sunday League and other like organiza-
tions have been active to organize lectures and concerts and
excursions on Sundays, and to promote so far as possible every
variety of recreation other than attendance at the exercises of
any religious body. Travelling and boating on Sunday are
now freely resorted to, regardless of any restrictions in the old
acts, and railway companies run their trains at all hours, the
power to run them being given by their special acts. Tram-
cars and omnibuses run freely on Sundays, subject only to
certain restrictions. Hackney carriages may in London ply
for hire on Sundays (i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22).
_ Besides the general act of 1677, there are various acts dealing
with special trades; of these the Licensing Acts and the Factory ana
Workshop Acts are the most important. By the Licensing Acts,
1872 and 1874, premises licensed for the sale of intoxicating liquors
by retail are to be open on Sunday only at certain hours, varying
according as the premises are situate in the metropolitan district,
a town or populous place, or elsewhere. The hours may be varied
to fit in with the hours of religious worship in the district. An
exception is made in favour of a person lodging in the house or a
bona fide traveller, who may be served with refreshment during
prohibited hours, unless in a house with a six-day licence. In the
case of six-day licences, no sale of liquor may be made except to
persons lodging in the house. Attempts have often been made
to induce the legislature to adopt the principle of complete Sunday
closing in England as a whole, or in particular counties.* In the
session of 1886 a bill for Sunday closing in Durham was passed by the
Commons but rejected by the Lords. The advocates of Sunday
closing in Wales have been more successful. The Sunday Closing
(Wales) Act 1881 contains no exceptions of towns and the only
exemption is the sale of intoxicating liquors at railway stations.
Public billiard tables may not be used on Sunday (8 & 9 Viet. c. 109).
The Factory and Workshop Act (1901) forbids the employment of
women, young persons or children on Sunday in a factory or work-
shop (s. 34). But a woman or young person of the Jewish religion
may be employed on Sunday by a Jewish manufacturer if he keeps
his factory or workshop closed throughout Saturday, and does not
open it for traffic on Sunday, and does not avail himself of the
exceptions authorizing employment of women or young persons on
Saturday evening or for an additional hour on other weekdays
(ss. 47, 48). There are a few other legislative provisions of less
importance which may be noticed. Carrying on the business of a
pawnbroker on Sunday is an offence within the Pawnbrokers Act
1872. Distilling and rectifying spirits on Sunday is forbidden by
the Spirits Act 1880. The effect of Sunday upon bills of exchange
is declared by the Bills of Exchange Act 1882. A bill is not invalid
by reason only of its bearing date on a Sunday (s. 13). Where the
last day of grace falls on a Sunday, the bill is payable on the pre-
ceding business day (s. 14). Sunday is a " non-business day " for
the purposes Of the act (s. 92).
Scotland. — The two earliest acts which dealt with Sunday
are somewhat out of harmony with the general legislation on
* The act I James I. c. 9 (now repealed) appears, however, to have
provided for closing ale-houses in most cases, except on usual working
days.
98
SUNDAY
the subject. That of 1457, c. 6, ordered the practice of archery
on Sunday; that of 1526, c. 3, allowed markets for the sale of
flesh to be held on Sunday at Edinburgh. Then came a long
series of acts forbidding the profanation of the day, especially
by salmon-fishing, holding fairs and markets, and working in
mills and salt-pans. The act of 1579, c. 70, and 1661, c. 18,
prohibit handy labouring and working, and trading on the Sab-
bath. Under the act of 1579 the House of Lords in 1837 held
that it was illegal for barbers to shave their customers on Sun-
days, although the deprivation of a shave might prevent decently
disposed men from attending religious worship, or associating
in a becoming manner with their families and friends through
want of personal cleanliness. The later legislation introduced
an exception in favour of duties of necessity and mercy, in accord-
ance with ch. 21 of the Confession of Faith (1690,0. 5).
In more modern times the exigencies of travelling have led to a
still further extension of the exception. In these acts the word
Sabbath is generally used as in the Commonwealth ordinances.
The Sabbath Observance Acts were frequently confirmed, the last
time by the Scots parliament in 1696. The Scottish Episcopalians
Act 1711 (10 Anne, c. 10) contains a proviso that all the laws made
for the frequenting of divine service on the Lord's day commonly
called Sunday shall be still in force and executed against all persons
who shall not resort either to some church or to some congregation or
assembly of religious worship allowed and permitted by this act.
The Scots acts were held by the High Court of Justiciary in 1870 to
be still subsisting, as far as they declare the keeping open shop
on Sunday to be an offence by the law of Scotland (Bute's Case,
I Couper's Reports, 495), but all except those of 1579 and 1661 above
specified were repealed in 1906. The Licensing (Scotland) Act 1903
§rovides by the scheduled forms of certificate for the closing on
unday of public-houses, and places licensed for the sale of excisable
liquor, and in the case of inns and hotels forbids the sale of intoxicants
except for the accommodation of lodgers or travellers. There has
been litigation as to the legality of running tram-cars on the Sabbath.
By the Herring Fishery (Scotland) Act 1815, s. II, herring nets
set or hauled on the coast or within two leagues thereof on Sundays
are forfeited. By the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Act 1868, s. 15,
fishing for salmon on Sunday, even with a rod and line, is an offence,
as is taking or attempting to take or assisting in fishing for salmon.
As to contracts and legal process, the law is in general accordance
with that of England. Contracts are net void, apart from statute,
simply because they are made on Sunday. Diligence cannot be
executed but a warrant of imprisonment or meditatio fugae is
" exercisable."
Ireland. — In Ireland an act of 1695 (7 Will. III. c. 17) covers
the same ground as the English act of 1677, but the acts referred
to under England do not apply. An act of 1851 (14 & 15 V.
c. 93, s. n) provides for the issue and execution of warrants
for indictable offences and search-warrants on Sundays. But
proceedings to obtain sureties for the peace taken on Sunday are
void. The Irish act of 1787 against killing game on Sunday
(27 Geo. III. c. 35, s. 4) includes rabbits and quail, landrail or
other wild fowl. The Sunday closing of public-houses with
exemptions as to certain cities and as to railway stations,
packet-boats and canteens, is enforced by legislation of 1878,
continued annually until 1906 and then made perpetual with
certain modifications (1906, c. 39, s. i), and in the case of six-
day licences by acts of 1876, 1877 and 1880.
In 1899 a race-course used for Sunday racing was closed by
injunction as causing a nuisance to the Sunday peace and quiet
of the neighbourhood and the services of the adjacent churches.
Where railway trains are run on Sundays one cheap train
each way is to be provided (7 & 8 Viet. c. 85, s. 10; repealed
in 1883 as to Great Britain).
British Colonies. — The English law as to Sunday observance
was the original law of the colonies acquired by settlement,
and in many of them so much of it as does not relate to the
Church of England is left to operate without colonial legislation.
In other colonies it is supplemented or superseded by colonial
acts. Canada has an act (No. 27 of 1906) prohibiting all buying
and selling and all exercise by a man of his ordinary vocations
or business, either by himself or his employees on the Lord's
day, except in case of works of necessity or mercy. In New
Zealand an act of 1884 (c. 24, s. 16; amended 1906, c. 36) pro-
hibits the carrying on on Sunday of any trade or calling, but
the exceptions are numerous, and, besides works of necessity
or charity, include driving live stock, sale of medicines, sale
or delivery of milk, hairdressing or shaving before 9 a. m.,
driving public or private carriages, keeping livery stables,
working railways, ships and boats, and letting boats for hire,
and work in connexion with post offices and telegraphs and
with daily newspapers. (W. F. C.)
Foreign Countries. — Consequent on the introduction of a
Weekly Rest Day Bill (which obtained a second reading) in
the English House of Lords in 1908, a parliamentary paper was
published in 1909 (cd. 4468) containing " Reports from His
Majesty's Representatives Abroad as to Legislation in Foreign
Countries Respecting a Weekly Rest Day." The principal
points are summarized below: —
Austria. — Legislation is embodied in laws of 1895 and 1905,
which prohibit any industrial work on Sunday, rest on that day
beginning not later than 6 a.m., and lasting for not less than twenty-
four hours. Permission is given for absolutely necessary work,
provided the employer submits to the authorities a list giving the
names of the persons employed, and the place, duration and nature
of their employment. Sunday work is permitted in certain indus-
tries. As to buying and selling, Sunday trading is permitted for
not more than four hours, local authorities being the power for
arranging the time; they may also forbid Sunday trading altogether,
if they think it necessary. Traders who do not employ workmen
may not work for themselves unless the doors by which the public
may enter are closed. On feast-days, employees must, according
to their respective religious beliefs, be allowed the necessary time for
attendance at morning service. Offences are punishable by fine;
a warning, however, is given on the first offence, and the fine (4.5. 2d.
for the first offence) rises for each subsequent offence.
Belgium. — Laws of 1905 and 1907 forbid work on Sunday to per-
sons engaged in industrial and commercial enterprises, with certain
exceptions, such for example, as industries which exist only at
certain periods of the year, or which have a press of work at certain
times, or open-air industries which depend on the weather.
Denmark. — The only legislation is a law of 1904 concerning the
public peace on the National Church holidays and Constitution Day.
It forbids all kinds of occupations, which, on account of noise, might
disturb the holiday's peace. In the large towns carriage traffic for
business purposes is also forbidden after 10 a.m.
France. — A law of the I3th of July 1906 established a weekly day
of rest, for every workman or employee of not less than twenty-
four consecutive hours. The weekly day of rest must be Sunday.
The law applies irrespective of the duration or character of the work
done, and to employees in all establishments of a commercial or
industrial character. There are certain necessary exceptions, such
as shops for retailing food, occupations in which place, season, the
habits of the public, &c., make observance impossible, and in such
the weekly day of rest must be given in rotation to the employees
or a compensating holiday instead.
Germany. — Regulations as to Sunday rest are contained in the
Trade Regulations (Getaerbeordnung) of the 26th of July 1900, accord-
ing to which manufacturers cannot compel workmen to work on
Sundays or holidays, except in certain cases of necessity. Nor in
trading businesses may assistants, apprentices or workmen be em-
ployed at all on Christmas Day, Easter Sunday and Whitsunday,
or on other Sundays and holidays more than five hours. The regula-
tions do not apply to hotels, cafes, &c., or to theatres or other places
of amusement, or to means of communication. Infringement of the
regulations is punishable by a fine, not exceeding 600 marks or by
imprisonment.
Hungary. — By a law of 1891 and others of 1903 and 1908 all
industrial work is prohibited on Sundays and St Stephen's Day (the
patron saint of Hungary). Certain categories of industries are
exempted on account of necessity or the needs of the consuming
public; independent small craftsmen who work at home without ,
assistants are also exempted. The law is enforced by the police
authorities and infringement is punished by fine.
Italy. — A weekly rest day has been enacted by a law of the 7th
of July 1907. Exceptions to the law are river, lake and maritime
navigation; agricultural, hunting and fishing industries; state rail-
ways and tramways and state public services and industrial under-
takings.
Other European countries which have legislation are the Nether-
lands (law of 1889, as amended by a law of 1006; Spain (law of
March 1904, Regulations of April 1905); and Switzerland (1906).
United States. — In the United States there is no Federal law,
the question of a rest day being left entirely to the state legis-
latures, consequently " there exists considerable diversity of
legislation on the subject, ranging from the old Quaker laws of
the state of Pennsylvania of the beginning of the i8th century
to the modern regulations of the Far Western agricultural and
mining states . . . There is no state, however, where it is
specifically laid down that an employee who is forced to work
SUNDERLAND, SRD EARL OF— SUNDERLAND, 2ND EARL OF 99
on Sunday shall receive another equivalent day of rest." (Report
of H.M. Ambassador to the U.S. vide supra). In Massachusetts,
which may be fairly taken as representing the Eastern states,
public service corporations, such as railway, street railway,
steamboat, telegraph, telephone, electric lighting, water and gas
companies, are permitted to serve the public in the usual manner.
Public parks and baths are open. Tobacco may be sold by
licensed innholders, common victuallers, druggists and news-
dealers. Bake shops may, be open during certain hours. All
other shops must be closed. Saloons are closed, and liquor can
be served only to the guests of licensed innholders. Horses,
carriages, boats and yachts may be let for hire. All games and
entertainments, except licensed sacred concerts, are prohibited.
In Connecticut Sunday recreation is still prohibited, but electric
and steam cars are allowed to run. Sunday is a close time for
game and birds (1809). ID many of the Western states base-ball,
games and various entertainments for pay are permitted, and
in some saloons are open. In many but not all the states such
persons as by their religion are accustomed to observe Saturday
are allowed to pursue their ordinary business on Sunday. In
Delaware and Illinois barbers may not shave customers on Sun-
days; and in Georgia guns and pistols may not be fired (1898).
In North Dakota the fines for Sabbath-breaking have been
raised.
SUNDERLAND, CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1674-
1722), English statesman, was the second son of the 2nd earl,
but on the death of his elder brother Henry in Paris in Septem-
ber 1688 he became heir to the peerage. Called by John Evelyn
" a youth of extraordinary hopes," he completed his education
at Utrecht, and in 1695 entered the House of Commons as mem-
ber for Tiverton. In the same year he married Arabella,
daughter of Henry Cavendish, 2nd duke of Newcastle; she died
in 1698 and in 1700 he married Anne Churchill, daughter of the
famous duke of Marlborough. This was an important alliance
for Sunderland and for his descendants; through it he was
introduced to political life and later the dukedom of Marl-
borough came to the Spencers. Having succeeded to the
peerage in 1702, the earl was one of the commissioners for the
union between England and Scotland, and in 1705 he was sent
to Vienna as envoy extraordinary. Although he was tinged
with republican ideas and had rendered himself obnoxious to
Queen Anne by opposing the grant to her husband, Prince
George, through the influence of Marlborough he was foisted
into the ministry as secretary of state for the southern depart-
ment, taking office in December 1706. From 1708 to 1710 he
was one of the five whigs, called the Junta, who dominated the
government, but he had many enemies, the queen still disliked
him, and in June 1710 he was dismissed. Anne offered him
a pension of £3000 a year, but this he refused, saying " if he
could not have the honour to serve his country he would not
plunder it."
Sunderland continued to take part in public life, and was
active in communicating with the court of Hanover abeut
the steps to be taken in view of the approaching death of
the queen. He made the acquaintance of George I. in 1706,
but when the elector became king the office which he secured
was the comparatively unimportant one of lord-lieutenant of
Ireland. In August 1715 he joined the cabinet as lord keeper
of the privy seal, and after a visit to George I. in Hanover he
secured in April 1717 the position of secretary of state for the
northern department. This he retained until March 1718, when
he became first lord of the treasury, holding also the post of
lord president of the council. He was now prime minister.
Sunderland was especially interested in the proposed peerage
bill, a measure designed to limit the number of members of the
House of Lords, but this was defeated owing partly to the opposi-
tion of Sir Robert Walpole. He was still at the head of affairs
when the South Sea bubble burst and this led to his political
ruin. He had taken some part in launching the scheme of 1720,
but he had not profited financially by it ; however, public opinion
was roused against him and it was only through the efforts
of Sir Robert Walpole that he was acquitted by the House of
Commons, when the matter was investigated. In April 1721 he
resigned his offices, but he retained his influence with George I.
until his death on the igth of April 1722.
Sunderland inherited his father's passion for intrigue, while his
manners were repelling, but he stands high among his associates
for disinterestedness and had an alert and discerning mind. From
his early years he had a great love of books, and he spent his leisure
and his wealth in forming the library at Althorp, which in 1703 was
described as " the finest in Europe." In 1749 part of it was removed
to Blenheim.
The earl's second wife having died in April 1716, after a career
of considerable influence on the political life of her time, in 1717 he
married an Irish lady of fortune, Judith Tichborne (d. 1749). By
Lady Anne Churchill he had three sons and two daughters. Robert
(1701-1729), the eldest son, succeeded as 4th earl, and Charles
(1706-1758), the second son, became the 5th earl. In 1733 Charles
inherited the dukedom of Marlborough and he then transferred the
Sunderland estates to his brother John, father of the 1st Earl Spencer
(see MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF).
For the career of Sunderland see W. Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough
(1847-1848); Earl Stanhope, History of England (1853), and I. S.
Leadam, Political History of England, 1702-1760 (1909).
SUNDERLAND, ROBERT SPENCER, 2ND EARL or (1640-1702),
English politician, was the only son of Henry Spencer (1620-
1643), who succeeded his father, William, as 3rd Baron Spencer
of Wormleighton in 1636. This barony had been bestowed in
1603 upon Sir Robert Spencer (d. 1627), the only son of Sir John
Spencer (d. 1600) of Althorp, Northamptonshire, who claimed
descent from the baronial family of Despenser. The fortunes
of the family were founded by Sir John Spencer (d. 1522) of
Snitterfield, Warwickshire, a wealthy grazier. His descendant,
Sir Robert Spencer, the ist baron, was in 1603, " reputed to
have by him the most money of any person in the kingdom."
Sir Robert's grandson, Henry, the 3rd baron, was created earl
of Sunderland in June 1643, and was killed at the battle of
Newbury when fighting for the king a little later in the same year.
He married Dorothy (1617-1684), daughter of Robert Sidney,
2nd earl of Leicester. She was the Sacharissa of the poems
of her admirer, Edmund Waller, and for her second husband
she married Sir Robert Smythe. Their son Robert, the 2nd earl,
was educated abroad and at Christ Church, Oxford, and in
1665 married Anne (d. 1715), daughter of John Digby, 3rd earl
of Bristol; she was both a beauty and an heiress, and is also
famous for her knowledge and love of intrigue. Having passed
some time in the court circle, Sunderland was successively
ambassador at Madrid, at Paris and at Cologne; in 1678 he was
again ambassador at Paris. In February 1679, when the country
was agitated by real or fancied dangers to the Protestant religion,
the earl entered political life as secretary of state for the northern
department and became at once a member of the small clique
responsible for the government of the country. He voted for
the exclusion of James, duke of York, from the throne, and
made overtures to William, prince of Orange, and consequently
in 1 68 1 he lost both his secretaryship and his seat on the privy
council. Early in 1683, however, through the influence of the
king's mistress, the duchess of Portsmouth, Sunderland regained
his place as secretary for the northern department, the chief
feature of his term of office being his rivalry with his brother-
in-law, George Savile, marquess of Halifax. By this time he
had made his peace with the duke of York, and when in February
1685 James became king, he retained his position of secretary,
to which was soon added that of lord president of the council.
He carried out the wishes of the new sovereign and after the
intrigues of a few months he had the satisfaction of securing
the dismissal of Lawrence Hyde, earl of Rochester, from his
post as lord treasurer. He was a member of the commission
for ecclesiastical causes, and although afterwards he claimed that
he had used all his influence to dissuade James from removing
the tests, and in other ways illegally favouring the Roman
Catholics, he signed the warrant for the committal of the seven
bishops, and appeared as a witness against them. It should be
mentioned that while Sunderland was thus serving James II.,
he was receiving a pension from France, and through his wife's
lover, Henry Sidney, afterwards earl of Romney, he was furnish-
ing William of Orange with particulars about affairs in England.
IOO
SUNDERLAND
In the last months of James's reign he was obviously uncomfort-
able. Although he had in 1687 openly embraced the Roman
Catholic faith, he hesitated to commit himself entirely to the
acts of the fierce devotees who surrounded the king, whom he
advised to reverse the arbitrary acts of the last year or two, and
in October 1688 he was dismissed by James with the remark
" I hope you will be more faithful to your next master than you
have been to me."
Sunderland now took refuge in Holland, and from Utrecht
he sought to justify his recent actions in A letter to a friend in the
country. He had been too deeply involved in 'the arbitrary
acts of James II. to find a place at once among the advisers of
William and Mary, and he was excepted from the act of indemnity
of 1690. However, in 1691, he was permitted to return to Eng-
land, and he declared himself a Protestant and began to attend
the sittings of parliament. But his experience was invaluable
and soon he became prominent in public affairs, a visit which
William III. paid him at Althorp, his Northamptonshire seat,
in 1691, being the prelude to his recall into the royal counsels.
It was his advice which led the king to choose all his ministers
from one political party, to adopt the modern system, and he
managed to effect a reconciliation between William and his
sister-in-law, the princess Anne. From April to December 1697
he discharged the duties of lord chamberlain, and for part of
this time he was one of the lords justices, but the general suspicion
with which he was regarded terrified him, and hi December he
resigned. The rest of his life was passed in seclusion at Althorp,
where he died on the 28th of September 1702. The earl was a
great gambler, but he was wealthy enough also to spend money
on improving his house at Althorp, which he beautified both
within and without. His only surviving son was Charles Spencer,
3rd earl of Sunderland (q.v.).
Lord Sunderland possessed a keen intellect and was consumed
by intense restlessness; but his character was wanting in stead-
fastness, and he yielded too easily to opposition. His adroitness
in intrigue and his fascinating manners were exceptional even in
an age when such qualities formed part of every statesman's
education; but the characteristics which ensured him success
in the House of Lords and in the royal closet led to failure in
his attempts to understand the feelings of the mass of his country-
men. Consistency of conduct was not among the objects which
he aimed at, nor did he shrink from thwarting in secret a policy
which he supported in public. A large share of the discredit
attaching to the measures of James II. must be assigned to the
earl of Sunderland.
The best account of Sunderland is the article by T. Seccombe in
the Diet. Nat. Biog., which gives a full bibliography.
SUNDERLAND, a seaport and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Durham, England, at the mouth of the
river Wear, on the North-Eastern railway, 261 m. N. by W.
from London. Pop. (1891), 131,686; (1901) 146,077. The
borough includes the township of Bishopwearmouth, to the south
of Sunderland proper, which lies on the south bank of the
river; and that of Monkwearmouth, on the north bank.
Adjacent to Monkwearmouth on the north-west is the exten-
sive urban district of Southwick, within the parliamentary
borough. A great cast-iron bridge crosses the river with a
single span of 236 ft. and a height of 100 ft. above low water.
It was designed by Rowland Burdon, opened in 1796, and
widened under the direction of Robert Stephenson in 1858.
The only building of antiquarian interest is the church of St
Peter, Monkwearmouth, in which part of the tower and other
portions belong to the Saxon building attached to the
monastery founded by Benedict Biscop in 674. The church of
St Michael, Bishopwearmouth, is on an ancient site, but is a
rebuilding of the igth century. There is a large park at
Roker on the north-east of the town, a favourite seaside
resort, and (among other parks) that at Bishopwearmouth
contains a bronze statue of Sir Henry Havelock, who was born
(1795) at Ford Hall in the neighbourhood.
The prosperity of Sunderland rests on the coalfields of the neigh-
bourhood, the existence of which gave rise to an export trade in the
reign of Henry VII., which has grown to great importance. Manu-
facturing industries include shipbuilding, iron and steel works,
engineering, anchor and chain cable, glass and bottle and chemical
works and paper mills. Limestone is largely worked. For 5 m.
above its mouth the Wear resembles on a reduced scale the Tyne
in its lower course. The harbour is constantly undergoing improve-
ment. The docks cover an area of upwards of 200 acres, ana there
are several graving docks up to 441 ft. in length. The parliamentary
borough returns two members. The municipal borough is under a
mayor, 16 aldermen and 42 councillors, and has an area of 3357
acres.
The history of Sunderland is complicated by the name Wear-
mouth (Wiramuth, Wermuth) being applied impartially to the
Monk's town on the north bank of the Wear; the Bishop's
town on the south and the neighbouring port now known as
Sunderland. In both Monk's and Bishop's Wearmouth the
settlement was connected with the church. Benedict Biscop
in 674 obtained from Ecgfrith king of Northumbria seventy
hides of land on the north bank of the river, on which he founded
the Benedictine monastery of St Peter. Not more than a year
after the foundation Benedict brought over skilled masons and
glass-workers from Gaul who wrought his church in the Roman
fashion, the work being so speedily done that Mass was celebrated
there within the year. A subsequent visit to Rome resulted
in a letter from Pope Agatho exempting his monastery from all
external control. Later Benedict acquired three hides on the
south side of the river. The abbey, where Bede was educated,
was destroyed by the Danes and probably not rebuilt until
Bishop Walcher (1071-1081) settled Aldwin and his companions
there. They found the walls in ruins from the neglect of 208
years, but the church was soon rebuilt. Bishop William of
St Carileph (1081-1099), desiring to acquire the possessions of
the house for his new foundation of Durham, transferred the
monks there, Wearmouth becoming henceforward a cell of the
larger house. Meanwhile Bishop's Wearmouth was becoming
important, having been granted to the bishops by ^Ethelstan
in 930. As a possession of the see it is mentioned in Boldon
Book in conjunction with Tunstall as an ordinary rural vill
rendering one milch cow to the bishop, while the demesne
and its mill rendered £20, the fisheries £6 and the borough of
Wearmouth 205. There seems no doubt but that the borough,
identical with that to which Bishop Robert de Pinset granted
his charter, was in reality Sunderland, the name Wearmouth
being used to cover Bishop's and Monk's Wearmouth and the
modern Sunderland. It was from Wearmouth that Edgar
^Etheling set sail for Scotland, the account implying that this
was a frequented port. In 1 1 97 the town of Wearmouth rendered
373. 4d. tallage during the vacancy of the see, and in 1306-1307
the assessment of a tenth for Bishop's Wearmouth was £5, 53. 4d.,
while that of Monk's Wearmouth was £i, 6s. 8d. Probably the
northern town remained entirely agricultural, while the shipping
trade of Bishop's Wearmouth was steadily increasing. In 1382
what was probably a dock there rendered 2s., and in 1385 the
issues of the town were worth £45, 93. 2d. annually. In 1431
the rent of assize from the demesne lands of Monk's Wearmouth
was £5, is. od. A further contrast is shown by the number of
houseling persons, or those who received the sacrament, returned '
in 1548: Bishop's Wearmouth had 700 and Monk's Wearmouth
300. From this time, at least, Bishop's Wearmouth seems to
have been completely identified with Sunderland: in 1567
Wearmouth was one of the three ports in Durham where pre-
cautions were to be taken against pirates, while no mention is
made of Sunderland. Monk's Wearmouth remained purely
agricultural until 1775, when a shipbuilding yard was estab-
lished and prospered to such an extent that by 1795 five
similar yards were at work.
The Boldon Book states that Sunderland was at farm in 1183
and rendered 100 shillings and the town of Sunderland rendered
58 shillings tallage in 1197 during the vacancy of the see. In
1382 Thomas Menvill held the borough, which with its yearly
free rent, courts and tolls was worth £i, 125. 8d. Edward IV. in
1464, sede vacante, granted a lease of the borough, and in 1507,
Cardinal Bainbridge granted it by copyhold at a rent of £6,
SUNDEW
101
which dropped to £4 in 1590. Bishop Morton incorporated
Sunderland in 1634, stating that it had been a borough from
time immemorial under the name of the New Borough of Wear-
mouth. This charter lapsed during the Civil Wars, when the
borough was sold with the manor of Houghton-le-Spring for
£2851, 93. 6d. Nevertheless the inhabitants retained their
rights. Sunderland became a parliamentary borough returning
two members in 1834. The charter of 1634 granted a market
and annual fair which are still held. The charter of Bishop
Hugh provided for pleas between burgesses and foreign mer-
chants, and directed that merchandise brought by sea should
be landed before sale, except in the case of salt and herrings.
Bishop Hatfield gave a lease of the fisheries in 1358. In the
iSth century commissions were held touching salmon-fisheries
and obstructions in the Wear, while Bishop Barnes (1577-1587)
appointed a water-bailiff for the port, and licensed the building
of wharves for the sale of coal. During the i7th century
Sunderland was the seat of a vice-admiralty court for the county
palatine and in 1669 letters patent permitted the erection of a
pier and lighthouse as the harbour was " very commodiously
situate for the shipping of vast quantities of sea-coles plentifully
gotten and wrought there."
See William Hutchinson, History and Antiquities of the County
Palatine of Durham (Newcastle, 1785-1794); J. W. Summers, History
and Antiquities of Sunderland (Sunderland, 1858); Victoria County
History: Durham.
SUNDEW, in botany, the popular name for a genus of plants
known as Drosera (Gr. Spocros, dew; Fr. rossolis, Ger. Sonnenthau)
so called from the drops of viscid transparent glittering secretion
borne by the tentacles which cover the leaf-surface. It is a
cosmopolitan genus of slender glandular herbs, with leaves
arranged in a basal rosette or alternately on an elongated stem,
and is represented in Britain by three species, which are found
in spongy bogs and heaths.
The common sundew (D. rotundifolia) has extremely small roots,
and bears five or six radical leaves horizontally extended in a rosette
around the flower-stalk. The upper surface of each leaf is
covered with gland-bearing filaments or " tentacles," of which
there are on an average about two hundred. Each gland is
surrounded by a large dew-like drop of the viscid secretion. A
small fibro-vascular bundle (6, fig. 3, B), consisting mainly of spiral
(After Darwin.)
FIG. I. — Leaf of Sundew (Drosera rotundifolia). (X 4.)
vessels, runs up through the stalk of the tentacle and is surrounded
by a layer of elongated parenchyma cells outside of which is the
epidermis filled with a homogeneous fluid tinted purple by a
derivative of chlorophyll (eryhrophyll). The epidermis bears small
multicellular prominences. The glandular head of the tentacle
contains a central mass of spirally thickened cells (tracheids) in
immediate contact with the upper end of the fibrovascular bundle.
Around these is a layer of large colourless thin walled cells which
reaches the surface at the base of the head and acts as absorbing
cells. Outside these are two layers
(the outer one the epidermis) filled
with purple fluid.
Insects are attracted by the leaves;
a fly alighting on the disk, or even
only touching one or two of the
exterior tentacles, is immediately
entangled by the viscid secretion;
the tentacles to which it is adhering
begin to bend, and thus pass on their (
prey to the tentacles next succeed-
ing them inwards, and the insect
is thus carried by a curious rolling
movement to the centre of the leaf
The tentacles on all sides become
similarly inflected; the blade or the
leaf may even become almost cup-
shaped; and the insect, bathed in
the abundant secretion which soon
closes up its tracheae, is drowned
in about a quarter of an hour. The
leaves clasp also, but for a much
shorter time, over inorganic bodies. After Darwin.
The bending of the tentacle takes PT_ , r , c ,
arc npar ifs ha«v and maw h» FlG. 2.— Leaf of Sundew, en-
place near its base, and may be
from much useless movement; (2) by
contact with any solid, even though insoluble and of far greater
minuteness than could be appreciated by our sense of touch —
a morsel of human hair weighing only ,,}„ of a grain, and this
(After Dodel-Port.)
FIG. 3. — Glands of Sundew magnified.
A, External aspect with drop of secretion; B, Internal structure.
largely supported too by the viscid secretion, sufficing to induce
movement ; (3) by the absorption of a trace of certain fluids, mostly
nitrogenous. During the inflexion of the tentacle, and even before
it touches the stimulating object, the secretion of the gland increases
in quantity, and, instead of remaining neutral, becomes acid. The
secretion contains a digestive enzyme which renders soluble the
nitrogenous substances of the insect's body;
these are then absorbed through thin-walled
cells at the base of the gland. After absorp-
tion the tentacles recurve and the leaf
assumes its normal appearance.
Closely allied to Drosera is Drosophyllum
lusitanicum, which catches such vast numbers
of flies in a state of nature that the Portuguese
cottagers call it the fly-catcher, and hang up
branches of it in their houses for this purpose.
Its long narrow leaves are thickly covered
with stalked glands, which resemble in the
main the tentacles of Drosera, save in that
they are incapable of movement, and that
the secretion is less viscid and freely leaves
the gland to wet the insect, which, creeping TIG. 4. rart o
onward, soon clogs its wings and dies. There Leaf of DrosophyUum
are, moreover, many minute colourless sessile lusitamcum.
glands, which, when stimulated by the absorption of nitrogenous
matter, excrete an acid digestive secretion similar to that of the
sundew, by means of which the body of the captured insect is
digested and absorbed.
102
SUNDSVALL— SUNFLOWER
SUNDSVALL, a seaport of Sweden in the district (l&n) of
Vesternorrland, on a wide bay of the Baltic, at the north of
the Selanger River, 360 m. N. by W. of Stockholm, the terminus
of a branch from Ange on the northern railway. Pop. (1900),
14,831. It was rebuilt in brick and stone after a destructive
fire in 1888. In the town and its vicinity are numerous steam
saw-mills, besides wood-pulp factories, steelworks, brickworks,
engineering shops, breweries and joineries, but Sundsvall owes
its chief importance to its export trade in timber (6 to 7 million
cub. ft. annually), the bulk of which goes to Germany, France
and Great Britain. It also exports wood-pulp, iron and fish.
There is a special trade with Finland. The harbour, which is
usually closed by ice from about the middle of December to
the second week in May, is sheltered against the east winds by
a group of islands.
SUNFISH, a name chiefly and properly applied to a marine
fish (Orthagoriscus) of the order Plectognathi, which by its large
size, grotesque appearance and numerous peculiarities of organi-
zation has attracted the attention equally of fishermen as of
naturalists. Only two species are known, the rough or short
sunfish (0. mola), which is found in all seas of the temperate
and tropical zones; and the smaller and scarcer smooth or oblong
sunfish (O. truncatus) , oi which only a small number of specimens
have been obtained from the Atlantic and Indian oceans.
Sunfishes have the appearance of tailless fish. This is due
to the extreme shortening of the caudal region which is sup-
ported by only a few short vertebrae; the caudal fin is absent,
what appears to be a tail being formed by the confluence of
dorsal and ventral fins: pelvic fins are also wanting. The anterior
parts of the dorsal and ventral fins are high and broad, similar
to each other in size and triangular in form. The head is com-
pletely merged in the trunk, the boundary between them being
indicated only by a very small and narrow gill-opening and a
comparatively small pectoral fin. This fin can be of but little
use in locomotion, and the horizontal and vertical movements
of the fish, as well as the maintenance of its body in a vertical
position, are evidently executed by the powerful dorsal and anal
fins. The small mouth, situated in front of the head, is armed
with an undivided dental plate above and below, similar to but
weaker than the teeth of the globe-fish (Diodon).
Sunfishes are truly pelagic, propagating their species in the
Sunfish (Orthagoriscus mola).
open sea, and only occasionally approach the coast. During
the stormy season they live probably at some depth, but in calm,
bright weather they rise and rest or play on the surface with
their dorsal fin high above the water. This habit has given rise
to the popular name " sunfish," a term also sometimes applied
to the basking-shark. In some years the rough sunfish is
by no means scarce on the south coast of England and on the
Irish coasts, where it appears principally in the summer months.
The usual size is from 3 to 4 ft. in length, but this species
attains to 7 ft. and more. One of the largest specimens (shown
in the figure) was caught near Portland (Dorsetshire) in 1846,
and is now in the British Museum; its length is 7 ft. 6 in. The
sunfish has no economic value, and is rarely, if ever, eaten.
Whilst the rough sunfish has a granulated, rough, shagreen-
like skin, the second species (O. truncatus) has the surface of
the body smooth and polished, with its small dermal scutes
arranged in a tesselated fashion. It is oblong in shape, the
body being much longer than it is deep. The sides are finely
ornamented with transverse silvery, black-edged stripes running
downwards to the lower part of the abdomen. It has not
been found to exceed 2 ft. in length. Only a few specimens have
been captured on the coasts of Europe, at the Cape of Good
Hope and off Mauritius.
SUNFLOWER. The common sunflower, known botanically
as Helianthus annuus, a member of the natural order Compositae,
is a native of the western United States. It is an annual herb
with a rough hairy stem 3 to 12 ft. high, broad coarsely toothed
rough leaves 3 to 12 in. long, and heads of flowers 3 to 6 in. wide
in wild specimens and often a foot or more in cultivated. Double
forms are in cultivation, one (globosus fistulosus) having very
large globular heads. The plant is valuable from an economic as
well as from an ornamental point of view. The leaves are used
as fodder, the flowers yield a yellow dye, and the seeds contain
oil and are used for food. It is cultivated in Russia and other
parts of Europe, in Egypt and India and in several parts of
England hundreds of plants are grown on sewage farms for the
seeds. The yellow sweet oil obtained by compression from the
seeds is considered equal to olive or almond oil for table use.
Sunflower oilcake is used for stock and poultry feeding, and
largely exported by Russia to Denmark, Sweden and elsewhere.
The genus Helianthus contains about fifty species, chiefly natives
of North America, a few being found in Peru and Chile. They
are tall, hardy annual or perennial herbs, several of which are
well known in gardens where they are of easy cultivation in
moderately good soil. If. decapetalus is a perennial about 5 ft.
high with solitary heads about 2 in. across in slender twiggy
branchlets; H. multiflorus is a beautiful species with several
handsome double varieties; H. orygalis is a graceful perennial
6 to 10 ft. high, with drooping willow-like leaves and numerous
comparatively small yellow flower-heads. H. atrorubens, better
known as Harpalium rigidum, is a smaller plant, 2 to 3 ft. high,
the flower heads of which have a dark red or purple disk and
yellow rays. There are many fine forms of this now, some of
which grow 6 to 9 ft. high and have much larger and finer flowers
than the type. Other fine species are H. giganteus, 10 to 12 ft.;
H. laetiflorus, 6 to 8 ft., and H. mollis, 3 to 5 ft. H. tuberosus
is the Jerusalem artichoke.
Since the word " sunflower," or something corresponding to
it, existed in English literature before the introduction of
Helianthus annuus, or, at any rate, before its general diffusion '
in English gardens, it is obvious that some other flower must
have been intended. The marigold (Calendula ojjkinalis) is
considered by Dr Prior to have been the plant intended by
Ovid (Met. iv. 269-270) —
". ._. Ilia suum, quamvis radice tenetur,
Vertitur ad solem; mutataque servat amorem " —
and likewise the solsaece of the Anglo-Saxon, a word equivalent
to solsequium (sun-following). But this movement with the
sun is more imaginary than real, the better explanation for the
application of the name to a flower being afforded by the re-
semblance to " the radiant beams of the sun," as Gerard
expresses it. The rock-rose (Helianlhemum iiulgare) was also
termed sunflower in some of the herbals from its flowers
opening only in the sunshine. Actinella grandiflora, a pretty
perennial 6 to 9 in. high, from the Colorado mountains, is
known as the Pigmy sunflower.
SUNIUM— SUNNITES
103
SUNIUM (Sovviov; mod. Cape Colonna), a cape at the
southern extremity of Attica, with a temple of Poseidon upon
it, which serves as a landmark for all ships approaching Athens
from the east. The rocky promontory on which the temple
stands was fortified by a wall with towers, in 413 B.C., as a
protection against the Spartans in Decelea; but it was soon after
seized by a body of fugitive slaves from the Laurium mines.
In the 4th century it was still kept up as a fortress. The temple
was shown by an inscription found in 1898 to be dedicated to
Poseidon, not, as formerly supposed, to Athena, the remains
of whose temple are to be seen about a quarter of a mile away
to the north-east; they are of a peculiar plan, consisting of a hall
with a colonnade on two sides only. The extant temple on the
promontory was probably built in the time of Pericles. It took
the place of an earlier one, of similar proportions but built of
tufa or " poros " stone. There are still standing nine columns
of the south side and two of the north of the peristyle, and one
of the antae and an inner column of the pronaos. They are
built of local white marble, which has suffered much from the
weather. In form they resemble those of the Parthenon and
Theseum, but they have only sixteen flutings. Recent excava-
tions have revealed porticoes, a gateway and other buildings,
and also the remains of several colossal early statues, the best
preserved of which is now in the museum at Athens. The site
of Cape Colonna is extolled by Byron, and is the scene of
Falconer's " Shipwreck." (E. GR.)
SUNN, or INDIA HEMP (Crotalaria juncea) , a plant which is
a native of India and Ceylon. It frequently receives other
names, e.g. false hemp, brown hemp, Bombay hemp, Jubbulpore
hemp, sana, &c. The plant is an annual, requires a light soil,
and is easily cultivated. The ground is ploughed two or three
times, and from 80 to 100 ft> of seed are sown broadcast. The
seedlings quickly appear above the surface, but it is about four
months before the plant begins to flower. Sometimes the seed
is sown in October for the winter crop, and sometimes in May
or June for the summer crop. When the seeds are sown in
May, the bright yellow flowers appear in August, when the plant
may be gathered. It is not unusual, however, to defer this
operation until the seed is ripe, especially if a fibre of great
strength is desired. The stems may be pulled up, as is the case
with flax, or they may be cut down. Different opinions exist
as to whether the stems should be steeped immediately after
they are pulled, or left to dry and then steeped: in the wet dis-
tricts they are taken direct to the water. Since the root ends
are much thicker and coarser than the tops, it is common to
place the bundles erect, and to immerse the root ends in about
a foot of water. Afterwards the bundles are totally immersed
in the ponds, and in two to four days the fibre should be ready
for stripping. There is the same danger of over-retting and under-
retting as in other fibres, but when the retting is complete, the
workmen enter the ponds, take up a handful of stems, and swish
them upon the surface of the water until the fibre becomes loose.
After the fibre has been peeled off it is hung over poles to dry.
When intended for cloth it is combed in order to remove any
foreign matter, but if it is intended to be used for rope or similar
purposes, the fibres are simply separated and the woody matter
combed out with the fingers. The fibre is of a light grey colour,
and has an average length of 3 to 4 ft. It is extensively used
for rope and cordage and also for paper-making in its native
country, but it has made little, if any, progress in this country.
According to Warden, the fibre was tried in Dundee in the
beginning of the igth century. About 1820 the price of India
hemp bagging, as quoted in the Dundee Advertiser, was i|d.
per yard below hemp bagging, and Jd. a yard below tow warp
bagging.
It is stated in Sir G. Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products
of India that a cord 8 in. in size of best Petersburg hemp broke
with 14 tons, 8 cwt. I qr., while a similar rope of sunn only gave way
with 15 tons, 7 cwt. I qr. Roxburgh's experiments with ropes made
from this and other fibres appear on p. 607 of the above work. The
ropes were tested in the fresh state, and also after having been im-
mersed in water for no days. His results, reproduced in the
following table, show the comparison.
Names of the Plants.
Average Weight at which each sort of line broke.
When fresh.
After no days' macera-
tion.
White.
Tanned.
Tarred.
White. | Tanned.
Tarred.
English hemp, a piece of
new tiller-rope
j'°5
—
—
Rotten, as was also
the English log-line.
Hemp from the East
IndiaCompany's farm
near Calcutta.
1"
139
45
All rotten.
Sunn hemp of the Ben-
\ 68
69
60
Rotten 51
65
Jute (Bunghi-pat) . .
68
69
61
40 | 49
60
It would appear that, after maceration, neither ordinary hemp nor
sunn hemp can compare with jute for strength.
SUNNITES, literally, " those of the path," sunna, i.e. followers
of the Prophet's directions, the name of one of the two main
divisions of Islam, the other being the Shi'ites (q.v.). The
Sunnites, who accept the orthodox tradition (Sunna) as well
as the Koran as a source of theologico-juristic doctrines, pre-
dominate in Arabia, the Turkish Empire, the north of Africa,
Turkestan, Afghanistan and the Mahommedan parts of India
and the east of Asia; the Shi'ites have their main seat in Persia,
where their confession is the state religion, but are also scattered
over the whole sphere of Islam, especially in India and the regions
bordering on Persia, except among the nomad Tatars, who are
all nominally Sunnite. Even in Turkey there are many native
Shi'ites, generally men of the upper classes, and often men in
high office (see generally MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION).
Orthodox Islam preserves unchanged the form of doctrine
established in the loth century by Abu '1-IJasan al-Ash'ari
(see ASH'ARI). The attacks of rationalism, aided by Greek
philosophy, were repelled and vanquished by the weapons of
scholastic dialectic borrowed from the enemy; on most points
of dispute discussion was forbidden altogether, and faith in
what is written in Koran and tradition was enjoined without
question as to how these things were true (bild kaifa). Freer
allegorical views, however, were admitted on some specially
perplexing points, such as the doctrine of the eternity of the
Koran, the crude anthropomorphisms of the sacred text, &c.;
and, since Mo'tazilite (Mu'tazilite) views had never taken deep
root among the masses, while the caliphs required the help of
the clergy, and from the time of Motawakkil (A.D. 847) became
ever more closely bound to orthodox views, the freethinking
tendency was thoroughly put down, and to the present day
no rationalizing movement has failed to be crushed in the bud.
Philosophy still means no more than scholastic dialectic, and
is the humble servant of orthodoxy, no man venturing on devious
paths except in secret. In the years 1872-1878 the Afghan
Jamal ud-Din, a professor in the Azhar mosque at Cairo, at-
tempted to read Avicenna with his scholars, and to exercise
them in things that went beyond theology, bringing, for example,
a globe into the mosque to explain the form of the earth. But
the other professors rose in arms, forbade him to enter the
mosque, and in 1879 procured his exile on the pretext that he
entertained democratic and revolutionary ideas. Thus the
later movements of thought in Islam never touch on the great
questions that exercised Mahommedanism in its first centuries,
e.g. the being and attributes of God, the freedom of the will,
sin, heaven and hell, &c. Religious earnestness, ceasing to
touch the higher problems of speculative thought, has expressed
itself in later times exclusively in protest against the extrava-
gances of the dervishes, of the worship of saints, and so forth,
and has thus given rise to movements analogous to Puritanism.
That even in early times the masses were never shaken in
their attachment to the traditional faith, with all its crude and
grotesque conceptions, is due to the zeal of the
ulcma (clergy). Mahommedanism has no priest-
hood standing between God and the congregation, but Koran
and Sunna are full of minute rules for the details of private
IO4
SUNNITES
and civil life, the knowledge of which is necessarily in the hands
of a class of professed theologians. These are the 'ulema (q.v.),
" knowers," theology being briefly named " the knowledge "
('Urn). Their influence is enormous and hardly has a parallel
in the history of religions. For it is not supported by temporal
agencies like the spiritual authority of the Christian priesthood
in the middle ages, but is a pure power of knowledge over the
ignorant masses, who do nothing without consulting their
spiritual advisers. When the vigorous Spanish sultan Mansur
b. Abl 'Amir proposed to confiscate a religious foundation and
the assembled ulema refused to approve the act, and were
threatened by his vizier, one of them replied, " All the evil
you say of us applies to yourself; you seek unjust gains and
support your injustice by threats; you take bribes and practise
ungodliness in the world. But we are guides on the path of
righteousness, lights in the darkness, and bulwarks of Islam ;
we decide what is just or unjust and declare the right; through
us the precepts of religion are maintained. We know that the
sultan will soon think better of the matter; but, if he persists,
every act of his government will be null, for every treaty of
peace and war, every act of sale and purchase, is valid only
through our testimony." With this answer they left the
assembly, and the>sultan's apology overtook them before they
had passed the palace gate.1 The same consciousness of inde-
pendent authority and strength still survives among the ulema.
Thus the sheikh ul-Islam 'Abbas! (who was deposed by the
professors of the Azhar in 1882) had in the first period of his
presidency a sharp conflict with "Abbas Pasha, viceroy of Egypt,
who asked of him an unjust legal opinion in matters of inherit-
ance. When bribes and threats failed, the sheikh was thrown
into chains and treated with great severity, but it was the pasha
who finally yielded, and 'Abbasi was recalled to honours and
rich rewards.
The way in which the ulema are recruited and formed into
a hierarchy with a vigorous esprit de corps throws an instructive
light on the whole subject before us. The brilliant days are
past when the universities of Damascus, Bagdad, Nishapur,
Cairo, Kairawan, Seville, Cordova, were thronged by thousands
of students of theology, when a professor had often hundreds
or even, like Bukharl, thousands of hearers, and when vast
estates in the hands of the clergy fed both masters and scholars.
Of the great universities but one survives — the Azhar mosque
at Cairo — where thousands of students still gather to follow a
course of study which gives an accurate picture of the Mahom-
medan ideal of theological education.
The students of theology generally begin their course in early
youth, but not seldom in riper years. Almost all come from the
^^ lowest orders, a few from the middle classes, and none
St a 0!\ from the highest ranks of society — a fact which in
' *' itself excludes all elements of freer and more refined
education. These sons of poor peasants, artisans or tradesmen
are already disposed to narrow fanaticism, and generally take up
study as a means of livelihood rather than from genuine religious
interest. The scholar appears before the president's secretary
with his poor belongings tied up in a red handkerchief, and after
a brief interrogatory is entered on the list of one of the four orthodox
rites — Shafi'ite, Hanifite, Malikite and Hanbalite (see MAHOMMEDAN
LAW). If he is lucky he gets a sleeping-place within the mosque,
a chest to hold his things, and a daily ration of bread. The less
fortunate make shift to live outside as best they can, but are all day
in the mosque, and are seldom deserted by Moslem charity. Having
kissed the hands of the sheikh and teachers of his school, the pupil
awaits the beginning of the lectures. For books a few compendiums
suffice him. Professors and students gather every morning for the
daily prayer; then the professors take their seats at the foot of the
pillars of the great court and the students crouch on mats at their
feet. The beginner takes first a course in the grammar of classical
Arabic, for he has hitherto learned only to read, write and count.
The rules of grammar are read out in the memorial verses of the
Ajrumtya, and the teacher adds an exposition, generally read from
a printed commentary. The student's chief task is to know the rules
by heart ; this accomplished, he is dismissed at the end of the year
with a certificate (ijaza), entered in his textbook, which permits
him to teach it to others. The second year is devoted to dogmatic
(kalam and lawlfid), taught in the same mechanical way. The dog-
mas of Islam are not copious, and the attributes of God are the chief
1 Von Kremer, Gesch. d. herrschenden Ideen d. Islams, p. 464
(Leipzig, 1868).
subject taken up. They are demonstrated by scholastic dialectic,
and at the end of his second year the student, receiving his certificate,
deems himself a pillar of the faith. The study of law (fiqh), which
rests on Koran and tradition, is more difficult and complex, and
begins, but is often not completed, in the third year. The student
had learned the Koran by heart at school and has often repeated it
since, but only now is the sense of its words explained to him. Of
the traditions of the Prophet he has learned something incidentally
in other lectures; he is now regularly introduced to their vast artificial
system. From these two sources are derived all religious and civil
laws, for Islam is a political as well as a religious institution. The
five main points of religious law, " the pillars of Islam," have been
enumerated in the article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION; the civil law,
on the development of which Roman law had some influence, is
treated under heads similar to those of Western jurisprudence.
It is here that the differences between the four schools come most into
notice: the Hanifite praxis is the least rigorous, then the Shafi'ite;
the Hanbalites, whose system is the strictest, have practically dis-
appeared in the Malikites. The Hanifite rite is official in the Turkish
Empire, and is followed in all government offices whenever a decision
still depends on the sacred law, as well as by all Mahommedans of
Turkish race. In this as in the previous studies a compendium is
learned by heart, and explanations are given from commentaries
and noted down by the students word for word. The professors
are expressly forbidden to add anything of their own. The recog-
nized books of jurisprudence, some of which run to over twenty
folio volumes, are vastly learned, and occasionally show sound
sense, but excel mainly in useless hair-splitting and feats of scholastic
gymnastics, for which the Arabian race has a natural gift.
Besides the three main disciplines the student takes up according
to his tastes other subjects, such as rhetoric (ma'ani wabayan),
logic (manfiq), prosody ('aru4), and the doctrine of the correct
pronunciation of the Koran (qira'a -uiaiajiind). After three or four
years, fortified with the certificates of his various professors, he seeks
a place in a law-court or as a teacher, preacher, cadi, or mufti of a
village or minor town, or else, one of the innumerable posts of con-
fidence for which the complicated ceremonial of Mahommedanism
demands a theologian, and which are generally paid out of pious
foundations. A place is not hard to find, for the powerful corpora-
tion of the ulema seeks to put its own members into all posts, and,
though the remuneration is at first small, the young 'Slim gradually
accumulates the revenues of several offices. Gifts, too, fall in, and
with his native avarice and economy he rises in wealth, position and
reputation for piety. The commonalty revere him and kiss his
hand; the rich show him at least outward respect; and even the
government treats him as a person to whom consideration is due
for his influence with the masses.
This sketch of his education is enough to explain the narrow-
mindedness of the 'Slim. He deems all non-theological science
to be vain or hurtful, has no notion of progress, and regards true
science — i.e. theology — as having reached finality, so that a new
supercommentary or a new students' manual is the only thing that
is perhaps still worth writing. How the mental faculties are blunted
by scholasticism and mere memory work must be seen to be believed ;
such an education is enough to spoil the best head. All originality
is crushed out and a blind and ludicrous dependence on written
tradition — even in things profane — takes its place. Acuteness
degenerates into hair-splitting and clever plays on words after the
manner of the rabbins. The Azhar students not seldom enter
government offices and even hold important administrative posts,
but they neve_r lose the stamp of their education — the narrow, un-
teachable spirit, incapable of progress, always lost in external details,
and never able to grasp principles and get behind forms to the
substance of a matter.
\et it is but a small fraction of the ulema of the Moslem world
that enjoy even such an education as the Azhar affords. It draws
few students from foreign parts,2 where the local schools _.
are of the poorest kind, except in India (thanks to a British
government) and perhaps in Constantinople.3 Bokhara was once a ,
chief seat of learning, but is now so sunk in narrow fanaticism that its
eighty madrasas (medresses) with their 5000 students only turn out
a bigoted and foolish clergy (Vambe'ry).4 But for this very reason
Bokhara is famed as a luminary of pure theology and spreads its
influence over Turkestan, Siberia, China, Kashmir, Afghanistan,
and even over India. Minor schools attached to mosques are found
in other places, but teach still less than the great schools already
mentioned.
Except fin India , where it is controlled by the government,
2 In 1878 seventeen lecture-rooms of the Azhar had 3707 students,
of whom only 64 came from Constantinople and the northern parts
of the Ottoman Empire, 8 from North Arabia, I from the government
of Bagdad, 12 from Kurdistan, and 7 from India with its thirty
million Sunnites.
8 In Kazan also the standard of learning seems to have been
raised by Russian and Western scholars.
4 The madrasa is here a college, generally attached to a mosque,
with lands whose revenues provide the means of instruction and in
part also food and residence for scholars and teachers.
SUNNITES
105
the organization of the priestly and judicial persons trained
in the schools is a compromise between what theological prin-
ciples dictate and what the state demands. Neither
a*dp ' Koran nor Sunna distinguishes between temporal
Temporal and spiritual powers, and no such distinction was
Save- known as long as the caliphs acted in all things as
reigaty. &uccessors of the prophets and heads of the community
of the faithful. But, as the power of the 'Abbasids declined
(see article CALIPHATE, ad fin.) and external authority fell in
the provinces into the hands of the governors and in the capital
into those of the amir al-omara, the distinction became more and
more palpable, especially when the Buyids, who were disposed
to Shl'ite views, proclaimed themselves sultans, i.e. possessors
of all real authority. The theologians tried to uphold the ortho-
dox theory by declaring the sultanate to be subordinate to the
imamate or sovereignty of the caliphs, and dependent on the
latter especially in all religious matters; but their artificial
theories have never modified facts. The various dynasties
of sultans (Buyids, Ghaznevids, Seljuks, and finally the Mongols)
never paid heed to the caliphs, and at length abolished them;
but the fall of the theocracy only increased the influence of the
clergy, the expounders and practical administrators of that
legislation of Koran and Sunna which had become part of the
life of the Mahommedan world. The Mamelukes in Egypt
tried to make their own government appear more legitimate
by nominally recognizing a continuation of the spiritual dignity
of the caliphate in a surviving branch of the ' Abbasid line which
they protected, and in 923 A.H. (1517) the Ottoman Selim, who
destroyed the Mameluke power, constrained the 'Abbasid
Motawakkil III., who lived in Cairo, to make over to him his
nominal caliphate. The Ottoman sultans still bear the title
of " successors of the Prophet," and still find it useful in foreign
relations, since there is or may be some advantage in the right
of the caliph to nominate the chief cadi (ka^l) of Egypt and in
the fact that the spiritual head of Khiva calls himself only the
na^ib (vicegerent) of the sultan.1 In India too the sultan owes
something perhaps to his spiritual title. But among his own
subjects he is compelled to defer to the ulema and has no con-
siderable influence on the composition of that body. He nomin-
ates the Sheikh ul-Islam or mufti (<?.».) of Constantinople (grand
mufti), who is his representative in the imamate and issues judg-
ments in points of faith and law from which there is no appeal;
but the norr.ination must fall on one of the mollahs? who form
the upper stratum of the hierarchy of ulema. And, though the
various places of religious dignity are conferred by the sultan,
no one can hold office who has not been examined and certified
by older ulema, so that the corporation is self-propagating,
and palace intrigues, though not without influence, can never
break through its iron bonds. The deposition of 'Abd ul-Aziz
is an example of the tremendous power that can be wielded by
the ulema at the head of their thousands of pupils,3 when they
choose to stir up the masses; nor would Mahmud II. in 1826
have ventured to enter on his struggle with the janissaries unless
he had had the hierarchy with him.
The student who has passed his examinations at Constanti-
nople or Cairo may take up the purely religious office of imam
(president in worship) or khatlb (preacher) at a
mosque. These offices, however, are purely minis-
terial, are not necessarily limited to students, and
give no place in the hierarchy and no particular consideration or
social status. On the other hand, he may become a judge or
cadi. Every place of any importance has at least one cadi, who
is nominated by the government,'1 but has no further dependence
1 Till the Russians gained preponderating influence the khan of
Khiva also acknowledged the sultan as his suzerain.
1 Mollah is the Perso-Turkish pronunciation of the Arabic mauls,
literally " patron," a term applied to heads of orders and other
religious dignitaries of various grades.
3 Called in Constantinople softa, Persian sokhta, burned up, soil.,
with zeal or love to God.
4 In Egypt before the time of Sa'Id Pasha (1854-1863) the local
judges were appointed by the chief cadi of Cairo, who is sent from
Constantinople. Since then they have been nominated by the
Egyptian government.
on it, and is answerable only to a member of the third class
of the ulema, viz. the mufti or pronouncer of fatwas. A fatwa
is a decision according to Koran and Sunna, but without reasons,
on an abstract case of law which is brought before the mufti
by appeal from the cadi's judgment or by reference from the
cadi himself. For example, a dispute between master and slave
may be found by the cadi to turn on the general question,
" Has Zaid, the master of 'Amr,6 the absolute right to dispose
of his slave's earnings ? " When this is put to the mufti, the
answer will be simply " Yes," and from this decision there is
no appeal, so that the mufti is supreme judge in his own district.
The grand mufti of Constantinople is, as we have seen, nominated
by the sultan, but his hold on the people makes him quite an
independent power in the state; in Cairo he is not even nominated
by the government, but each school of law chooses its own sheikh,
who is also mufti, and the Hanifite is head mufti because his
school is official in the Turkish Empire.
All this gives the judges great private and political influence.
But the former is tainted by venality, which, aggravated by
the scantiness of judicial salaries or in some cases
by the judge having no salary at all, is almost changes.
universal among the administrators of justice.
Their political influence, again, which arises from the fusion
of private and political law in Koran and Sunna, is highly
inconvenient to the state, and often becomes intolerable now
that relations with Western states are multiplied. And even
in such distant parts as Central Asia the law founded on the
conditions of the Prophet's lifetime proves so unsuited to modern
life that cases are often referred to civil authorities rather than
to canonical jurists. Thus a customary law ('or/) has there
sprung up side by side with the official sacred law (shari'o),
much to the displeasure of the mollahs. In Turkey, and above
all in Egypt, it has been found necessary greatly to limit the
sphere and influence of the canonical jurists and to introduce
institutions nearer to Western legal usage. We do not here
speak of the paper constitutions (khait-i-skerif) and the like,
created to impose upon Western diplomatists, but of such things
as consular and commercial courts, criminal codes, and so forth.
The official hierarchy, strong as it is, divides its power with
the dervishes. A religion which subdues to itself a race with
strongly marked individuality is always influenced in cultus
and dogma by the previous views and tendencies of that race,
to which it must in some measure accommodate itself. Mahomet
himself made a concession to heathen traditions when he recog-
nized the Ka'ba and the black stone; and the worship of saints,
which is now spread throughout Islam and supported by obviously
forged traditions, is an example of the same thing. So too are
the religious orders now found everywhere except in some parts
of Arabia. Mystical tendencies in Mahommedanism arose mainly
on Persian soil (see SUFIISM), and Von Kremer has shown that
these Eastern tendencies fell in with a disposition to asceticism
and flight from the world which had arisen among the Arabs
before Islam under Christian influence.6 Inter-
course with India had given Persian mysticism itervbhes.
the form of Buddhistic monkery, while the Arabs
imitated the Christian anchorites; thus the two movements
had an inner kinship and an outer form so nearly identical that
they naturally coalesced, and that even the earliest organiza-
tions of orders of dervishes, whether in the East or the West,
appeared to Mahommedan judgment to be of one type. Thus,
though the name of Sufi (see SUFIISM) is first applied to AbQ
Hashim, who died in Syria in 150 A.H. (767), we find it transferred
without question to the mystical brotherhood which appears
in Khorasan under Abu Sa'Id about 200 A.H. (815/816). Yet
these two schools of Sufis were never quite similar; on Sunnite
soil Sjufiism could not openly impugn orthodox views, while
in Persia it was saturated with Shl'ite heresy and the pantheism
of the extreme devotees of "All. Thus there have always been
two kinds of Sufis, and, though the course of history and the
wandering habits which various orders borrowed from Buddhism
6 Zaid and 'Amr are the Caius and Sempronius of Arabian law*
• Op. cit. p. 52 seq.
io6
SUNSHINE
have tended to bring them closer to one another, we still find
that of the thirty-six chief orders three claim an origin from the
caliph Abfibekr, whom the Sunnites honour, and the rest from
"All, the idol of the Shi'ites.1 Mystic absorption in the being
of God, with an increasing tendency to pantheism and ascetic
practices, are the main scope of all Suflism, which is not neces-
sarily confined to members of orders; indeed the secret practice
of contemplation of the love of God and contempt of the world
is sometimes viewed as specially meritorious. And so ultimately
the word s,ufi has come to denote all who have this religious
direction, while those who follow the special rules of an order
are known as dervishes (beggars, in Arabic fuqard, sing.faqir
— names originally designating only the mendicant orders).
In Persia at the present day a Sufi is much the same as a free-
thinker.2
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The work of Shahrastani (o.».) on the Moslem
sects: A. von Kremer, Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des I slams
(Leipzig, 1868); I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, vol. ii.
(Halle, 1890); D. B. Macdonald, Muslim Theology (London, 1903);
the Hidaya (trans. C. Hamilton, 2nd ed., London, 1870); N. B. E.
Baillie, A Digest of Muhammadan Law (London, 1865); E. Sachau,
Muhammadanisches Recht nach Schafiitischer Lehre (Stuttgart and
Berlin, 1897) ; El-Bokhari, les traditions islamiques (trans, by Houdas
and Marcais, Paris.igos); Lane, An Account of the Manners and
Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1836). For the organiza-
tion of the "ulema in the Ottoman Empire during the middle ages
see E. J. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry, ii. 394 sqq. (London
1902). (A. Mu.;R. A. N.)
SUNSHINE. As a meteorological element sunshine requires
some conventional definition. There is uninterrupted continu-
ance of gradation from the burning sunshine of a tropical noon
to the pale luminosity that throws no shadow, but just identifies
the position and shape of the sun through the thin cloud of
northern skies.
The Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder. — In the British Isles
the sun is allowed to be its own timekeeper and the scorch of a
specially prepared card used as the criterion for bright sunshine.
The practice arose out of the use of the sunshine recorder which
depends upon the scorching effect of a glass sphere in the sun's
rays. The original form of the instrument was suggested by
J. F. Campbell of Islay in 1857. He used a glass sphere within
a hemispherical bowl of wood. The scorching of the wood along
successive lines of the bowl as the sun alters its declination from
solstice to solstice leaves a rugged monument of the duration
and intensity of the sunshine during the half-year, but does not
lend itself to numerical measurement. The design of a metal
frame to carry movable cards and thus give a decipherable
record of each day's sunshine is due to Sir G. G. Stokes. The
excursions of the sun to the north and south of the equator are
limited by the tropical circles, and the solar record on the hemi-
spherical bowl will be confined within a belt 23° 27' north and
south of the plane through the centre parallel to the equator
or perpendicular to the polar axis. Thus a belt 46° 54' in angular
width will be suitable for a sunshine recorder for any part of
the world. Whatever place be chosen for the observation the
same belt will do if it is set up perpendicular to the earth's
polar axis. But there can be no record if the sun is below the
horizon; hence any part of the belt projecting above the horizon
is not only useless for recording but is liable to shadow a part
of the belt where there might be a record. Hence to meet the
requirements of a particular locality the belt as set up round the
polar axis should be cut in two by a horizontal plane through
the centre and the half projecting above the horizontal removed.
Reversed it makes a half belt, exactly similar to what is left,
and thus each complete belt is cut by a horizontal plane through
the centre into two frames suitable for sunshine recorders for
the particular locality.
The cutting of the belt may, of course, vary between the direct
transverse cut along the polar axis which gives a half-ring belt
to be set vertical in order to receive the record for a point on
the equator, and the cut perpendicular to the polar axis which
1 These claims to early origin are mere fables, like the claim of the
Oweisi order to spring from Oweis.'one of the oldest traditionalists,
and so forth.
2 For the dervish orders see DERVISH.
divides the belt into two similar rings suitable for recording the
sunshine at the poles. Clearly, when the belt is so cut that two
complete rings are formed, a continuous record of sunshine
throughout the twenty-four hours may be expected, so that for
the polar circles the cut will run diagonally between opposite
points of the extreme circles of the sun's records. As examples
of the cutting of the belt for different latitudes we may put side
by side the recorder as used in temperate latitudes (fig. i) and
FIG. i. — Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder.
the special form designed in the Meteorological Office, London,
for use on the National Antarctic Expedition, 1 901-1 904 (fig. 2) .
A belt cut for a particular latitude is serviceable for some 10°
Antarctic Sunshine Recorder, to carry 24-hour record.
FIG. 2. — Antarctic Sunshine Recorder, to carry 1 2-hour record.
on either side of that latitude if the cards are not trimmed too
closely to the cutting of the belt. The belt must always be
adjusted round the parallel to the polar axis. If the cut of the
belt is too oblique for the latitude of the place where it is exposed,
and the cards are cut strictly to the belt, the northern side of the
cut will be below the horizon and the southern side above it,
SUNSHINE
107
some sunshine may be lost near sunrise or sunset in the winter
because there is no card to receive it. The part projecting above
the horizon in summer will partly shadow the globe, and faint
sunshine may be lost, for at most only half the globe can be
solarized at sunset. But the loss due to this cause is unimportant.
Stokes designed the complete belt to use successively three cards
(From the Observer's Handbook, by permission of the Controller of
H.M. Stationery Office.)
FIG. 3.
of different shape for different times of the year. The equinoctial
card forms a portion of a cylinder round the polar axis for spring
and autumn, the summer card and the winter card each forms
a part of a cone making a vertical angle of 16° with the polar
axis as indicated in fig. 3.
Adjustments. — The adjustments of the instrument are to set the
belt so that its axis is parallel to the polar axis and symmetrically
adjusted with reference to the meridian of the place, and to set the
sphere so that its centre coin-
cides precisely with the centre
of the belt. No one of the
three adjustments is easy to
makeor to test because neither
the centre of the sphere nor
the centre (nor indeed the
axis) of the belt can be easily
identified. For an instrument
for testing these adjustments
see Quart. Journ. Roy. Met.
Soc. xxxii. 249.
Instruments differ accord-
ing to the means provided for
mounting or adjusting the
positions of the belt or sphere,
and in that known as the
Whipple Casella instrument
the fixed belt
advantage of Stokes's specification is the simplicity of the use
of the instrument when once it has been properly adjusted and
fixed.
It is essential that the glass sphere should be of the proper size
and refractive index to give an image
of the sun on the prepared card or
within the 2Oth of an inch of it nearer
the centre. It is also essential that
the cards used should not only be of
suitable material but also of the right
dimensions for the bowl. The colour
and material of the cards were selected
by Stokes in consultation with Warren
De la Rue, who was at that time his col-
league on the Meteorological Council,
and the cards used by the meteoro-
logical office are still supplied by
Messrs De la Rue & Co. Accuracy in
the comparative measurements of sun-
shine by this method depends upon
the proper adjustment of the dimen-
sions of the different constituent parts
of the recorder and accordingly the
following specification of standard
dimensions has been adopted by the
meteorological office.
The Time Scale. — On the time scale
of the equinoctial card twelve hours
are represented by 9-00 in.
The Bowl. — The diameter of the
bowl, measured between the centres of
the 6 o'clock marks on a metal equi-
noctial card of thickness 0-02 in. when
in its place, is to be 5-73 in. ( ="= o-oi in.). The distance between the
exposure edges of the upper winter flange and the lower summer
flange must not be less than 2-45 in., nor exceed 2-50 in. The
distances from the middle line on the equinoctial card to the
middle lines on the summer and winter cards are to be 0-70 in.
( ± 0-02 in.). The inclination of the summer card, in place, to the
winter card, in place, is to be 32° =*= J°, symmetrically arranged with
regard to the equinoctial card. The section of the supporting
surface by a plane through the polar axis is to be as in fig. 3.
The Sphere. — The material for the sphere must be crown "
glass, colourless, or of a very pale yellow tint. The diameter 4 in.
The weight between 2-92 and 3-02 Ib. The focal length from the
centre of the sphere to the geometrical focus for parallel rays should
be between 2-96 in. and 2-99 in.
Measurement of the Sunshine Record. — It was mentioned that
the Campbell-Stokes recorder involves a conventional definition
of sunshine. The recorded day of sunshine is less than the
actual time during which the sun is above the horizon by about
twenty minutes at sunrise and sunset on account of the want
of burning power of a very low sun. Some further convention
is necessary in order to obtain a tabulation of the records which
will serve as the basis of a comparison of results for climato-
logical purposes. The spot which is scorched on the card by the
sun is not quite limited to the image of the sun, and a few seconds
of really strong sunshine will produce a circular burn which is
hardly distinguishable in size from that of a minute's record.
(See fig. 4.) Consequently with intermittent sunshine exaggera-
tion of the actual duration of burning is very probable. Strictly
speaking measurements ought to be between the diameters of
the circular ends of the burns, but the practice of measuring
all the trace that can be distinctly recognized as scorched has
become almost universal in Great Britain, and appears to give
a working basis of comparisons.
FIG. 4. — Records obtained by exposing a Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder for measured
intervals varying from one second to thirty minutes. The duration of the exposure of the separate
burns increases from right to left of the diagram.
is replaced by a movable card holder. The chief Other Types of Sunshine Recorder. — There are, however, various
other conventions as to sunshine which are used as the basis of
recorders of quite different types. The Jordan recorder uses ferro-
cyanide paper and the sun keeps the time of its own record by the
traverse of a spot of light over the sensitive paper, arranged as a
9 10 II Noon I 2
5 6 7 8 9
34-56789 10 II Mid. I 2 3
FIG. 5. — Sunshine Record (June 19 and 20, 1908).
cylinder about a line parallel to the polar axis. The effect thereby
recorded is a photochemical one, and the composite character of the
sun's radiation, modified by the elective absorption of the atmosphere
makes the relation of the record to that of the sun's scorching power
dependent upon atmospheric conditions and therefore on different
occasions, so that the two records give different aspects of the solar
influence. Other recorders use the thermal or photographic effect
io8
SUNSHINE
January
february
March
Forenoon, (a.m. I
8
Afternoon, (p.m. I
4
of the sun's rays and record duration by a clock instead of allowing I exclusively local, and indeed the possible duration of sunshine at
the sun to keep its own time. In the Marvin sunshine recorders of | any station is a local characteristic which it is desirable to know.
Consequently as evidence of the peculiarity of
the site the recorded sunshine might be referred
to the total possible with a free horizon. On the
other hand, taking the record of sunshine as an
indication of the clearness of the sky for the
purposes of general meteorology, the screening
of the sun by hills must be regarded simply as
limiting the time during which observation is
possible and the duration of the sunshine recorded
should be referred to the possible duration at the
particular site. It would, therefore, be desirable
m publishing records of the duration of sunshine
recorded to note also the possible amount for the
instrument as exposed (see Hourly Means at
Five Observatories under the Meteorological Council,
1891, No. 113, p. 10). The table shows the
number of hours the sun is above the horizon
during each month in the latitude of the British
Isles.
By way of exhibiting the results obtained
from sunshine records we reproduce (fig. 7) the
sunshine map of the British Isles taken from the
annual summary of the Monthly " Weather
Report," 1908 (British Meteorological Year-Book,
pt. ii.). Corresponding maps embodying data
from over 130 stations are prepared each month;
fig. 8 shows the variation in the distribution of
sunshine that may take place in different months.
Further, fig. 9 represents the average weekly
distribution of sunshine in different sections
of the British Isles according to the average or
twenty-five years.
August
Siotembe
October
November
December
FIG. 6. — Monthly Average Duration of bright Sunshine for each hour of the day
at Valencia (Ireland).
the United States weather bureau an electrical contact is made by
the thermal effect of the sun and the duration of the contact is
recorded. An instrument which gives a corresponding result is
described by W. H. Dines (Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc. xxvi. 243).
These define sunshine by the effect necessary to produce or maintain
a certain thermal effect, but the definition once accepted there is
no uncertainty as to the record. The Callendar sunshine recorder1
gives a record of the difference of temperature of two wires, one
solarized and the other not, and it is therefore a continuous record
of the thermal effect of solar and terrestrial radiation. It is vastly
more detailed than that of other instruments (see fig. 5), but the
interpretation of the record in terms suitable for meteorological
or climatological purposes is a special study, which has not yet been
attempted. In a somewhat similar way information about the
duration and intensity of sunshine with an abundance of detail can
be obtained from the record upon photographic paper passing under
an aperture in a drum which revolves with the sun, as in the Lander
recorder, but the study of such details has not been begun.
Sunshine Records for the British Isles. — The interest in the use of
sunshine recorders is more widely extended in the British Isles than
elsewhere, and it is, so far as the public are concerned, the most
important meteorological element, but it is singular that up to the
present a knowledge of the total amount of sunshine recorded during
the day, the week, the month or the year is all that is apparently
required. Except for the observatories in connexion with the
meteorological office and a few others the distribution of sunshine
during the day is not taken out, so that we are still some distance from
attacking the problems presented by the finer details of solar records.
Fig. 6 shows the average duration of bright sunshine for each hour
of the day for each month at Valencia. The expectation of sunshine
is greatest at I p.m. and 2 p.m. in May, while there is a well-marked
secondary maximum in September.
Exposure. — -We now consider what the daily sunshine record
for a particular station means. An ideal exposure has an uninter-
rupted view of those parts of the
horizon in which the sun rises or sets;
and elsewhere the view of the sun
must not be obstructed by the ground,
buildings, trees or any other obstacle;
but ideal exposures are not always to
be obtained. In mountainous districts
particularly it may be impossible to
find a site in which the sun is not
obstructed for an appreciable part of
the day. In these circumstances it
becomes a question whether the amount
of sunshine recorded should be referred
to the maximum possible for an un-
interrupted horizon or the maximum
possible for the particular exposure.
The answer to the question really depends upon the purpose for which
the information is wanted. As a climatological factor of the locality
the shadow cast by the surrounding hills is of importance, it is part
of the difference between the fertility of the southern and northern
slopes of hill country. This importance is, of course, in many respects
1 Brit. Assoc. Report (1900), p. 44.
Isihels are shown for
10(10. 1300. 1600 and 1900 hrs.
The unit for the values at
stations is one thousand hours
FIG. 7. — Sunshine in the British Isles in 1908.
Possible Duration of Bright Sunshine in the Latitude of the British Isles.
Lati-
tude.
Jan.
Feb.
Leap
Year.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
50°
262
278
288
365
410
473
482
485
442
373
327
266
246
51°
257
276
286
365
411
477
487
489
444
373
325
262
241
52°
251
273
284
365
412
481
491
494
446
374
324
258
236
53°
247
271
281
364
414
486
498
499
450
375
323
254
231
54°
243
268
279
363
417
490
503
5°5
453
375
322
251
225
55°
237
265
276
363
418
494
5io
5ii
456
376
319
245
218
56°
232
263
273
362
420
499
516
5i6
459
376
3i6
239
211
57°
226
260
270
362
423
504
524
523
463
377
3H
236
205
58°
219
257
267
361
426
5io
532
530
467
378
312
232
197
59°
211
253
263
36i
429
517
541
538
471
379
309
225
I87
Sunshine in the Antarctic Regions. — It is clear that so far as con-
cerns the zone from 50° to 60° N. in this particular region, the annual
amount of sunshine diminishes as one goes northward. It would,
however, not be safe to conclude that this diminution in the aggre-
gate duration of sunshine during the year goes on without inter-
ruption as one proceeds northward. At least the corresponding
statement would not be true of the southern hemisphere. No doubt
SUNSHINE
109
the frequency of cloud and the consequent loss of duration of sunshine
would increase for corresponding latitudes from the tropical anti-
cyclone southward, but beyond the region of minimum pressure
at the winter quarters of the " Discovery " in latitude 77 51' _S.,
longitude 166° 45' E., the amount of bright sunshine recorded during
the two years 1902 and 1903 was remarkably large. The total for
1903 equalled that for Scilly, and in December of that year an
average of 16 hours per day was registered.
Isoheli are shown for
150.200,250,300 and 350 hrs.
May 1909.
Isolielx are shown for
100,140,180 and 220 hrs.
June 1909.
FIG. 8. — Sunshine in the British Isles in May and
June 1909.
Sunshine Results for Other Parts of the World. — Maps showing the
average annual distribution of sunshine over Europe and North
America are given in Bartholomew's Physical Atlas, vol. iii. Atlas
of Meteorology. Over Europe the largest totals, over 2750 hours
per annum, are shown over central Spain. In North America,
values exceed 3250 hours per annum in the New Mexico region.
For other parts of the world the information available is not suffi-
ciently extensive for the construction of charts.
Effect upon Sunshine Records of the Smoke of Great Cities. — Much
discussion has taken place from time to time as to whether the
climate of a locality can be altered by artificial means. Questions
have been raised as to the effect of forests upon rainfall, as to the
indirect effect of irrigation or the converse process, the oblitera-
tion of natural irrigation by blown sand, and as to the possibility
of producing, arresting or modifying rainfall by the discharge of
explosives.
The one question of the' kind to which the sunshine recordet
gives an absolutely incontrovertible answer is as to the effect of the
smoke of great cities in diminishing the sunshine in the immediate
Hourt
10 15 20
25 30 2
5 40 45
BO 3 8
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
40-
A
30-
^
\
20-
J
^J\
f\
10-
J
'\
f
Extreme
North
K
A"
ES
/
\
A
3O-1
2
\
20
>
\
/
10-
^
Extreme
South
40-
r
~\
r
Vvs
A
J
\
10 -
V
; z
Western
Section
^-^.^
40-
/±
wv
2
VV\
/-\
/
\
IO
\
. X
Eastern
Section
^— ^"^
FIG. 9. — Average Duration of bright Sunshine in the British
Isles for each week.
neighbourhood. This may be illustrated by the figures for sunshine
during the winter months off Bunhill Row, E.G., in the middle of
London, Westminster, Kew and Cambridge.
Monthly Average Duration of Bright Sunshine derived from Observa-
tions extending over Twenty Years.
Station.
November.
December.
January.
February.
Bunhill Row . .
Westminster
Kew . . . .
Cambridge .
22-8
27-7
50-8
61-0
7-5
I3-I
38-1
40-6
14-1
18-4
40-3
48-9
30-6
32-8
54-6
73-8
This is not a question which comes out merely by taking averages.
The answer can be seen directly by comparing the daily cards (see
fig. 10, Sunshine Cards for Cambridge, Westminster and Bunhill
Row for December 1904). Thus it appears that the direct effect of
the local contamination of the London atmosphere results in the
no
SUNSTONE— SUNSTROKE
diminution of the recorded sunshine for the whole year by 37 %,
and it is clear that the contamination extends in some degree as far
as Kew, where the loss amounts to about 10%. There is evidence
of various kinds to show that the effect of the smoke cloud of cities
Cambridge.
Westminster.
Bunhill Row.
FIG. 10.
Can be traced sometimes for great distances, and in special conditions
of weather with easterly winds the effect is sometimes remarkably
persistent. (W. N. S.)
SUNSTONE, a felspar exhibiting in certain directions a bril-
liant spangled appearance, which has led to its use as an
ornamental stone. The effect appears to be due to reflections
from enclosures of red haematite, in the form of minute scales,
which are hexagonal, rhombic or irregular in shape, and are dis-
posed parallel to the principal cleavage-plane. These enclosures
give the stone an appearance something like that of aventurine
(q.v.), whence sunstone is known also as " aventurine-felspar."
It is not common, the best-known locality being Tvedestrand,
near Arendal, in south Norway, where masses of the sunstone
occur embedded in a vein of quartz running through gneiss. It is
found also near Lake Baikal, in Siberia, and at several localities
in the United States, notably at Middletown, Delaware county,
Pennsylvania, and at Statesville in North Carolina. The felspar
which usually displays the aventurine appearance is oligoclase
(q.v.), but the effect is sometimes seen also in orthoclase (q.v.):
hence two kinds of sunstone are distinguished as " oligoclase
sunstone " and " orthoclase sunstone." The latter has been
found near Crownpoint and at several other localities in the
state of New York, as also at Glen Riddle in Delaware county,
Pennsylvania, and at Amelia Court House, Amelia county,
Virginia.
SUNSTROKE (Heatstroke; Insolation; Thermic Fever;
Siriasis), a term applied to the effects produced upon the central
nervous system, and through it upon other organs of the body,
by exposure to the sun or to overheated air. Although most
frequently observed in tropical regions, this disease occurs also
in temperate climates during hot weather. A moist condition
of the atmosphere, which interferes with cooling of the overheated
body, greatly increases the liability to suffer from this ailment.
Sunstroke has been chiefly observed and investigated as
occurring among soldiers in India, where formerly, both in active
service and in the routine of ordinary duty, cases of this disease
constituted a considerable item of sickness and mortality. The
increased attention now paid by military authorities to the
personal health and comfort of the soldier, particularly as
regards barrack accommodation and dress, together with the care
taken in adjusting the time and mode of movement of troops,
has done much to lessen the mortality from this cause. It
•would appear that, while any one exposed to the influence of
strong solar heat may suffer from the symptoms of sunstroke,
there are certain conditions which greatly predispose to it in the
case of individuals. Causes calculated to depress the health,
such as previous disease, particularly affections of the nervous
system — anxiety, worry or overwork, irregularities in food, and
in a marked degree intemperance — have a powerful predisposing
influence, while personal uncleanliness, which prevents among
other things the healthy action of the skin, the wearing of tight
garments, which impede the functions alike of heart and lungs;
and living in overcrowded and insanitary dwellings have an
equally hurtful tendency.
While attacks of sunstroke are frequently precipitated by
exposure, especially during fatigue, to the direct rays of the sun,
in a large number of instances they come on under other circum-
stances. Cases are of not infrequent occurrence among soldiers
in hot climates when there is overcrowding or bad ventilation
in their barracks, and sometimes several will be attacked in
the course of a single night. The same remark applies to similar
conditions existing on shipboard. Further, persons whose
occupation exposes them to excessive heat, such as stokers,
laundry workers, &c., are apt to suffer, particularly in hot seasons.
In the tropics Europeans, especially those who have recently
arrived, are more readily affected than natives. But natives
are not exempt.
The symptoms of heatstroke, which obviously depend upon
the disorganization of the normal heat-regulating mechanism,
as well as of the functions of circulation and respiration, vary
in their intensity and likewise to some extent in their form.
Three chief types of the disease are usually described.
1. Heat Syncope. — In this form the symptoms are those of exhaus-
tion, with a tendency towards fainting or its actual occurrence.
A fully developed attack of this description is usually preceded by
sickness, giddiness, some amount of mental excitement followed by
drowsiness, and then the passage into the syncopal condition, in
which there are pallor and coldness of the skin, a weak, quick and
intermittent pulse, and gasping or sighing respiration. The pupils
are often contracted. Death may quickly occur; but if timely
treatment is available recovery may take place.
2. Heat Apoplexy or Asphyxia. — In this variety the attack,
whether preceded or not by the premonitory symptoms already
mentioned, is usually sudden, and occurs in the form of an apoplectic
seizure, with great vascular engorgement, as seen in the flushed face,
congested eyes, quick full pulse and stertorous breathing. There
is usually insensibility, and convulsions are not infrequent. Death
is often very sudden. This form, however, is also amenable to
treatment.
3. Thermic Fever. — This variety is characterized chiefly by the
excessive development of fever (hyperpyrexia), the temperature of
the body rising at such times to 108° to 1 10° F. or more. Accompany-
ing this are the other symptoms of high febrile disturbance,
such as great thirst, quick full pulse, pains throughout the body,
headache, nausea and vomiting, together with respiratory embarrass-
ment. After the attack has lasted for a variable period, often one
or two days, death may ensue from collapse or from the case
assuming the apoplectic form already described. But here, too,
treatment may be successful if it is promptly applied.
Besides these, other varieties depending on the prominence of
certain symptoms are occasionally met with. The chief changes
in the body after death from heatstroke are those of anaemia of the
brain and congestion of the lungs, together with softness of the heart
and of the muscular tissues generally. The blood is dark and fluid
and the blood corpuscles are somewhat altered in shape. Attacks,
of sunstroke are apt to leave traces of their effects upon the constitu-
tion, especially upon the nervous system. A liability to severe
headache, which in many cases would seem to depend upon a condi-
tion of chronic meningitis, epileptic fits, mental irritability and
alterations in the disposition are among the more important. It is.
often observed that heat in any form is ever afterwards ill borne,
while there also appears to be an abnormal susceptibility to the action
of stimulants. The mortality from sunstroke is estimated at from
40 to 50 %.
Treatment. — Means should be adopted to prevent attacks in the
case of those who must necessarily be exposed to the sun. These-
consist in the wearing of loose clothing, with the exception of the
head-dress, which ought to be worn close to the head, in due attention
to the function of the skin, and in the avoidance of alcoholic and
other excesses. Cold water may be drunk in small quantities at
frequent intervals. Sleeping in the open air in very hot seasons is
recommended. The treatment of a patient suffering from an attack
necessarily depends upon the form it has assumed. In all cases,
he should if possible be at once removed into a shaded or cool
place. Where the symptoms are mostly those of shock and there is a
SUPERANNUATION— SUPERINTENDENT
in
tendency to death from heart failure, rest in the recumbent position,
the use of diffusible stimulants, such as ammonia or ether, &c.,
together with friction or warmth applied to the extremities, are the
means to be adopted. Where, on the other hand, the symptoms
are those of apoplexy or of hyperpyrexia, by far the most successful
results are obtained by the use of cold (the cold affusion, rubbing
the surface with ice, enemata of ice-cold water). The effect is a
marked lowering of the temperature, while at the same time a
stimulus is given to the respiratory function. Mustard or turpentine
applied to the nape of the neck or chest is a useful adjuvant. Should
the temperature be lowered in this way but unconsciousness still
persist, removal of the hair and blistering the scalp are recommended.
The subsequent treatment will depend upon the nature of the result-
ing symptoms, but change to a cool climate is often followed by
marked benefit.
SUPERANNUATION (formed on the basis of "annual,"
" annuity," from the Late Lat. superannatus, one that has lived
beyond the year, super, above, and annus, year, Fr. suranner,
to grow very old), properly a disqualification or relief from office
or service on account of old age, infirmity, or of passing the limit
of age fixed for service, hence the pension or allowance granted
in respect of service at the expiry of the term or the retirement
(see PENSION). Educationally the term is specifically used
of the removal of a backward pupil, who would otherwise remain
in a class or form below that which his age demands.
SUPERCARGO, a term in maritime law (adapted from the
Span, sobrecargo, one over or in charge of a cargo) for a person
employed on board a vessel by the owners of the cargo to manage
their trade, sell the merchandise at the ports to which the vessel
is sailing, and buy and receive goods for shipment homewards.
He has control of the cargo unless expressly or impliedly limited
by his contract or agreement. He differs from a factor, who has
a fixed place of residence at a port or trading place, by sailing
from port to port with the vessel to which he is attached.
SUPEREROGATION (Late Lat. super -erogatio, payment
beyond what is due or asked, from super, beyond, erogare, to
pay out, expend, ex, out, rogare, to ask), the performance of more
than is asked for, the action of doing more than duty requires.
In the theology of the Roman Church, " works of supereroga-
tion " are those which are performed beyond what is required
by God, thus forming a reserve store of works of merit which
can be drawn upon for the dispensation of those whose works
fall short of the standard required.
SUPERINTENDENT, a term which, apart from its general
use for an official in charge, has a distinct religious connotation,
being applied, e.g. to the head of a Sunday school and to the
chief minister in a Methodist circuit. In its most important
historical sense it refers to certain ecclesiastical officers of
reformed churches of the Lutheran model.
At the Reformation the question of the ordering and con-
stitution of the churches was urgent. The greatest confusion
prevailed: the priests were often dissolute, the people were
ignorant, and meanwhile nobles were seizing the Church lands.
Luther and Melanchthon would have preferred to retain the old
episcopal control, and to have charged the bishops with the
duty of making the necessary alterations in the ecclesiastical
constitution. For, while they taught that in spiritual powers
all ministers were equal, they recognized the propriety of allowing
administrative distinctions. But the bishops were unwilling
to come to any terms with the Reformers, and it became necessary
to appoint officers of some new kind. The name of super-
intendent was then given to a class of men who discharged
many of the functions of the older bishops, while bearing a
character which in several respects was new. Only in Denmark
was the name of bishops reserved for the new officers after the
Lutheran model had been adopted and the older bishops had
been deposed and imprisoned. It is still used there, though
no claim is made that it is the sign of formal apostolical succes-
sion. In Scotland the First Book of Discipline provided not
only for ministers, teachers, elders and deacons, but also for
superintendents and readers. The superintendents (who were
appointed because of the scarcity of Protestant pastors) took
charge of districts corresponding in some degree with the
episcopal dioceses, and made annual reports to the general
assembly of the ecclesiastical and religious state of their
provinces, in the churches of which they also preached.
The distinctive character borne by the new officers was
determined by the cardinal principles which Luther had laid
down in his work regarding the religious functions of the state.
He conceived of the secular government as an ordinance of God,
and as being set to direct and control the external fortunes
of the Church. He hoped that righteous magistrates would
at all times form a sound court of appeal in times of ecclesiastical
disorder, and that they would guard the interests of truth and
justice more securely than had been done under papal jurisdic-
tion. The superintendents who now had to undertake large
administrative responsibilities in the Church were therefore to
be appointed by the civil power and to be answerable to it.
They were to stand as intermediaries between the prince or
magistrates on the one hand, and the ministers in their districts
on the other.
In his earlier writings Luther had laid his main emphasis
on the spiritual priesthood of all believers. Every sincere
Christian was declared free, not only to preach, but also to
administer the sacraments and to rebuke evil livers. The
differences in office and function between the members implied
no difference in rank, for the members of Christ's Church were
all members of His body, and Luther believed that they would
all be ruled into true order and charity by the Head. But he
was shaken by the Peasants' War, and his faith in the virtues
of the average man never recovered itself. The result was
seen in his later writings, where he expresses his conviction that
men need to be directed and restrained from without, and he
looks to the state to undertake this duty. In the last resort
the civil magistrates must take control of the Church. His
vindication for thus subordinating the ecclesiastical to the civil
lay in his assumption that the rulers of a Christian land would
themselves be Christian, and that it was the Christian duty of
the Church to render obedience to those who had been ordained
of God to bear rule. He, and the rest of the Reformers, were
as firm believers in a visible Catholic Church as were any of
those of whom he speaks as " the adherents of the old religion,"
and Luther, always conservative in feeling, clung to an alliance
with the state and denied that the repudiation by the Reformers
of papal authority had severed them from the visible Church.
The character of the office and duties of the superintendent
were not everywhere the same. Luther shrank from imposing
any stereotyped forms and asked that the special circumstances
of each separate district should be consulted. He hoped that
as few changes as possible would be made, and trusted that
the reformed doctrines would spread peacefully throughout
the country. After the Diet of Speyer (1526) the civil authori-
ties were invited to reorganize the Church in their respective
dominions as they thought best. This was not felt to present
any great difficulties in the free towns, for institutions of self-
rule had there grown strong and schemes of ecclesiastical
readjustment were speedily drawn up. Richter and Sehling1
have published a number of these ordinances, and they show that
as a rule one of the city clergy was appointed superintendent
by the city fathers and set in a position of administrative
authority over all the churches within their jurisdiction. They
were answerable to those fathers for their good order. Greater
difficulties presented themselves in the territories of the German
princes, and in the case of Saxony Luther proposed to the elector
that his first step should be to send out a commission of visitation
which should report on the moral and spiritual condition of
his principality, district by district. His proposal was carried
out, and Luther himself became one of the visitors (1527-1528).
He found the people in a state of such religious indifference and
ignorance, and the clergy living often in such grossness, that
his faith in their fitness to govern themselves ecclesiastically
sank even lower than before, and he resisted all schemes for
self-government such as had been proposed by Francis Lambert.
The church organization which he devised for Saxony provided
1 In their works on Die evangelischen Kirchenordnung des i6ten
Jahrhunderts (Weimar, 1846; and Leipzig, 1902-1904).
112
SUPERIOR, LAKE
no place for democratic or representative elements: the grasp
of the state must at all times be felt. The superintendent must
speak at all times as a minister of the state, and the state must
be represented in the synod to which he makes his first report,
for upon the synod there must sit not only the pastors but also
a delegate from every parish. If any appeal should be made
from the decisions of the synod it must be heard in the court
of the electoral prince, for he, as supreme civil ruler, possessed
the jus episcopate, the right of oversight of the churches. Luther
proposed that he should exercise this right by appointing a
consistorial court composed in part of theologians and in part
of canon lawyers, and it was thus that in 1542 the Wittenberg
ecclesiastical consistory was formed. Other principalities
adopted the model, so that the institution became common
throughout the Lutheran churches.
In this scheme the superintendent (or superattendant) was charged
with such part of the duty of the older bishops as had been purely
administrative. He must concern himself with the discharge of
their duties by the pastors of the churches, as well as with their
character and demeanour. He must supervise their conduct of
public worship, as well as give them licence to preach. He must
take cognizance of their ministry to the indigent in their parishes,
and of their management of the schools. He must further direct
the studies of candidates for the pastoral office. He was answerable
to the civil authorities to report all evil-living and false teaching,
and those authorities had final power in the matters referred to them.
If those matters, however, presented technical difficulties, they
could be referred to the consistorial courts.
The earliest occasion of the appointment of such a superintendent
would seem to be found in the decisions of Prince John of Saxony
about 1527. He assigns the duties of the office, and summons the
newly appointed officer to give diligent heed to the conduct and
teaching of the pastors under him, faithfully to warn them of all
errors, and, in case they prove obstinate, to report them to the
electoral court. He must further give close attention to the due
observance of the marriage laws, for in this matter the previously
appointed visitors to the principality had reported grave laxity.
The title of this office was not new, but was taken over from the
later Scholastics, who had employed it as a suitable translation of the
word iirlaKcnroi, but Prince John made it clear that his superinten-
dents were not to be bishops in the old sense of the term. For every
pastor was declared in the reformed doctrine to be truly a bishop
and to have the spiritual functions and authority of a bishop; but
the older bishops had also claimed a large number of administrative
powers, and these for the future must be retained in the hands of
the secular power, which would express itself in the first instance
through the state-appointed superintendent. In the few cases
in which the old bishoprics were retained in Lutheran communities
their tenants held office directly from the state.
Some of the smaller principalities appointed but a single super-
intendent for their territory, who, instead of being answerable to a
consistory, sat as spiritual member on the territorial council, whilst
in towns the superintendent was summoned to the town council
whenever Church matters arose for discussion. In larger states
there were various classes of superintendents with their respective
duties severally assigned.
In modern times the functions of the superintendent have been
somewhat confused in consequence of the introduction into Lutheran
Church theory of inconsistent elements of Presbyterian and synodal
type.
See T. M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation (1906), i. 400-416;
and the articles " Kirchenordnung " and " Superintendent ' in
Herzog-Hauck's ReoJencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und
Kirche. (E. AR.*)
SUPERIOR, the most north-westerly of the Great Lakes of
North America, and the largest body of freshwater in the world,
lying between 46° 30' and 48° N., and 84° 30' and 92° W. It
is bounded E. and N. by the province of Ontario, W. by the
state of Minnesota, and S. by Wisconsin and Michigan. It
has deep, extremely cold, clear water, and high and rocky
shores along a large portion of its coast. Its general form is
that of a wide crescent convex towards the north, but its shores
are more irregular in outline than those of the other lakes.
Following the curves of its axis from west to east the lake is
about 383 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 160 m. Its
maximum recorded depth is 1008 ft., and its height above
mean sea level is 602 ft., or about 21 ft. above that of lakes
Michigan and Huron, to which it is joined at its eastern ex-
tremity through the river St Mary. The lake receives the waters
of 200 rivers, and drains a territory of 48,600 sq. m., the total
area of its basin being 80,400 sq. m. The largest river which
empties into it is the St Louis, at its western end. The prin-
cipal rivers on the north shore are the Pigeon, which forms
the international boundary line, the Kaministikwia, the Nipigon,
which drains the lake of the same name and together with the
lake is about 200 m. long, the Pic, the White and the Michi-
picoten. No large rivers empty into Lake Superior from the
south. There are not many islands in the lake, the largest
being Isle Royal, 44 m. long; Michipicoten Island in the eastern
part; St Ignace, in the northern part, off the mouth of the
Nipigon River; Grand Island between Pictured Rocks and
Marquette; Manitou Island, east of Keweenaw Point, and the
Apostle Group, to the north of Chequamegon Bay.
The boundary between the United States and Canada runs
up the middle of the outlet of the lake and follows a median
line approximately to about mid-lake; thence it sweeps north- '
westward, so as to include Isle Royal within the territory of
the United States, and continues near the north shore, to the
mouth of Pigeon River, which it follows westward, leaving the
whole west end of the lake in United States territory.
Lake Superior lies in a deep rift in rocks principally of
Archean and Cambrian age, of the Laurentian, Huronian and
Keweenaw formations, rich in minerals that have been ex-
tensively worked. The lake is, as it were, surrounded by iron,
which is the probable cause of very strong magnetic fields of
influence. Native silver as well as silver ores exist around
Thunder Bay, native copper was formerly worked on Isle Royal,
and rich copper mines are worked on the south shore, while
nickel abounds in the country north of the lake. The Archean
rocks produce a picturesque coast-line, the north shore par-
ticularly being indented by deep bays surrounded by high
cliffs, mostly burnt off and somewhat desolate; the islands also
rise abruptly to considerable heights, the north shore furnish-
ing the boldest scenery of the Great Lakes. On the south
coast, opposite the broadest part of the lake, are precipitous
walls of red sandstone, extending about 14 m., famous as the
Pictured Rocks, so called from the effect of wave action on them.
There are no appreciable tides and little current. A general
set of the water towards the outlet exists, especially on the
southern shore. From the Apostle Islands to the eastward
of Keweenaw point this current has great width, and towards
the eastern end of the lake spreads out in the shape of a fan, a
branch passing to the northward and westward reaching the
north coast. Autumn storms raise dangerous seas. The level
varies with the season, and also from year to year, the maximum
variation, covering a cycle of years, being about 5 ft. The
discharge of the lake is computed to be 75,200 cubic ft. per
second at mean stage of water.
The season of navigation, controlled by the opening and
closing of the Sault Ste Marie canals, averages about eight
months — from the middle of April to the middle of December.
The season has been extended for a few days, in both spring
and autumn, by the use of ice-breaking tugs at Fort William
and Port Arthur, this service being organized by the govern-
ment particularly to facilitate the movement of grain from the
Canadian North-west. , The lake never freezes over, though the
temperature of the water does not, even in summer, rise far
above freezing point. The bays freeze over and there is
border ice, often gathered by wind into large fields in the bays
and extremities of the lake. ,
Lake Superior is fairly well provided with natural harbours,
and works of improvement have created additional harbours of
refuge at various points. Marquette, Mich., Presque lie Point,
Mich., Agate Bay, Minn., Grand Marais, Minn., and Ashland, Wis.,
are on bays which have protective breakwaters across their mouths.
Duluth, Superior, Port Wing, Wis., Ontonagon, Mich., and Grand
Marais, Mich., are harbours with entrances formed by parallel
jetties extending across obstructing bars. On the Canadian side
Fort William, in the mouth of the Kaministikwia, and Port Arthur,
four miles distant, an artificial harbour, are the only important
shipping points, being the lake terminals of three great trans-
continental railway systems, though the whole north shore is liber-
ally supplied with natural harbours. The traffic on Lake Superior
grows constantly in volume, the increase in tonnage of each year
over that of the preceding year having, for 50 years past, averaged
20%. The freight carried into and out of the lake, as gauged by
SUPERIOR— SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
the statistics gathered at the Sault Canal offices, aggregated in 1907
over 58,000,000 (short) tons. The principal freight shipped east-
ward consists of flour, wheat and other grains, through Duluth-
Superior from the United States, and through Fort William-Port
Arthur from the Canadian prairies; copper ore from the mines on
the south shore; iron ore in immense quantities from both shores,
the principal ore shipping ports being Ashland, Two Harbors,
Marquette, Superior and Michipicoten, and lumber produced on
the tributary rivers. West-bound freight consists largely of coal
for general distribution and for terminal railway points.
The fishing industry of Lake Superior is important, salmon-trout
(Salvelinus namaycush, Walb), ranging from 10 to 50 Ib in weight,
being gathered from the individual fishermen by steam tenders
and shipped by rail to city markets. The river Nipigon, on the
north shore, is famous for speckled-trout (Salvelinus^ fontinalis,
Mitchill) of unusual size; and all rivers and brooks falling into the
lake are trout streams.
See Bulletin No. 17, Survey of Northern and North-Western Lakes,
U.S. War Department, Lake Survey Office, Detroit (1907); Sailing
Directions for Lake Superior and the St Mary's River, U.S. Hydro-
graphic Office publication No. 108 A. (Washington, 1906), with
supplements. (W. P. A.)
SUPERIOR, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of
Douglas county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 140 m. N. by E. of
Minneapolis and St Paul, on Superior, St Louis and Allouez
bays at the head of Lake Superior, and directly opposite Duluth,
Minnesota, with which it is connected by ferry and by railway
and road bridges. Pop. (1890), 11,983; (1900), 31,091, of whom
11,419 were foreign-born (2854 Swedish, 2404 English Cana-
dians, 2026 Norwegian, and 801 German), and 186 were negroes;
(.1910, U.S. census), 40,384. Superior is served by the Northern
Pacific, the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Wisconsin
Central, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault
Ste Marie, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and (for
freight only) by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. A belt line
railway connects the several systems. Superior shares with
Duluth one of the finest natural inland harbours in the world.
The harbour, which has been improved by the Federal govern-
ment, is formed by two narrow strips of sandy land, known as
Minnesota and Wisconsin Points, which extend several miles
across the head of the lake from the Minnesota and Wisconsin
shores respectively and almost meet in the centre. The body
of water thus formed, Superior and Allouez bays, varies in
width from i to i| m., and is 9! m. long. St Louis Bay, on
the west, is about 15 by 4 m. The city is situated on gently
rising ground facing these bays, and has 29 m. of harbour
frontage. The settlement of Superior at different times and in
different places is responsible for the large area covered by the
city (36-1 sq. m.) and its appearance is that of three distinct
towns. The intervening portions have however been platted and
are now largely settled. Superior is the seat of a state normal
school (1896), which occupies a splendidly equipped building,
and, in addition to the ordinary normal courses, has departments
of kindergarten training, manual training and domestic science.
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. Superior has
a cheap fuel supply and power is furnished by electricity gene-
rated on the St Louis river. In 1905 the value of its factory
products was $6,356,981. Flour is the principal product, and
shipbuilding is important. Among steel ships, the type known
as the " whaleback " originated here; and iron and wooden
ships, launches and small pleasure craft are also made. Other
manufactures are railway cars, casks, cooperage, saw and planing
mill products, furniture, wooden ware, windmills, gas-engines,
and mattresses and wire beds. Superior is an important
grain market. Much iron and copper ore is shipped from the
Duluth-Superior harbour; and large quantities of coal, brought
by lake boats, are distributed from here throughout the American
and Canadian North-west. The total tonnage of the Duluth-
Superior Harbour was estimated in 1908 to be exceeded in the
United States only by that of New York and that of Philadelphia.
Pierre Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart des Groseil-
liers probably visited the site of Superior in 1661, and it is prac-
tically certain that other French coureurs-des-bois were here
at different times before Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut
(Duluth), established a trading post in the neighbourhood about
1678. About 1820 the Hudson's Bay Company established a
post here, but there was no permanent settlement until after
the middle of the igth century. Attention was directed to
the site by a survey made by George R. Stuntz, a government
surveyor, in 1852, and in 1853 a syndicate of capitalists, at
the head of which was William Wilson Corcoran, the wealthy
Washington banker, associated with whom were Senators
Stephen A. Douglas (from whom the county was named), R.
M. T. Hunter and J. B. Bright, Ex-Senator Robert J. Walker,
Congressmen John C. Breckinridge and John L. Dawson,
and others, largely Southern politicians and members of Con-
gress, bought lands here and platted a town which was named
Superior. The proprietors secured in 1856 the construction of a
military road to St Paul, Minnesota, 160 m. long. The town
grew rapidly, and in 1856-1857 had about 2500 inhabitants.
The panic of 1857 interrupted its growth, and the population
dwindled so that in 1860 there were only a few hundred settlers
on the town-site. The Civil War increased the depression,
and the lands of those who had taken part against the Union
were confiscated. In 1862 a series of stockades was built as a
protection from the Indians. Within the area under the govern-
ment of the town of Superior, which was at first co-extensive
with the county, West Superior was platted in 1883 and South
Superior soon afterwards. A village government was estab-
lished in September 1887, including the three settlements men-
tioned, and in April 1889 Superior was chartered as a city. The
harbour was surveyed in 1823-1825 by Lieut. Henry Wolsey
Bayfield (1795-1885) of the British Navy. In 1860-1861 it
was resurveyed by Captain George G. Meade, who was engaged
in the work at the outbreak of the Civil War. A branch of
the Northern Pacific railway was built to Superior in 1881.
SUPPfi, FRANZ VON (1820-1895), Austrian musical com-
poser, whose real name was Francesco Ezechiele Ermenegildo
Suppe-Demelli, was born at Spalato, in Dalmatia, in 1820, and
died at Vienna in 1895. Originally he studied philosophy at
the university of Padua, but on the death of his father devoted
himself to music, studying at the Vienna conservatoire. He
began his musical career as a conductor in one of the smaller
Viennese theatres, and gradually worked his way up to be one
of the most popular composers of ephemeral light opera of the
day. Outside Vienna his works never won much success. Of
his sixty comic operas Fatinitza (Vienna, 1876; London, 1878)
was the most successful, while Boccaccio (Vienna, 1879; London,
1882) only enjoyed moderate favour. Suppe's overture to Dichter
und Bauer is his most successful orchestral work. He also wrote
some church music.
SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up), pro-
vision; more particularly the money granted by a legislature to
carry on the work of government. In the United Kingdom the
granting of supply is the exclusive right of the House of
Commons, and is carried out by two committees of the House,
one of supply and the other of ways and means (see PARLIA-
MENT). In the United States supply originates in the House of
Representatives (see UNITED STATES: Appropriation).
In Scotland commissioners of supply were officers appointed to
assess and collect the land tax offered as supply to the sovereign.
Under the Lands Valuation (Scotland) Act 1854 all owners of
property of a certain value were qualified as commissioners of
supply. Their duties were also enlarged to comprise the general
administration of the country, but by the Local Government
(Scotland) Act 1889 all their powers and duties were transferred
to and vested in the county council. They still meet annually,
but transact only formal business.
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, MILITARY. In all ages the
operations of armies have been influenced, and in many cases
absolutely controlled, by the necessity of providing and distri-
buting food, forage and stores for men and horses. In modern
history these supplies have become more and more varied as
weapons developed in complexity, power and accuracy of work-
manship. In proportion, the branches of an army which are
charged with the duties of " supply and transport " have become
specialized as regards recruiting, training and organization.
The predatory armies of the middle ages not only lived upon
the country they traversed, Tjut enriched themselves with the
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
plunder they obtained from it, and this method of subsisting
and paying an army reached its utmost limits in the Thirty
Years' War. During the last stages of this war Germany had
been so thoroughly devastated that the armies marched hither
and thither like packs of hungry wolves, every soldier accom-
panied by two or three non-combatants — camp followers of all
sorts, mistresses, ragged children and miserable peasants who
had lost all and now sought to live* by robbing others under the
protection of the army. An English traveller, as early as 1636,
twelve years before the peace of Westphalia, reported that at
Bacharach-on-Rhine he had found " the poor people dead with
grass in their mouths," and that a village at which he stayed
" hath been pillaged eight-and-twenty times in two years, and
twice in one day."
From these horrors there followed a revulsion to the other
extreme. Unless ordered by higher authority for political
reasons to sack a particular town or to pillage a particular
district, the soldiers were rigidly kept in hand, rationed by their
own supply officers and hanged or flogged if at any moment
an outbreak of the old vices made the example necessary. After
1648 there were very few districts in Middle Europe that could
support an army for even a few days, and the burden of their
sustenance had to be distributed over a larger area. Thus, at
the mere rumour of an army's approach, the peasantry fled with
all their belongings into the fortified places, armies soon came
to be supplied from " magazines," which were filled either by
contract from the home country or by inducing the peasantry —
by means of good conduct and cash payments — to bring their
produce to market. These magazines were placed in a strong
place, and if one was not available, a siege had to be undertaken
to meet the demand. Moreover, soldiers in Marlborough's
time were not as easily obtained as in the Thirty Years' War,
and they had to be housed and fed comfortably enough to make
it worth their while to stay with the colours instead of deserting.
From these and similar conditions there grew up a system of
supply and transport usually called the " magazine system,"
under which an army was bound, under penalty of dissolution,
to go no farther than seven marches from the nearest fortress,
two days from the nearest field bakery, and so on. When an
18th-century army foraged for itself it was because the regular
supply service was interrupted, i.e. when it was in extremis.
But the relative rarity of wars in the i8th century, the habit
of demanding nothing from the inhabitants of the country
traversed by an army, and the virtual exclusion of the people
from the prince's quarrels, gave Europe a century's respite in
which to recover from the drain of the Thirty Years' War.
And therefore, when the French Revolution came, the attempts
of the armies of old Europe to suppress it without robbing a
single Frenchman of a loaf of bread proved futile, and soon the
national army created by the Revolution, unencumbered by
tents, magazines and supply trains, swept over southern Ger-
many and Italy. The Revolutionary armies differed indeed
from those of the old wars in this, that they did not devastate
wantonly, nor did they murder for the sake of loot. But they
were merciless in their exactions, and, moreover, the tides of
their invasions flowed in particular channels, so that the greater
part of the invaded country escaped. This had a considerable,
sometimes even a predominant, influence on the strategy pur-
sued, a retreat along their own lines of communication being
often in fact avoided by the French as being the worst fate that
could befall them. Napoleon, however, systematized the waste-
ful and irregular requisitioning that his predecessors had intro-
duced, and in his hands the supply service, like all else connected
with the art of war, underwent a thorough reform. His
strategy * in the offensive passed through two distinct stages —
(a) the swift and sudden descent into the theatre of war, and
(b) the close grouping of his armies in view of the decisive blow.
The first stage was characterized by extraordinarily swift move-
ment, complete independence of all trains (other than the
reserves of ammunition) and thorough exploitation of the food
resources of the traversed zone. If the troops suffered, as well
1 H. Camon, Guerre napottonienne.
as the inhabitants, this did not shake the emperor's purpose in
the slightest. If all the disorders which are the natural conse-
quence of ill-regulated requisitioning — that is, marauding —
cost the army 50,000 men, he had foreseen the loss and taken
50,000 men more than he needed for the battle. But the second
stage, which as a rule involved three or four days' occupation,
without considerable movement, of a restricted area, required
other measures of supply. In this the army lived upon maga-
zines, which were filled from the captured supply trains from
the available supplies in the area, and from the resources
accumulated in requisitioned vehicles close to the head of the
routes followed in the first period. These resources were col-
lected in the towns within this concentration area, and placed
" out of reach of an insult " (that is, made safe against raiders)
with a garrison and field works to supplement the town walls
and gates. From this centre of operations Napoleon never
allowed himself to be severed, whereas to the preservation of the
route between France and that centre of operations he gave
very little thought and assigned few or no troops, and most of
the confusion of strategical thought since his time has been
due to the general failure to perceive the essential distinction,
in Napoleonic practice, between a centre of operations and a
" base."
In the i gth century, however, there came the inevitable
reaction. Purely political wars, and the consequent indifference
of the inhabitants to the operations of war, produced as before
a return to the system of cash payments and convoy supply,
especially in the Austrian army. As regards Europe the intro-
duction of railways enormously facilitated the supply and trans-
port service, and campaigns were neither as barren nor as pro-
longed as they had been under the old conditions. The French
and British armies did not, at least to the same extent, wage
political wars, but their ceaseless colonial warfare imposed upon
them the magazine and convoy system, and habituated them
to it. The French, in 1870, stood still in the midst of the rich
fields of Lorraine, and as a prolonged halt is fatal to the system
of living on the country, it would have failed, even had it been
tried. The Germans, on the other hand, levied requisitions,
civilian transport, and contributions in money in accordance
with Napoleonic tradition, though (owing to the existence of
railways) with much less than Napoleonic severity. Their
system has been accepted as the best for European warfare
by all the great powers, whose organizations and methods of
transporting and issuing supplies are the same in principle.
This principle is based on the Napoleonic distinction between
supplies required during an advance and those required during
a concentrated halt. The British Field Service Regulations
(1909), pt. ii., lay it down that " the system of subsistence
should be elastic and readily adaptable to every situation as
it arises," but that it must always be based on the rule that
" all mobile supplies are to be regarded as a reserve " for use
when neither local nor line-of-communication resources are
available. As a general rule local resources should be used
before the line of communication is called upon, and last of all
the call is made on the mobile supplies in the hands of the
fighting units. During a strategical concentration or a long
halt " the resources of the immediate neighbourhood cannot
be expected to support the troops. At such times they may
be supplied from field dep6ts established at convenient centres,
and filled with supplies that are obtained by purchase or
requisition and collected by requisitioned or hired (civilian)
transport." During an advance, on the other hand, " by far the
most advantageous method is for the troops to be rationed
by the inhabitants on whom they are billeted . . . This
method should be employed whenever possible."
The extent to which it can be employed varies considerably
with the place and the season, but the British and all continental
armies have their own " rules of thumb " or rough generaliza-
tions based on experience. General Lewal (Stratlgie de marche,
p. 47) says that in a country of ordinary fertility, with 70
inhabitants to the square kilometre, or 180 to the square mile,
10.000 men can be subsisted for one day on an area of 22 square
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT
kilometres or 8J square miles, or 1200 per square mile. General
Bonnal in his Sadowa gives 36 square miles as sufficient for
the maintenance of an army corps (30,000-35,000) or about
1 100 men to the square mile during the assembly period, but
only on condition of helping out local resources by special sup-
plies from the base. The British Field Service Regulations
state that ordinary agricultural districts of Western Europe, not
previously traversed by troops, will support a force of twice the
strength of the population for a week at a maximum. This
would mean exacting fourteen rations from each inhabitant,
but the incidence of the burden is spread over several days.
A practical rule therefore would seem to be, in a district of 200
inhabitants to the square mile, to allot 1400 men per square mile
for a flying passage of one day and 400 for a stay of one week,
the resources of the country being more thoroughly and syste-
matically exploited in the latter case. A British division (com-
batant column only) closing up to half its marching depth at
the end of the day would require 12 square miles, and as its
depth would be about 55 miles, its front or width would perhaps
extend for only a mile on either side of the route. It is quite
possible to move two divisions for several consecutive days
on the same road, living on the country exclusively, subject
to the condition that the second should halt on the areas
which the first has passed through without stopping. In
continental armies the rule is, in fact, "one army corps (=2
British divisions) on one road."
During the period of concentration, however, even if in move-
ment, a modern army will necessarily be supplied in somewhat
the same way as Napoleon's. The billets will be allotted
" without subsistence," and the regimental reserve supplies
will be called upon to ration their men, while all around the
occupied towns and villages the supply officers and their mounted
escorts will requisition food and vehicles to bring the food into
the concentration area. In view of this, " supply officers will
be sent on with cavalry or mounted brigades to investigate
the resources of the country ahead of the main body, and if
possible to collect supplies at suitable points." Only commis-
sioned officers and, as a rule, only those officers to whom the
power is expressly delegated are entitled to carry out requisi-
tions, though in an emergency a commander of any rank may
obtain from the inhabitants articles or services by requisition
and on his own responsibility, which responsibility may mean
answering to a charge of " plundering " before a court-martial.
On purely requisitioning work direct contact between the
troops and the inhabitants is to be avoided.
Generally, then, a British regiment operating in Europe would
be fed, during an advance, (a) by the inhabitants who provide
the billets, without the necessity of a supply officer's interven-
tion, (6) by the regimental reserves, which would be filled up
as they were emptied from the field depots, of food-stuffs re-
quisitioned by the supply officers, or (c) on emergency by direct
requisitioning. During a concentration it would be fed (a)
in the first instance by " billets with subsistence," as in an
advance, (6) in so far as this was insufficient, by regimental,
brigade and divisional reserves, which would refill partly from the
lines of communication and partly from the field dep6ts created
by the requisitioning supply officers. Thus, as regards food and
forage, the British Regulations — though it was not until 1909
that they appeared — are based on the fundamental principles
of Napoleon that strategy must be the master, not the servant
of supply, and that this mastery is most complete when — by
means of " billets with subsistence "or by means of field dep&ts
of requisitioned food-stuffs — an army makes itself practically
independent, as regards food, of its lines of communication.
The general organization of the supply service in Great
Britain, calculated for a campaign under European conditions,
is as follows: There are depdts of various kinds and " mobile
supplies." The former are classified as (a) base depdt, which
is the great reserve magazine that collects all resources that
come from outside the theatre of war; (b) intermediate depdts
(filled from the base or by local requisitioning) at intervals
along the line of communication, which serve principally to
feed the troops posted on the line of communication and those
passing along it to the front, but can also be used as an " over-
flow " magazine if the base depdt is full, and as a means of
bringing reserves nearer to the front: (c) advanced depdts at the
head of the line of communication, which serve as the expense-
magazine, issuing to the " mobile supplies " what these need to
enable them to supplement local resources; (d) field dlpdls, fre-
quently alluded to above, which are small temporary depots
(filled by requisitioning) in the immediate neighbourhood of
the front, and from which, in preference to their own mobile
reserves, the troops draw supplies if the inhabitants do not
furnish them directly in the billets; field dep6ts may also be
utilized for storing local supplies surplus to the immediate
wants of the army. The ' mobile supplies " are classified as
follows: (a) Regimental, which are carried partly by man and
horse in the ranks and partly in " regimental transport "
vehicles, and consist of the current day's ration and the " emer-
gency ration " of compressed food (which is never to be used
except in an extremity) on man or horse, and a complete ration
for every man and horse on the ration strength of the unit,
with an extra " grocery ration " and some compressed forage
in the vehicles, (b) Column, which are carried in the Army
Service Corps " supply columns " of the division and carry one
day's complete ration1 and one emergency ration per head
of men and animals — these are in a sense mobile field dep6ts
and depend either on requisitioning or on the advanced dep6t
of the line of communication, (c) Park, which are carried in
" divisional parks " that move a day's march (often more) in
rear of the divisions and comprise a last mobile reserve of
three days' rations of food and forage for the troops.
In warfare in savage or undeveloped countries the conditions
are far less favourable, and each case has to be dealt with on
its merits. But, in general, such warfare always necessitates
an almost complete dependence on magazine supply. There
are few or no " billets with subsistence " or " field depdts "
which are the backbone of the supply system in European
warfare, and the regimental and column supply vehicles have
generally such difficulty in keeping touch with the advanced
dep&t of the line of communication that the striking radius
of the army is strictly limited to the position and output of the
line of communications. Moreover, the difficulty — even the
principal difficulty — is the transport of the supplies obtained
from the line of communication. The alternative, which has
often to be adopted by " punitive " expeditions, is to carry all
supplies for the calculated duration of the movements with the
troops, but the penalty for this freedom to move is either slow-
ness of movement — the fighting troops regulating their pace by
that of the supply vehicles or pack animals — or a dispropor-
tionate number of " useless mouths " or non-combatants who
must be fed. Altogether, the supply difficulty in expeditions in
the Sudan, or West Africa, or on the Indian frontier infinitely
outweighs all difficulties of country or enemy. Moreover, para-
doxical as it may be, the triumphant surmounting of these
difficulties has its disadvantages as regards European warfare.
Generals and supply officers who have always dealt with the
maximum of difficulty find it almost impossible to bring them-
selves to deal with easier conditions. In 1805 Mack vainly
sought to teach the Austrian soldier how to live on the country
in the Napoleonic fashion. In 1806 the Prussians starved in
the midst of riches, in 1870 the French moved as slowly and kept
themselves as closely concentrated as desert columns in Algeria,
and so deprived themselves of the resources of their own
country.
Military transport — other than water and rail — may be classed
in respect of the means employed as draught and pack, and in respect
of its organization and functions as transport on the line of com-
munications and transport in the field, the latter being subdivided
into first line and second line. The British army, on account of
its frequent expeditions into undeveloped countries, makes a large
— in the view of many, far too large-^-use of pack transport, for
which mules, camels and human carriers are employed. But in
1 One day's supply of meat is usually taken with the column
" on the hoof."
u6 SUPRA-RENAL EXTRACT— SURAJ-UD-DOWL AH
European, and to a large extent in other warfare, horsed transport
is by far the most generally used. Mechanical transport (generally
either traction engines with trucks or motor lorries) is, nowever,
superseding horse draught to a considerable extent in second-line
transport. The vehicle usually employed for military transport
is the '• General Service Wagon," a heavily-built springless four-
wheeled vehicle drawn by six or four horses according to circum-
stances, which weighs empty about 18 cwt., and allows of a maximum
load of 30 cwt. There are also four-horse " limbered wagons "
consisting of body and limber, weighing 13 cwt. empty and 43
cwt. fully loaded, and lighter two-wheeled carts which can take
13-15 cwt. load.
As regards organization and functions, road transport is used
on the line of communications to supplement the railway, and consists
of locally hired or requisitioned vehicles worked by the Army
Service Corps, or by civilian personnel under A.S.C. control.
Transport with the field units is, as has been said, divided into first
line, which accompanies the fighting troops, and second line, which
follows them at a distance. Both lines are, as a rule, manned
exclusively by the A.S.C. (or regimental details in the case of
regimental transport) and composed of regulation-pattern carts
and wagons. The first-line vehicles include ammunition wagons
and carts, tool carts, engineer vehicles and medical vehicles. All
baggage and store and supply wagons, as well as a proportion of
medical, ammunition and engineer vehicles, form the second line.
(C. F. A.)
SUPRA-RENAL EXTRACT. The extract of the supra-renal
gland is one of the most valuable remedies recently introduced
in medicine. Feeding with the fresh gland of sheep was at
first practised, but the sterilized glycerin preparation known
as supra-renal extract is now used, the dose being 5 to 15
minims. The active principle of the gland,, best known as
adrenaline or epinephrine, occurs only in the medulla of the
gland. It forms minute white crystals, soluble in weak
solutions of hydrochloric acid. The U.S. P. contains a desiccated
preparation, Glandulae suprarenales siccae. Adrenaline is most
frequently used in i % solutions of the chloride.
Adrenaline has no action on the unbroken skin, but locally
applied to mucous membranes it causes blanching of the part
owing to its powerful constriction of the capillaries by stimulating
the muscular fibres of the vessel walls. It acts rapidly in a similar
manner when hypodermically injected. The vessels of the uterus
are strongly acted upon by it, but the effect on the cerebral vessels
is slight, and the pulmonary vessels are unaffected. The heart
is slowed and the systole increased. Adrenaline stimulates the
salivary glands. It also produces a temporary glycosuria. In
poisonous doses it causes haemorrhages into the viscera and oedema
of the lungs.
In Addjson's disease the use of supra-renal extract has been
beneficial in some cases, but its chief use is in the control of hae-
morrhage. For this purpose it is given in conjunction with local
anaesthetics such as cocaine in order to produce bloodless opera-
tions on the eye, nose and elsewhere. It is also useful in hae-
morrhage from small vessels, where it can be applied at the bleeding
spot, as in epistaxis. In menorrhagia and metrorrhagia it is also
of service. _ In surgical shock and in chloroform syncope an injection
of adrenaline often saves life through the rise of blood pressure
produced. An attack of bronchial asthma may be cut short by
a hypodermic injection of adrenaline solution. It should never be
used in the treatment of haemoptysis. Similar commercial pro-
ducts on the market are hemisine, renaglandine, suprarenine,
adnephrine, paranephrine and renostyptine. Supra-renal snuff
containing the dry extract with menthol and boric acid is of use
in hay fever. Rhinodyne is of this type. Suppositories containing
supra-renal extract are used to check bleeding piles.
The chemistry of adrenaline has been mainly elucidated by the
investigations of Pauly, Jowett and Bertrand; Jowett proposing
a constitution (see annexed for-
HO mula) now accepted as correct.
H0< ~>CH(OH) .CH2-NHMe ManY substances having related
\ f constitutions have beensynthe-
Adrenaline. sized, and it has been found that
they resemble adrenaline in
increasing the blood pressure. For example, the corresponding
ketone, adrenalone (obtained in 1904 by Stolz) is active, and the
methyl group can be replaced by hydrogen or another radical
without destroying the activity. It seems that the para-hydroxyl
group is essential. For instance, para-hydroxyphenylethylamine,
HO-C«H4CH2-CH2NH2, which is one of the active bases of ergot,
closely resembles adrenaline (G. Barger, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1909,
95, pp. 1123, 1720; K. W. Rosenmund, Ber., 1909, 42, p. 4778);
as does also its dimethyl derivative hordenine, an alkaloid found
in barley (G. Barger, ibid., p. 2193). Adrenaline is optically active,
the naturally occurring isomer being the laevo form; it is interest-
ing to note that, like nicotine, the laevo base has a much greater
physiological activity than the dextro.
SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE, in England, a court
of law established by the Judicature Act 1873, by section 3 of
which it was provided that the high court of chancery, the
courts of king's bench, common pleas, and exchequer, the
high court of admiralty, the court of probate and the divorce
court, should be united under this name. By section 4, the
Supreme Court was to consist of two divisions, one to be called
the " high-court of justice " and the other the " court of appeal."
See further under JUDICATURE ACTS, and also the articles under
the headings of the different courts enumerated above.
The Supreme Court of the United States is the head of the
national judiciary. Its establishment was authorized by article
iii. of the Constitution, which states that " the judicial power
of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court,
and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to
time ordain and establish " (s. i.). Section ii. states that " the
judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising
under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;
to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;
to controversies between two or more states, between a state
and citizens of another state, between citizens of different
states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands
under grants of different states, and between a state, and the
citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con-
suls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases
before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate
jurisdiction both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and
under such regulations as the Congress shall make." The
Supreme Court of the United States also occupies the unique
position of being guardian of the Constitution. It has to
decide whether a measure passed by the legislative powers is
unconstitutional or not, and it may thus have to veto the
deliberate resolutions of both houses of Congress and the
president.
See UNITED STATES.
SURABAYA (Dutch Soerabaja), a seaport of Java, in the
eastern division of the island, on the narrow Surabaya strait,
which separates the island of Madura from Java, and at the
mouth of the Kali Mas River. Pop. (1900), 146,944 (Europeans
8906; Chinese 13,035). Surabaya is the principal mercantile
town in Java. Its roadstead is sheltered by Madura, and it
has important dockyards. It is also the headquarters of the
military authorities for East Java, and has artillery workshops.
Railways running north-west, south-west and south give it
connexions throughout the island. In the old town, with its
partly demolished fortifications, houses, shops and warehouses
are more closely packed and the streets are narrower than in
most East Indian towns, and, although a considerable number
of Europeans live in this quarter, the outlying quarters, such as
Simpang (where is the government house) and Tuntungan,
are preferable for residence.
SURAJ-UD-DOWLAH (d. 1757), ruler of Bengal. The date .
of his birth is uncertain, but is generally placed between 1729
and 1736. His name was Mirza Mahommed, and he succeeded
his grandfather Aliverdi Khan as nawab of Bengal on the gth
of April 1756. He was a cruel and profligate fanatic. Being
offended with the English for giving protection to a native
official who had escaped with treasure from Dacca, he attacked
and took Calcutta on the 2oth of June 1756. He then permitted
the massacre known in history as " The Bkck Hole of Calcutta "
(see CALCUTTA). This atrocious act was soon avenged. Cal-
cutta was retaken by Clive and Admiral Watson on the 2nd
of January 1757, and on the 23rd of June, Suraj-ud-Dowlah,
routed at Plassey, fled to Rajmahal, where he was captured.
He was put to death on the 4th of July 1757 at Murshidabad,
by order of Miran, son of Mir Jafar, who had conspired against
Suraj-ud-Dowlah and had been present at Plassey without
taking part in the battle.
SURAT— SURFACE
117
SURAT, a city and district of British India in the northern
division of Bombay. The city is on the site where the English
first established a factory on the mainland, and so planted
the seed of the British Empire in India. Local traditions
fix the establishment of the modern city in the last year of the
fifteenth century, and in 1514 the Portuguese traveller Barbosa
described it as an important seaport, frequented by many
ships from Malabar and all parts. During the reigns of Akbar,
Jahangir and Shah Jahan it rose to be the chief commer-
cial city of India. At the end of the i6th century the Por-
tuguese were undisputed masters of the Surat seas. But in
1612 Captain Best, and after him Captain Downton, destroyed
the Portuguese naval supremacy and obtained an imperial
firman making Surat the seat of a presidency under the English
East India Company, while the Dutch also founded a factory.
In 1664 Sir George Oxenden defended the factory against
Sivaji with a bravery that deserves to rank with Clive's defence
of Arcot. The prosperity of the factory at Surat received a
fatal blow when Bombay was ceded to the Company (1668) and
shortly afterwards made the capital of the Company's posses-
sions and the chief seat of their trade. From that date also the
city began to decline. At one time its population was estimated
at 800,000, by the middle of the ipth century the number had
fallen to 80,000; but in 1901 it had risen again to 119,306.
Surat was taken by the English in 1759, and the conquerors
assumed the undivided government of the city in 1800. Since
the introduction of British rule the district has remained com-
paratively tranquil; and even during the Mutiny peace was
not disturbed, owing in great measure to the loyalty of the
leading Mahommedan families.
The city is situated on the left bank of the river Tapti, 14 m.
from its mouth, and has a station on the Bombay, Baroda
& Central India railway, 167 m. north of Bombay. A moat
indicates the dividing-line between the city, with its narrow
streets and handsome houses, and the suburbs, mostly scattered
among cultivated lands; but the city wall has almost disappeared.
On the river frontage rises the irregular picturesque fortress
built about 1540. A fire and a flood in 1837 destroyed a great
number of buildings, but there remain several of interest,
such as the mosque of Nav Saiyid Sahib, with its nine tombs,
the Saiyid Edroos mosque (1634) and the ornate Mirza Sami
mosque and tomb (1540). The most interesting monuments
are the tombs of English and Dutch merchants of the I7th
century, especially that of the Oxenden brothers. Surat is
still a centre of trade and manufacture, though some of its
former industries, such as ship-building, are extinct. There
are cotton mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton,
rice-cleaning mills and paper mills. Fine cotton goods are
woven in hand-looms, and there are special manufactures of
silk brocade and embroidery. The chief trades are organized
in gilds. There are many wealthy Parsee, Hindu and Mahom-
medan merchants.
The DISTRICT OF SURAT has an area of 1653 sq. m., and the
population in 1901 was 637,017, showing a decrease of 2% in
the decade. The district has a coast-line of 80 m., consisting
of a barren stretch of sand drift and salt marsh; behind this
is a rich, highly-cultivated plain, nearly 60 m. in breadth,
at the mouth of the Tapti, but narrowing to only 15 m. in the
southern part, and on the north-east are the wild hills and jungle
of the Dangs. The principal crops are millets, rice, pulses,
cotton and a little wheat. After Surat city the chief centre of
trade is Bulsar. The district is traversed by the main line of
the Bombay & Baroda railway, with a branch along the
Tapti valley to join the Great Indian Peninsula railway in
Khandesh. Near the coast, under the influence of the sea
breeze, an equable temperature prevails, but 8 to n m. inland
the breeze ceases to blow. The coast also possesses a much
lighter rainfall than the interior, the annual average ranging
from 30 in. in Olpad to 72 in Chikhli, while at Surat city the
average is 39! in.
The SURAT AGENCY consists of three native states; Dharampur
(q.v.), Bansda (q.v.) and Sachin, together with the tract known
as the Dangs. Total area, 1960 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 179,975.
Sachin has a revemje of £17,000 and its chief is a Mahommedan.
SURBASE (Lat. super, whence the Fr. sur, above or upon,
and base, q.v.), i.e. upper base, the term in architecture applied
to what, in the fittings of a room, is called the chair-rail. It
is also used to distinguish the cornice of a pedestal or podium
and is separated from the base by the dado or die.
SURBITON, an urban district in the Kingston parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 13 m. S.W. of Charing Cross,
London; on the London & South- Western railway. Pop.
(1891), 12,178; (1901), 15,017. It has a frontage upon the right
bank of the Thames, with a pleasant esplanade. The district
is largely residential. Surbiton is the headquarters of the
Kingston Rowing Club and the Thames Sailing Club.
SURETY, in law, the party liable under a contract of guar-
antee (q.v.). In criminal practice sureties bound by recognizance
(q.v.) are a means of obtaining compliance with the order of a
court of justice, whether to keep the peace or otherwise.
SURFACE, the bounding or limiting parts of a body. In the
article CURVE the mathematical question is treated from an
historical point of view, for the purpose of showing how the lead-
ing ideas of the theory were successively arrived at. These
leading ideas apply to surfaces, but the ideas peculiar to surfaces
are scarcely of the like fundamental nature, being rather develop-
ments of the former set in their application to a more advanced
portion of geometry; there is consequently less occasion for the
historical mode of treatment. Curves in space are considered
in the same article, and they will not be discussed here; but it is
proper to refer to them in connexion with the other notions of
solid geometry. In plane geometry the elementary figures are
the point and the line; and we then have the curve, which may be
regarded as a singly infinite system of points, and also as a
singly infinite system of lines. In solid geometry the elementary
figures are the point, the line and the plane; we have, moreover,
first, that which under one aspect is the curve and under another
aspect the developable (or torse), and which may be regarded
as a singly infinite system of points, of lines or of planes; and
secondly, the surface, which may be regarded as a doubly
infinite system of points or of planes, and also as a special
triply infinite system of lines. (The tangent lines of a surface
are a special complex.) As distinct particular cases of the
first figure we have the plane curve and the cone, and as a par-
ticular case of the second figure the ruled surface, regulus or
singly infinite system of lines; we have, besides, the congruence
or doubly infinite system of lines and the complex or triply
infinite system of lines. And thus crowds of theories arise
which have hardly any analogues in plane geometry; the re-
lation of a curve to the various surfaces which can be drawn
through it, and that of a surface to the various curves which
can be drawn upon it, are different in kind from those which in
plane geometry most nearly correspond to them — the relation
of a system of points to the different curves through them and
that of a curve to the systems of points upon it. In particular,
there is nothing in plane geometry to correspond to the theory
of the curves of curvature of a surface. Again, to the single
theorem of plane geometry, that a line is the shortest distance
between two points, there correspond in solid geometry two
extensive and difficult theories — that of the geodesic lines on a
surface and that of the minimal surface, or surface of minimum
area, for a given boundary. And it would be easy to say more
in illustration of the great extent and complexity of the subject.
In Part I. the subject will be treated by the ordinary methods
of analytical geometry; Part II. will consider the Gaussian
treatment by differentials, or the E, F, G analysis.
PART I.
Surfaces in General; Torses, &c.
I. A surface may be regarded as the locus of a doubly infinite
system of points — that is, the locus of the system of points deter-
mined by a single equation f/ = (*jx, y, z, I )V=o, between the
cartesian co-ordinates (to fix the ideas, say rectangular co-ordinates)
x, y, z; or, if we please, by a single homogeneous relation U =
(*Jx, y, z, w)",=o, between the quadriplanar co-ordinates x, y, z, w.
n8
SURFACE
n .
T' .
~as
The degree n of the equation is the order of the surface; and this
definition of the order agrees with the geometrical one, that the
order of the surface is equal to the number of the inter-
sections of the surface by an arbitrary line. Starting from the
foregoing point definition of the surface, we might develop the
notions of the tangent line and the tangent plane ; but it will be
more convenient to consider the surface ab initio from the more
general point of view in its relation to the point, the line and the
plane.
2. Mention has been made of the plane curve and the cone; it
is proper to recall that the order of a plane curve is equal to the
number of its intersections by an arbitrary line (in
the plane of the curve), and that its class is equal to the
number of tangents to the curve which pass through
an arbitrary point (in the plane of the curve). The
cone is a figure correlative to the plane curve: corresponding to
the plane of the curve we have the vertex of the cone, to its tangents
the generating lines of the cone, and to its points the tangent
planes of the cone. But from a different point of view we may
consider the generating lines of the cone, as corresponding to the
points of the curve and its tangent planes as corresponding to the
tangents of the curve. From this point of view we define the order
of the cone as equal to the number of its intersections (generating
lines) by an arbitrary plane through the vertex, and its class as
equal to the number of the tangent planes which pass through
an arbitrary line through the vertex. And in the same way that a
plane curve has singularities (singular points and singular tangents)
so a cone has singularities (singular generating lines and singular
tangent planes).
3. Consider now a surface in connexion with an arbitrary line.
The line meets the surface in a certain number of points, and, as
already mentioned, the order of the surface is equal to the number
of these intersections. We have through the line a certain number
of tangent planes of the surface, and the class of the surface is equal
to the number of these tangent planes.
But, further, through the line imagine a plane; this meets the
surface in a curve the order of which is equal (as is at once seen)
to the order of the surface. Again, on the line imagine a point;
this is the vertex of a cone circumscribing the surface, and the
class of this cone is equal (as is at once seen) to the class of the sur-
face. The tangent lines of the surface which lie in the plane are
nothing else than the tangents of the plane section, and thus form
a singly infinite series of lines; similarly, the tangent lines of the sur-
face which pass through the point are nothing else than the generat-
ing lines of the circumscribed cone, and thus form a singly infinite
series of lines. But, if we consider those tangent lines of the sur-
face which are at once in the plane and through the point, we see
that they are finite in number; and we define the rank of a surface
as equal to the number of tangent lines which lie in a given plane
and pass through a given point in that plane. It at once follows
that the class of the plane section and the order of the circum-
scribed cone are each equal to the rank of the surface, and are thus
equal to each other. It may be noticed that for a general surface
(*8*> y. z> *0)"i=o, of order n without point singularities the rank
is a, =n(n — \), and the class is n', —n{n — i)2; this implies
(what is in fact the case) that the circumscribed cone has line
singularities, for otherwise its class, that is the class of the surface,
would be a(o — i), which is not =n(n — i)2.
4. The notions of the tangent line and the tangent plane have
been assumed as known, but they require to be further explained
_ . in reference to the original point definition of the sur-
Linvsaad face- Speaking generally, we may say that the points
Planes °^ ^ne surface consecutive to a given point on it lie in a
plane which is the tangent plane at the given poinv, and
conversely the given point is the point of contact of this tangent
plane, and that any line through the point of contact and in the
tangent plane is a tangent line touching the surface at the point of
contact. Hence we see at once that the tangent line is any line
meeting the surface in two consecutive points, or — what is the same
thing — a line meeting the surface in the point of contact counting
as two intersections and in n— 2 other points. But, from the
foregoing notion of the tangent plane as a plane containing the
point of contact and the consecutive'points of the surface, the passage
to the true definition of the tangent plane is not equally obvious.
A plane in general meets the surface of the order n in a curve of
that order without double points; but the plane may be such that
the curve has a double point, and when this is so the plane is a
tangent plane having the double point for its point of contact.
The double point is either an acnode (isolated point), then the surface
at the point in question is convex towards (that is, concave away
from) the tangent plane; or else it is a crunode, and the surface
at the point in question is then concavo-convex, that is, it has its
two curvatures in opposite senses (see below, par. 16). Observe that
in either case any line whatever in the plane and through the point
meets the surface in the points in which it meets the plane curve,
viz. in the point of contact, which qua double point counts as two
intersections, and in n—2 other points; that is, we have the
preceding definition of the tangent line.
5. The complete enumeration and discussion of the singularities
of a surface is a question of extreme difficulty which has not yet
been solved.1 A plane curve has point singularities and line
singularities; corresponding to these we have for the surface isolated
point singularities and isolated plane singularities, but _ .
there are besides continuous singularities applying to $infui*i
curves on or torses circumscribed to the surface, and
it is among these that we have the non-special singularities which
play the most important part in the theory. Thus the plane curve
represented by the general equation (*5*, y, *)*=o, of any given
order n, has the non-special line singularities of inflexions and
double tangents; corresponding to this the surface represented by
the general equation (*j#, y, z, w)n—o, of any given order n,
has, not the isolated plane singularities, but the continuous
singularities of the spinode curve or torse and the node-couple
curve or torse. A plane may meet the surface in a curve
having (i) a cusp (spinode) or (2) a pair of double points; in
each case there is a singly infinite system of such singular tangent
planes, and the locus of the points of contact is the curve,
the envelope of the tangent planes the torse. The reciprocal
singularities to these are the nodal curve and the cuspidal curve:
the surface may intersect or touch itself along a curve in such wise
that, cutting the surface by an arbitrary plane, the curve of inter-
section has at each intersection of the plane with the curve
on the surface (i) a double point (node) or (2) a cusp. Observe
that these are singularities not occurring in the surface represented
by the general equation (*j#, y, z, w)n =oof any order; observe
further that in the case of both or either of these singularities the
definition of the tangent plane must be modified. A tangent plane
is a plane such that there is in the plane section a double point in
addition to the nodes or cusps at the intersections with the singular
lines on the surface.
6. As regards isolated singularities, it will be sufficient to mention
the point singularity of the conical point (or cnicnode) and the
corresponding plane singularity of the conic of contact (or cnictrope).
In the former case we have a point such that the consecutive points,
instead of lying in a tangent plane, lie on a quadric cone, having
the point for its vertex; in the latter case we have a plane touching
the surface along a conic; that is, the complete intersection of the
surface by the plane is made up of the conic taken twice and of
a residual curve_ of the order n— 4.
7. We may, in the general theory of surfaces, consider either a
surface and its reciprocal surface, the reciprocal surface being
taken to be the surface enveloped by the polar planes (in regard
to a given quadric surface) of the points of the original surface;
or — what is better — we may consider a given surface in reference
to the reciprocal relations of its order, rank, class and singularities.
In either case we have a series of unaccented letters and a corre-
sponding series of accented letters, and the relations between them
are such that we may in any equation interchange the accented
and the unaccented letters; in some cases an unaccented letter
may be equal to the corresponding accented letter. Thus, let n,
n' be as before the order and the class of the surface, but, instead
of immediately defining the rank, let a be used to denote the class
of the plane section and a' the order of the circumscribed cone;
also let S, S' be numbers referring to the singularities. The form
of the relations is a=a' ( = rank of surface); a' = n (n — i)—S;
n' = n (n-i)'-S; a = n' (n' -l) - S'; n = n' (n' - i)2 - S'.
In these last equations S, S' are merely written down to denote
proper corresponding combinations of the several numbers referring
to the singularities collectively denoted by S, S' respectively. The
theory, as already mentioned, is a complex and difficult one.
8. A torse or developable corresponds to a curve in space in the
same manner as a cone corresponds to a plane curve: although
capable of representation by an equation U=(*\x, y, z, w)n _
=o, and so of coming under the foregoing point ° re^ or ..
definition of a surface, it is an entirely distinct geo-
metrical conception. We may indeed, qua surface, regard it
as a surface characterized by the property that each of its
tangent planes touches it, not at a single point, but along a
line; this is equivalent to saying that it is the envelope, not of a
doubly infinite series of planes, as is a proper surface, but of a
singly infinite system of planes. But it is perhaps easier to regard
it as the locus of a singly infinite system of lines, each line meeting
the consecutive line, or, what is the same thing, the lines being tan-
gent lines of a curve in space. The tangent plane is then the plane
through two consecutive lines, or, what is the same thing, an oscu-
lating plane of the curve, whence also the tangent plane intersects
the surface in the generating line counting twice, and in a residual
curve of the order n—2. The curve is said to be the edge of re-
gression of the developable, and it is a cuspidal curve thereof;
that is to say, any plane section of the developable has at each
point of intersection with the edge of regression a cusp. A sheet
of paper bent in any manner without crumpling gives a developable;
1 In a plane curve the only singularities which need to be con-
sidered are those that present themselves in Pliicker's equations,
for every higher singularity whatever is equivalent to a certain
number of nodes, cusps, inflexions and double tangents. As re-
gards a surface, no such reduction of the higher singularities has
as yet been made.
SURFACE
119
but we cannot with a single sheet of paper properly exhibit the
form in the neighbourhood of the edge of regression: we need two
sheets connected along a plane curve, which, when the paper is
bent, becomes the edge of regression and appears as a cuspidal
curve on the surface.
4 It may be mentioned that the condition which must be satisfied
in order that the equation f = o shall represent a developable
is H(U)=o; that is, the Hessian or functional determinant formed
with the second differential coefficients of U must vanish in virtue
of the equation U=o, or — what is the same thing — H(U) must
contain U as a factor. If in cartesian co-ordinates the equation
is taken in the form z— f (x, y)=o, then the condition is rt—s1 = o
identically, where r, s, t denote as usual the second differential
coefficients of z in regard to x, y respectively.
9. A regulus or ruled surface is the locus of a singly infinite
system of lines, where the consecutive lines do not intersect; this
is a true surface, for there is a doubly infinite series of
tangent planes — in fact any plane through any one
of the lines is a tangent plane of the surface, touching
it at a point on the line, and in such wise that, as the
tangent plane turns about the line, the point of contact moves
along the line. The complete intersection of the surface by the
tangent plane is made up of the line counting once and of a residual
curve of the order n — I. A quadric surface is a regulus in a two-
fold manner, for there are on the surface two systems of lines
each of which is a regulus. A cubic surface may be a regulus
(see below, par. n).
Surfaces of the Orders 2, 3 and 4.
10. A surface of the second order or a quadric surface is a surface
such that every line meets it in two points, or — what comes to the
same thing — such that every plane section thereof
is a conic or quadric curve. Such surfaces have been
Surfaces. studied from every point of view. The only singular
forms are when there is (i) a conical point (cnicnode), when the sur-
face is a cone of the second order or quadricone; (2) a conic of
contact (cnictrope), when the surface is this conic; from a different
point of view it is a " surface aplatie " or flattened surface. Ex-
cluding these degenerate forms, the surface is of the order, rank
and class each = 2, and it has no singularities. Distinguishing
the forms according to reality, we have the ellipsoid, the hyper-
boloid of two sheets, the hyperboloid of one sheet, the elliptic
paraboloid and the hyperbolic paraboloid (see GEOMETRY: § Ana-
lytical). A particular case of the ellipsoid is the sphere; in abstract
geometry this is a quadric surface passing through a given quadric
curve, the circle at infinity. The tangent plane of a quadric surface
meets it in a quadric curve having a node, that is, in a pair of lines;
hence there are on the surface two singly infinite sets of lines. Two
lines of the same set do not meet, but each line of the one set meets
each line of the other set; the surface is thus a regulus in a two-
fold manner. The lines are real for the hyperboloid of one sheet
and for the hyperbolic paraboloid; for the other forms of surface
they are imaginary.
11. We have next the surface of the third order or cubic surface,
which has also been very completely studied. Such a surface
_ . may have isolated point singularities (cnicnodes or
g ™T points of higher singularity), or it may have a nodal
line; we have thus 21 +2, =23 cases. In the general
case of a surface without any singularities, the order, rank and class
are = 3, 6, 12 respectively. The surface has upon it 27 lines,
lying by threes in 45 planes, which are triple tangent planes. Ob-
serve that the tangent plane is a plane meeting the surface in a
curve having a node. For a surface of any given order n there
will be a certain number of planes each meeting the surface
in a curve with 3 nodes, that is, triple tangent planes; and,
in the particular case where n = 3, the cubic curve with 3
nodes is of course a set of 3 lines; it is found that the number of
triple tangent planes is, as just mentioned, = 45. This would
give 135 lines, but through each line we have 5 such planes, and
the number of lines is thus =27. The theory of the 27 lines is
an extensive and interesting one; in particular, it may be noticed
that we can, in thirty-six ways, select a system of 6X6 lines,
or " double sixer," such that no two lines of the same set intersect
each other, but that each line of the one set intersects each line of
the other set.
A cubic surface having a nodal line is a ruled surface or regulus;
[n fact any plane through the nodal line meets the surface
in this line counting twice and in a residual line, and there is
thus on the surface a singly infinite set of lines. There are two
forms.
12. As regards quartic surfaces, only particular forms have been
much studied. A quartic surface can have at most 16 conical
_ . points (cnicnodes); an instance of such a surface is
g-i Fresnel's wave surface, which has 4 real cnicnodes in
one of the principal planes, 4X2 imaginary ones in
the other two principal planes, and 4 imaginary ones at infinity —
in all 1 6 cnicnodes; the same surface has also 4 real + 12 imaginary
planes each touching the surface along a circle (cnictropes) — in
all 16 cnictropes. It was easy by a mere homographic transforma-
tion to pass to the more general surface called the tetrahedroid;
but this was itself only a particular form of the general surface
with 16 cnicnodes and 16 cnictropes first studied by Kummer.
Quartic surfaces with a smaller number of cnicnodes have also been
considered.
Another very important form is the quartic surface having a
nodal conic ; the nodal conic may be the circle at infinity, and we have
then the so-called anallagmatic surface, otherwise the cyclide
(which includes the particular form called Dupin's cyclide). These
correspond to the bicircular quartic curve of plane geometry. Other
forms of quartic surface might be referred to.
Congruences and Complexes.
13. A congruence is a doubly infinite system of lines. A line
depends on four parameters and can therefore be determined so
a» to satisfy four conditions; if only two conditions are
imposed on the line we have a doubly infinite system Congra.
of lines or a congruence. For instance, the lines meet- facet,
ing each of two given lines form a congruence. It is hardly
necessary to remark that, imposing on the line one more
condition, we have a ruled surface or regulus; thus we can in an
infinity of ways separate the congruence into a singly infinite
system of reguli or of torses (see below, par. 1 6).
Considering in connexion with the congruence two arbitrary
lines, there will be in the congruence a determinate number of lines
which meet each of these two lines; and the number of lines thus
meeting the two lines is said to be the order-class of the congruence.
If the two arbitrary lines are taken to intersect each other, the
congruence lines which meet each of the two lines separate them-
selves into two sets— those which lie in the plane of the two lines
and those which pass through their intersection. There will be in
the former set a determinate number of congruence lines which
is the order of the congruence, and in the latter set a determinate
number of congruence lines which is the class of the congruence.
In other words, the order of the congruence is equal to the number
of congruence lines lying in an arbitrary plane, and its class to
the number of congruence lines passing through an arbitrary
point.
The following systems of lines form each of them a congruence:
(A) lines meeting each of two given curves; (B) lines meeting a
given curve twice; (C) lines meeting a given curve and touching
a given surface; (D) lines touching each of two given surfaces;
(E) lines touching a given surface twice, or, say, the bitangents
of a given surface.
The last case is the most general one; and conversely for a given
congruence there will be in general a surface having the congruence
lines for bitangents. This surface is said to be the focal surface
of the congruence; the general surface with 16 cnicnodes first pre-
sented itself in this manner as the focal surface of a congruence.
But the focal surface may degenerate into the forms belonging to
the other cases A, B, C, D.
14. A complex is a triply infinite system of lines — for instance,
the tangent lines of a surface. Considering an arbitrary point
in connexion with the complex, the complex lines which _
pass through the point form a cone; considering a plane t'omP'e-
in connexion with it, the complex lines which lie in the plane envelop
a curve. It is easy to see that the class of the curve is equal to
the order of the cone; in fact each of these numbers is equal to the
number of complex lines which lie in an arbitrary plane and pass
through an arbitrary point of that plane; and we then say order
of complex = order of curve; rank of complex = class of curve
= order of cone; class of complex=class of cone. It is to be
observed that, while for a congruence there is in general a surface
having the congruence lines for bitangents, for a complex there is
not in general any surface having the complex lines for tangents;
the tangent lines of a surface are thus only a special form of complex.
The theory of complexes first presented itself in the researches
of Malus on systems of rays of light in connexion with double
refraction.
15. The analytical theory as well of congruences as of complexes
is most easily carried out by means of the six co-ordinates of a line ;
viz. there are co-ordinates (a, b, c, f, g, h) connected by the equation
af-{-bg+ch=o, and therefore such that the ratios a:b:c:f:g:h
constitute a system of four arbitrary parameters. We have thus
a congruence of the order n represented by a single homogeneous
equation of that order (*Ja, b, c, f, g, h)* = o between the six
co-ordinates; two such relations determine a congruence. But we
have in regard to congruences the same difficulty as that which
presents itself in regard to curves in space : it is not every congru-
ence which can be represented completely and precisely by two
such equations (see GEOMETRY: § Line).
The linear equation (*fo, 6, c, f, g, h) =o represents a congruence
of the first order or linear congruence; such congruences are inter-
esting both in geometry and in connexion with the theory of forces
acting on a rigid body.
Curves of Curvature; Asymptotic Lines.
16. The normals of a surface form a congruence. In any con-
gruence the lines consecutive to a given congruence line do not
120
SURFACE
in general meet this line; but there is a determinate number of
consecutive lines which do meet it; or, attending for the moment
to only one of these, say the congruence line is met by a consecutive
congruence-line. In particular, each normal is met by a consecutive
normal; this again is met by a consecutive normal, and so on.
That is, we have a singly infinite system of normals each meeting
the consecutive normal, and so forming a torse; starting from
different normals successively, we obtain a singly infinite system
of such torses. But each normal is in fact met by two consecutive
normals, and, using in the construction first the one and then the
other of these, we obtain two singly infinite systems of torses
each intersecting the given surface at right angles. In other
words, if in place of the normal we consider the point on the
surface, we obtain on the surface two singly infinite systems of
curves such that for any curve of either system the normals at
consecutive points intersect each other; moreover, for each
normal the torses of the two systems intersect each other at
right angles; and therefore for each point of the surface the curves
of the two systems intersect each other at right angles. The^ two
systems of curves are said to be the curves of curvature of the
surface.
The normal is met by the two consecutive normals in two points
which are the centres of curvature for the point on the surface;
these lie either on the same side of the point or on opposite sides,
and the surface has at the point in question like curvatures or
opposite curvatures in the two cases respectively (see above,
par. 4).
17. In immediate connexion with the curves of curvature we
have the so-called asymptotic curves (Haupt-tangentenlinien).
The tangent plane at a point of the surface cuts the surface in a
curve having at that point a node. Thus we have at the point
of the surface two directions of passage to a consecutive point,
or, say, two elements of arc; and. passing along one of these to
the consecutive point, and thence to a consecutive point, and so
on, we obtain on the surface a curve. Starting successively from
different points of the surface we thus obtain a singly infinite
system of curves; or, using first one and then the other of the two
directions, we obtain two singly infinite systems of curves, which
are the curves above referred to. The two curves at any point
are equally inclined to the two curves of curvature at that point,
or — what is the same thing — the supplementary angles formed by
the two asymptotic lines are bisected by the two curves of curvature.
In the case of a quadric surface the asymptotic curves are the two
systems of lines on the surface,
Geodetic Lines.
18. A geodetic line (or curve) is a shortest curve on a surface;
more accurately, the element of arc between two consecutive
points of a geodetic line is a shortest arc on the surface. We are
thus led to the fundamental property that at each point of the
curve the osculating plane of the curve passes through the normal
of the surface; in other words, any two consecutive arcs PP',P'P"
are in piano with the normal at P'. Starting from a given point
P on the surface, we have a singly infinite system of geodetics
proceeding along the surface in the direction of the several tangent
lines at the point P; and, if the direction PP' is given, the property
gives a construction by successive elements of arc for the required
geodetic line.
Considering the geodetic lines which proceed from a given point
P of the surface, any particular geodetic line is pr_is not again
intersected by the consecutive generating line; if it is thus inter-
sected, the generating line is a shortest line on the surface up to, but
not beyond, the point at which it is first intersected by the con-
secutive generating line; if it is not intersected, it continues a
shortest line for the whole course.
In the analytical theory both of geodetic lines and of the curves
of curvature, and in other parts of the theory of surfaces, it is very
convenient to consider the rectangular co-ordinates x, y, z of a point
of the surface as given functions of two independent parameters
p, q; the form of these functions of course determines the surface,
since by the elimination of p, q from the three equations we obtain
the equation in the co-ordinates *, y, z. We have for the geodetic
lines a differential equation of the second order between p and 5;
the general solution contains two arbitrary constants, and is thus
capable of representing the geodetic line which can be drawn from
a given point in a given direction on the surface. In. the case of
a quadric surface the solution involves hyperelliptic integrals of
the first kind, depending on the square root of a sextic function.
Curvilinear Co-ordinates.
19. The expressions of the co-ordinates x, y, z in terms of p, q
may contain a parameter r, and, if this is regarded as a given con-
stant, these expressions will as before refer to a point on a given
surface. But, if p, q, r are regarded as three independent para-
meters x, y, z will be the co-ordinates of a point in space, deter-
mined by means of the three parameters p, q, r; these parameters
are said to be the curvilinear co-ordinates, or (in a generalized sense
of the term) simply the co-ordinates of the point. We arrive other-
wise at the notion by taking p, q, r each as a given function of
x, y. z; say we have p = fi(x, y, z), q=ft(x, y, z), r=f3(x, y, z), which
equations of course leacf to expressions for p, q, r each as a function
of x, y, z. The first equation determines a singly infinite set of sur-
faces : for any given value of * we have a surface ; and similarly the
second and third equations determine each a singly infinite set of
surfaces. If, to fix the ideas, /i, ft, /a are taken to denote each a
rational and integral function of x, y, z, then two surfaces of the
same set will not intersect each other, and through a_ given point
of space there will pass one surface of each set; that is, the point
will be determined as a point of intersection of three surfaces be-
longing to the three sets respectively ; moreover, the whole of space
will be divided by the three sets of surfaces into a triply infinite
system of elements, each of them being a parallelepiped.
Orthotomic Surfaces; Parallel Surfaces.
20. The three sets of surfaces may be such that the three surfaces
through any point of space whatever intersect each other at right
angles; and they are in this case said to be orthotomic. The term
curvilinear co-ordinates was almost appropriated by Lame, to whom
this theory is chiefly due, to the case in question: assuming that
the equations p=fi(x, y, z), q=fs(x, y, z), r=f»(x, y, z) refer to a
system of orthotomic surfaces, we have in the restricted sense
p, q, r as the curvilinear co-ordinates of the point.
An interesting special case is that of confocal quadric surfaces.
The general equation of a surface confocal with tbe ellipsoid
V" -v^ K' Y" *V^ f?
-j+fe+-j= i is . , g + /,2-j-fl — I" if-i-g = l ' aftd' K m tn's
equation we consider x, y, z as given, we have for 0 a cubic equation
with three real roots p, q, r, and thus we have through the point
three real surfaces, one an ellipsoid, one a hyperboloid of one sheet,
and one a hyperboloid of two sheets.
21. The theory is connected with that of curves of curvature
by Dupin's theorem. Thus in any system of orthotomic surfaces
each surface of any one of the three sets is intersected by the
surfaces of the other two sets in its curves of curvature.
22. No one of the three sets of surfaces is altogether arbitrary:
in the equation p —fi(x, y,z),p is not an arbitrary function of x, y, z,
but it must satisfy a certain partial differential equation of the third
order. Assuming that p has this value, we have q=ft(x, y, z)
and r=fi(x, y, z) determinate functions of x,y,z such tnat the three
sets of surfaces form an orthotomic system.
23. Starting from a given surface, it has been seen (par. 1 6)
that the normals along the curves of curvature form two systems
of torses intersecting each other, and also the given surface, at right
angles. But there are, intersecting the two systems of torses at
right angles, not only the given surface, but a singly infinite system
of surfaces. If at each point of the given surface we measure off
along the normal one and the same distance at pleasure, then the
locus of the points thus obtained is a surface cutting all the normals
of the given surface at right angles, or, in other words, having the
same normals as the given surface; and it is therefore a parallel
surface to the given surface. Hence the singly infinite system of
parallel surfaces and the two singly infinite systems of torses form
together a set of orthotomic surfaces.
• The Minimal Surface.
24. This is the surface of minimum area — more accurately, a
surface such that, for any indefinitely small closed curve which can
be drawn on it round any point, the area of the surface is less than
it is for any other surface whatever through the closed curve. It
at once follows that the surface at every point is concavo-convex;
for, if at any point this was not the case, we could, by cutting the
surface by a plane, describe round the point an indefinitely small
closed plane curve, and the plane area within the closed curve
would then be less than the area of the element of surface within
the same curve. The condition leads to a partial differential
equation of the second order for the determination of the minimal
surface: considering z as a function of x, y, and writing as usual
p, q, r, s, t for the first and the second differential coefficients of
z in regard to x, y respectively, the equation (as first shown by
Lagrange) is (i + g2)/- — 2pqs + (i + p^)t =o, or, as this may also
be written, -r-
= o. The general
integral contains of course arbitrary functions, and, if we imagine
these so determined that the surface may pass through a given
closed curve, and if, moreover, there is but one minimal surface
passing through that curve, we have the solution of the problem
of finding the surface of minimum area within the same curve.
The surface continued beyond the closed curve is a minimal surface,
but it is not of necessity or in general a surface of minimum area
for an arbitrary bounding curve not wholly included within the
given closed curve. It is hardly necessary to remark that the
plane is a minimal surface, and that, if the_ given closed curve is
a plane curve, the plane is the proper solution; that is, the plane
area within the given closed curve is less than the area for any other
surface through the same curve. The given closed curve is not
SURFACE
of necessity a single curve: it may be, for instance, a skew polygon
of four or more sides.
The partial differential equation was dealt with in a very
remarkable manner by Riemann. From the second form given
above it appears that we have j~-=: J?, t = a complete diffe-
rential, or, putting this = <if, we introduce into the solution a vari-
able f, which combines with z in the forms z±if (t = V~ ')•
The boundary conditions have to be satisfied by the determination
of the conjugate variables 17, i)' as functions of z+if, z— if, or,
say, of /, Z respectively, and by writing S, S' to denote x+iy,
x—iy respectively. Riemann obtains finally two ordinary differ-
ential equations of the first order in S, S', TJ, 17', Z, Z', and the results
are completely worked out in some very interesting special cases.
(A. CA.)
PART II.
We proceed to treat the differential geometry of surfaces, a
study founded on the consideration of the expression of the lineal
element in terms of two parameters, u, v,
ds* = Edu>+2Fdudv+ Gdi?,
u = const, »= const, being thus systems of curves traced on
the surface. This method, which may be said to have been
inaugurated by Gauss in his classical paper published in 1828,
Disquisitiones generates circa superficies cunas, has the great
advantage of dealing in the most natural way with all questions
connected with geodetics, geodetic curvature, geodetic circles,
&c.— in fact, all relations of lines on a surface which can be
formulated without reference to anything external to the
surface. All such relations when deduced for any particular
surface can be at once generalized in their application, holding
good for any other surface which has the same expression for
its lineal element; e.g. relations involving great circles and
small circles on a sphere furnish us with corresponding relations
for geodetics and geodetic circles on any synclastic surface of
constant specific curvature.
i. Gauss begins by introducing the conception of the integral
curvature (curvatura integral of any portion of a surface. This
he defines to be the area of the corresponding portion of a sphere of
unit radius, traced out by a radius drawn parallel to the normal at
each point of the surface; i.e. it is JJ ds/RR.' where R, R' are the
principal radii of curvature. The quotient obtained by dividing
the integral curvature of a small portion of the surface round a
point by the area of that portion, that is i/RR', he naturally calls
the measure of curvature or the specific curvature at the point in
question. He proceeds to establish his leading proposition, that this
specific curvature at any point is expressible in terms of the E, F
and G which enter into the equation for the lineal element, to-
gether with their differential coefficients with respect to the variables,
M and v.
It is desirable to make clear the exact significance of this theorem.
Of course, for any particular surface, the curvature can be expressed
in an indefinite variety of ways. The speciality of the Gaussian
expression is that it is deduced in such a manner as to hold good
for all surfaces which have the same expression for the lineal element.
The expression for the specific curvature, which is in general
somewhat elaborate, assumes a very simple form when a system
of geodetics and the system of their orthogonal trajectories are
chosen for the parameter curves, the parameter « being made the
length of the arc of the geodetic, measured from the curve, «=o
selected as the standard. If this be done the equation for the
lineal element becomes ds* = du* + PW, and that for the specific
curvature (RR1)-^ -P"1 <i2P/<ftt2. By means of this last ex-
pression Gauss then proves that the integral curvature of a triangle
formed by three geodetics on the surface can be expressed in terms
of its angles, and is equal to A+ B+ C— x.
This theorem may be more generally stated : —
The integral curvature of any portion of a surfa-:e = 2ir—'Sdi
round the contour of this portion, where di denotes the angle of
geodetic contingence of the boundary curve. The angle of geodetic
contingence of a curve traced on a surface may be defined as the
angle of intersection of two geodetic tangents drawn at the ex-
tremities of an element of arc, an angle which may be easily proved
to be the same as the projection on the tangent plane of the ordinary
angle of contingence. The geodetic curvature, p-1, is thus equal
to the ordinary curvature multiplied by cos tf, 0 being the angle
the osculating plane of the curve makes with the tangent
plane.
_ Gauss's theorem may be established geometrically in the following
simple manner: If we draw successive tangent planes along the
curve, these will intersect in a system of lines, termed the conjugate
tangents, forming a developable surface. If we unroll this develop-
able then di = de — d<l/, where di is the angle of geodetic con-
121
tingence, id the angle between two consecutive conjugate tangents,
<f> the angle the conjugate tangent makes with the curve. There-
fore, as \l> returns to its original value when we integrate round the
curve, we have 2dt = 2d0. This equation holds for both the
curve on the given surface and the representative curve on the
sphere. But the tangent planes along these curves being always
parallel, their successive intersections are so also; therefore 2dO is
the same for both; consequently 2dt for the curve on the surface
= 2di for the representative curve on the sphere. Hence integral
curvature of curve of surface = area of representative curve on
sphere,
= 2ir— 2<fi on sphere by spherical geometry,
= 27r— 2<ii for curve on surface.
A useful expression for the geodetic curvature of one of the curves,
v =const, can be obtained. If a curve receive a small displacement
on any surface, so that the displacements of its two extremities
are normal to the curve, it follows, from the calculus of variations,
that the variation of the length of the curve =fp-l&nds where p-1
is the geodetic curvature, and &n the normal component of the dis-
placement at each point. Applying this formula to one of the
v curves, we find
&fPdv = j(dPldu)&udv=S length of curve =/p-1 SuPdv,
and as Su is the same for all points of the curve, p-l= P~1dP/du.
We can deduce immediately from this expression Gauss's value
for the specific curvature. For applying his theorem to the quadri-
lateral formed by the curves u, MI, v, PI, and remembering that
2di along a geodetic vanishes, we have
// (RR.')-lPdudv = - -Lai for curve BC- 2dt for curve DA,
— 2p-lds for curve BC+ 2p-1ds for curve AD, .
= ~~ /P dJ^dv for curve BC+/p 2Jp<to for curve AD>
•~/t (£)--©„!*•
therefore passing to the limit P/RR' = — .
Gauss then proceeds to consider what the result will be if a surface
be deformed in such_a way that no lineal element is altered. It is
easily seen that this involves that the angle at which two curves on
the surface intersect is unaltered by this deformation; and since
obviously geodetics remain geodetics, the angle of geodetic contin-
gence and consequently the geodetic curvature are also unaltered.
It therefore follows from his theorem that the integral curvature of
any portion of a surface and the specific curvature at any point are
unaltered by non-extensional deformation.
Geodetics and Geodetic Circles.
A geodetic and its fundamental properties are stated in part I.,
where it is also explained in that article within what range a geodetic
possesses the property of being the shortest oath between two of its
points. The determination of the geodetics on a given surface
depends upon the solution of a differential equation of the second
order. The first integral of this equation, when it can be found for
any given class of surfaces, gives us the characteristic property of the
geodetics on such surfaces. The following are some of the well-
known classes for which this integral has been obtained: (i)
quadrics; (2) developable surfaces; (3) surfaces of revolution.
i. Quadrics. — Several mathematicians about the middle of the
igth century made a special study of the geometry of the lines of
curvature and the geodetics on quadrics, and were rewarded by the
discovery of many wonderfully simple and elegant analogies between
their properties and those of a system of confocal conies and their
tangents in piano. As explained above, the lines of curvature on a
quadric are the systems of orthogonal curves formed by its inter-
section with the two systems of confocal quadrics. Joachimsthal
showed that the interpretation of the first integral of the equation
for geodetics on a central quadric is, that along a geodetic pD — con-
stant (C,) p denoting the perpendicular let fall from the centre on
the tangent plane, and D the semidiameter drawn parallel to the
element of the geodetic, the envelope of all geodetics having the same
C being a line of curvature. In particular, all geodetics passing
through one of the real umbilics (the four points where the indicatrix
is a circle) have the same C.
Michael Roberts pointed out that it is an immediate consequence
of the equation pD = C, that if two umbilics, A and B (selecting
two not diametrically opposite), be joined by geodetics to any point
P on a given line of curvature, they make equal angles with such line
of curvature, and consequently that, as P moves along a line of
curvature, either PA+PB or PA — PB remains constant. Or,
conversely, that the locus of a point P on the surface, for which the
sum or difference of the geodetic distances PA and PB is constant,
is a line of curvature. It follows that if the ends of a string be
fastened at the two umbilics of a central quadric, and a style move
over the surface keeping the string always stretched, it will describe
a line of curvature.
Another striking analogue is the following: As, in piano, if a
variable point or an ellipse be joined to the two foci S and H,
122
SURFACE
tan J PSH tan iPHS = const, and for the hyperbola tan JPSH/tan
JPHS=const, so for a line of curvature on a central quadric, if P
be joined to two umbilics S and H by geodetics, either the product
or the ratio of the tangents of JPSH and JPHS will be constant.
Chasles proved that if an ellipse be intersected in the point A by a
confocal hyperbola, and from any point P on the hyperbola tangents
FT, PT' be drawn to the ellipse, then the difference of the arcs of
the ellipse TA, T'A = the difference of the tangents PT, PT'; and
subsequently Graves showed that if from any point P on the outer
of two confocal ellipses tangents be drawn to the inner, then the
excess of the sum of the tangents PT, PT' over the intercepted arc
TT' is constant. Precisely the same theorems hold for a quadric
replacing the confocals by lines of curvature and the rectilineal
tangents by geodetic tangents. Hart still further developed the
analogies with confocal conies, and established the following : If a
geodetic polygon circumscribe a line of curvature, and all its
vertices but one move on lines of curvature, this vertex will
also describe a line of curvature, and when the lines of curvature all
belong to the same system the perimeter of the polygon will be
constant.
2. Geodetics on Developable Surfaces. — On these the geodetics are
the curves which become right lines when the surface is unrolled into
a plane. From this property a first integral can be immediately
deduced.
3. Geodetics on Surfaces of Revolution. — In all such the geodetics
are the curves given by the equation r sin <t> = const, r being the
perpendicular on the axis of revolution, 0 the angle at which the
curve crosses the meridian.
The general problem of the determination of geodetics on any
surface may be advantageously treated in connexion with that of
" parallel " curves. By " parallel " curves are meant curves whose
geodetic distances from one another are constant — in other words,
the orthogonal trajectories of a system of geodetics. In applying
this method the determination of a system of parallel curves comes
first, and the determination of the geodetics to which they are
orthogonal follows as a deduction. If <j> (u, v) = const be a system of
parallel curves,, it is shown that <j> must satisfy the partial differential
equation
E 2-2F m (**) + G (£) 2= EG - P.
'
du
If <t> (u, v, a) =const be a system of parallel curves satisfying this
equation, then d<t>/da=const is proved to represent the orthogonal
geodetics. The same method enables us to establish a result first
arrived at by Jacobi, that whenever a first integral of the differential
equation for geodetics can be found, the final integral is always
reducible to quadratures. In this method <t> corresponds to the
characteristic function in the Hamiltonian dynamics, the geodetics
being the paths of a particle confined to the surface when no
extraneous forces are in action.
The expression for the lineal element on a quadric in elliptic
co-ordinates suggested to Liouville the consideration of the class
of surfaces for which this equation takes the more general form
<fc' = (U-V)(UiW+ViW), where U, U, are functions of u, and
V, Vi functions of v, and shows that, for this class, the first integral
of the equation of the parallels is immediately obtainable, and hence
that of the corresponding geodetics. It is to be remarked that for
this more general class of surfaces the theorems of Chasles and Graves
given above will also hold good.
Geodetics on a surface corresponding to right lines on a plane, the
question arises what curves on a surface should be considered to
correspond to plane circles. There are two claimants for the posi-
tion : first, the curves described by a point whose geodetic distance
from a given point is constant ; and, second, the curves of constant
geodetic curvature.
On certain surfaces the curves which satisfy one of these conditions
also satisfy the other, but in general the two curves must be carefully
distinguished. The pro-
perty
second
involved in the
definition is more
intrinsic, and we shall
therefore, following Liou-
ville, call the curves pos-
sessing it geodetic circles.
It may be noted that
geodetic circles, except
on surfaces of constant
specific curvature, do not
return back upon them-
selves like circles in piano.
As a particular instance,
a geodetic on an ellipsoid
(which is, of course, a
geodetic circle of zero
curvature), starting from
an umbilic, when it returns again, as it does to that umbilic, makes
a finite angle with its original starting position. As to the curve
described by a point whose geodetic distance from a given centre
is constant, Gauss showed from the fundamental property of a
FIG. i.
--,
eeriuitor
• •(L« »••••••
FIG. 2.
sinh ua~l, according as the
If a geodetic circle (curv-
geodetic that this curve resembles the plane circle in being every-
where perpendicular to its radius. In the same way it holds
that the curve described
by a point the sum (or
difference) of whose geo-
detic distances from cwo
given points (foci) is con-
stant, resembles the plane
ellipse (or hyperbola) in the
property that it bisects at
every point the external
(or internal) angle between
the geodetic focal radii,
and, as a consequence,
that the curves on any sur-
face answering to confocal
ellipses and hyperbolas
intersect at right angles.
The equation for the lineal
element enables us to dis-
cuss geodetic circles on sur-
faces of constant specific
curvature; for we have
seen that if we choose as
parameters geodetics and
their orthogonal trajec-
tories, the equation becomes
di2 = atf -f- P1du' ; and since
(RRT1 = -
and here (RR')-^
it follows P = A cos ua~l +
B sin ua'1, or P = A cosh ua-'+E
surface is synclastic or anticlastic.
ature k~l) be chosen
for the starting curve
«=o, and if v be made
the length of the arc OY,
intercepted on this circle
by the curve t> = const
(see fig. i), then A and B
can be proved to be inde-
pendent of u and P =
cos ua~l -\-ak~1 sin ua"1 for
a synclastic surface, P =
cosh ua~l -\-ak~1 sinh ua~l
for an anticlastic sur-
face. It follows from
the expression for the
geodetic curvature p~l =
P~ldP/du that in both
classes of surfaces all the
other orthogonal curves
«= const will be geo-
detic circles. It also
appears that on a syn-
clastic surface of con-
stant specific curvature
all the geodetics normal
to a geodetic circle converge to a point on either side as on a sphere,
and can be described with a stretched string taking either of these
points as centre, the length of the string being a tan"1 ak~l (see
fig. 2). These normals will be all cut orthogonally by an equator,
that is, by a geodetic circle
of zero curvature.
For anticlastic surfaces,
however, we must dis-
tinguish two cases. If the
curvature k~l of the geo-
detic circle > a"1 the geo-
detic normals meet in a
point on the concave side
of the geodetic circle, and
can be described as on the
synclastic by a stretched
string, the length of the
string being a tanh"1 ak "*,
but in this case the geo-
detic normals have no
equator (see fig. 3). If
on the other hand the
curvature of the geodetic
circle be <a~* the nor-
mals do not meet on either
side, but do possess an
equator, and at this equa- pJG .
tor the geodetic normals
come nearer together than they do anywhere else (see fig. 4).
On a synclastic surface of constant specific curvature a"8 two near
geodetics proceeding from a point always meet again at the geodetic
FIG. 3.
SURFACE
123
distance «z; and more generally for any synclastic surface whose
specific curvature at every point lies between the limits o~2 and (r2
two near geodetics proceeding from a point always meet again at a
geodetic distance intermediate in value between JTO and irb. On an
anticlastic surface two near geodetics proceeding from a point never
meet again.
Representation of Figures on a Surface by Corresponding Figures on a
Plane; Theory of Maps.
The most valuable methods of effecting such representation are
those in which small figures are identical in shape with the figures
which they represent. This property is known to belong to the
representation of a spherical surface by Mercator's method as well as
to the representation by stereographic projection. The problem of
effecting this " conformable " representation is easily seen to be
equivalent to that of throwing the expression for the lineal element
into what is known in the theory of heat conduction as the isothermal
form ds- = \(di£+dv>), for we have then only to choose for the
representative point on the plane that whose rectangular co-ordinates
are x=u, y=v. A curious investigation has been made by
Beltrami — when is it possible to represent a surface on a plane in
such a way that the geodetics on the surface shall correspond to the
right lines on the plane (as, for example, holds true when a spherical
surface is projected on a plane by lines through its centre)? He has
proved that the only class of surface for which such representation is
possible is the class of uniform specific curvature.
Just as the intrinsic properties of a synclastic surface of uniform
specific curvature are reducible to those of a particular surface of
this type, i.e. the sphere, so we can
deal with an anticlastic surface of
constant specific curvature, and
reduce its properties to a particular
anticlastic surface. A convenient
surface to study for this purpose is
that known as the pseudosphere,
formed by the revolution of the
tractrix (an involute of the caten-
ary) round its base (see fig. 5).
Its equations are r = a sin <t>,
z = a(cos 0+log tan i<£). This
surface can be conformably repre-
sented as a plane map by choosing
*'=6> where a is the longitude of the point and y' = a/sin <f>.
It will then be found that ds = ads'/y', where ds = lineal element on
the surface, iis' = same on the map. It easily appears that geodetic
circles on the surface are represented by circles on the map, the angle
<l/ at which these circles cut the base depending only upon the
7
ition of
axis of revolution,
FIG. 5.
Line y'*a.
-.r
FIG. 6.
curvature of the geodetic circle, cos ^ being equal to p"1. As a
particular case it follows that the geodetics on the surface are
represented by those special circles on the map whose centres lie on
the base (see fig. 6). The geodetic distance between two points P
and Q on the surface is represented by the logarithm of the anhar-
monic function AP'BQ', where P'Q' are the representing points on
the map, A B the points in which the circle on the map which passes
through P' and Q' and has its centre on the base cuts the base. The
perimeter (I) of a geodetic circle of curvature p~l turns out to be
2«ip/V(a2 — p2), and its area (lp~l — 2ir)a2. The geometry of coaxal
circles in piano accordingly enables us to demonstrate anew by means
of the pseudosphere the properties which we have shown to hold
good in all anticlastic surfaces of constant curvature. Thus the
system of geodetics cutting orthogonally a geodetic circle C will be
represented on the map by circles having their centres on the base,
and cutting a given circle C' orthogonally, i.e. by a coaxal system of
circles. We know that the other orthogonal trajectories of this last
system are another coaxal system, and therefore, going back to the
pseudosphere, we learn that if a system of geodetics be drawn normal
to a geodetic circle, all the orthogpnals to this system are geodetic
circles. It is to be noted that while every point on the surface has
its representative on the map, the converse does not hold. It is
only points lying above the line y' = a which have their prototypes
on the surface, the portion of the plane below this line not answering
to any real part of the surface. If we take any curve C' on the map
crossing this line, the part of the curve above this line has as its
prototype a curve on the surface. When C' reaches this line, C
reaches the circular base of the pseudosphere, and there terminates
abruptly. The distinction between the two cases of a geodetic circle
with curvature greater and one with curvature less than a"1 also
comes put clearly. For if curvature of C>o~'the map circle C'
lies entirely above the base, and the coaxal system cutting C' ortho-
gonally passes through a real point; therefore C has a centre. If
curvature of C <o~' the map circle C' intersects the base, the coaxal
system cutting C' orthogonally does not intersect in a real point, and
C has accordingly no centre. It is of interest to examine in what way
a pseudosphere differs from a plane as regards the behaviour of
parallel lines. If on a plane a geodetic AB (i.e. a right line) betaken,
and another geodetic constantly pass through a point P and revolve
round P, it will always meet AB in the point except in the particular
position. On the pseudosphere, if we carry out the corresponding
construction, the position of the non-intersecting geodetic is not
unique, but all geodetics drawn within a certain angle fail to meet the
geodetic AB.
Minimal Surfaces.
From the definition given in part I. readily follows the well-
known property of these surfaces — that the two principal curvatures
are at every point of such a surface equal and opposite. For
familiar instances of the class we have the surface formed by the
revolution of a catenary round its base called by French mathema-
ticians the alysseide, and the right conoid, z = a t&n~l(y/x), formed
by the successive edges of the steps of a spiral staircase. Monge
succeeded in expressing the co-ordinates of the most general minimal
surface in two parameters, and in a form in which the variables are
separated. The separation of the variables in the expression signifies
that every minimal surface belongs to the class of surfaces which can
be generated by a movement of translation of a curve. Enneper
has thrown the expression for the co-ordinates into the following
convenient forms: —
y = JiJ(i +«')/(«)<*«- i»J(i +»*)*(»)&,
z = (uf(u)du-{-jv<t>(v)dv.
It is noteworthy that the expression for the lineal element on a
minimal surface assumes the isothermal form ds1 = \(du*-{-diP) — (l)
when the curves u — const, v = const are so chosen as to be the lines
of curvature; and (2) when they are chosen to be the lines in which
the surface is intersected by a system of parallel planes and the
orthogonal trajectories of these lines. It is easily proved that a
minimal surface possesses the property of being conformable to its
spherical representation. For since the indicatrix at every point is
a rectangular hyperbola, the angle between the elements of two
intersecting curves = angle between their conjugate tangents; but
this = angle between conjugate tangents to representative curves on,
sphere = angle between these curves themselves.
The problem of finding a minimal surface to pass through a given
curve in space, known as Plateau's problem, possesses an exceptional
interest from the circumstance that it can be always exhibited to the
eye in the following way by an actual physical experiment. Dip a
wire having the form of the given curve in a soap-bubble solution, and
the film adhering to the wire when it is withdrawn is the surface
required. This is evident, since from the theory of surface-tension
we know that a very thin film must assume that form for which the
area of its surface is the least possible. The same theory also fur-
nishes us with an elementary (proof of the characteristic property
that the sum of the curvatures is everywhere zero, inasmuch as the
normal pressure on the film, here zero, is known to be proportional to
the surface-tension multiplied by the sum of the curvatures.
Riemann, adopting a method depending upon the use of the com-
plex variable, has succeeded in solving Plateau's problem for several
interesting cases, e.%. 1° when the contour consists of three infinite
right lines ; 2° when it consists of a gauche quadrilateral ; and 3° when
it consists of any two circles situated in parallel planes. (For Lie's
investigations in this domain, see GROUPS, THEORY OF.)
Non-extensional Deformation.
We have already explained what is meant by this term. It is a
subject to which much study has been devoted, connecting itself, as
it does, with the work of Gauss in pure geometry on the one hand
and with the theory of elasticity on the other. Several questions
have been opened up: (i) What are the conditions which must be
fulfilled by two surfaces such that one can be " deformed " so as to
fit on the other? (2) What instances have we of known surfaces
applicable to one another? (3) What surfaces are applicable to
themselves? (4) In regard to infinitely small deformations, what
are the differential equations which must be satisfied by the displace-
ments? (5) Under what circumstances can a surface not be
deformed? Can a closed surface ever be deformed?
i. Of course if two surfaces are applicable we must be able to get
two systems of parameter curves w=const, » = const, on the first
124
SURFACE
surface, and two systems on the second, such that the equation for
the lineal element, when referred to these, may have an identical
form for the two surfaces. The problem is now to select these corre-
sponding systems. We may conveniently take for the co-ordinate
« the specific curvature on each surface, and choose for v the function
du/dn which denotes the rate of increase of « along a direction normal
to the curve «=>const. Then, since at corresponding points both u
and v will be the same for one surface as for the other, if the surfaces are
applicable, E, F and G, in the equation dst = Edu*+2Fdudv+Gdv',
must be identical for the two surfaces. Clerk Maxwell has put
the geometrical relation which exists between two applicable
surfaces in the following way: If we take any two corresponding
points P and P' on two such surfaces, it is always possible to draw
two elements through P parallel to conjugate semi-diameters of the
indicatrix at P, such that the corresponding elements through P'
shall be parallel to conjugate semi-diameters of the indicatrix at P'.
The curves made up of all these elements will divide the two surfaces
into small parallelograms, the four parallelograms having P as
common vertex being identical in size and shape with the four having
P' as vertex. Maxwell regards the surfaces as made up in the limit
of these small parallelograms. Now, in order to render these sur-
faces ready for application, the first step would be to alter the angle
between two of the planes of the parallelograms at P, so as to make
it equal_to that between the corresponding planes at P'. If this be
done it is readily seen that all the angles between the other planes at
P and P', and at all other corresponding points, will become equal
also. The curves which thus belong to the conjugate systems
common to the two surfaces may be regarded as lines of bending.
2. Any surface of uniform specific curvature, whether positive or
negative, is applicable to another surface of the same uniform
specific curvature in an infinite variety of ways. For if we arbi-
trarily choose two points, O and O', one on each surface, and two
elements, one through each point, we can apply the surfaces, making
O and O' corresponding points and the elements corresponding
elements. This follows from the form of the equation of the lineal
element, which is for synclastic surfaces ds* = dui+a1 sin^wa-1)^,
and _for anticlastic, ds* = du2+d> sinh^wo-1)^, and is therefore
identical for the two surfaces in question. Again, a ruled surface
may evidently be deformed by first rotating round a generator, the
portion of the surface lying to one side of this generator, then round
the consecutive generator, the portion of the surface lying beyond
this again, and so on. It is clear that in such deformation the
rectilinear generators in the old surface remain the rectilinear
generators in the new; but it is interesting to note that two ruled
surfaces can be constructed which shall be applicable, yet so that
the generators will not correspond. For, deform a hyperboloid of
one sheet in the manner described, turning the portions of the surface
round the consecutive generators of one system, and then deform
the hyperboloid, using the generators of the other system. The
two surfaces so obtained are, of course, applicable to one another,
yet so that their generacors do not now correspond. Conversely
Bonnet has shown that, whenever two ruled surfaces are thus
applicable, without correspondence of generators, they must be both
applicable to the same hyperboloid of one sheet. The alysseide is a
good example of a surface of revolution applicable to a ruled surface,
in this case the right circular conoid, the generators of the conoid
coinciding with the meridians of the alysseide.
3. As instances of surfaces applicable to themselves, we may take
surfaces of uniform specific curvature, as obviously follows from the
reasoning already given; also surfaces of revolution, inasmuch as
any such_ surface can be turned round its axis and still fit upon its
old position. Again, helicoidal surfaces possess this property. A
helicoidal surface means that traced out by a rigid wire, which is
given a screw motion round a fixed axis, or, which comes to the same
thing, the surface made up of a system of helices starting from the
points of a given curve, all having the same axis and the same interval
between the successive threads. The applicability of such a surface
to itself, if given a screw motion round the axis, is evident from the
law of its formation.
4. The_ possible small variations { , 17, f of the points of a surface
when it is subject to a small inextensional deformation are condi-
tioned by the equation dxd^+dydit+dzdf=0, or making x and y
the independent variables,
=o.
From this it follows that the three equations must separately
hold
Accordingly, the determination of a possible small deformation cf a
given surface is reduced to the analytical problem of finding three
Functions {, 17, f of the variables x and y to satisfy these equations.
Changing the co-ordinates to a and 0 where o=const, /3 = const,
are the curves of inflexion on the surface, the solution of the equations
can be shown to depend upon that of the equation dhvjd<uift = \w,
where X is a function of o and ft depending on the form of the surface.
The last equation can be integrated, and the possible deformation
determined in the case of a spherical surface, or of any surface of
uniform specific curvature. It is easily shown that if we have
determined the displacements for any surface S we can do so for any
surface obtained from S by a linear transformation of the variables
For let
then the displacements
ti, r,=*i,, ^tnt,
where Ai B:, &c., are the minors of the determinant [01 bt c,], will
evidently satisfy the equation
dx'd? + dy'dr,' + dz'df = 0.
Accordingly the known solution for a sphere furnishes us with a
solution for any quadric. Moutard has pointed out a curious
connexion between the problem of small deformation and that of the
applicability of two finitely different surfaces.
For if dxd£+dydii+dzd[ = 0, it follows that if k be any
constant,
d(y-krj)\
Consequently, if we take two surfaces such that for the first
X = x+k£, Y = y+kr,, Z = z+kf,
and for the second
then
X' = x-kt, Y' = y-fe,, Z' = z-kf,
dX2 -NY2 -NZ2 = dX'1 -NY'2 = dZ'\
and therefore the new surfaces are applicable.
5. Jellett and Clerk Maxwell have shown by different methods
that, if a curve on a surface be held fixed, there can be no small
deformation, except this curve be a curve of inflexion. This may be
also proved thus : There can be no displacement of the tangent planes
along the fixed curve, for, at any point of the curve the geodetic
curvature cannot alter; but in present case the ordinary curvature
of the curve is also fixed, therefore their ratio is constant, so that
6cos0= — sin 668 = 0, where 8 is the angle which the osculating
plane makes with the tangent plane; therefore unless sin 8 = 0, as it
is along a curve of inflexion, 68 = 0, and therefore the tangent plane
at each point is unaltered. Hence it can be shown that along
the given curve not only £, jj, f vanish, but also their differential
coefficients of all orders, and therefore no displacement is possible.
The question has been much discussed : Can a closed synclastic
surface be deformed? There seems to be a prevalent opinion
amongst mathematicians that such deformation is always impossible,
but we do not think any unimpeachable demonstration of this has
yet been given. It is certain that a complete spherical surface does
not admit of inextensive deformation, for if it did it would follow
from Gauss's theorem that the new surface would have a uniform
specific curvature. Now, it is not difficult to prove that the only
closed surface possessing this property is the sphere itself, provided
that the surfaces in question be such that all their tangent planes
lie entirely outside them. We can then, by the method of
linear transformation already given, extend the theorem of the
impossibility of deformation to any ellipsoid.
The theorem that a sphere is the only closed surface of constant
specific curvature may, we suggest, be established by means of
the following two propositions, which hold for integration on any
closed surface, p being the perpendicular from the origin on the
tangent plane: —
2//><fS/RR'
i/R +
ff Ci/R +
ffp(i
(i)
(2)
Now multiply both sides of the first equation by the constant VRR',
and subtract the second, and we get: —
ff[(R'/R)l - (R/R')l?dS+ffp(i/R*-i/R'tydS=0
which is impossible unless R' = R everywhere, since in accordance
with the proviso p is everywhere positive.
Theorems (i) and (2) are deduced by Jellett by means of the
calculus of variations in his treatise on that subject. They may also
be very simply proved thus: Draw normals to the surface along the
contours of the small squares formed by lines of curvature, and let
these meet successive parallel surfaces at distances dn, then the
volume bounded by two parallel surfaces
fl
i/R')
but taking origin inside, the perpendiculars let fall from O on a tan-
gent plane to the outer surface = p+n on account of the parallelism
of the surfaces. Also <fS for outer surface = dS(i+n/R)(i+»/R');
therefore volume in question
= J/7 (/> + n) (i + »/R) (i + »/RVS - IffpdS
SURGE— SURGERY
125
Hence equating coefficients of the powers of n —
/(> (i/R + I/R')<*S = 2//<fS,
and // 2/xiS/RR' =// (i/R + i/R')<«.
References to the original memoirs will be found in Salmon's
Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions, Frost's Solid Geometry and,
more completely, in Darboux's Lemons sur la theorie generate des
surfaces. (]• Pv- 1 F- Pu-)
SURGE, in meteorology, an irregular fluctuation of the
barometer, extending over a long period (e.g. a month), in
contradistinction to the shorter fluctuations, covering two
or three days, caused by alternating conditions of high and
low pressure. The cause of surges is not understood.
SURGERY (Fr. Mrurgie, from Gr. x«POWyto, i.e. hand-
work), the profession and art of the surgeon (chirurgien),
connected specially with the cure of diseases or injuries by
operative manual and instrumental treatment.
History. — -Surgery in all countries is as old as human needs.
A certain skill in the stanching of blood, the extraction of arrows,
the binding up of wounds, the supporting of broken limbs by
splints, and the like, together with an instinctive reliance on
the healing power of the tissues, has been common to men
everywhere. In both branches of the Indo-European stock
surgical practice (as well as medical) reached a high degree of
perfection at a very early period. It is a matter of controversy
whether the Greeks got their medicine (or any of it) from the
Hindus (through the medium of the Egyptian priesthood), or
whether the Hindus owed that high degree of medical and surgical
knowledge and skill which is reflected in Charaka (ist century
A.D.) and Susruta (and century) (commentators of uncertain
date on the Yajur-Veda) to their contact with Western civiliza-
tion after the campaigns of Alexander. The evidence in favour
of the former view is ably stated by Wise in the Introduction
to his History of Medicine Among the Asiatics (London, 1868).
The correspondence between the Susruta and the Hippocratic
Collection is closest in the sections relating to the ethics of medical
practice; the description, also, of lithotomy in the former agrees
almost exactly with the account of the Alexandrian practice
as given by Celsus. But there are certainly some dexterous
operations described in Susruta (such as the rhinoplastic) which
were of native invention; the elaborate and lofty ethical code
appears to be of pure Brahmanical origin; and the copious
materia medica (which included arsenic, mercury, zinc, and
many other substances of permanent value) does not contain a
single article of foreign source. There is evidence also (in
Arrian, Strabo and other writers) that the East enjoyed a
proverbial reputation for medical and surgical wisdom at the
time of Alexander's invasion. We may give the first place,
then, to the Eastern branch of the Indo-European stock in a
sketch of the rise of surgery, leaving as insoluble the question
of the date of the Sanskrit compendiums or compilations which
pass under the names of two representative persons, Charaka
and Susruta (the dates assigned to these ranging as widely as
500 years on each side of the Christian era).
The Susruta speaks throughout of a single class of practitioners
who undertook both surgical and medical cases. Nor were
Hindu there.any fixed degrees or orders of skill within the
profession; even lithotomy, which at Alexandria
was assigned to specialists, was to be undertaken by any one,
the leave of the raja having been first obtained. The only
distinction recognized between medicine and surgery was in
the inferior order of barbers, nail-trimmers, ear-borers, tooth-
drawers and phlebotomists, who were outside the Brahmanical
caste.
Susruta describes more than one hundred surgical instruments,
made of steel. They should have good handles and firm joints, be
well polished, and sharp enough to divide a hair; they should be
perfectly clean, and kept in flannel in a wooden box. They included
various shapes of scalpels, bistouries, lancets, scarifiers, saws, bone-
nippers, scissors, trocars and needles. There were also blunt hooks,
loops, probes (including a caustic-holder), directors, sounds, scoops
and forceps (for polypi, &c.), as well as catheters,_ syringes, a rectal
speculum and bougies. There were fourteen varieties of bandage.
The favourite form of splint was made of thin slips of bamboo bound
together with string and cut to the length required. Wise says that
he had frequently used " this admirable splint," particularly for
fractures of the thigh, humerus, radius and ulna, and it was subse-
quently adopted in the English army under the name of the " patent
rattan-cane splint."
Fractures were diagnosed, among other signs, by crepitus. Dis-
locations were elaborately classified, and the differential diagnosis
given; the treatment was by traction and countertraction, circum-
duction and other dexterous manipulation. Wounds were divided
into incised, punctured, lacerated, contused, &c. Cuts of the head
and face were sewed. Skill in extracting foreign bodies was carried
to a great height, the magnet being used for iron particles under
certain specified circumstances. Inflammations were treated by
the usual antiphlogistic regimen and appliances; venesection was
practised at several other points besides the bend of the elbow;
leeches were more often resorted to than the lancet ; cupping also
was in general use. Poulticing, fomenting and the like were done
as at present. Amputation was done now and then, notwithstanding
the want of a good control over the haemorrhage; boiling oil was
applied to the stump, with pressure by means of a cup-formed
bandage, pitch being sometimes added. Tumours and enlarged
lymphatic glands were cut out, and an arsenical salve applied to the
raw surfaces to prevent recurrence. Abdominal dropsy and hydro-
cele were treated by tapping with a trocar; and varieties of hernia
were understood, omental hernia being removed by operation on the
scrotum. Aneurisms were known, but not treated; the use of the
ligature on the continuity of an artery, as well as on the cut end of
it in a flap, is the one thing that a modern surgeon will miss somewhat
noticeably in the ancient surgery of the Hindus; and the reason of
their backwardness in that matter .was doubtless their want of
familiarity with the course of the arteries and with the arterial circu-
lation. Besides the operation already mentioned, the abdomen was
opened by a short incision below the umbilicus slightly to the left of
the middle line for the purpose of removing intestinal concretions
or other obstruction (laparotomy). Only a small segment of the
bowel was exposed at one time; the concretion when found was
removed, the intestine stitched together again, anointed with ghee
and honey, and returned into the cavity. Lithotomy was practised,
without the staff. There was a plastic operation for the restoration
of the nose, the skin being taken from the cheek adjoining, and the
yascularky kept up by a bridge of tissue. The ophthalmic surgery
included extraction of cataract. Obstetric operations were various,
including caesarean section and crushing the foetus.
The medication and constitutional treatment in surgical cases
were in keeping with the general care and elaborateness of their
practice, and with the copiousness of their materia medica. Oint-
ments and other external applications had usually a basis of ghee (or
clarified butter), and contained, among other things, such metals as
arsenic, zinc, copper, mercury and sulphate of iron. For every
emergency and every known form of disease there were elaborate
and minute directions in the sastras, which were taught by the
physician-priests to the young aspirants. Book learning was
considered of no use without experience and manual skill in opera-
tions; the different surgical operations were shown to the student
upon wax spread on a board, on gourds, cucumbers and other soft
fruits; tapping and puncturing were practised on a leathern bag filled
with water or soft mud; scarifications and bleeding on the fresh
hides of animals from which the hair had been removed ; puncturing
and lancing upon the hollow stalks of water-lilies or the vessels of
dead animals; bandaging was practised on flexible models of the
human body; sutures on leather and cloth; the plastic operations
on dead animals; and the application of caustics and cauteries on
living animals. A knowledge of anatomy was held to bt necessary,
but it does not appear that it was systematically acquired by dissec-
tion. Superstitions and theurgic ideas were diligently kept up so as
to impress the vulgar. The whole body of teaching, itself the slow
growth of much close observation and profound thinking during the
vigorous period of Indo-Aryan progress, was given out in later times
as a revelation from fheayen, and as resting upon an absolute
authority. Pathological principles were not wanting, but they were
derived from a purely arbitrary or conventional physiology (wind,
bile and phlegm) ; and the whole elaborate fabric of rules and direc-
tions, great though its utility must have been for many generations,
was without the quickening power of reason and freedom, and became
inevitably stiff and decrepit.
The Chinese appear to have been far behind the Hindus in
their knowledge of medicine and surgery, notwithstanding
that China profited at the same time as Tibet by CWneje
the missionary propagation of Buddhism. Surgery
in particular had hardly developed among them beyond the
merest rudiments, owing to their religious respect for dead
bodies and their unwillingness to draw blood or otherwise
interfere with the living structure. Their anatomy and physio-
logy have been from the earliest times unusually fanciful, and
their surgical practice has consisted almost entirely of external
applications. Tumours and boils were treated by scarifications
126
SURGERY
Greet.
or incisions- The distinctive Chinese surgical invention is
acupuncture, or the insertion of fine needles, of hardened silver
or gold, for an inch or more (with a twisting motion) into the
seats of pain or inflammation. Wise says that " the needle
is allowed to remain in that part several minutes, or in some
cases of neuralgia for days, with great advantage " ; rheumatism
and chronic gout were among the localized pains so treated.
There are 367 points specified where needles may be inserted
without injuring great vessels and vital organs.
Cupping-vessels made of cow-horn have been found in ancient
Egyptian tombs. On monuments and the walls of temples
are figures of patients bandaged, or undergoing
Bgyp an. Operatjon at tne hands of surgeons. In museum
collections of Egyptian antiquities there are lancets, forceps,
knives, probes, scissors, &c. Ebers interprets a passage in the
papyrus discovered by him as relating to the operation of cataract.
Surgical instruments for the ear are figured, and artificial teeth
have been found in mummies. Mummies have also been found
with well-set fractures. Herodotus describes Egypt, notwith-
standing its fine climate, as being full of medical practitioners,
who were all " specialists." The ophthalmic surgeons were
celebrated, and practised at the court of Cyrus.
Greek Surgery. — As in the case of the Sanskrit medical
writings, the earliest Greek cpmpendiums on surgery bear witness
to a long organic growth of knowledge and skill
through many generations. In the Homeric picture
of society the surgery is that of the battlefield, and it is of the
most meagre kind. Achilles is concerned about the restoration
to health of Machaon for the reason that his skill in cutting out
darts and applying salves to wounds was not the least valuable
service that a hero could render to the Greek host. Machaon
probably represents an amateur, whose taste had led him, as
it did Melampus, to converse with centaurs and to glean some
of their traditional wisdom. Between that primitive state of
civilization and the date of the first Greek treatises there had
been a long interval of gradual progress.
The surgery of the Hippocratic Collection (age of Pericles) bears
every evidence of finish and elaboration. The two treatises on
Ml oocratlc fractures and on dislocations respectively are hardly
surpassed in some ways by the writings of the present
mechanical age. Of the four dislocations of the
shoulder the displacement downwards into the axilla is given
as the only one at all common. The two most usual dislocations
of the femur were backwards on to the dorsum ilii and forwards
on to the obturator region. Fractures of the spinous processes
of the vertebrae are described, and caution advised against
trusting those who would magnify that injury into fracture of the
spine itself. Tubercles (ipiiitara) are given as one of the causes of
spinal curvature, an anticipation of Pott's diagnosis. In all matters
of treatment there was the same fertility of resource as in the Hindu
practice ; the most noteworthy point is that shortening was by many
regarded as inevitable after simple fracture of the femur. Fractures
and dislocations were the most complete chapters of the Hippocratic
surgery ; the whole doctrine and practical art of them had arisen
(like sculpture) with no help from dissection, and obviously owed
its excellence to the opportunities of the palaestra. The next most
elaborate chapter is that on wounds and injuries of the head, which
refers them to a minute subdivision, and includes the depressed
fracture and the contrecoup. Trephining was the measure most
commonly resorted to, even where there was no compression.
Numerous forms of wounds and injuries of other parts are specified.
Ruptures, piles, rectal polypi, fistula in ano and prolapsus ani were
among the other conditions treated. The amputation or excision of
tumours does not appear to have been undertaken so freely as in
Hindu surgical practice; nor was lithotomy performed except by a
specially expert person now and then. The diagnosis of empyema
was known, and the treatment of it was by an incision in the
intercostal space and evacuation of the pus. Among their instru-
ments were forceps, probes, directors, syringes, rectal speculum,
catheter and various kinds of cautery.
Between the Hippocratic era and the founding of the school
of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.) there is nothing of surgical
progress to dwell upon. The Alexandrian epoch
Period. ' *" stands out prominently by reason of the enthusiastic
cultivation of human anatomy — there are allegations
also of vivisection — at the hands of Herophilus (335-280 B.C.)
and Erasistratus (280 B.C.). The substance of this movement
appears to have been precision of diagnosis (not unattended with
pedantic minuteness), boldness of operative procedure, sub-
division of practice into a number of specialities, but hardly a
single addition to the stock of physiological or pathological
ideas, or even to the traditional wisdom of the Hippocratic
time. " The surgeons of the Alexandrian school were all
distinguished by the nicety and complexity of their dressings
and bandagings, of which they invented a great variety."
Herophilus boldly used the knife even on internal organs such
as the liver and spleen, which latter he regarded " as of little
consequence in the animal economy." He treated retention
of urine by a particular kind of catheter, which long bore his
name. Lithotomy was much practised by a few specialists,
and one of them (Ammonius Lithotomos, 287 B.C.) is said to
have used an instrument for breaking the stone in the bladder
into several pieces when it was too large to remove whole. A
sinister story of the time is that concerning Antiochus, son of
Alexander, king of Syria (150 B.C.), who was done to death by
the lithotomists when he was ten years old, under the pretence
that he had stone in the bladder, the instigator of the crime
being his guardian and supplanter Diodotus.
The treatise of Celsus, De re medico, (reign of Augustus), reflects the
state of surgery in the ancient world for a period of several centuries :
it is the best record of the Alexandrian practice itself, and it may be
taken to stand for the Roman practice of the period following.
Great jealousy of Greek medicine and surgery was expressed by
many of the Romans of the republic, notably by Cato the Elder
(234-149 B.C.), who himself practised on his estate according to the
native traditions. His medical observations are given in De re
rustica. In reducing dislocations he made use of the following
incantation: " Huat hanat ista pista sista damiato damnaustra. '
The first Greek surgeon who established himself in Rome is said to
have been Archagathus, whose fondness for the knife and cautery
at length led to his expulsion by the populace. It was in the person
of Asclepiades, the contemporary and friend of Cicero, that the
Hellenic medical practice acquired a permanent footing in Rome.
He confined his practice mostly to medicine, but he is credited with
practising the operation of tracheotomy. He is one of those whom
Tertullian quotes as practising vivisections for the gratification of
their curiosity (De anima, 15). The next figure in the surgical
history is Celsus, who devotes the 7th and 8th books of his De re
medico, exclusively to surgery. There is not much in
these beyond the precepts of the Brahmanical sjlstras Ce«»»-
and the maxims and rules of Greek surgery. Plastic operations
for the restoration of the nose, lips and ears are described at
some length, as well as the treatment of hernia by taxis and
operation; in the latter it was recommended to apply the actual
cautery to the canal after the hernia had been returned. The
celebrated description of lithotomy is that of the operation
as practised long before in India and at Alexandria. The
treatment of sinuses in various regions is dwelt upon, and in the case
of sinuses of the thoracic wall resection of the rib is mentioned.
Trephining has the same prominent place assigned to it as in the
Greek surgery. The resources of contemporary surgery may be
estimated by the fact that subcutaneous urethrotomy was practised
when the urethra was blocked by a calculus. Amputation of an
extremity is described in detail for the first time in surgical literature.
Mention is made of a variety of ophthalmic operations, which were
done by specialists after the Alexandrian fashion.
Galen's practice of surgery was mostly in the early part
of his career (b. A.D. 130), and there is little of special surgical
interest in his writings, great as their importance oaJea
is for anatomy, physiology and the general doctrines
of disease. Among the operations credited to him are resection
of a portion of the sternum for caries and ligature* of the temporal
artery. It may be assumed that surgical practice was in a
flourishing condition all through the period of the empire from
the accounts preserved by Oribasius of the great surgeons
Antyllus, Leonides, Rufus and Heliodorus. Antyllus (A.D. 300)
is claimed by Haser as one of the greatest of
the world's surgeons; he had an operation for empire.
aneurism (tying the artery above and below the
sac, and evacuating its contents), for cataract, for the cure of
stammering; and he treated contractures by something like
tenotomy. Rufus and Heliodorus are said to have practised
torsion for the arrest of haemorrhage; but in later periods both
that and the ligature appear to have given way to the actual
cautery. Haser speaks of the operation for scrotal hernia
attributed to Heliodorus as " a brilliant example of the surgical
skill during the empire." The same surgeon treated stricture
SURGERY
127
of the urethra by internal section. Both Leonides and Antyllus
removed glandular swellings of the neck (slrumae) ; the latter
ligatured vessels before cutting them, and gives directions for
avoiding the carotid artery and jugular vein. Flap-amputations
were practised by Leonides and Heliodorus. But perhaps
the most striking illustration of the advanced surgery of the
period is the freedom with which bones were resected, including
the long bones, the lower jaw and the upper jaw.
Whatever progress or decadence surgery may have experienced
during the next three centuries is summed up in the authoritative
Byzantine treat-ise °f Paulus of Aegina (A.D. 650). Of his
' seven books the sixth is entirely devoted to opera-
tive surgery, and the fourth is largely occupied with surgical
diseases. The importance of Paulus for surgical history during
several centuries on each side of his own period will appear
from the following remarks of Francis Adams (1796-1861) in his
translation and commentary (ii. 247) : —
"This book (bk. vi.) contains the most complete system of opera-
tive surgery which has come down to us from ancient times. . . .
Haly Abbas (d. A.D. 994) in the 9th book of his Proctica copies almost
everything from Paulus. Albucasis [Abulcasis] (loth century A.D.)
gives more original matter on surgery than any other Arabian
author, and yet, as will be seen from our commentary, he is indebted
for whole chapters to Paulus. In the Continent of Rhases, that
precious repository of ancient opinions on medical subjects, if there
be any surgical information not to be found in our author it is mostly
derived from Antyllus and Archigenes. As to the other authorities,
although we will occasionally have to explain their opinions upon
particular subjects, no one has treated of surgery in a systematical
manner; for even Avicenna, who treats so fully of everything else
connected with medicine, is defective in his accounts of surgical
operations; and the descriptions which he does give of them are
almost all borrowed 'from our author. The accounts of fractures
and dislocations given by Hippocrates and his commentator Galen
may be pronounced almost complete; but the information which
they supply upon most other surgical subjects is scanty."
Paulus' sixth book, with the valuable commentary of Adams,
brings the whole surgery of the ancient world to a focus. Paulus
is credited with the principle of local depletion as against general,
with the lateral operation for stone instead of the mesial and with
understanding the merits of a free external incision and a limited
internal, with the diagnosis of aneurism by anastomosis, with
an operation for aneurism like that of Antyllus, with amputa-
tion of the cancerous breast by crucial incision, and with the
treatment of fractured patella.
The Arabians have hardly any greater merit in medicine
than that of preserving intact the bequest of the ancient world.
Arabian. To surgery in particular their services are small —
first, because their religion proscribed the practice of
anatomy, and, secondly, because it was a characteristic of their
race to accept with equanimity the sufferings that fell to them,
and to decline the means of alleviation. The great names of the
Arabian school, Avicenna (980-1037) and Averroes (1126-1198),
are altogether unimportant for surgery. Their one distinctively
surgical writer was Abulcasim (d. 1122), who is chiefly celebrated
for his free use of the actual cautery and of caustics. He showed
a good deal of character in declining to operate on goitre, in
resorting to tracheotomy but sparingly, in refusing to meddle
with cancer, and in evacuating large abscesses by degrees.
For the five hundred years following the work of Paulus
of Aegina there is nothing to record but the names of a few
Medieval, practitioners at the court and of imitators or com-
pilers. Meanwhile in western Europe (apart from
the Saracen civilization) a medical school had grown up at
Salerno, which in the loth century had already become famous.
From it issued the Regimen solernilanum, a work used by the
laity for several centuries, and the Compendium salernitanum,
which circulated among the profession. The decline of the
school dates from the founding of a university at Naples in 1224.
In its best period princes and nobles resorted to it for treatment
from all parts of Europe. The hdtel dieu of Lyons had been
founded in 560, and that of Paris a century later. The school
of Montpellier was founded in 1025, and became the rallying
point of Arabian and Jewish learning. A good deal of the
medical and surgical practice was in the hands of the religious
orders, particularly of the Benedictines. The practice of
surgery by the clergy was at length forbidden by the Council
of Tours (1163). The surgical writings of the time were mere
reproductions of the classical or Arabian authors. One of the
first to go back to independent observation and reflection was
William of Saliceto, who belonged to the school of Bologna;
his work (1275) advocates the use of the knife in many places
where the actual cautery was used by ancient prescription. A
greater name in the history of medieval surgery is that of his
pupil Lanfranchi of Milan, who migrated (owing to political
troubles) first to Lyons and then to Paris. He distinguished
between arterial and venous haemorrhage, and is said to have
used the ligature for the former. Contemporary with him in
France was Henri de Mondeville (Hermondaville) of the school
of Montpellier, whose teaching is best known through that of
his more famous pupil Guy de Chauliac; the Chirurgie of the
latter bears the date of ^63, and marks the advance in precision
which the revival of anatomy by Mondino had made possible.
Eighteen years before Lanfranchi came to Paris a college of
surgeons was founded there (1279) by Pitard, who had accom-
panied St Louis to Palestine as his surgeon. The college was
under the protection of St Cosmas and St Damianus, two
practitioners of medicine who suffered martyrdom in the reign
of Diocletian, and it became known as the College de St C6me.
From the time that Lanfranchi joined it it attracted many
pupils. It maintained its independent existence for several
centuries, alongside the medical faculty of the university; the
corporations of surgeons in other capitals, such as those of
London and Edinburgh, were modelled upon it.
The I4th and isth centuries are almost entirely without
interest for surgical history. The dead level of tradition is
broken first by two men of originality and genius — P. Paracelsus
(1493-1541) and Pare, and by the revival of anatomy at the
hands of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) and Gabriel Fallopius
(1523-1562), professors at Padua. Apart from the mystical
form in which much of his teaching was cast, Paracelsus has
great merits as a reformer of surgical practice. paracehas
" The high value of his surgical writings," says
Haser, " has been recognized at all times, even by his opponents."
It is not, however, as an innovator in operative surgery, but
rather as a direct observer of natural processes, that Paracelsus
is distinguished. His description of "hospital gangrene," for
example, is perfectly true to nature; his numerous observations
on syphilis are also sound and sensible; and he was the first
to point out the connexion between cretinism of the offspring
and goitre of the parents. He gives most prominence to the
healing of wounds. His special surgical treatises are Die
kleine Chirurgie (1528) and Die grosse Wund-Arznei (1536-1537)
— the latter being the best known of his works. Somewhat
later in date, and of much greater concrete importance for
surgery than Paracelsus, is Ambroise Pare (1510- ptri
1590). He began life as apprentice to a barber-
surgeon in Paris and as a pupil at the h6tel dieu. His earliest
opportunities were in military surgery during the campaign
of Francis I. in Piedmont. Instead of treating gunshot wounds
with hot oil, according to the practice of the day, he had the
temerity to trust to a simple bandage; and from that beginning
he proceeded to many other developments of rational surgery.
In 1545 he published at Paris La Methode de traicter les playes
faictes par hacquebutes et atdtres bastons d feu. The same year
he began to attend the lectures of Sylvius, the Paris teacher of
anatomy, to whom he became prosector; and his next book was
an Anatomy (1550). His most memorable service was to get
the use of the ligature for large arteries generally adopted, a
method of controlling the haemorrhage which made amputation
on a large scale possible for the first time. Like Paracelsus, he
writes in the language of the people, while he is free from the
encumbrance of mystical theories, which detract from the merits
of his fellow reformer in Germany. It is only in his book on
monsters, written towards the end of his career, that he shows
himself to have been by no means free from superstition. Par6
was adored by the army and greatly esteemed by successive
128
SURGERY
Ifith
Century.
17th
Century.
French kings; but his innovations were opposed, as usual, by
the faculty, and he had to justify the use of the ligature as well
as he could by quotations from Galen and other ancients.
Surgery in the i6th century recovered much of the dexterity
and resource that had distinguished it in the best periods of
antiquity, while it underwent the developments
opened up to it by new forms of wounds inflicted
by new weapons of warfare. The use of the staff
and other instruments of the " apparatus major " was the chief
improvement in lithotomy. A " radical cure " of hernia by
sutures superseded the old application of the actual cautery.
The earlier modes of treating stricture of the urethra were tried;
plastic operations were once more done with something like the
skill of Brahmanical and classical times; and ophthalmic surgery
was to some extent rescued from the hands of ignorant pre-
tenders. It is noteworthy that even in the legitimate profession
dexterous special operations were kept secret; thus the use of
the " apparatus major " in lithotomy was handed down as a
secret in the family of Laurence Colot, a contemporary of
Fare's.
The 1 7th century was distinguished rather for the rapid
progress of anatomy and physiology, for the Baconian and
Cartesian philosophies, and the keen interest taken
in complete systems of medicine, than for a high
standard of surgical practice. The teaching of
Par£ that gunshot wounds were merely contused and not
poisoned, and that simple treatment was the best for them,
was enforced anew by Magati (1570-1647), Wiseman and others.
Trephining was freely resorted to, even for inveterate migraine;
Philip William, prince of Orange, is said to have been trephined
seventeen times. Flap-amputations, which had been practised
in the best period of Roman surgery by Leonides and Heliodorus,
were reintroduced by Lowdham, an Oxford surgeon, in 1679,
and probably used by Wiseman, who was the first to, practise
the primary major amputations. Fabriz von Hilden (1560-1634)
introduced a form of tourniquet, made by placing a piece of
wood under the bandage encircling the limb; out of that there
grew the block-tourniquet of Morel, first used at the siege of
Besancon in 1674; and this, again, was superseded by Jean
Louis Petit's (1674-1750) screw-tourniquet in 1718. Strangu-
lated hernia, which was for long avoided, became a subject
of operation. Lithotomy by the lateral method came to great
perfection in the hands of Jacques Beaulieu. To this century
also belong the first indications (not to mention the Alexandrian
practice of Ammonius) of crushing the stone in the bladder.
The theory and practice of transfusion of blood occupied much
attention, especially among the busy spirits of the Royal Society,
such as Boyle, Lower and others. The seat of cataract in the
substance of the lens was first made out by two French surgeons,
Quarre and Lasnier. Perhaps the most important figure in
Wiseman t'le sursical history of the century is Richard Wise-
man (i622?-i676) the father of English surgery.
Wiseman took the Royalist side in the wars of the Common-
wealth, and was surgeon to James I. and Charles I., and accom-
panied Charles II. in his exile in France and the Low Countries.
After serving for a time in the Spanish fleet, he joined the
Royalist cause in England and was taken prisoner at the battle
of Worcester. At the Restoration he became serjeant-surgeon
to Charles II., and held the same office under James II. His
Seven Chirurgical Treatises were first published in 1676, and
went through several editions; they relate to tumours, ulcers,
diseases of the anus, king's evil (scrofula), wounds, fractures,
luxations and lues venerea. Wiseman was the first to advocate
primary amputation (or operation before the onset of fever)
in cases of gunshot wounds and other injuries of the limbs.
He introduced also the practice of treating aneurisms by com-
pression, gave an accurate account of fungus articulorum, and
improved the operative procedure for hernia.
The 1 8th century marks the establishment of surgery on a
broader basis than the skill of individual surgeons of the court
and army, and on a more scientific basis than the rule of
thumb of the multitude of barber-surgeons and other inferior
orders of practitioners. In Paris the College de St C6me gave
way to the Academy of Surgery in 1731, with Petit as director,
to which was added at a later date the £cole Pra-
tique de Chirurgie, with Francois Chopart (1743- century
1795) and Pierre Desault (1744-1795) among its first
professors. The Academy of Surgery set up a very high standard
from the first, and exercised great exclusiveness in its publica-
tions and its honorary membership. In London and Edinburgh
the development of surgery proceeded on less academical lines,
and with greater scope for individual effort. Private dissecting
rooms and anatomical theatres were started, of which perhaps
the most notable was Dr William Hunter's (1718-1783) school
in Great Windmill Street, London, inasmuch as it was the
first perch of his more famous brother John Hunter (1728-1793).
In Edinburgh, Alexander Monro (1697-1767), first of the name,
became professor of anatomy to the company of surgeons in
1719, transferring his title and services to the univ.ersity the
year after; as he was the first systematic teacher of medicine
or surgery in Edinburgh, he is regarded as the founder of the
famous medical school of that city. In both London and Edin-
burgh a company of barbers and surgeons had been in existence
for many years before; but it was not until the association of
these companies with the study of anatomy, comparative
anatomy, physiology and pathology that the surgical pro-
fession began to take rank with the older order of physicians.
Hence the significance of the eulogy of a living surgeon on John
Hunter: " More than any other man he helped to make us
gentlemen " (Hunterian Oration, 1877). The state of surgery
in Germany may be inferred from the fact that the teaching
of it at the new university of Gottingen was for long in the hands
of Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), whose office was " professor
of theoretical medicine." In the Prussian army it fell to the
regimental surgeon to shave the officers. At Berlin a medico-
chirurgical college was founded by Surgeon-General Ernst von
Holtzendorff (1688-1751) in 1714, to which was joined in 1726
a school of clinical surgery at the Charitfi. Military surgery
was the original purpose of the school, which still exists, side
by side with the surgical cliniques of the faculty, as the Friedrich
Wilhelm's Institut. In Vienna, in like manner, a school for
the training of army surgeons was founded in 1785 — Joseph's
Academy or the Josephinum. The first systematic teaching
of surgery in the United States was by Dr Shippen at Phila-
delphia, where the medical college towards the end of the century
was largely officered by pupils of the Edinburgh school. A great
part of the advance during the i8th century was in surgical
pathology, including Petit's observations on the formation of
thrombi in severed vessels, Hunter's account of the reparative
process, Benjamin Bell's classification of ulcers, the observations
of Duhamel and others on the formation of callus and on bone-
repair in general, Pott's distinction between spinal curvature
from caries or abscess of the vertebrae and kyphosis from other
causes, observations by various surgeons on chronic disease of
the hip, knee, and other joints, and Cheselden's description of
neuroma. Among the great improvements in surgical procedure
we have Cheselden's operation of lithotomy (six deaths in eighty
cases), Sir Caesar Hawkins's (1711-1786) cutting gorget for the
same (1753), Hunter's operation (1785) for popliteal aneurism
by tying the femoral artery in the canal of the triceps where its
walls were sound ("excited the greatest wonder," Assalini),
Petit's, Desault's and Percival Pott's (1714-1788) treatment of
fractures, Gimbernat's (Barcelona) operation for strangulated
femoral hernia, Pott's bistoury for fistula, Charles White's
(1728-1813, Manchester) and Henry Park's (1745-1831, Liver-
pool) excision of joints, Petit's invention of the screw-tourniquet,
the same surgeon's operation for lacrymal fistula, Chopart's
partial amputation of the foot, Desault's bandage for fractured
clavicle, William Bromfield's (1712-1792) artery hook, and
William Cheselden's (1688-1752) operation of iridectomy.
Other surgeons of great versatility and general merit were Sharp
of London, Benjamin Gooch (fl. 1775) of Norwich, William Hey
(1736-1819) of Leeds, David and Claude Nicolas Le Cat (1705-
1768) of Rouen, Raphael Sabatier (1732-1811), Georges de La
SURGERY
129
19th
Century.
Faye (1701-1781), Ledran, Antoine Louis (1723-1792), Sauveur
Morand (1697-1773) and Pierre Percy (1754-1825) of Paris,
Bertrandi of Turin, Troja of Naples, Palleta of Milan, Schmucker
of the Prussian army, August Richter of Gottingen, Siebold of
Wurzburg, Olaf Acrel of Stockholm and Callisen of Copen-
hagen.
Two things gave surgical knowledge and skill in the
1 9th century a character of scientific or positive cumula-
tiveness and a wide diffusion through all ranks
of the profession.1 The one was the founding
of museums of anatomy and surgical pathology by
the Hunters, Guillaume Dupuytren (1777-1835), Jules Cloquet
(1790-1843), J. F. Blumenbach (1752-1840), John Barclay (1758-
1826), and a great number of more modern anatomists
and surgeons; the other was the method of clinical teaching,
exemplified in its highest form of constant reference to principles
by Thomas Lawrence (1711-1783) and James Syme (1790-1870).
In surgical procedure the discovery of the anaesthetic properties
of ether, chloroform, methylene, &c., was of incalculable service;
while the conservative principle in operations upon diseased
or injured parts, and especially what may be called the hygienic
idea (or, more narrowly, the antiseptic and aseptic principles)
in the conditions governing surgery, were strikingly beneficial.
The following were among the more important additions to the
resources of the surgical art: the thin thread ligature for arteries,
introduced by Jones of Jersey (1805) ; the revival of torsion of arteries
by Jean Amussat (1796-1856). [1829]; the practice of drainage by
Pierre Marie Chassaignac (1805-1879) [1859]; aspiration by Philippe
Pelletan (1747-1829) and recent improvers; the plaster-of-Paris
bandage or other immovable application for simple fractures, club-
foot, &c. (an old Eastern practice recommended in Europe about
1814 by the English consul at Basra); the re-breaking of badly set
fractures; galvano-caustics and eeraseurs; the general introduction
of resection of joints (Sir William Fergusson (1808-1877), Syme and
others); tenotomy by Jacques Delpech (1777-1832) and Louis
Stromeyer (1804-1876) [1831]; operation for squint by Johann
Dieffenbach (1795-1847) [1842]; successful ligature of the external
iliac for aneurism of the femoral by John Abernethy (1764-1831)
[1806]; ligature of the subclavian in the third portion by AstTey
Cooper (1768-1841) [1806], and in its first portion by Colles; crushing
of stone in the bladder by Gruithuisen of Munich (1819) and Jean
Civiale (1792-1867) of Paris [1826] ; cure of ovarian dropsy by remov-
ing the cyst (since greatly perfected) ; discovery of the ophthalmo-
scope, and many improvements in ophthalmic surgery by Alfred
yon Grafe (1830-1899) and others; application of the laryngoscope
in operations on the larynx by Jean Czermak (1828-1873) [1860] and
others; together with additions to the resources of aural surgery and
dentistry. The great names in the surgery of the first half of the
century besides those mentioned are: Antonio Scarpa of Italy
(1747-1832); Alexis Boyer (1757-1833), Felix Larrey (1766-1842) —
to whom Napoleon left a legacy of a hundred thousand francs, with
the eulogy: " C'est 1'homme le plus vertueux que j'aie connu,"
Philibert Roux (1780-1854), Jacques Lisfranc (1790-1847), Alfred
Louis Velpeau (1795-1868), Joseph Malgaigne (1806-1865), Auguste
N61aton (1807-1873) — all of the French school; of the British school,
John Bell (1763-1820), Charles Bell (1774-1842), Allan Burns
(1781-1813), Robert Liston (1794-1847), James Wardrop (1782-
1869), Astley Cooper, Henry Cline (1750-1827), Benjamin Travers
(1783-1858), Benjamin Brodie (1783-1862), Edward Stanley (1793-
1862) and George Guthrie (1785-1 856) ; in the United States.V. Mott,
S. D. Gross and others; in Germany, Kern and Schuh of Vienna,
Von Walther and Textor of Wurzburg, Chelius, Hesselbach and the
two Langenbecks — Konrad (1776-1851) and Bernhard (1810-1887).
AUTHORITIES. — Wise, History of Medicine among the Asiatics (2
vols., London, 1868) ; Paulus Aegineta, translated with commentary
on the knowledge of the Greeks, Romans and Arabians in medicine
and surgery, by Francis Adams (3 vols., London, 1844-1847), Haser,
Gesch. d. Medicin (3rd ed., 1875-1881), vols. i. and ii. (C. C.)
Modern Practice of Surgery.2 — A great change has taken place
in the practice of surgery' since the middle cf the igth century, in
consequence of the new science of bacteriology, and the introduc-
tion of aseptic methods, due to the teaching of Lord Lister.
It had long been known that subcutaneous injuries followed
a far more satisfactory course than those with wounds, and the
history of surgery gives evidence that surgeons endeavoured,
by the use of various dressings, empirically to prevent the evils
which were matters of common observation during the healing
'The Royal College of Surgeons in 'London was established in
1800, the title being changed in 1843 to Royal College of Surgeons
of England.
'For the surgery of any particular region or organ, reference
should be made to the article on that region or organ.
xxvi. 5
of open wounds. Various means were also adopted to prevent
the entrance of air, as, for instance, in the opening of abscesses by
the " valvular method " of Abernethy, and by the subcutaneous
division of tendons in " club-foot." Balsams and turpentine
and various forms of spirit were the basis of many varieties
of dressing. These different dressings were frequently cumber-
some and difficult of application, and they did not attain the
object aimed at, while, at the same time, they shut in the dis-
charges and gave rise to other evils which prevented rapid
and painless healing. In the beginning of the igth century
these complicated dressings began to lose favour, and operating
surgeons went to the opposite extreme and applied a simple
dressing, the main object of which was to allow a free escape of
discharge. Others applied no dressing at all, laying the stump
of a limb after amputation on a piece of dry lint, avoiding
thereby any unnecessary movement of the parts. Others, again,
left the wound open for some hours after an operation, preventing
in this way any accumulation, and brought its edges and sur-
faces together after all oozing of blood had ceased, and after the
effusion, the result of injury to the tissues in the operation had to
a great extent subsided. As a result of these measures many
wounds healed kindly. But in other cases inflammation
occurred, accompanied by pain and swelling, and the formation
of pus. High fever also, due to the unhealthy state of the wound,
was observed. These conditions often proved fatal, and
surgeons attributed them to the constitution of the patient,
or else thought that some poison had entered the wound, and,
passing from it into the veins, had contaminated the blood and
poisoned the patient. The close association between the forma-
tion of pus in wounds and the fatal " intoxication " of many
of those cases encouraged the belief that the pus cells from
the wound entered the circulation. Hence came the word
" pyaemia." It was also observed that a septic condition of the
wound was usually associated with constitutional fever, and it was
supposed that the septic matter passed into the blood — whence
the term " septicaemia." It was further observed that the
crowding together of patients with open wounds increased the
liability to these constitutional disasters, so every endeavour
was made to separate the patients and to improve ventilation.
In building hospitals the pavilion and other systems, with
windows on both sides, with cross-ventilation in the wards,
were adopted in order to give the utmost amount of fresh air.
Hospital buildings were spread over as large an area as possible,
and were restricted in height, if practicable, to two storeys.
The term " hospitalism " was coined by Sir J. Y. Simpson, who
collected statistics comparing hospital and private practice, by
which he endeavoured to show that private patients were far
less liable to such catastrophes than were those who were
treated in hospitals.
This was the condition of affairs when Lister in 1860, from
a study of the experimental researches of Pasteur into the
causes of putrefaction, stated that the evils observed1
in open wounds were due to the admission into them
f . 1*1 ... ..
of organisms which exist in the air, in water, on
instruments, on sponges, and on the hands of the surgeon or
the skin of the patient. Having accepted the germ theory of
putrefaction, Lister applied himself to discover the best way
of preventing all harmful organisms from reaching the wound
from the moment that it was made until it was healed. In
the germ he had to deal with a microscopic plant, and he desired
to render its growth impossible. This, he thought, could be
done either by destroying the plant itself before it had the
chance of entering the wound or after it had entered, or by
facilitating the removal of the discharges and preventing their
accumulation in the wound, and by doing everything to prevent
the lowering of the vitality of the wounded tissues, because
unhealthy tissues are the most liable to attack. Several sub-
stances were then known as possessing properties antagonistic
to sepsis or putrefaction, and hence called " antiseptic." Acting
on a suggestion of Lemaire, Lister chose for his experiments
carbolic acid, which he used at first in a crude form. He had
many difficulties to contend with — the impurity of the substance.
ourirerv.
130
SURGERY
its irritating properties and the difficulty of finding the exact
strength in which to use it: he feared to use it too strong, lest
it should impair the vitality of the tissues and thus prevent
healing; and he feared to use it too weak, lest its antiseptic
qualities should be insufficient for the object in view. As
dressings for wounds he used various chemical substances,
which, being mixed with carbolic acid, were intended to give off
a certain quantity of carbolic acid in the form of vapour, so that
the wound might be constantly surrounded by an antiseptic
which would destroy any organisms approaching it, and, at
the same time, not interfere with its healing. At first, although
he prevented pyaemia in a marked degree, he, to a certain
extent, irritated the wounds and prevented rapid healing.
He began his historic experiments in Glasgow and continued
them on his removal to the chair of clinical surgery in Edin-
burgh. After many disappointments, he gradually perfected
his method of performing operations and dressing wounds,
which was somewhat as follows.
A patient was suffering, for instance, from disease of the
foot necessitating amputation at the ankle joint. The part
to be operated on was enveloped in a towel soaked with a 5%
solution of carbolic acid. The towel was applied two hours
before the operation, with the object of destroying the putre-
factive organisms present in the skin. The patient was placed
on the operating table, and brought under the influence of
chloroform; the limb was then elevated to empty it of blood,
and a tourniquet was applied round the limb below the knee.
The instruments to be used during the operation had been
previously purified by lying for half an hour in a flat porcelain
dish containing carbolic acid (i in 20). The sponges lay in a
similar carbolic lotion. Towels soaked in the same solution were
laid over the table and blankets near the part to be operated
upon. The hands of the operator, as well as those of his assist-
ants, were thoroughly cleansed by washing them in carbolic
lotion, free use being made of a nail brush for this purpose.
The operation was performed under a cloud of carbolized watery
vapour (i in 30) from a steam spray-producer. The visible
bleeding points were first ligated; the tourniquet was removed;
and any vessels that had escaped notice were secured. The
wound was stitched, a drainage-tube made of red rubber being
introduced at one corner to prevent accumulation of discharge;
a strip of " protective " — oiled silk coated with carbolized
dextrin — was washed in carbolic lotion and applied over the
wound. A double ply of carbolic gauze was soaked in the
lotion laid over the protective, overlapping it freely. A dressing
consisting of eight layers of dry gauze was placed over all,
covering the stump and passing up the leg for about six inches.
Over that a piece of thin mackintosh cloth was placed, and the
whole arrangement was fixed with a gauze bandage. The
mackintosh cloth prevented the carbolic acid from escaping
and at the same time caused the discharge from the wound to
spread through the gauze. The wound itself was shielded by
the protective from the vapour given off by the carbolic gauze,
whilst the surrounding. parts, being constantly exposed to its
activity, were protected from the intrusion of septic contamina-
tion. And these conditions were maintained until sound healing
took place. Whenever the discharge reached the edge of the
mackintosh the case required to be dressed, and a new supply
of gauze was applied round the stump. Whenever the wound
was exposed for dressing the stump was enveloped in the
vapour of carbolic acid by means of the steam spray-producer.
At first a syringe was used to keep the surface constantly wet
with lotion and then a hand-spray. These dressings were repeated
at intervals until the wound was healed. The drainage-tube was
gradually shortened, and was ultimately removed altogether.
The object Lister had in view from the beginning of his
experiments was to place the open wound in a condition as
regards the entrance of organisms as nearly as possible like a
truly subcutaneous wound, such as a contusion or a simple
fracture, in which the unbroken skin acted as a protection
to the wounded tissues beneath. The introduction of this
practice by Lister effected a complete change in operative
surgery. The dark times of suppurating wounds, of foul
discharges, of secondary haemorrhage, of pyaemic abscesses
and hospital gangrene constitute what is now spoken of in
surgery as the pre-Listerian era.
As years went on, surgeons tried to simplify and improve
the somewhat complicated and expensive measures and dressings
and chemists were at pains to supply carbolic acid in a pure
form and to discover new antiseptics, the great object being
to get a non-irritating antiseptic which should at the same
time be a powerful germicide. lodoform, oil of eucalyptus,
salicylic acid, boracic acid, mercuric iodide, and corrosive
sublimate were used.
For some years Lister irrigated a wound with carbolic lotion
during the operation and at the dressings when it was exposed,
but the introduction of the spray displaced the irrigation method.
All these different procedures, however, as regards both the
antiseptic used and the best method of its application in oily
and watery solutions and in dressings, were subsidiaiy to the
great principle involved — namely, that putrefaction hi a wound
is an evil which can be prevented, and that, if it is prevented,
local irritation, in so far as it is due to putrefaction, is obviated
and septicaemia and pyaemia cannot occur. Alongside of this
great improvement the immense advantage of free drainage
was universally acknowledged. Moreover, surgeons at once
began to take greater care in securing the cleanliness of wounds,
and some of them, Lawson Tail and Bantock, for example,
produced such excellent results by the adoption merely of
methods of strict cleanliness, and became so aggressive in their
championship of them, that many of the older practitioners
were bewildered and unable to decide as to where truth began
and where it ended in the new doctrine. But though the actual
methods, as taught and practised by Lister, have, with the
spray-producers, passed away and given place to new, still
the great light which he shed in the surgical world burns as
brightly as ever it did, and all the methods which are practised
to-day are the direct results of his teaching.
By 1885 the carbolic acid spray, which to some practitioners
had apparently been the embodiment of the Listerian theory
and practice, was beginning to pass into desuetude, though for
a good many years after that time certain surgeons continued to
employ it during operation, and during the subsequent dressings
of the wound. Surgeons who, having had practical experience of
the unhappy course which their operation-cases had been apt
to run in the pre-Listerian days, and of the vast improvements
which ensued on their adoption of the spray-and-gauze method
in its entirety, were, not unnaturally, reluctant to operate
except in a cloud of carbolic vapour. So, even after Lister
himself had given up the spray, its use was continued by many
of his disciples. It was in the course of 1888 that operating
surgeons began to neglect the letter of the antiseptic treatment
and to bring themselves more under the broadening influence
of its spirit. Certain adventurous and partially unconvinced
surgeons began to give up the carbolic spray gradually, by
imparting a smaller percentage of carbolic acid to the vapour,
until at last the antiseptic disappeared altogether, apparently
without detriment to the excellence of the results obtained.
But while some surgeons were thus ceasing to apply the anti-
septic spray to the wound during operation, others were pouring
mild carbolic lotion, or a very weak solution of corrosive sub-
limate (an extremely potent germicide) over the freshly-cut
surfaces. These measures were in turn given up, to the advan-
tage of the patient; for it was hardly to be expected that a
chemical agent which was strong enough to destroy or render
inert septic micro-organisms in and about a wound would fail
to injure exposed and living tissues. Eventually it became
generally admitted that if a surgeon was going to operate upon
the depths of an open abdomen for an hour or more, the chilling
and the chemical influences of the spray must certainly lower
the vitality of the parts exposed, as well as interfere with the
prompt healing of the wounded surfaces. With the spray went
also the " protective," the paraffin gauze, and the mackintosh
sheeting which enveloped the bulky dressing.
SURGERY
Years before this happened, in the address on surgery given
at the Cork meeting of the British Medical Association, Sir
William (then Mr) Savory had somewhat severely
criticized the rigid exclusiveness of the members of
the spray-and-gauze school: the sum and substance
of the address was that every careful surgeon was an anti-
septic surgeon, and that the success of the Listerian surgeon
did not depend upon the spray or the gauze, or the two together,
but upon cleanliness — that the surgeon's fingers and instruments
and the area operated on must be surgically clean. Though
precise experiments show that it is impossible for the surgeon
to remove every trace of septicity from his own hands and from
the skin of his patient, still with nail-brush, soap and water,
and alcohol or turpentine, with possibly the help of some mer-
curic germicide, he can, for all practical purposes, render his
hands safe. Recognizing this difficulty many surgeons prefer to
operate in thin rubber gloves which can, for certain, by boiling,
be rendered free of all germs; others, in addition, put on a mask,
sterile overalls, and india-rubber shoes. But these excessive
refinements do not seem to be generally acceptable, whilst the
results of practice show that they are by no means necessary.
The careful, the antiseptic surgeon of 1885 is to-day represented
by the careful, the aseptic surgeon. The antiseptic surgeon
was waging a constant warfare against germs which his creed told
him were on his hands, in the wound, in the air, everywhere —
and these he attacked with potent chemicals which beyond
question often did real damage to the healthy tissues laid bare
during the operation. If, as was frequently the case, his own
hands became sore and rough from contact with the antiseptics
he employed, it was not to be wondered at if a peritoneal surface
or an incised tissue became more seriously affected. The surgeon
of to-day has much less commerce with antiseptics: he operates
with hands which, for all practical purposes, may be considered
as germless; he uses instruments which are certainly germless,
for they have just been boiled for twenty minutes in water (to
which a little common soda has been added to prevent tarnish-
ing of the steel), and he operates on tissues which have been duly
made clean in a surgical sense. If he were asked what he con-
siders the chief essentials for securing success in his operative
practice, he would probably reply, " Soap and water and a nail-
brush." He uses no antiseptics during the operations, he keeps
the wound dry by gently swabbing it with aseptic, absorbent
cotton-wool, and he dresses it with a pad of aseptic gauze.
This is the simple aseptic method which has been gradually
evolved from the Listerian antiseptic system. But though
the pendulum has swung so far in the direction of aseptic surgery,
a very large proportion of operators still adhere to the antiseptic
measures which had proved so highly beneficial. The judicious
employment of weak solutions of carbolic acid, or of mercuric
salts, and the application of unirritating dressings of an anti-
septic nature cannot do any harm, and, on the other hand, they
may be of great service in the case of there having been some
flaw in the carrying out of what should have been an absolutely
aseptic operation.
A great change has taken place in connexion with the use
of soft india-rubber drainage-tubes. In former years most
surgeons placed one or more of these in the dependent
Parts °f tne area °f operation, so that the blood or
serum oozing from the injured tissues might find
a ready escape. But to-day, except in dealing with a large
abscess or other septic cavity, many surgeons make no provision
for drainage, but, bandaging the part beneath a pad of aseptic
wool, put on so much pressure that any little leakage into the
tissues is quickly absorbed. If a drainage-tube can be dispensed
with, so much the better, for if it is not actually needed its
presence keeps up irritation and delays prompt healing. But
inasmuch as a tube if rightly placed in a deep wound is an insur-
ance against the occurrence of " tension," and as it can easily
be withdrawn at the end of twenty-four hours (even if it has
served no useful purpose), it is improbable that the practice
of drainage of freshly made cavities will ever be entirely given
up. If the tube is removed after twenty-four hours its presence
can have done no harm and sometimes the large amount of
fluid which it has drained from the wound affords clear evidence
that its use has saved the patient discomfort and has probably
expedited his recovery. For septic cavities drainage-tubes are
still used, but it must be remembered that the tube cannot
remain long in position without causing and keeping up irrita-
tion; hence, even in septic cases, the modern surgeon discards
the tube at the earliest possible moment. If after he has taken
it out septic fluids collect, and the patient's temperature rises,
it can easily be reinserted. But it is better to take out the tube
too soon than to leave it in too long; this remark applies with
special force to the treatment of abscess of the pleural cavity
(empyema), in the treatment of which a drainage-tube has
almost certainly to be employed.
Poultices are now never used: they were apt to be foul and
offensive, and were certainly septic and dangerous. If moisture
and warmth are needed for a wound they can be obtained by the
use of a fold of clean lint, or by some aseptic wool which has
been wrung out in a hot solution of boracic or carbolic acid, and
applied under some waterproof material, which effectually pre-
vents evaporation and chilling. There was no special virtue in
poultices made of linseed meal or even of scraped carrot: they
simply stored up the moisture and heat. They possessed no
possible advantage over the modern fomentation under oil-
silk.
Much less is heard now of so-called " bloodless " operations.
The bloodlessness was secured by the part to be operated on —
an arm, for instance — being raised and compressed „,
, , , , , , Bloodless
from the fingers to the shoulder by successive turns operations.
of an india-rubber roller-bandage (Esmarch's), the
main artery of the limb being then compressed by the application
of an elastic cord above the highest turn of the bandage. The
bandage being removed, the operation was performed through
bloodless tissues. But when it was completed and the elastic
cord removed from around the upper part of the limb, a reac-
tionary flow of blood took place into every small vessel which had
been previously squeezed empty, so that though the operation
itself had actually been bloodless, the wound could not be closed
because of the occurrence of unusually free haemorrhage or
troublesome oozing. A further objection to the application
of such an elastic roller-bandage was that septic or tuberculous
material might by chance be squeezed from the tissues in which
it was perhaps harmlessly lying, forced into the blood vessels,
and so widely disseminated through the body. Esmarch's
bandage is therefore but little used now in operative surgery.
Instead, each bleeding point at an operation is promptly secured
by a small pair of nickel-plated clip-forceps, which generally have
the effect, after being left on for a few minutes, of completely
and permanently arresting the bleeding. These clips were
specially introduced into practice by Sir Spencer Wells, and it is
no unusual thing for a surgeon to have twenty or thirty pairs
of them at hand during an extensive operation. Seeing how
convenient, not to say indispensable, they are in such circum-
stances, the surgeon of to-day wonders how he formerly managed
to get on at all without them.
Biers's treatment by passive congestion is carried out by
gently assisting the return of venous blood from a part of the
body without in any way checking the arterial flow. In the
case of tuberculous disease of the knee-joint, for instance, an
elastic band is gently placed round the thigh for several hours
a day, and in disease of the wrist or elbow the girth is applied
round the arm. The skin below becomes flushed, and the arterial
blood which, as shown by the pulse, is still flowing into the
affected part, is compelled to linger in the affected tissues,
giving the serum and the white corpuscles time to exert their
beneficial influence upon the disease.
In the case of tuberculous, or septic, affections of the lymph-
atic glands of the neck, or of other parts where the constriction
cannot be conveniently obtained, effective congestion can be
secured by the use of cupping glasses. And if so be that
suppuration is taking place in the interior of an inflamed gland,
the cupping-glasses can be applied after a small puncture has
132
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
been made into the softened part of the gland. In this way the
whole of the broken-down material can be got away without the
necessity of making an actual incision or of resorting to scraping.
The method of inducing hyperaemia should be so conducted as
to give the patient no pain whatever: it must not be carried
out with excessive energy.
By means of the Rontgen or X-rays (see X-RAY TREATMENT)
the surgeon is able to procure a distinct shadow-portrait of
deeply-placed bones, so that he can be assured as
Ray**.*" to tne Presence or absence of fracture or dislocation, or
of outgrowth of bone, or of bone-containing tumours.
By this means also he is able to locate with absolute precision
the situation of a foreign body in the tissues — of a coin in the
windpipe or gullet, of a broken piece of a needle in the hand,
of a splinter cf glass in the foot, or of a bullet deeply embedded
in soft tissues or bone. This effect may be obtained upon a
fluorescent screen or printed in a permanent form upon glass
or paper. The shadow is cast by a 10- or iz-in. spark from a
Crookes vacuum tube. The rays of Rontgen find their way
through dead and living tissues which are far beyond the reach
of the rays of ordinary light, and they are thus able even to
reveal changes in the deeply placed hip-joint which have been
produced by tuberculous disease. In examining an injured
limb it is not necessary to take off wooden splints or bandages
except in cases where the latter have been treated with plaster
of paris, lime-salts obstructing the rays and throwing a shadow.
Thus the rays may pass through an ordinary uric acid calculus
in the kidney or bladder; but if it contains salts of lime, as does
the mulberry calculus (oxalate of lime), a definite shadow is
cast upon the screen. The value of the X-rays is not limited
to the elucidation of obscure problems such as those just indi-
cated: they are also of therapeutic value; for example, in the
treatment of certain forms of skin disease, as well as of
cancer.
Too much, however, must not be expected from them. For
the treatment of a patch of tuberculous ulceration (lupus),
or for a superficial cancerous sore (epithelioma), they may be of
service, but in the treatment of a deeply-seated malignant
growth — as a cancer of the breast — they have not proved of
value. Moreover, the X-rays sometimes cause serious burns of
the skin; and although this happens less often now than was pre-
viously the case, still the frequent application of the rays is apt
to be followed by cutaneous warty growths which are apt in
turn to develop into cancer. In many cases in which the X-rays
are used a more prompt and efficient means of treatment would
probably be by excision. One great advantage which operative
treatment by the knife must always have over the treatment by
X-rays is that the secondary implication of the lymphatic
glands can be dealt with at the same time. And this, in many
cases, is a matter of almost equal importance to that of removal
of the cancer itself.
The employment of radium in surgery is still in its infancy.
Doubtless radium is a very powerful agent, but even if it were
found of peculiar value in treatment its cost would,
for the present, put it out of the reach of most
practitioners. Probably it will be found useful in the treatment
of naevus, rodent ulcers and superficial malignant growths.
As to what influence radium may have in the treatment of
deeply-seated cancers it is as yet impossible even to guess.
For those sad cases, however, which the practical surgeon
is reluctantly compelled to admit as being beyond the reach of
his operative skill, the influence of radium should be tried with
determination and thoroughness. The therapeutic influence
of radium may eventually be found to be great, or it may be
disappointing. The fact that under direct royal patronage an
institution has been established in London for the investigation
of the physical and therapeutic value of this newly discovered
agent should satisfy every one that its properties will be duly
inquired into and made known without mystery or charlatanism
and absolutely in the interest of the people. But in the mean-
while too much must not be expected from it as a surgical
agent. (E. O.*)
Radium.
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES. The pur-
pose of this article is to give an account of the more important
surgical instruments that are now in general use, and to show by
what modifications, and from what discoveries in science, the
present methods of an operation have come to be what they are.
The good surgeon is caveM to use the right sort and pattern
of instrument, and the chief fact about the surgery of the present
day, that it is aseptic or antiseptic, is recorded in the make of
surgical instruments and in all the installation of an operating-
theatre. Take, for instance, a scalpel and a saw that are figured
in Ambroise Fare's (1510-1590) surgical writings. The scalpel
folds into a handle like an ordinary pocket-knife, which alone
was enough in those days to keep it from being aseptic. The
handle is most elegantly adorned with a little winged female
figure, but it does not commend itself as likely to be surgically
FIG. I. — Needle-holders.
A, Hagedorn's; B, Macphail's; C, Allen and Hanbury's, for
Hagedorn or ordinary needles.
clean. The saw, after the same fashion, has a richly chased
metal frame, and, at the end of the handle, a lion's head in
bold relief, with a ring through its mouth to hang it up by.
It may be admirable art, but it would harbour all sorts of
germs. If one contrasts with these artistic weapons the
FIG. 2. — Tenotomy Knives forged in one piece,
instruments of 1850, one finds no such adornment, and for
general finish Savigny's instruments would be hard to beat; but
the wooden or ivory handles, cut with finely scored lines like the
cross-hatching of an engraving, are not more likely to be aseptic
than the handles of Fare's instruments. At the present time,,
instead of such handles as these, with blades riveted into them,
scalpels are forged out of one piece of steel, their handles are
nickel-plated and perfectly smooth, that they may afford no
crevices, and may be boiled and immersed in carbolic lotion
without tarnishing or rusting; th; scalpel has become just a
single, smooth, plain piece of metal, having this one purpose
that it shall make an aseptic wound. In the same way the saw
is made in one piece, if this be possible; anyhow, it must be, so
far as possible, a simple, smooth, unrusting metal instrument,
that can be boiled and laid in lotion; it is a foreign body that
must be introduced into tissues susceptible of infection, and it
must not carry infection with it.
Or we may take, at different periods of surgery, the various
kinds of ligature for the arrest of bleeding from a divided blood-
vessel. In Fare's time (he was the first to use the ligature in
amputation, but the existence of some sort of ligature is as
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
133
old as Galen) the ligature was a double thread, ban fil qui soil
en double; and he employed a forceps to draw forward the cut
end of the vessel to be ligatured. From the time of Ambroise
Pare to the time of Lord Lister no great improvement was made.
In the middle of last century it was no uncommon thing
for the house-surgeon at an operation to hang a leash of waxed
threads, silk or flax, through his button-hole, that they might
FIG. 3. — Amputating Saws.
be handy during the operation. Then came Lord Lister's
work on the absorbable ligature; and out of this and much other
experimental work has come the present use of the ligature in
its utmost perfection — a thread that can be tied, cut short,
and left in the depth of the wound, with absolute certainty
that the wound may at once be closed from end to end and
nothing more will ever be heard of the ligatures left buried in the
tissues. The choice of materials for the ligature is wide. Some
surgeons prefer catgut, variously prepared; ethers prefer silk;
for certain purposes, as for the obliteration of a vessel not divided
but tied in its course for the cure of aneurism, use is made of
kangaroo-tendon, or some other animal substance. But what-
ever is chosen is made aseptic by boiling, and is guarded
vigilantly from contamination on its way from the sterilizer
into the body of the patient. The old ligatures were a common
cause of suppuration. Therefore the wound was not closed
along its whole length, but the ligatures were left long, hanging
out of one end of the wound, and from day to day were gently
pulled until they came away. Certainly they served thus to
drain the wound, but they were themselves a chief cause of the
suppuration that required drainage.
Sutures, like ligatures, were a common cause of suppuration
in or around the edges of the wound. Therefore, in the hope
of avoiding this trouble, they were made of silver wire, which
was inconvenient to handle, and gave pain at the time of removal
of the sutures. At the present time they are of silkworm-gut,
catgut, silk or horsehair; they are made aseptic by boiling, and
can be left any number of days without causing suppuration
and can then be removed without pain.
Next may come the consideration of surgical dressings. In
the days when inflammation and suppuration were almost
inevitable, the dressings were usually something very simple,
that could be easily and frequently changed — ointment, or wet
compresses, to begin with, and poultices when suppuration was
established. It is reported of the great Sir William Fergusson
that he once told his students, " You may say what you like,
gentlemen, but after all, there's no better dressing than cold
water." This is not the place to try to tell the long history
of the quest after a perfect surgical dressing, and the advance
that was begun when Lord Lister invented his carbolic paste.
The work was done slowly in the international unity of science
during many years. The perfect antiseptic dressing must fulfil
many requirements: it must be absorbent, yet not let its
medicament be too quickly soaked out of it; and it must be
antiseptic, yet not virulent or poisonous. Of the many gauzes
now available, that which is chiefly used is one impregnated
with 'a double cyanide of zinc and mercury. Its pleasant
amethystine tint has no healing virtue, but is used to distinguish
it from other gauzes — carbolized gauze, tinted straw-colour;
iodoform gauze, tinted yellow; sublimate, blue; chinosol, green.
The chinosol gauze is especially used in ophthalmic surgery;
for general surgery the cyanide gauze is chiefly employed.
The various preparations of absorbent wool (i.e. wool that
has been freed of its grease, so that it readily takes up moisture)
are used not only for outside dressings, but also as sponges
at the time of operation, and have to a great extent done away
with the use of real sponges. The gauzes in most cases are used
not dry, but just wrung out of carbolic lotion, that their anti-
septic influence may act at once.
The whole subject of surgical instruments may be considered in
more ways than one. It may be well, for the sake of clearing the
ground, to take first some of the more common instruments of general
FIG. 4. — Artery Forceps.'
A, Pean's; B, Spencer Wells's.
surgery, and then to note the working out, in the operations of,
surgery, of the three great principles — the use of anaesthetics,
the use of antiseptic or aseptic methods, and the surgical uses of
electricity.
FIG. 5. —Retractors.
Of the essential instruments that are common to al! operations,
we may well believe that they have now become, by gradual develop-
ment, perfect. Take, for instance, the ordinary surgical needle.
In the older forms the eye was slit-shaped, not easily threaded, and
the needle was often made of a triangular outline, like a miniature
bayonet. At the present time the needles used in general surgery
are mostly Hagedorn's, which have a full-sized round eye, easy for
threading, are flat for their whole length and have a fine cutting edge
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
on one side, near the point. Thus they enter the skin very easily,
like a miniature knife, and the minute wound they make is not a
hole, but a tiny slit that is at once drawn together and, as it were,
obliterated by the tying of the suture. Or, for another simple
instrument in universal use, take the catch-forceps that is used for
taking hold of a bleeding point till it is ligatured. This forceps is as
old as the time of Par<5, but he made use of a very heavy and clumsy
pattern. Up to the last few years the artery-forceps was made with
broad, curved, fenestrated blades, with the catch set close to the
blades. At the present time the forceps in general use, named after
Dr Pean in France and after Sir Spencer Wells in England, is made
with very narrow grooved blades, and the catch is placed not near
the blades, but near the handles: thus it takes a surer hold, and can
be set free when the ligature is tied by a moment's extra pressure on
the handles.
Among other instruments in universal use are divers forms of
retractors, for holding gently the edges of a wound: the larger
patterns are made with broad, slightly-concave, highly-polished
surfaces, that they may, so far as possible, reflect light into the
wound. Among tourniquets, the old and elaborate Petit's tourni-
quet, which was a band carrying a pad screwed down over the main
artery of the limb, has given place to the elastic tourniquet with
Esmarch's bandage. For example, in an amputation, or in an
operation on a joint or on a vessel or a nerve in a limb, the limb is
FIG. 6. — Tourniquet (Esmarch's).
raised, and the Esmarch's elastic bandage is applied from below
upward till it has reached a point well above the site of the opera-
tion; then an elastic tourniquet is wound round the limb at this
point, the bandage is removed, and the limb is thus kept almost
bloodless during the operation.
FIG. 7. — Lithotrite (Bigelow's).
It is not possible to describe here the many forms of other ordinary
instruments of general surgery — probes, directors, scissors, forceps,
and many more — nor those that are used in operations on the bones.
Nor again can the numerous instruments used in special departments
of surgery be discussed in detail. But, with regard to the special
FIG. 8. — Tonsillotome (Mathieu's).
surgery of the eye, and of the throat and ear, it is to be noted that
the chief advance in treatment arose from the invention of the
present instruments of diagnosis, and that these are of compara-
tively recent date. The opthalmoscope was the work of Helmholtz.
The laryngoscope was invented by Manuel Garcia in the middle of the
FIG. 9. — Ophthalmoscope (Landolt's).
I9th century ; and the use of a frontal mirror, for focussing a strong
light on the membrana tympani, in the examination o? the ear,
was in use somewhat earlier. Before the ophthalmoscope it was
impossible to study the internal diseases of the eye; before the
laryngoscope the diseases of the larynx were invisible, and were
mainJv a matter of guess-work, and of vague and often futile treat-
ment. Before the use of the frontal mirror the diseases of the ear
were hardly studied, in that sense in which they are studied now.
The wonderful advance of the special departments of surgery was,
of course, the result of many forces, but one of the chief of these
FIG. 10. — Laryngoscope (Lennox Browne's).
forces was the invention of proper instruments of dia/jnosis. The
textbooks that were written immediately before those instruments
became available were not far in advance of Ambroise Pare, so far
as these special departments are concerned.
It may be well next to consider in what ways the conduct of an
operation is influenced by those two great discoveries of anaesthetics,
and the more gradual development of the principles of antiseptic and
aseptic surgery ; with special reference to the use of the instruments
of surgery. The jubilee year of anaesthesia was 1896; the first use
of nitrous oxide was on the nth of December 1844; the first opera-
tion under ether was on the 3Oth of September 1846; the first use
of chloroform was on the 4th of November 1847. The choice of the
anaesthetic, or of some combination of anaesthetics, that is best
suited to each particular case, is a matter of careful consideration;
but, on the whole, the tendency in England is to keep to the via
media between the more general use of chloroform in Scotland and
the more general use of ether in the United States. Of the methods
of administering chloroform there is no need to say much; by some
FIG. ii.— Inhaler (Junker's).
anaesthetists no instrument is used save a fold of lint or some such
stuff, or a piece of flannel made into a sort of cone or mask. Use is
generally made of a modification of " Junker's inhaler," whereby
the vapour of chloroform is administered by means of a hand-ball.
For the administration of ether some form of Clover's inhaler is
generally used, whereby the ether in a small metal chamber passes
as vapour into an indiarubber bag, and there is combined with the
patient's breath in pro-
portions determined by
the anaesthetist through-
out the operation. The
metal chamber is so de-
signed that by turning
it the exact proportion
of ether to air is fixed
in accordance with the
requirements of the case.
Of late years, by the use
of an iron cylinder of
nitrous oxide, connected
by a tube with a Clover's
inhaler, it is possible to
begin with nitrous oxide,
and to go on, without
interruption, with ether.
More recently an admir-
able method has been
devised of administering
nitrous oxide with the
admixture of air or of
FIG. 12. — Gas and Ether Apparatus
(Hewitt's).
oxygen in such a way
that the anaesthesia pro-
duced by the gas may be maintained for time enough to allow of
an operation of some length.
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES
The series of discoveries which, in its application to surgery, has
brought about the present antiseptic and aseptic methods of opera-
tion, is concerned both with the shape or use of the instruments of
surgery and with their prepara-
tion for use. The mere steriliza-
tion, by boiling or by steaming,
of all instruments and dressings,
is enough to ensure their freedom
from the ordinary micro-organ-
isms of suppuration; but the
surgeon cannot boil or steam
either himself or his patient.
The preparation, therefore, of the
surgeon s hands, and of the skin
i over the area of operation, is
made not only by scrubbing with
soap and hot water, but by
careful use of antiseptic lotions.
Again, ligatures and sutures,
which must be kept in stock
ready for use, are kept, after
careful sterilization, in antiseptic
lotion, or are again sterilized
immediately before an operation.
Again, all towels used at an
operation must be prepared,
FIG. 13— Instrument Sterilizer. either by sterilization or by im-
mersion in antiseptic lotion.
The sterilization of all instruments and dressings is a simple
matter: the usual sterilizer is a vessel like a fish-kettle, with a per-
forated metal tray in it, so that the instruments can be immersed
in boiling water, and can be lifted on the tray and transferred
straight from the sterilizer into vessels containing sterilized water or
antiseptic lotion. For the sterilization of dressings an upper
vessel is fitted to the sterilizer, so that the steam may permeate the
dressings placed in it. In hospital practice it is used also to sterilize
all towels, aprons and the like in a large cylindrical vessel. Steriliza-
tion by boiling or steaming, together with the use of antiseptic
lotions, or of water that has been boiled, for all such things as cannot
be boiled or steamed, is the essential principle of the surgery of the
present day; and practically the antiseptic method and the aseptic
method have become one, varying a little this way or that according
to the nature and circumstances of the case.
Beside anaesthetics and antiseptics, there is a third series of
discoveries that has profoundly influenced surgery — the use of the
forces of electricity. The uses of electricity are fivefold.
i. The Galvano-Cautery. — The original form of the cautery, the
fer ardent of Parti's time, for the arrest of haemorrhage after amputa-
tion, was a terrible affair. Happily for mankind, his invention of
the ligature put an end to this use of the cautery, but it was still
used in a small number of other cases. Subsequently Claude
Andre Paquelin (b. 1836) invented a very ingenious form of cautery,
a series of metal blades or points of different shapes and sizes, that
could be fitted to a handle: these points were hollow inside, and were
filled with fine platinum gauze, and, by means of a bottle and hand-
bellows, they could be kept heated with benzene-vapour. Thus,
when they had once been raised to a glowing heat by holding them
FIG. 14. — Galvano-cautery Set.
over a spirit-lamp, they could be kept at any desired heat. This
instrument is still in use for a few cases where very rapid and exten-
sive cauterization is necessary. But for all finer use of actual heat
the galvano<autery alone is used — a series of very minute points of
platinum, with a suitable trigger-handle, connected with a battery or
(by means of a converter) with the ordinary house supply of electri-
city. In this way it is possible to apply a glowing point with a
fineness and accuracy of adjustment that were wholly impossible with
Paquelin's cautery.
2. Electrolysis. — This method is of great value, in suitable cases,
for the arrest or obliteration
of small growths. The
passage of the electric cur-
rent between needles intro-
duced into or under the
skin brings about a gradual
shrinking or cicatrization
of the tissues subjected to
it, without the production
of any unsightly scar.
FIG. 15. — Electrolysis Needle-holders. 3. Electro-Motor Power. —
During recent years the use
of a small electro-motor machine has come into the practice of
surgery for certain operations on the bones; especially for the
operation for disease involving the mastoid bone. It is, of course, a
better method for the use of a fine drill or burr, for example, than
the " dental engine," where the power is generated by a pedal
turning a wheel, and it will probably come into wide use both for
dental surgery and for those operations of general surgery that
require very gradual and delicate removal of small circumscribed
areas of bone, especially of the cranial bones.
4. The X-Rays. — This, the most unexpected and, as it were, the
most sensational discovery that has been bestowed on physicians
and surgeons since the discovery of anaesthetics, is now used over
a very wide and varied field of practice. Its value does not stop at
the detection and localization of foreign bodies; indeed, this is but
a small part of its work. It is used constantly for cases of actual or
suspected fracture or dislocation ; for cases of congenital or acquired
FIG. 16. — Cystoscope (Nitze's).
deformity; for cases involving difficulties of diagnosis between a
swelling of the bone due to inflammation and a swelling due to a
tumour; and for obscure cases of spinal disease, hip disease and the
like. Moreover, it has been found possible, by Dr Hugh Walsham,
and others to obtain pictures of the thoracic organs that are a very
valuable guide in many obscure cases of disease of the lungs or of the
pleura, and in many cases
of thoracic aneurism or
of intra-thoracic tumour.
Every year the number
and the range of the cases
where the X-rays are
helpful for diagnosis and
for treatment become
greater; and it is impos-
sible to say at what point
the surgical value of this
discovery will find its
limits. Beyond these
uses, it is probable that
the X-rays will maintain
and extend the import-
ance that they already
have in the direct treat-
ment of certain cases of
disease of the skin (see _
X-RAY TREATMENT). *W- I7-— Urethroscope (Fenwick s), also
5. The Electric Light. — used f°r ear> nose, throat, &c.
Beside the general superiority of this light to other lights for the
routine work of surgery, there are several special uses for it. Of
these, the most important is
the cystoscope, a long narrow
tube, shaped and curved
somewhat like a catheter,
and having at its end a very
minute glow-lamp and re-
flector, and a small window.
Its other end is fitted with
a lens, and is connected by
a switch with the main cur-
rent. With this instrument,
in skilled hands, it is possible
to inspect the interior of the
bladder, and in many cases
to make an exact diagnosis
under circumstances where
otherwise it would be im-
possible. Another instance
of the value of the electric
lamp in diagnosis is given by
the trans-illumination of the
facial bones in cases of sus-
pected disease of the central
cavity of the superior max-
illary bone. A small glow-
lamp is held in the closed
mouth, in a darkened room,
and by a comparison of the
shadows on the two sides of
the face, thus trans-illumin-
ated, an exact diagnosis can
often be obtained as to the
presence or absence of pus in
this central cavity. Again,
a small glow-lamp, duly sterilized, is often of great value in deep
operations on the abdominal cavity.
The bactericidal properties of light have long been demonstrated
by Bie and others. Professor Niels Finsen of Copenhagen first used
the ultra-violet rays of solar light in the treatment of skin diseases.
FIG. 1 8. — Finsen-Reyn Lamp.
136
SURICATE— SURPLICE
notably of lupus. He later invented the lamp which bears his
name. The original Finsen lamp comprised a voltaic arc of 60 to
80 amperes round which four tubes collected the light by quartz
lenses, the light being cooled by passing through water and the tubes
being surrounded by a water-jacket. The usual exposure was one
hour. In the Finsen-Reyn modification now used, a single collect-
ing tube fitted on an adjustable stand is placed in front of a
scissors arc lamp consuming 20 amperes. The rays are cooled and
water-jacketed as in the original. A suitable quartz compressor
with a chamber containing circulating water is pressed upon the
skin of the part to be treated and held at right angles to the
impinging rays. The time of exposure is now reduced to forty-five
minutes.
Radium when used in surgery is applied by means of applicators,
either having the fixed salts on square or oblong metallic plates or
cloths or by applicators having free radium in sealed metal tubes.
These tubes are sometimes buried in the tissues. Sometimes a
method of " screening " is adopted in order to modify the intensity
of the radiation. This is done by enveloping the tubes containing
FIG. 19. — Radium Applicators.
the radium in cases of silver, lead or nickel of various thicknesses.
In this, known as the method of Dr Dominici, the a and 0 rays
are intercepted by the metal screens and the highly penetrative rays
only applied to the morbid tissues.
The illustrations in this article are by permission of Messrs Allen
& Hanbury, London, and that of the radium applicators^ by
permission of Messrs Siemens Brothers, London.
SURICATE, or MEERKAT (Suricata tetradactyla) , a small South
African mammal of the civet family, ranging from Cape Colony
to Algoa Bay. The head and body are about 14 in. long, and
the tail half as much; the fur is long and soft, light grizzled grey
in colour, and banded with black on the lower part of the back.
Meerkats are sociable animals, living in holes in the rocks on
the mountains, and burrowing in the sandy soil of the plains.
They form amusing pets, and in a wild state, writes Mrs A. Martin,
they feed chiefly on " succulent bulbs, which they scratch
up with the long, curved, black claws on their fore-feet. They
are devoted sun-worshippers and in the early morning, before
it is daylight, they emerge from their burrows and wait in rows
till their divinity appears, when they bask joyfully in his beams."
SURINAM TOAD (Pipa americana), an aglossal tailless
Batrachian, rendered famous by its mode of reproduction,
first observed in 1710 by the Dutch anatomist F. Ruisch. It
inhabits South America east of the Andes and north of the
Amazons, and is thoroughly aquatic. In its extremely flattened
head it is paralleled by two other vertebrates only, which,
curiously, inhabit the same parts of South America, viz. the
Silurid fish Aspredo balrachus and the Chelonian Chelys matamata;
the end of the snout and the angles of the jaws bear several
lappets, the fingers terminate in a star-shaped appendage,
the toes are very broadly webbed and the eyes are minute and
without lids.
The eggs are carried on the back by the mother, and the skin
thickens and grows round the eggs until each is enclosed in a
dermal cell, which is finally covered by a horny lid, believed to
be formed by a secretion of the skin or else to represent the
remains of the gelatinous capsule which at first surrounded
the eggs. These, which may number about one hundred and
measure five to seven millimetres in diameter, develop entirely
within these pouches, and the young hop out in the perfect
condition, without a vestige of a tail. Pairing takes place in
the water, the male clasping the female round the waist. The
way in which the eggs reach the back of the female has been
observed in specimens kept in the London Zoological Gardens.
During oviposition the cloaca projects from the vent as a bladder-
like pouch, which is inverted forwards, between the back of the
female and the breast of the male, and by means of this ovi-
positor the eggs are evenly distributed over the whole back
How the eggs are fertilized has not been ascertained.
AUTHORITIES. — G. GrSnberg and A. von Klinckowstrom, " Zur
Anatomic der Pipa americana," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. vii. 609; A. D.
Bartlett, " Note on the Breeding of the Surinam Water Toad,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. (1896), p. 595.
SURMA, or BARAK, a river of Assam, India. It is one of the
two chief rivers of the province, watering the southern valley as
the Brahmaputra waters the northern and larger valley. It
rises in the Barail range to the north of Manipur, its sources
being among the southern spurs of Japvo. Thence its course
is south with a slight westerly bearing, through the Manipur hills
to British territory. The name of Barak is given to the upper
part of the river, in Manipur and Cachar. A short distance
below Badarpur in Cachar it divides into two branches. One
of these, which passes Sylhet, is called Surma. The other is
called Kusiara till it subdivides into (a) a branch called Bibiana
or Kalni, which joins the Surma near Ajmiriganj, and (b) a
branch which resumes the name of Barak and joins the Surma
near Habiganj. At Bhairab Bazar in Mymensingh the Surma
unites with the old Brahmaputra and becomes known as the
Meghna. The river is navigable by steamers as far as Silchar
in the rains. Total length about 560 m.
The SURMA VALLEY AND HILL DISTRICTS DIVISION is a
division of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It
includes the five districts of Sylhet Cachar, Lushai hills, Naga
hills, and Khasi and Jaintia hills, with a total area of 25,481
sq. m. and a population in 1901 of 3,084,527.
SURPLICE (Late Lat. super pelliceum; FT. super, over, and
pellis, fur; Span, sobrepellice; Fr. surplis; in Ital. cotta and
Ger. Chorrock, choir coat), a liturgical vestment of the Christian
Church. It is a tunic of white linen or cotton material,
with wide or moderately wide sleeves, reaching — according
to the Roman use — barely to the hips and elsewhere in the
churches of the Roman communion to the knee It is usually
decorated with lace, but in modern times — in Germany at least
— also with embroidered bordures. The surplice originally
reached to the feet, but as early as the i3th century it began to
be shortened, though as late as the isth century it still fell to
the middle of the shin, and it was not till the I7th and i8th
centuries that it was considerably shortened. More drastic were
other modifications which it underwent in course of time in
several localities, which led to the appearance of various sub-
sidiary forms alongside of the original type. Such were the
sleeveless surplice, which was provided at the sides with holes to
put the arms through; the surplice with slit- up arms or lappels
(so-called " wings ") instead of sleeves; the surplice of which not
only the sleeves but the body of the garment itself were slit
up the sides, precisely like the modern dalmatic; and, finally,
a sort of surplice in the form of a bell-shaped mantle, with a
hole for the head, which necessitated the arms being stuck
out under the hem. The first two of these forms were very
early developed; and, in spite of their prohibition by synods
here and there (e.g. that of Li6ge in 1287), they survive in various
places to the present day. The latter two only appeared after (
the close of the middle ages: the first of them in South Germany,
the second more especially in Venetia, where its use is attested
by numerous pictorial records. As a rule, however, these
subsidiary forms of surplice were worn mostly by the lower
clergy. They were the result partly of the influence of the
secular fashions, but more particularly of considerations of
convenience.
The surplice belongs to the vestes sacrae, though it requires
no benediction. It is proper to all clerics, even to those who have
only received the tonsure, the bishop himself vesting with it
those who have been newly tonsured by him. Its use in divine
service is very varied. It is worn in choir at the solemn offices;
it is the official sacral dress of the lower clergy in their liturgical
functions; it is worn by the priest when administering the sacra-
ments, undertaking benedictions, and the like; the use of the
alb being nowadays almost exclusively confined to the mass
and functions connected with this. In general it may be said
SURRENDER— SURRENTUM
that this was, in all main particulars, the custom so early as the
i 4th century.
The older history of the surplice is obscured by lack of exact
information. Its name is derived, as Durandus and Gerland
also affirm, from the fact that it was formerly put on over the fur
garments which used to be worn in church and at divine service
as a protection against the cold. It has been maintained that
the surplice was known in the 5th century, the evidence being
the garments worn by the two clerics in attendance on Bishop
Maximian represented in the mosaics of S. Vitale at Ravenna;
in this case, however, the dalmatic has been confused with the
surplice. In all probability the surplice is no more than an
expansion of the ordinary liturgical alb, due to the necessity
for wearing it over thick furs. It is first mentioned in the nth
century, in a canon of the synod of Coyaca in Spain (1050) and
in an ordinance of King Edward the Confessor. In Rome it was
known at least as early as the i2th century. It probably origi-
nated outside Rome, and was imported thence into the Roman
use. Originally only a choir vestment and peculiar to lower
clergy, it gradually — certainly no later than the i3th century
— replaced the alb as the vestment proper to the administering
of the sacraments and other sacerdotal functions.
In the Oriental rites there is no surplice, nor any analogous
vestment. Of the non-Roman Churches in the West the sur-
plice has continued in regular use only in the Lutheran churches
of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and in the Church of England
(see below). (J. BRA.)
Church of England. — The surplice was prescribed by the
second Prayer-Book of Edward VI., as, with the tippet or the
academical hood, the sole vestment of the minister of the
church at " all times of their ministration," the rochet being
practically regarded as the episcopal surplice. Its use was
furiously assailed by the extremer Reformers but, in spite of
their efforts, was retained by Elizabeth's Act of Uniformity,
and enforced by the advertisements and injunctions issued
under her authority, which ordered the " massing vestments "
— chasubles, albs, stoles and the like— to be destroyed. It has
since remained, with the exception of the cope (q.v.), the sole
vestment authorized by law for the ministers, other than
bishops, of the Church of England (for the question of the vest-
ments prescribed by the " Ornaments Rubric " see VESTMENTS).
Its use has never been confined to clerks in holy orders, and it
has been worn since the Reformation by all the " ministers "
(including vicars-choral and choristers) of cathedral and colle-
giate churches, as well as by the fellows and scholars of colleges
in chapel. The distinctive mark of the clergy (at least of the
more dignified) has been the tippet or scarf above mentioned, a
broad band of black silk worn stole-wise, but not to be confused
with the stole, since it has no liturgical significance and was
originally no more than part of the clerical outdoor dress (see
STOLE). The surplice was formerly only worn by the clergy
when conducting the service, being exchanged during the sermon
for the " black gown," i.e. either a Geneva gown or the gown
of an academical degree. This custom has, however, as a result
of the High Church movement, fallen almost completely obsolete.
The "black gown," considered wrongly as the ensign of
Low Church views, survives in comparatively few of even
" evangelical " churches; it is still, however, the custom for
preachers of university sermons to wear the gown of their
degree.
The traditional form of the surplice in the Church of England
is that which survived from pre-Reformation times, viz. a wide-
sleeved, very full, plain, white linen tunic, pleated from the yoke,
and reaching almost, or quite, to the feet. Towards the end
of the I7th century, when large wigs came into fashion, it came
for convenience to be constructed gown-wise, open down the
front and buttoned at the neck, a fashion which still partially
survives, notably at the universities. In general, however, the
tendency has been, under continental influence, to curtail its
proportions. The ample vestment with beautiful falling folds
has thus in many churches given place to a scanty, unpleated
garment scarce reaching to the knee. In the more " extreme "
churches the surplices are frank imitations of the Roman
cotla. (W. A. P.)
SURRENDER, in law, a mode of alienation of real estate.
It is defined by Lord Coke to be " the yielding up of an estate for
life or years to him that hath an immediate estate in reversion
or remainder " (Coke upon Littleton, 337 b). It is the converse
of release, which is a conveyance by the reversioner or remainder-
man to the tenant of the particular estate. A surrender is
the usual means of effecting the alienation of copyholds. The
surrender is made to the lord, who grants admittance to the
purchaser, an entry of the surrender and admittance being
made upon the court rolls. Formerly a devise of copyholds
could only have been made by surrender to the use of the
testator's will followed by admittance of the devisee. The
Wills Act of 1837 now ajlows the devisee of copyholds without
surrender, though admittance of the devisee is still necessary.
A surrender must, since the Real Property Act 1845, be by deed,
except in the case of copyholds and of surrender by operation
of law. Surrender of the latter kind generally takes place by
merger, that is, the combination of the greater and less estate
by descent or other means without the act of. the party (see
REMAINDER). In Scots law surrender in the case of a lease
is represented by renunciation. The nearest approach to
surrender of a copyhold is resignation in remanenliam (to the
lord) or resignation infawrem (to a purchaser). These modes of
conveyance were practically superseded by the simpler forms
introduced by the Conveyancing Act 1874.
SURRENTUM (mod. Sorrento, q.v.), an ancient town of
Campania, Italy, situated on the N. side of the promontory
which forms the S.E. extremity of the Bay of Naples. The
legends indicate a close connexion between Lipara and Surrentum,
as though the latter had been a colony of the former; and even
through the Imperial period Surrentum remained largely Greek.
Before the Roman supremacy it was one of the towns subject to
Nuceria, and shared its fortunes up to the Social War; it seems
to have joined in the revolt of 90 B.C. like Stabiae; and was
reduced to obedience in the following year, when it seems to have
received a colony. Its prosperity dates from the imperial period,
when Capreae was a favourite residence of Augustus and Tiberius.
Numerous sepulchral inscriptions of Imperial slaves and freedmen
have been found at Surrentum. An inscription shows that Titus
in the year after the earthquake of A.D. 79 restored the horologium
of the town and its architectural decoration. A similar restora-
tion of an unknown building in Naples in the same year is
recorded in an inscription from the last-named town (cf. A.
Sogliano in Notizie degli Scavi, 1901 , p. 363). The most important
temples of Surrentum were those of Athena and of the Sirens
(the latter the only one in the Greek world in historic times);
the former gave its name to the promontory. In antiquity
Surrentum was famous for its wine (oranges and lemons which are
now so much cultivated there not having been introduced into
Italy in antiquity), its fish, and its red Campanian vases; the
discovery of coins of Massilia, Gaul and the Balearic Islands here
indicates the extensive trade which it carried on. The position
of Surrentum was very secure, it being protected by deep gorges,
except for a distance of 300 yds. on the south-west where it was
defended by walls, the line of which is necessarily followed
by those of the modern town. The arrangement of the modern
streets preserves that of the ancient town, and the disposition
of the walled paths which divide the plain to the east seems to
date in like manner from Roman times. No ruins are now pre-
served in the town itself, but there are many remains in the villa
quarter to the east of the town on the road to Stabiae, of which
traces still exist, running much higher than the modern road,
across the mountain; the site of one of the largest (possibly
belonging to the Imperial house) is now occupied by the Hotel
Victoria, under the terrace of which a small theatre was found
in 1855; an ancient rock-cut tunnel descends hence to the shore.
Remains of other villas may be seen, but the most important
ruin is the reservoir of the (subterranean) aqueducts just outside
the town on the east, which had no less than twenty-seven
chambers each about 90 ft. by 20 ft. Greek and Oscan tombs
138
SURREY, EARLDOM OF— SURREY, EARL OF
have also been found. Another suburb lay below the town and
on the promontory on the west of it ; under the Hotel Sirena are
substructions and a rock-hewn tunnel. To the north-west on
the Capo di Sorrento is another villa, the so-called Bagni della
Regina Giovanna, with baths, and in the bay to the south-west
was the villa of Pollius Felix, the friend of Statius, which he
describes in Silvae ii. 2, of which remains still exist. Farther
west again are villas, as far as the temple of Athena on the pro-
montory named after her at the extremity of the peninsula (now
Punta Campanella). Neither of this nor of the famous temple
of the Sirens are any traces existing.
See J. Beloch, Campanien, p. 252 sqq. (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890).
(T. As.)
SURREY, EARLDOM OF. There is some doubt as to when
this earldom was created, but it is unquestionably of early origin.
A Norman count, William de Warenne (c. 1030-1088), is
generally regarded as its first holder and is thought to have
been made an earl by William II. about 1088. William 'and
his successors were styled earls of Surrey or Earls Warenne
indifferently, and the family became extinct when William,
the 3rd earl, died in 1148. The second family to hold the
earldom of Surrey was descended from Isabel de Warenne
(d. 1 1 99), daughter and heiress of Earl William, and her second
husband Hamelin Plantagenet (d. 1202), an illegitimate half-
brother of King Henry II. Hamelin took the name of Warenne
and was recognized as earl of Surrey or Earl Warenne, and his
descendants held the earldom until Earl John died without
legitimate issue in 1347.
The earldom and estates of the Warennes now passed to
John's nephew, Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel (c. 1307-1376),
being forfeited when Richard's son, Richard, was beheaded for
treason in 1397. Then for about two years there was a duke of
Surrey, the title being borne by Thomas Holand, earl of Kent
(1374-1400), from 1397 until his degradation in 1399. In
1400 Richard Fitzalan's son, Sir Thomas Fitzalan (1381-1415),
was restored to his father's honours and became earl of
Arundel and earl of Surrey, but the latter earldom reverted to
the Crown when he died. In 1451 John Mowbray (1444-1476),
afterwards duke of Norfolk, was created earl of Surrey, but the
title became extinct on his death.
The long connexion of the Howards with the earldom of
Surrey began in 1483 when Thomas Howard, afterwards duke
of Norfolk, was created earl of Surrey. Since that time, with the
exception of brief periods when some of its holders were under
attainder, the title has been borne by the duke of Norfolk.
The courtesy title of the duke's eldest son is earl of Surrey.
See the articles WARENNE, EARLS; and ARUNDEL, EARLS OF; also
G. E. C.(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896).
SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL or (isi8?-iS47),
English poet, son of Lord Thomas Howard, afterwards 3rd
duke of Norfolk, and his wife Elizabeth Stafford, daughter of
the duke of Buckingham, was born probably in isiS.1 He suc-
ceeded to the courtesy title of earl of Surrey in 1524, when his
father became duke of Norfolk. His early years were spent in
the various houses belonging to the Howards, chiefly at Kenning-
hall, Norfolk. He had as tutor John Clerke, who, beside in-
structing him in the classics, inculcated a great admiration for
Italian literature. The duke of Norfolk was proud of his son's
attainments (Chapuys to the emperor, December 9, 1529).
The duke was governor of Henry Fitzroy, duke of Richmond,
the natural son of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth Blount. Surrey
was a little more than a year older than Fitzroy, and became his
companion and friend. Fitzroy was at Windsor from 1530 to
1532, and it must be to these years that Surrey refers in the lines
written in prison at Windsor, " where I, in lust and joy, with a
king's son, my childish years did pass." Anne Boleyn tried to
arrange a marriage between the princess Mary and her kinsman,
Surrey. The Spanish ambassador, in the hope of detaching the
duke of Norfolk's interest from Anne Boleyn in favour of Catherine
1 The only authority for the date of his birth is the legend Sat.
superest. Aetatis XXIX. on a portrait of Henry Howard at Arundel
Castle.
of Aragon, seems to have been inclined to favour the project;
but Anne changed her mind, and as early as October 1 530 arranged
a marriage for Surrey with Lady Frances de Vere, daughter of the
1 5th earl of Oxford. This was concluded at the earliest possible
date, in February 1532, but in consequence of the extreme youth
of the contracting parties, Frances did not join her husband until
1535. In October Surrey accompanied Henry VIII. to Boulogne
to meet Francis I., and, rejoining the duke of Richmond at
Calais, he proceeded with him to the French court, where the two
Englishmen were lodged with the French royal princes. Surrey
created for himself a reputation for wisdom, soberness and good
learning, which seems curious in view of the events of his later
life. Meanwhile in spite of his marriage with Frances de Vere,
the project of a contract between him and the princess Mary was
revived in a correspondence between Pope Clement VII. and the
emperor Charles V., but definitely rejected by the latter. Surrey
only returned to England in the autumn of 1533, when the duke
of Richmond was recalled to marry his friend's sister, Mary
Howard. Surrey made his home at his father's house of Kenning-
hall, and here was a witness of the final separation between his
parents, due to. the duke's relations with Elizabeth Holland, who
had been employed in the Howards' nursery. Surrey took his
father's side in the family disputes, and remained at Kenning-
hall, where his wife joined him in 1535. In May 1536 he filled
his father's functions of earl marshal at the trial of his cousins
Anne Boleyn and Lord Rochford. In the autumn of that year
he took part with his father in the bloodless campaign against
the rebels in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, in the " Pilgrimage of
Grace." Although he had supported the royal cause, insinuations
were made that he secretly favoured the insurgents. Hasty in
temper, and by no means friendly to the Seymour faction at court,
he struck a man who repeated the accusation in the park at
Hampton Court. For breaking the peace in the king's domain
he was arrested (1537), but thanks to Cromwell, who had yielded
to the petition of the young man's father, he was not compelled
to appear before the privy council, but was merely sent to reside
for a time at Windsor. During this imprisonment and the
subsequent retirement at Kenninghall, he had leisure to devote
himself to poetry. In 1539 he was again received into favour.
In May 1540 he was one of the champions in the jousts cele-
brated at court. The fall of Thomas Cromwell a month later
increased the power of the Howards, and in August Henry VIII.
married Surrey's cousin, Catherine Howard. Surrey was knighted
early in 1541, and soon after he received the order of the Garter,
was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and, in con-
junction with his father, grand seneschal of the university of
Cambridge. He apparently preserved the royal favour after
the execution of Catherine Howard (at which he was present),
for in December 1541 he received the grant of certain manors
in Norfolk and Suffolk. In 1 542 he was imprisoned in the Fleet
for a quarrel with a certain John Leigh, but on appeal to the
privy council he was sent to Windsor Castle, and, after being
bound over to keep the peace with John Leigh under a penalty
of 10,000 marks, he was soon liberated. Shortly after his
release he joined his father on the Scottish expedition. They
laid waste the country, but retreated before the earl of Huntly,
taking no part in the victorious operations that led up to Solway
Moss. To this year no doubt belong the poems in memory of
Sir Thomas Wyat. His ties with Wyat, who was fifteen years
his elder and of opposite politics, seem to have been rather literary
than personal. He appears to have entered into closer relations
with the younger Wyat. In company with " Mr Wyat," he
amused himself by breaking the windows of the citizens of
London on the 2nd of February 1543. For this he was accused
by the privy council, a second charge being that he had eaten
meat in Lent. In prison probably he wrote the satire on the
city of London, in which he explains his escapade by a desire
to rouse Londoners to a sense of their wickedness. In October
he joined the English army co-operating with the imperial forces
in Flanders, and on his return in the next month brought with
him a letter of high commendation from Charles V. In the
campaign of the next year he served as field marshal under his
SURREY
139
father, and took part in the unsuccessful siege of Montreuil.
In August 1545 he was sent to the relief of Edward Poynings,
then in command of Boulogne, and was made lieutenant-general
of the English possessions on the Continent and governor of
Boulogne. Here he gained considerable successes, and insisted
on the retention of the town in spite of the desire of the privy
council that it should be surrendered to France. A reverse on
the 7th of January at St Etienne was followed by a period of
inaction, and in March Surrey was recalled.
Surrey had always been an enemy to the Seymours, whom he
regarded as upstarts, and when his sister, the duchess of Rich-
mond, seemed disposed to accept a marriage with Sir Thomas
Seymour, he wrote to her insinuating that this was a step to-
wards becoming the mistress of Henry VIII. By his action in
thwarting this plan he increased the enmity of the Seymours
and added his sister to the already long list of the enemies which
he had made by his haughty manner and brutal frankness. He
was now accused of quartering with his own the arms of Edward
the Confessor, a proceeding which, it was alleged, was only
permissible for the heir to the crown. The details of this accusa-
tion were false; mfireover, Surrey had long quartered the royal
arms with his own without offence. The charge was a pretext
covering graver suspicions. Surrey had asserted in the presence
of a certain George Blage, who was inclined to the reforming
movement, that on Henry's death, his father, the duke of Nor-
folk, as the premier duke in England, had the obvious right of
acting as'regent to Prince Edward. He also boasted of what he
would do when his father had attained that position. All of
this was construed into a plot on the part of his father and
himself to murder the king and the prince. The duke of Norfolk
and his son were sent to the Tower on the i2th of December
1546. Every effort was made to secure evidence. The duchess
of Richmond was one of the witnesses (see her depositions in
Herbert of Cherbury, Life and Reign of Henry VIII., 1649)
against her brother, but her statements were too doubtful to add
anything to the formal indictment. On the I3th of January
1547 Surrey defended himself at the guildhall on the charge of
high treason for having illegally made use of the arms of Edward
the Confessor, before judges selected for their known hatred of
himself. He was condemned by a jury, packed for the occasion,
to be hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn. This sentence
was not carried out. Surrey was beheaded on Tower Hill on
the ipth of the month, and was buried in the church of All
Saints, Barking. His remains were afterwards removed by his
son the earl of Northampton to Framlingham, Suffolk. His
father, who was charged with complicity in his son's crime, was,
as a peer of the realm, not amenable to a common jury. The
consequent delay saved his life. He was imprisoned during
the whole of the reign of Edward VI., but on Mary's accession
he was set free, by an act which also assured the right of the
Howards, as descendants of the Mowbray family, to bear the
arms of the Confessor.
Surrey's name has been long connected with the " Fair Geraldine,"
to whom his love poems were supposed to be addressed. The story
is founded on the romantic fiction of Thomas Nashe, The Unfortunate
Traveller, or Life of Jack Wilton (1594), according to which Surrey saw
in a magic glass in the Netherlands the face of Geraldine, and then
travelled throughout Europe challenging all comers to deny in full
field the charms of the lady. At Florence he held a tournament in
her honour, and was to do the same in other Italian cities when he
was recalled by order of Henry VIII. The legend, deprived of its
more glaring discrepancies with Surrey's life, was revived in Michael
Drayton's England* Heroicall Epistles (1598). Geraldine was the
daughter of the earl of Kildare, Lady Elizabeth Fitzgerald, who was
brought up at the English court in company with the princess
Elizabeth (see James Graves, a Brief Memoir of Lady Elizabeth
Fitzgerald, 1874). She was ten years old when in 1537 Surrey
addressed to her the sonnet " From Tuskane came my ladies worthy
race," and nothing more than a passing admiration of the child and
an imaginative anticipation of her beauty can be attributed to
Surrey. " A Song ... to a ladie that refused to daunce with him,"
is addressed to Lady Hertford, wife of his bitter enemy, and the
two poems, " O happy dames " and " Good ladies, ye that have your
pleasures in exile," are addressed to his wife, to whom, at any rate
in his later years, he seems to have been sincerely attached.
His poems, which were the occupation of the leisure moments of
his short and crowded life, were first printed in Songs and Sonettes
written by the ryght honorable Lorde Henry Howard late Earle oj
Surrey, and other (apud Richardum Tottel, 1557). A second edition
followed in July 1557, and others in 1559, 1565, 1567, 1574, 1585 and
1587. Although Surrey's name, probably because of his rank,
stands first on the title-page, Wyat was the earlier in point of time
of Henry's " courtly makers." Surrey, indeed, expressly acknow-
ledges Wyat as his master in poetry. As their poems appeared in
one volume, long after the death of both, their names will always be
closely associated. Wyat possessed strong individuality, which
found expression in rugged, forceful verse. Surrey's contributions
are distinguished by their impetuous eloquence and sweetness. He
revived the principles of Chaucer's versification, which his prede-
cessors had failed to grasp, perhaps because the value of the final e
was lost. He introduced new smoothness and fluency into English
verse. He never allowed the accent to fall on a weak syllable, nor
did he permit weak syllables as rhymes. His chief innovation as a
metrician lies outside the Miscellany. His translation of the second
and fourth books of the Aeneid into blank verse — the first attempt
at blank verse in English — was published separately by Tottel in
the same year with the title of Certain Bakes of Virgiles Aeneis
turned into English meter. It has been suggested that in this matter
Surrey was influenced by the translation of Virgil published at
Venice by Ippolito de' Medici in 1541, but there is no direct evidence
that such was the case. His sonnets are in various schemes of verse,
and are less correct in form and more loosely constructed than those
of Wyat. They commonly consist of three quatrains with indepen-
dent rhymes, terminating with a rhyming couplet. But his sonnets,
his elegy on the death ol Wyat, his lover's complaint cast in pastoral
form, and his lyrics in various measures, served as models to more
than one generation of court poets. Both in form and substance
Surrey and his fellow poets were largely indebted to Italian prede-
cessors; most of his poems are in fact adaptations from Italian
originals. The tone of the love sentiment was new in English poetry,
very different in its earnestness, passion and fantastic extravagance
from the lightness and gaiety of the Chaucerian school.
See Professor E. Arber's reprint of Songs and Sonettes (English
Reprints, 1870) ; the Roxburghe Club reprint of Certain Bakes of
Virgiles Aeneis (1814); Dr G. F. Nott, The Works of Henry Howard,
Earl of Surrey (1815); and The Poetical Works of Henry Howard,
Earl of Surrey (Aldine edition, 1866). The best account of Surrey's
life is in Edmond Bapst's Deux Gentilhommes-poetes de la cour de
Henry VIII. (1891), which rectifies Dr Nott's memoir in many
points. See also Brewer and Gairdner, Letters and State Papers of
Henry VIII. ; Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Life and Raigne of Kinge
Henry the Eighth (1649) ; J. A. Froude, History of England (chs. xxi.
and xxii.) ; W. J. Courthope, History of English Poetry (1897), vol. ii.
ch. iii., where the extent and value of Surrey's innovations
in English poetry are estimated ; F. M. Padelford, The MS. Poems of
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1906) ; O. Fest, " Uber Surreys
Virgilubersetzung," in Paldstra, vol. xxxiv. (Berlin, 1903).
SURREY, a south-eastern county of England bounded N. by
the Thames, separating it from Buckinghamshire and Middlesex,
E. by Kent, S. by Sussex, and W. by Hampshire and Berkshire.
The administrative county of London bounds that of Surrey
(south of the Thames) on the north-east. The area is 758 sq. m.
The north Downs are a picturesque line of hills running east and
west through the county somewhat south of the centre (see
DOWNS). Leith Hill, south-west of Dorking (965 ft.), is the
highest summit, and commands a prospect unrivalled in the
south of England; Holmbury Hill close by reaches 857 ft., and
the detached summit of Hindhead above Haslemere in the south-
west reaches 895 ft. At Guildford the Wey breaches the hills;
and at Dorking the Mole. These are the chief rivers of the county ;
they reach the Thames near Weybridge and at East Molesey
respectively. The Wandle is a smaller tributary in the north-
east of the county. Surrey is thus almost entirely in the Thames
basin. In the south-east it includes headstreams of the Eden,
a tributary of the Medway; and in the south a small area drains
to the English channel. Three types of scenery appear — that of
the hilly southern district; that of the Thames, with its richly-
wooded banks; and, in the north-west, that of the sandy heath-
covered district, abundant in conifers, which includes the healthy
open tracts of Bagshot Heath and other commons, extending
into Berkshire and Hampshire. Possessing these varied attrac-
tions, Surrey has become practically a great residential district
for those who must live in the neighbourhood of London.
Geology. — The northern portion of the county, in the London
basin, belongs to the Eocene formation : the lower ground is occupied
chiefly by the London Clay of the Lower Eocene, stretching (with
interruptions) from London to Farnham ; this is fringed on its
southern edge by the underlying Woolwich beds of the same group,
140
SURREY
which also appear in isolated patches at Headley near Leatherhead ;
and the Thanet Sands at the base crop out between Beddington,
Banstead and Leatherhead. The north-western portion of the
county, covered chiefly by heath and Scotch fir, belongs to the
Upper Eocene, Bagshot Sands : the Fox hills and the bleak Chobham
Ridges are formed of the upper series of the group, which rests upon
the middle beds occupying the greater part of Bagshot Heath and
Bisley and Pirbright commons, while eastwards the commons of
Chobham, Woking and Esher belong to the lower division of the
group. To the south of the Eocene formations the smooth rounded
outlines of the chalk hills extend through the centre of the county
trom Farnham to Westerham (Kent). From Farnham to Guildford
they form a narrow ridge called the Hog's Back, about half a mile
in breadth with a higher northern dip, the greatest elevation reached
in this section being 505 ft. East of Guildford the northern dip
decreases and the outcrop widens, throwing out picturesque
summits, frequently partly wooded, and commanding wide and
beautiful views over the Weald. The Upper Greensand, locally
known as firestone, and quarried and mined for this purpose and
for hearthstone near Godstone, crops out underneath the Chalk
along the southern escarpment of the Downs. The Gault, a dark
blue sandy clay, rests beneath the Upper Greensand in the bottom
of the long narrow valley which separates the chalk Downs from the
well-marked Lower Greensand hills. The Lower Greensand includes
the subordinate divisions known as the Folkestone Sands, exploited
near Godstone for commercial purposes ; the Sandgate beds, to which
the well-known fuller's earth of Nutfield belongs, and the Hythe
beds, which contain the Kentish Rag, a sandy glauconitic limestone
used for road repairs and building; also a hard, conglomeratic phase
of this series locally called Bar-gate stone. To this formation belong
the heights of Leith Hill, Hindhead and the Devil's Punchbowl,
Holmbury Hill. Between the Lower Greensand and the Weald
Clay is a narrow inconspicuous belt of Atherfield Clay. The Weald
Clay itself consists of a blue or brown shaly clay, amid which are
deposited river shells, plants of tropical origin and reptilian remains.
The lower portion of the Wealden series, the Hastings Sands, occupy
a small area in the south-eastern corner of the county. Bordering
the Thames there are terraced deposits of gravel and loam.
Agriculture. — Between one-half and three- fifths of the area of the
county, a low proportion, is under cultivation, and of this about
five-ninths is in permanent pasture. There are considerable
varieties of soil, ranging from plastic clay to calcareous earth and
bare rocky heath. The plastic clay is well adapted for wheat, but
oats are the most largely grown of the decreasing grain crops. A
considerable area is occupied by market gardens on the alluvial
soil along the banks of the Thames, especially in the vicinity of
London. In early times the market gardeners were Flemings, who
introduced the culture of asparagus at Battersea and of carrots at
Chertsey. Rhododendrons and azaleas are largely grown in the
north-western district of the county. In the neighbourhood of
Mitcham various medicinal plants are cultivated, such as lavender,
mint, camomile, anise, rosemary, liquorice, hyssop, &c. The
calcareous soil in the neighbourhood of Farnham is well adapted for
hops, but this crop in Surrey is of minor importance. There is a
large area under wood. Oak, chestnut, walnut, ash and elm are
extensively planted ; alder and willow plantations are common ; and
the Scotch fir propagates naturally from seed on the commons in
the north-west. The extent of pasture land is not great, with the
exception of the Downs, which are chiefly occupied as sheep-runs.
Dairy-farming is a more important industry than cattle-feeding,
large quantities of milk being sent to London.
Manufactures and Communications. — The more important manu-
factures are chiefly confined to London and its immediate neighbour-
hood. The rivers Mole and Wandle, however, supply power for a
variety of manufactures, such as oil, paper and sheet-iron mills.
Communications include the navigation of the Thames and Wey,
and the Basingstoke canal, communicating with the Wey from
Frimley and Woking. Owing to its proximity to London the county
is served by many lines of railway, the companies being the London
& South-Western, the London Brighton & South Coast and the
South-Eastern & Chatham.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county
is 485,122 acres, with a population in 1901 of 2,012,744. The
population in 1801 was 268,233, and in 1851, 683,082; and it nearly
doubled between 1871 and 1901. Under the provisions of the Local
Government Act 1888, part of the county was transferred to the
county of London. Thus the area of the ancient county, extra-
metropolitan, is 461,999 acres, with a population in 1901 of 675,774.
The area of the administrative county is 461,807 acres. The county
contains 14 hundreds. Groydon (pop. 133,895) is a county borough,
and the other municipal boroughs are Godalming (8748), Guildford
(i?,938), Kingston (34,375). Reigate (25,993), Richmond (31,672),
Wimbledon (41,652). The following are urban districts: Barnes
(17,821), Carshalton (6746), Caterham (94.86), Chertsey (12,762),
Dorking (7670), East and West Molesey (6034), Egham (10,187),
Epsom (10,915), Esher and The Dittons (9489), Farnham (6124),
Frimley (8409), Ham (1460), Leatherhead (4964), The Maidens
and Coombe (6233), Surbiton (15,017), Sutton (17,223), Walton-
on-Thames (10,329), Weybridge (5329), Woking (16,244). There
are six parliamentary divisions — North Western or Chertsey, Mid or
Epsom, Kingston, North Eastern or Wimbledon, South Eastern
or Reigate, South Western or Guildford ; each returning one member.
The borough of Croydon returns one member. Surrey is in the
south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Guildford and Kingston
alternately. The administrative county has one court of quarter
sessions, and is divided into eleven petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs of Croydon, Godalming, Guildford, Kingston, Reigate
and Richmond have separate commissions of the peace, and Croydon
and Guildford have in addition separate courts of quarter sessions.
The central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes
adjacent to London. All those civil parishes within the county of
Surrey, of which any part is within 12 m. of, or of which no part is
more than 15 m. from, Charing Cross, are in the metropolitan
police district. The total number of civil parishes is 144. The
ancient county contains 230 ecclesiastical parishes or districts,
wholly or in part situated in the dioceses of Rochester, Winchester,
Canterbury, Oxford and Chichester.
History. — The early history of this district is somewhat un-
certain. Ethelwerd, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 823, places
it in the " Medii Angli " or " Medii Saxones." Its position
between the Weald and the Thames decided its northern and
southern borders, and the Kentish boundary probably dates
from the battle of Wibbandune between Ethelbert of Kent and
Ceawlin of Wessex, which traditionally took place at Wimbledon,
though this is disputed. The western border, like the southern,
was a wild uncultivated district; no settled boundary probably
existing at the time of the Domesday Survey. The number
of hundreds at that time was fourteen as now, but the hundred
of Farnham was not so called, the lands of the bishop of Win-
chester being placed in no hundred, but coinciding with the
present hundred of that name. There is no record of Surrey ever
having been in any diocese but Winchester, of which it was an
archdeaconry in the 1 2th century. At the time of the Domesday
Survey there were four deaneries: Croydon, South wark, Guild-
ford and Ewell. Croydon was a peculiar of Canterbury, in which
diocese it was included in 1291. In the time of Henry VIII.,
Croydon was comprehended in the deanery of Ewell, some of its
rectories being included in the deanery of Southwark. The old
deanery of Guildford was included in the modern one of Stoke.
In 1877, Southwark, with some parishes, was transferred to the
diocese of Rochester. In the 7th century Surrey was under the
overlordship of Wulfhere, king of Mercia, who founded Chertsey
abbey, but in 823, when the Mercians were defeated by Egbert
of Wessex, it was included in the kingdom of Wessex, as the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates.
Surrey was constantly overrun by Danish hordes in the pth
century and until peace was established by the accession of
Canute. In 857 a great national victory over the Danes took
place at Ockley near Leith Hill. Surrey is not of great historical
importance, except its northern border, the southern part
having been forest and waste land, long uninhabited and almost
impassable for an army. Guildford, though the county town,
and often the seat of the court under John and Henry III., was
of little importance beside Southwark, the centre of trade and
commerce, the residence of many ecclesiastical dignitaries, a
frequent point of attack on London, and a centre for rebellions
and riots. The Norman army traversed and ravaged the county
in their march on London, a large portion of the county having
been in the hands of Edward and Harold, fell to the share of
William himself; his most important tenants in chief being Odo
of Bayeux and Richard de Tonebridge, son of Count Gilbert,
afterwards " de Clare." The church also had large possessions
in the county, thejibbey of Chertsey being the largest monastic
house. Besides these private jurisdictions, there were the large
royal parks and forests, with their special jurisdiction. The
shire court was almost certainly held at Guildford, where the
gaol for both Sussex and Surrey was from as early as 1 202 until
1487, when Sussex had its own gaol at Lewes. The houses of
Warenne and de Clare were long the two great rival influences in
the county; their seats at Reigate and Blechingley being repre-
sented in parliament from the time of Edward I. till the Reform
bills of the ipth century. At the time of the Barons' Wars their
influence was divided — de Clare marching with Montfort, and de
Warenne supporting the king. In the Peasants' Rising of 1381,
SURROGATE— SURTEES, R.
141
and during Jack Cade's Rebellion in the next century, Southwark
was invaded, the prisons broken open and the bridge into
London crossed. London was unsuccessfully attacked from the
Surrey side in the Wars of the Roses; and was held for three days
and pillaged during a rising of the southern counties under
Mary. During the fears of invasions from Spain, levies were
held in readiness in Surrey to protect London ; and it was an even
more important bulwark of London in the Civil War, on account
of the powder mills at Chilworth and the cannon foundries of
the Weald. In common with the south-eastern district generally,
Surrey was parliamentarian in its sympathies. Sir Richard
Onslow and Sir Poynings More were the most prominent local
leaders. Farnham Castle and Kingston, with its bridge, were
several times taken and held during the war by the opposing
parties, and in the later part of the war, when the parliament and
army were treating, three of the line of forts defending London
were on the Surrey side, from which the army entered London.
The last serious skirmish south of the Thames took place near
Ewell and Kingston, where the earl of Holland and a body of the
Royalists were routed. This was the last real fighting in the
county, though it was often a centre of riots; the most serious
being those of 1830, and of the Chartists in 1848, who chose
Kennington Common as their meeting-place. The Mores of
Loseley and the Onslows were among the most famous county
families under the Tudors, as at the time of the Civil War; the
Onslows being even better known later in the person of Sir
Arthur Onslow, Speaker of the House under George I.
The earliest industries in Surrey were agricultural. The
stone quarries of Limpsfield and the chalk of the Downs were
early used, the latter chiefly for lime-making. Fuller's earth
was obtained from Reigate and Nutfield; and the facilities
afforded by many small streams, and the excellent sheep pasture,
made it of importance in the manufacture of cloth, of which
Guildford was a centre. Glass and iron were made in the Weald
district, whose forests produced the necessary charcoal for
smelting. Chiddingfold is mentioned in 1266 for its glass-
making, and was one of the chief glass-producing districts in
late Tudor times. The ironworks of Surrey were of less impor-
tance, and much later in development than those of Kent and
Sussex, owing to the want of good roads or waterways, but the
increasing demand for ordnance in the i6th century led to the
spread of the industry northward; the most considerable works in
Surrey being those of Viscount Montague at Haslemere. Chil-
worth, which was famous for its powder mills in the i6th century,
remains a seat of the industry. Southwark and its neighbour-
hood early became a suburb of London and a centre of trades
which were crowded out of London. The earliest Delft ware
manufactory in England was at Lambeth, which maintains its
fame as a centre of earthenware manufacture. The beautiful
encaustic tiles of Chertsey Abbey are thought to have been made
in English monasteries and date from the i3th century. Although
the county was doubtless represented in the representative
councils of the reign of Henry III., the first extant returns of
two knights of the shire are for the parliament of 1290. The
Reform Bill of 1832 gave Surrey four members; dividing the
county into east and west divisions. Several boroughs were
disfranchized then and in 1867, when East Surrey was again
divided into east and mid divisions, on account of the growth of
London suburbs, two more members being added at the same
time. In 1855 all old boroughs and divisions were superseded;
the county being divided into the electoral divisions of Chertsey,
Guildford, Reigate, Epsom, Kingston and Wimbledon, each
returning one member. Finally, in 1888, the new county of
London annexed large portions of Surrey along the northern
border.
Antiquities. — The only ecclesiastical ruins worthy of special
mention are the picturesque walls of Newark Priory, near
Woking, founded for Augustinians in the time of Richard Cceur
de Lion; and the Early English crypt and part of the refectory
of Waverley Abbey, the earliest house of the Cistercians in
England, founded in 1128. The church architecture is of a very
varied kind, and has no peculiarly special features. Among the
more interesting churches are Albury (the old church), near
Guildford, the tower of which is of Saxon or very early Norman
date; Beddington, a fine example of Perpendicular, containing
monuments of the Carew family; Chaldon, remarkable for its
fresco wall-paintings of the I2th century, discovered during
restoration in 1870; Compton, which, though mentioned in
Domesday, possesses little of its original architecture, but is
worthy of notice for its two-storeyed chancel and its carved
wooden balustrade surmounting the pointed transitional Norman
arch which separates the nave from the chancel; Leigh, Perpen-
dicular, possessing some very fine brasses of the isth century;
Lingfield, Perpendicular, containing ancient tombs and brasses
of the Cobhams, and some fine stalls (the church was formerly
collegiate) ; Ockham, chiefly Decorated, with a lofty embattled
tower, containing the mausoleum of Lord Chancellor King
(d. 1734), with full-length statue of the chancellor by Rysbrack;
Stoke d'Abernon, Early English, with the earliest extant English
brass, that of Sir John d'Abernon, 1277, and other fine examples.
Churches at Guildford, Reigate and Woking are also noteworthy.
Of old castles the only examples are Farnham, occupied as a
palace by the bishops of Winchester, originally built by Henry
of Blois, and restored by Henry III.; and Guildford, with a
strong quadrangular Norman keep. Of ancient domestic
architecture examples include Beddington Hall (now a female
orphan asylum) , the ancient mansion of the Carews, rebuilt in the
reign of Queen Anne, and in modern times, but retaining the
hall of the Elizabethan building; Crowhurst Place, built in the
time of Henry VII., the ancient seat of the Gaynesfords, and
frequently visited by Henry VIII.; portions of Croydon Palace,
an ancient seat of the archbishops of Canterbury; the gate tower
of Esher Place, built by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win-
chester, and repaired by Cardinal Wolsey; Archbishop Abbot's
hospital, Guildford, in the Tudor style; the fine Elizabethan
house of Loseley near Guildford; Smallfield Place near Reigate,
now a farmhouse, once the seat of Sir Edward Bysshe (c. 1615-
!679), garter king-at-arms; Sutton Place near Woking, dating
from the time of Henry VIII., possessing curious mouldings and
ornaments in terra-cotta; and Ham House, of red brick, dating
from 1610.
See Topley's Geology of the Weald and Whitaker's Geology of
London Basin, forming part of the Memoirs of Geological Survey
of United Kingdom (London, 1875); J. Aubrey, Natural History and
Antiquities of Surrey (5 vols., London, 1718-1719); D. Lysons,
Environs of London (5 vols., London, 1800-1811); Baxter, Domes-
day Book of Surrey (1876) ; O. Manning and W. Bray, History and
Antiquities of Surrey (3 vols., London, 1804-1814); E. W. Brayley,
Topographical History of Surrey (5 vols., London, 1841-1848);
another edition, revised by E. Walford (London, 1878); Archaeo-
logical Collections (Surrey Archaeological Society; London, from
1858); Eric Parker, Highways and Byways in Surrey (London,
1908).
SURROGATE (from Lat. surrogare, to substitute for), a deputy
of a bishop or an ecclesiastical judge, acting in the absence of his
principal and strictly bound by the authority of the latter.
Canon 128 of the canons of 1603 lays down the qualifications
necessary for the office of surrogate and canon 1 23 the regulations
for the appointment to the office. At present the chief duty of a
surrogate in England is the granting of marriage licences, but
judgments of the arches court of Canterbury have been delivered
by a surrogate in the absence of the official principal. The office
is unknown in Scotland, but is of some importance in the
United States as denoting the judge to whom the jurisdiction of
the probate of wills, the grant of administration and of guardian-
ship is confided. In some states he is termed surrogate, in others
judge of probate, register, judge of the orphans' court, &c. His
jurisdiction is local, being limited to his county.
SURTEES, ROBERT (1779-1834), English antiquary and
topographical historian, was the son of Robert Surtees of
Mainsforth, Durham. He was educated at Christ Church,
Oxford, and after studying law without being called to the bar
he settled on the family estate at Mainsforth, which he inherited
on his father's death in 1802, and where he lived in retirement for
the rest of his life, devoting himself to the study of local antiqui-
ties and collecting materials for his History of Durham. This
142
book was published in four volumes, the first of which appeared
in 1816, and the last in 1840, after the author's death. The work
contains a large amount of genealogical and antiquarian infor-
mation; it is written in a readable style, and its learning is
enlivened by humour. Surtees had also a gift for ballad writing,
and he was so successful in imitating the style of old ballads
that he managed to deceive Sir Walter Scott himself, who
gave a place in his Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border to a piece by
Surtees called " The Death of Featherstonehaugh," under the
impression that it was ancient. Surtees, who in 1807 married
Anne Robinson, died at Mainsforth on the nth of February
1834. As a memorial of him the " Surtees Society " was
founded in 1834 for the purpose of publishing ancient unedited
manuscripts bearing on the history of the border country.
See G. Taylor, Memoir of Robert Surtees, with additions by
J. Raine (Surtees Society, London, 1852).
SURTEES, ROBERT SMITH (1803-1864), English novelist
and sporting writer, was the second son of Anthony Surtees of
Hamsterley Hall, a member of an old Durham family. Educated
to be a solicitor, Surtees soon began to contribute to the Sporting
Magazine, and in 1831 he published a treatise on the law relating
to horses and particularly the law of warranty, entitled The
Horseman's Manual. In the following year he helped to found
the New Sporting Magazine, of which he was the editor for the
next five years. To this periodical he contributed between
1832 and 1834 the papers which were afterwards collected and
published in 1838 as Jorrocks's Jaunts and Jollities. This
humorous narrative of the sporting experiences of a cockney
grocer, which suggested the more famous Pickwick Papers of
Charles Dickens, is the work by which Surtees is chiefly re-
membered, though his novel Handley Cross, published in 1843,
in which the character of " Jorrocks " is reintroduced as a master
of fox-hounds, also enjoyed a wide popularity. The former of
these two books was illustrated by "Phiz" (H. K. Browne),
and the latter, as well as most of Surtees's subsequent novels,
by John Leech, whose pictures of " Jorrocks " are everywhere
familiar and were the chief means of ensuring the lasting popu-
larity of that humorous creation. In 1838, on the death of his
father, Surtees, whose elder brother had died in 1831, inherited
the family property of Hamsterley Hall, where he lived for the
rest of his life. The later novels by Surtees included Hillingdon
Hall (1845), in which " Jorrocks " again appears; Hawbuck
Grange (1847); Mr Sponge's Sporting Tour (1853); Ask Mamma
(1858); Plain or Ringlets? (1860); Mr Facey Romford's Hounds
(1865). The last of these novels appeared after the author's
death, which occurred on the i6th of March 1864. In 1841 he
married Elizabeth Jane, daughter of Addison Fenwick of Bishop-
wearmouth, by whom he had one son and two daughters, the
younger of whom, Eleanor, in 1885 married John Prendergast
Vereker, afterwards 5th Viscount Gort.
See R. S. Surtees, Jorrocks's Jaunts and Jollities (London, 1869),
containing a biographical memoir of the author; W. P. Frith,
John Leech, His Life and Work (2 vols., London, 1891); Samuel
Halkett and J. Laing, Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous
Literature of Great Britain (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1882-1""'
SURTEES, R. S— SURVEYING
SURVEYING, the technical term for the art of determining
the position of prominent points and other objects on the surface
of the ground, for the purpose of making therefrom a graphic
representation of the area surveyed. The general principles on
which surveys are conducted and maps computed from such data
are in all instances the same; certain measures are made on the
ground, and corresponding measures are protracted on paper on
whatever scale may be a convenient fraction of the natural scale.
The method of surveying varies with the magnitude of the
survey, which may embrace an empire or represent a small plot
of land. All surveys rest primarily on linear measurements
for the direct determination of distances; but linear measure-
ment is often supplemented by angular measurement which
enables distances to be determined by principles of geometry
over areas which cannot be conveniently measured directly,
such, for instance, as hilly or broken ground. The nature
of the survey depends on the proportion which the linear and
angular measures bear to one another and is almost always a
combination of both.
History. — The art of surveying, i.e. the primary art of map-
making from linear measurements, has no historical beginning.
The first rude attempts at the representation of natural and
artificial features on a ground plan based on actual measurements
of which any record is obtainable were those of the Romans, who
certainly made use of an instrument not unlike the plane-table
for determining the alignment of their roads. Instruments
adapted to surveying purposes were in use many centuries earlier
than the Roman period. The Greeks used a form of log line for
recording the distances run from point to point along the coast
whilst making their slow voyage from the Indus to the Persian
Gulf three centuries B.C.; and it is improbable that the adaptation
of this form of linear measurement was confined to the sea alone.
Still earlier (as early as 1600 B.C.) it is said that the Chinese
knew the value of the loadstone and possessed some form of
magnetic compass. But there is no record of their methods of
linear measurements, or that the distances and angles measured
were applied to the purpose of map-making (see COMPASS and
MAP). The earliest maps of which we have any record were
based on inaccurate astronomical determinations, and it was
not till medieval times, when the Arabs made use of the Astrolabe
(q.v.), that nautical surveying (the earliest form of the art) could
really be said to begin. In 1450 the Arabs were acquainted with
the use of the compass, and could make charts of the coast-line
of those countries which they visited. In 1498 Vasco da Gama
saw a chart of the coast-line of India, which was shown him by a
Gujarati, and there can be little doubt that he benefited largely
by information obtained from charts which were of the nature
of practical coast surveys. The beginning of land surveying
(apart from small plan-making) was probably coincident with the
earliest attempts to discover the size and figure of the earth
by means of exact measurements, i.e. with the inauguration of
geodesy (see GEODESY and EARTH, FIGURE OF THE), which is
the fundamental basis of all scientific surveying.
Classification.— For convenience of reference surveying may
be considered under the following heads — involving very distinct
branches of the art dependent on different methods and instru-
ments1:—
1. Geodetic triangulation.
2. Levelling.
3. Topographical surveys.
4. Geographical surveys.
5. Traversing, and fiscal or revenue
surveys.
6. Nautical surveys.
i. GEODETIC TRIANGULATION
Geodesy, as an abstract science dealing primarily with the
dimensions and figure of the earth, may be found fully discussed
in the articles GEODESY and EARTH, FIGURE OF THE; but, as
furnishing the basis for the construction of the first framework of
triangulation on which all further surveys depend (which may be
described as its second but most important function), geodesy
is an integral part of the art of surveying, and its relation to
subsequent processes requires separate consideration. The part
which geodetic triangulation plays in the general surveys of
civilized countries which require closely accurate and various
forms of mapping to illustrate their physical features for military,
political or fiscal purposes is best exemplified by reference to
some completed system which has already served its purpose
over a large area. That of India will serve as an example.
The great triangulation of India was, at its inception, calculated
to satisfy the requirements of geodesy as well as geography, because
the latitudes and longitudes of the points of the triangulation
had to be determined for future reference by process of calculation
combining the results of the triangulation with the elements of the
earth's figure. The latter were not then known with much accuracy,
for so far geodetic operations had been mainly carried on in Europe,
and additional operations nearer the equator were much wanted;
the survey was conducted with a view to supply this want.
Thus high accuracy was aimed at from the first.
Primarily a network was thrown over the southern peninsula.
The triangles on the central meridian were measured with extra
care and checked by base-lines at distances of about 2° apart in
1 The subject of tacheometry is treated under its own heading.
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION]
SURVEYING
latitude in order to form a geodetic arc, with the addition of
astronomically determined latitudes at certain of the stations. The
base-lines were measured with chains and the principal
rrlgoao- angles with a 3-ft. theodolite. The signals were cairns
. of stones or poles. The chains were somewhat rude and
their units of length had not been determined originally,
and could not be afterwards ascertained. The results
were good of their kind and sufficient for geographical pur-
poses; but the central meridional arc — the great arc" — was
eventually deemed inadequate for geodetic requirements. A
superior instrumental equipment was introduced, with an improved
FIG. I.
modus operandi, under the direction of Colonel Sir G. Everest in
1832. The network system of triangulation was superseded by
meridional and longitudinal chains taking the form of gridirons
and resting on base-lines at the angles of the gridirons, as repre-
sented in fig. I. For convenience of reduction and nomenclature
the triangulation west of meridian 92° E. has been divided into
five sections — the lowest a trigon, the other four quadrilaterals
distinguished by cardinal points which have reference to an ob-
servatory in Central India, the adopted origin of latitudes. In the
north-east quadrilateral, which was first measured, the meridional
chains are about one degree apart ; this distance was latterly much
increased and eventually certain chains — as on the Malabar coast
and on meridian 84° in the south-east quadrilateral — were dispensed
with because good secondary triangulation for topography had been
accomplished before they could be begun.
All base-lines were measured with the Colby apparatus of com-
pensation bars and microscopes. The bars, 10 ft. long, were set
up horizontally on tripod stands; the microscopes, 6 in. apart,
were mounted in pairs revolving round a vertical axis and were
set up on tribrachs fitted to the ends of the bars. Six bars and
five central and two end pairs of microscopes — the latter with their
vertical axes perforated for a look-down telescope — constituted
a complete apparatus, measuring 63 ft. between the ground pins
or registers. Compound bars are more liable to accidental changes
of length than simple bars; they were therefore tested from time
to time by comparison with a standard simple bar; the microscopes
were also tested by comparison with a standard 6-in. scale. At
the first base-line the compensated bars were found to be liable
to sensible variations of length with the diurnal variations of tempe-
rature; these were supposed to be due to the different thermal
conductivities of the brass and the iron components. It became
necessary, therefore, to determine the mean daily length of the bars
precisely, for which reason they were systematically compared
with the standard before and after, and sometimes at the middle of,
the base-line measurement throughout the entire day for a space
of three days, and under conditions as nearly similar as possible
to those obtaining during the measurement. Eventually thermo-
meters were applied experimentally to both components of a
compound bar, when it was found that the diurnal variations in
length were principally due to difference of position relatively to
the sun, not to difference of conductivity — the component nearest
the sun acquiring heat most rapidly or parting with it most slowly,
notwithstanding that both were in the same box, which was always
sheltered from the sun's rays. Happily the systematic comparisons
of the compound bars with the standard were found to give a
sufficiently exact determination of the mean daily length. An
elaborate investigation of theoretical probable errors (p.e.) at the Cape
Cpmorin base showed that, for any base-line measured as usual
without thermometers in the compound bars, the p.e. may be taken
as ±1-5 millionth parts of the length, excluding unascertainable
constant errors, and that on introducing thermometers into these
bars the p.e. was diminished to =*= 0-55 millionths.
In all base-line measurements the weak point is the determination
of the temperature of the bars when that of the atmosphere is
rapidly rising or falling; the thermometers acquire and lose heat
more rapidly than the bar if their bulbs are outside, and more slowly
if inside the bar. Thus there is always more or less lagging, and
its effects are only eliminated when the rises and falls are of equal
amount and duration ; but as a rule the rise generally predominates
greatly during the usual hours of work, and whenever this happens
lagging may cause more error in a base-line measured with simple
bars than all other sources of error combined. In India the probable
average lagging of the standard-bar thermometer was estimated
as not less than 0-3° F., corresponding to an error of — 2 millionths
in the length of a base-line measured with iron bars. With
compound bars lagging would be much the same for both com-
ponents and its influence would consequently be eliminated. Thus
the most perfect base-line apparatus would seem to be one of com-
pensation bars with thermometers attached to each component;
then the comparisons with the standard need only be taken at
the times when the temperature is constant, and there is no
lagging.
The plan of triangulation was broadly a system of internal
meridional and longitudinal chains with an external border of
oblique chains following the course of the frontier and the coast
lines. The design of each chain was necessarily much influenced by
the physical features of the country over which it was carried. The
most difficult tracts were plains, devoid of any commanding points
of view, in some parts covered with forest and jungle, malarious
and almost uninhabited, in other parts covered with towns and
villages and umbrageous trees. In such tracts triangulation was
impossible except by constructing towers as stations of observation,
raising them to a sufficient height to overtop at least the earth's
curvature, and then either increasing the height to surmount all
obstacles to mutual vision, or clearing the lines. Thus in hilly
and open country the chains of triangles were generally made
" double " throughout, i.e. formed of polygonal and quadrilateral
figures to give greater breadth and accuracy; but in forest and close
country they were carried out as series of single triangles, to give
a minimum of labour and expense. Symmetry was secured by
restricting the angles between the limits of 30° and 90°. The average
side length was 30 m. in hill country and n in the plains; the
longest principal side was 62-7 m., though in the secondary tri-
angulation to the Himalayan peaks there were sides exceeding
200 m. Long sides were at first considered desirable, on the prin-
ciple that the fewer the links the greater the accuracy of a chain
of triangles; but it was eventually found that good observations
on long sides could only be obtained under exceptionally favourable
atmospheric conditions. In plains the length was governed by
the height to which towers could be conveniently raised to surmount
the curvature, under the well-known condition, height in feet =
§ X square of the distance in miles; thus 24 ft. of height was
needed at each end of a side to overtop the curvature in 12 m.,
and to this had to be added whatever was required to surmount
obstacles on the ground. In Indian plains refraction is more
frequently negative than positive during sunshine; no reduction
could therefore be made for it.
The selection of sites for stations, a simple matter in hills and open
country, is often difficult in plains and close country. In the early
operations, when the great arc was being carried across the wide
plains of the Gangetic valley, which are covered with villages and
trees and other obstacles to distant vision, masts 35 ft. high were
carried about for the support of the small reconnoitring theodolites,
with a sufficiency of poles and bamboos to form a scaffolding of
the same height for the observer. Other masts 70 ft. high, with
arrangements for displaying blue lights by night at 90 ft., were
erected at the spots where station sites were wanted. But the
cost of transport was great, the rate of progress was slow, and the
results were unsatisfactory. Eventually a method of touch rather
than sight was adopted, feeling the ground to search for the obstacles
to be avoided, rather than attempting to look over them: the
" rays " were traced either by a minor triangulation, or by a traverse
with theodolite and perambulator, or by a simple alignment of
flags. The first method gives the direction of the new station
most accurately; the second searches the ground most closely;
the third is best suited for tracts of uninhabited forest in which
there is no choice of either line or site, and the required station
may be built at the intersection of the two trial rays leading up
to it. As a rule it has been found most economical and expeditious
to raise the towers only to the height necessary for surmounting
the curvature, and to remove the trees and other obstacles on the
lines.
Each principal station has a central masonry pillar, circular
and 3 to 4 ft. in diameter, for the support of a large theodolite,
and around it a platform 14 to 16 ft. square for the observatory
tent, observer and signallers. The pillar it; isolated from the plat-
form, and when solid carries the station mark — a dot surrounded
by a circle — engraved on a stone at its surface, and on additional
stones or the rock in situ, in the normal of the upper mark; but,
if the height is considerable and there is a liability to deflection,
the pillar is constructed with a central vertical shaft to enable the
144
SURVEYING
[GEODETIC TRIANGULATION
theodolite to be plumbed over the ground-level mark, to which access
is obtained through a passage in the basement. In early years this
precaution against deflection was neglected and the pillars were
built solid throughout, whatever their height; the surrounding
platforms, being usually constructed of sun-dried bricks or stones
and earth, were liable to fall and press against the pillars, some of
which thus became deflected during the rainy seasons that inter-
vened between the periods during which operations were arrested
or the beginning and close of the successive circuits of triangles.
Large theodolites were invariably employed. Repeating circles
were highly thought of by French geodesists at the time when the
operations in India were begun; but they were not used in the
survey, and have now been generally discarded. The principal
theodolites were somewhat similar to the astronomer's alt-azimuth
instrument, but with larger azimuthal and smaller vertical circles,
also with a greater base to give the firmness and stability which
are required in measuring horizontal angles. The azimuthal
circles had mostly diameters of either 36 or 24 in., the vertical
circles having a diameter of 18 in. In all the theodolites the base
was a tribrach resting on three levelling foot-screws, and the circles
are read by microscopes; but in different instruments the fixed
and the rotatory parts of the body varied. In some the vertical
axis was fixed on the tribrach and projected upwards; in others it
revolved in the tribrach and projected downwards. In the former
the azimuthal circle was fixed to the tribrach, while the telescope
pillars, the microscopes, the clamps and the tangent screws were
attached to a drum revolving round the vertical axis; in the
latter the microscopes, clamps and tangent screws were fixed to
the tribrach, while the telescope pillars and the azimuthal circle
were attached to a plate fixed at the head of the rotary vertical
axis. _
Cairns of stones, poles or other opaque signals were primarily
employed, the angles being measured by day only; eventually
it was found that the atmosphere was often more favourable for
observing by night than by day, and that distant points were raised
well into view by refraction by night which might be invisible
or only seen with difficulty by day. Lamps were then introduced
of the simple form of a cup, 6 in. in diameter, filled with cotton
seeds steeped in oil and resin, to burn under an inverted earthen
jar, 30 in. in diameter, with an aperture in the side towards the ob-
server. Subsequently this contrivance gave place to the Argand
lamp with parabolic reflector ; the opague day signals were discarded
for heliotropes reflecting the sun's rays to the observer. The
introduction of luminous signals not only rendered the night as
well as the day available for the observations but changed the char-
acter of the operations, enabling work to be done during the dry
and healthy season of the year, when the atmosphere is generally
hazy and dust-laden, instead of being restricted as formerly to the
rainy and unhealthy seasons, when distant opaque objects are
best seen. A higher degree of accuracy was also secured, for the
luminous signals were invariably displayed through diaphragms of
appropriate aperture, truly centred over the station mark; and,
looking like stars, they could be observed with greater precision,
whereas opaque signals are always dim in comparison and are liable
to be seen excentncally when the light falls on one side. A signal-
ling party of three men was usually found sufficient to manipulate
a pair of heliotropes — one for single, two for double reflection,
according to the sun's position — and a lamp, throughout the night
and day. Heliotropers were also employed at the observing
stations to flash instructions to the signallers.
The theodolites were invariably set up under tents for protection
against sun, wind and rain, and centred, levelled and adjusted for
Measuring t'le runs ?^ t'le microsc°Pes- Then the signals were
Horizontal observed in regular rotation round the horizon, alter-
Anxles nately from right to left and vice versa; after the pre-
scribed minimum number of rounds, either two or three,
had been thus measured, the telescope was turned through
1 80°, both in altitude and azimuth, changing the position of the
face of the vertical circle relatively to the observer, and further
rounds were measured; additional measures of single angles were
taken if the prescribed observations were not sufficiently accordant.
As the microscopes were invariably equidistant and their number
was always odd, either three or five, the readings taken on the azi-
muthal circle during the telescope pointings to any object in the
two positions of the vertical circle, " face right " and " face left,"
were made on twice as many equidistant graduations as the number
of microscopes. The theodolite was then shifted bodily in azimuth,
by being turned on the ring on the head of the stand, which brought
new graduations under the microscopes at the telescope pointings;
then further rounds were measured in the new positions, face right
and face left. This process was repeated as often as had been pre-
viously prescribed, the successive angular shifts of position being made
by equal arcs bringing equidistant graduations under the microscopes
during the successive telescope pointings to one and the same object.
By these arrangements all periodic errors of graduation were elimin-
ated, the numerous graduations that were read tended to cancel
accidental errors of division, and the numerous rounds of measures
to minimize the errors of observation arising from atmospheric
and personal causes.
Under this system of procedure the instrumental and ordinary
Vertical
Angles.
errors are practically cancelled and any remaining error is most
probably due to lateral refraction, more especially when the rays
of light graze the surface of the ground. The three angles of every
triangle were always measured.
The apparent altitude of a distant point is liable to considerable
variations during the twenty-four hours, under the influence of
changes in the density of the lower strata of the atmo-
sphere. Terrestrial refraction is capricious, more par-
ticularly when the rays of light graze the surface of the
ground, passing through a medium which is liable to extremes of
rarefaction and condensation, under the alternate influence of the
sun's heat radiated from the surface of the ground and of chilled
atmospheric vapour. When the back and forward verticals at a
pair of stations are equally refracted, their difference gives an exact
measure of the difference of height. But the atmospheric conditions
are not always identical at the same moment everywhere on long
rays which graze the surface of the ground, and the ray between
two reciprocating stations is liable to be differently refracted at
its extremities, each end being influenced in a greater degree by
the conditions prevailing around it than by those at a distance;
thus instances are on record of a station A being invisible from
another B, while B was visible from A.
When the great arc entered the plains of the Gangetic valley,
simultaneous reciprocal verticals were at first adopted with the
hope of eliminating refraction; but it was soon found Refraction
that they did not dp so sufficiently to justify the ex-
pense of the additional instruments and observers. Afterwards
the back and forward verticals were observed as the stations were
visited in succession, the back angles at as nearly as possible the
same time of the day as the forward angles, and always during
the so-called " time of minimum refraction," which ordinarily
begins about an hour after apparent noon and lasts from two
to three hours. The apparent zenith distance is always greatest
then, but the refraction is a minimum only at stations which are
well elevated above the surface of the ground ; at stations on plains
the refraction is liable to pass through zero and attain a consider-
able negative magnitude during the heat of the day, for the lower
strata of the atmosphere are then less dense than the strata imme-
diately above and the rays are refracted downwards. On plains
the greatest positive refractions are also obtained — maximum
values, both positive and negative, usually occurring, the former
by night, the latter by day, when the sky is most free from clouds.
The values actually met with were found to range from + 1-21
down to -0-09 parts of the contained arc on plains; the normal
" coefficient of refraction " for free rays between hill stations
below 6000 ft. was about 0-07, which diminished to 0-04 above
18,000 ft., broadly varying inversely as the temperature and
directly as the pressure, but much influenced also by local climatic
conditions.
In measuring the vertical angles with the great theodolites,
graduation errors were regarded as insignificant compared with
errors arising from uncertain refraction; thus no arrangement was
made for effecting changes of zero in the circle settings. The ob-
servations were always taken in pairs, face right and left, to eliminate
index errors, only a few daily, but some on as many days as
possible, for the variations from day to day were found to be greater
than the diurnal variations during the hours of minimum
refraction.
In the ordnance and other surveys the bearings of the surround-
ing stations are deduced from the actual observations, but from
the " included angles " in the Indian survey. The Wehrhts
observations of every angle are tabulated vertically in
as many columns as the number of circle settings face left and face
right, and the mean for each setting is taken. For several years
the general mean of these was adopted as the final result; but
subsequently a " concluded angle " was obtained by combining the
single means with weights inversely proportional to g2 + o2 -5- n — g,
being a value of the e.m.s.1 of graduation derived empirically from
the differences between the general mean and the mean for each
setting, o the e.m.s. of observation deduced from the differences
between the individual measures and their respective means, and
n the number of measures at each setting. Thus, putting Wi, U'2l . . .
for the weights of the single means, w for the weight of the con-
cluded angle, M for the general mean, C for the concluded angle,
and d\, d?, . . . for the differences between M and the single
means, we have
C = M + ""4 + "** + (,)
Wi + Wt +
and w = wi + Wi + (2)
C — M vanishes when n is constant ; it is inappreciable when g
is much larger than o; it is significant only when the graduation
errors are more minute than the errors of observation; but it was
always small, not exceeding 0-14* with the system of two rounds
of measures and 0-05" with the system of three rounds.
The weights of the concluded angles thus obtained were employed
in the primary reductions of the angles of single triangles and
polygons which were made to satisfy the geometrical conditions
'The theoretical " error of mean square " = 1-48 X " probable
error."
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION]
SURVEYING
of each figure, because they were strictly relative for all angles
measured with the same instrument and under similar circumstances
and conditions, as was almost always the case for each single figure.
But in the final reductions, when numerous chains of triangles
composed of figures executed with different instruments and under
different circumstances came to be adjusted simultaneously, it was
necessary to modify the original weights, on such evidence of the
precision of the angles as might be obtained from other and more
reliable sources than the actual measures of the angles. This
treatment will now be described.
Values of theoretical error for groups of angles measured with
the same instrument and under similar conditions may be obtained
in three ways — (i.) from the squares of the reciprocals
e<7" of the weight w deduced as above from the measures
rrorsl of such angle, (ii.) from the magnitudes of the excess of
Angles. tjje sum Qf ^he ang]es Of each triangle above 180°+ the,
spherical excess, and (iii.) from the magnitudes of the corrections
which it is necessary to apply to the angles of polygonal figures
and networks to satisfy the several geometrical conditions.
Every figure, whether a single triangle or a polygonal network,
was made consistent by the application of corrections to the observed
angles to satisfy its geometrical conditions. The three
angles of every triangle having been observed, their
sum had to be made = 180° + the spherical excess;
Angles. jn networics ;t was a]so necessary that the si>m of the
angles measured round the horizon at any station should be exactly
= 360", that the sum of the parts of an angle measured at different
times should equal the whole and that the ratio of any two sides
should be identical, whatever the route through which it was com-
puted. These are called the triangular, central, toto-partial and side
conditions; they present « geometrical equations, which contain
t unknown quantities, the errors of the observed angles, t being
always > n. When these equations are satisfied and the deduced
values of errors are applied as corrections to the observed angles,
the figure becomes consistent. Primarily the equations were treated
by a method of successive approximations; but afterwards they were
all solved simultaneously by the so-called method of minimum
squares, which leads to the most probable of any system of correc-
tions.
The angles having been made geometrically consistent inter se
in each figure, the side-lengths are computed from the base-line
onwards by Legendre's theorem, each angle being dimin-
inJes of isned by one-third of the spherical excess of the triangle
1 to which it appertains. The theorem _is applicable
without sensible error to triangles of a much larger "size than any
that are ever measured.
A station of origin being chosen of which the latitude and longitude
are known astronomically, and also the azimuth of one of the
Latltudeand surrounding stations, the differences of latitude and
ion£«u</eo/longitude and the reverse azimuths are calculated in
Stations; succession, for all the stations of the triangulation,
Azimuth of by Puissant's formulae (Traite de geodesic, 3rd ed., Paris,
Sides. 1842).
Problem. — Assuming the earth to be spheroidal, let A and B be
two stations on its surface, and let the latitude and longitude of A
be known, also the azimuth of B at A, and the distance between
A and B at the mean sea-level; we have to find the latitude and
longitude of B and the azimuth of A at B.
The following symbols are employed: a the major and b the
minor semi-axis ; e the excentricity. = J — -^ — £ ; p the radius of
a(l — e2)
curvature to the meridian in latitude X, = . ; _e2s,na^) ;i » tne normal
to the meridian in latitude X, = i i— '* ^ ant' ^ t'le S'ven
latitude and longitude of A; X + AX and L + AZ, the required lati-
tude and longitude of B ; A the azimuth of B at A ; B the azimuth
of A at B; A/1 =B — (*+A) ; c the distance between Aand B. Then,
all azimuths being measured from the south, we have
AX" =
AZ,"
c „
-- cos A cosec i
p
I c*
— - -- -sin2/! tan X cosec i"
sin 2X cosec l"
tan'X) cosec i"
(3)
+g— 2 sinM cos
c sin A ..
-7c-oTxcosec '
, i c1 sin 2/1 tan X
+ 2^ COSX COSeCI
I e3 (l-M tan'X) sin 2/1 cos/1
-57- cosX -c
, i r3 sinM tan4 X
+3P cos X COSCC
.
cosec I
(4)
A/1" or
— sin A tan X cosec i"
tan X (1+2 tan'X) cosec i"
(5)
Each A is the sum of four terms symbolized by Si, Si, Si and &t;
the calculations are so arranged as to produce these terms in the
order JX, 5Z,, and SA , each term entering as a factor in calculating
the following term. The arrangement is shown below in equations
in which the symbols P, Q, . . . Z represent the factore which
depend on the adopted geodetic constants, and vary with the
latitude; the logarithms of their numerical values are tabulated in
the Auxiliary Tables to Facilitate the Calculations of the Indian Survey.
— P. cosA.c SiZ, = +iiX.0.secX.tan/4 SiA = -HiZ..sinX]
h\=-+S1A.R.sinA.c 02L=-52\.$.cotA M = +&Z. . T I,,.
«3X=-M- F. cot/4 «•>£. = +S3X. U.sinA.c &iA = +&tL.W fW
«4X=-a3A.A'.tanA 8*1. = +«4X . K.tan/1 M = +««Z, . Z J
The calculations described so far suffice to make the angles of
the several trigonometrical figures consistent inter se, and to give
preliminary values of the lengths and azimuths of the
sides and the latitudes and longitudes of the stations. Reduction
The results are amply sufficient for the requirements ofPriacipcJ
of the topographer and land surveyor, and they are Trlangula-
published in preliminary charts, which give full numerical "°**'
details of latitude, longitude, azimuth and side-length, and of
height also, for each portion of the triangulation — secondary as
well as principal — as executed year by year. But on the com-
pletion of the several chains of triangles further reductions became
necessary, to make the triangulation everywhere consistent inter se
and with the verificatory base-lines, so that the lengths and azimuths
of common sides and the latitudes and longitudes of common stations
should be identical at the junctions of chains and that the measured
and computed lengths of the base-lines should also be identical.
As an illustration of the problem for treatment, suppose a
combination of three meridional and two longitudinal chains com-
prising seventy-two single triangles with a base-line at each corner as
shown in the accompanying C
/vwwvww
diagram (fig. 2); suppose the /\AA/V\AAAAA7
three angles of every triangle ' v v v v v v v
to have been measured and
made . consistent. Let A be
the origin, with its latitude
and longitude given, and also
the length and azimuth of the
adjoining base-line. With
these data processes of cal-
culation are carried through L
the triangulation to obtain the _
lengths and azimuths ol the * _ • 2-
sides and the latitudes and longitudes of the stations, say in the fol-
lowing order: from A through B to E, through F to E, through F to
D, through F and E to C, and through F and D to C. Then there are
two values of side, azimuth, latitude and longitude at E — one from
the right-hand chains via B, the other from the left-hand chains
via F; similarly there are two sets of values at C; and each of
the base-lines at B, C and D has a calculated as well as a
measured value. Thus eleven absolute errors are presented
for dispersion over the triangulation by the application of the
most appropriate correction to each angle, and, as a preliminary
to the determination of these corrections, equations must be con-
structed between each of the absolute errors and the unknown
errors of the angles from which they originated. For this purpose
assume X to be the angle opposite the flank side of any triangle,
and Y and Z the angles opposite the sides of continuation ; also let
x, y and z be the most probable values of the errors of the angles
which will satisfy the given equations of condition. Then each
equation may be expressed in the form [ax+by+cz] =E, the brackets
indicating a summation for all the triangles involved. We have
first to ascertain, the values of the coefficients a, b and c of the
unknown quantities. They are readily found for the side equations
on the circuits and between the base-lines, for x does not enter
them, but only y and z, with coefficients which are the cotangents
of Y and Z, so that these equations are simpjy [cot Y.y— cot 'Z.z] =E.
But three out of four of the circuit equations are geodetic, _ corre-
sponding to the closing errors in latitude, longitude and azimuth,
and in them the coefficients are very complicated. They are ob-
tained as follows. The first term of each of the three expressions
for AX, AZ,, and B is differentiated in terms of c and A, giving
<f.AX
AX
} -£-
d.AZ.
AZ,
tan A sin i
cot A sin i
j
dB=dA+&A ] ~+dA cot A sin i" j
(7)
146
SURVEYING
[GEODETIC TRIANGULATION
C.I
(31
in which dc and dA represent the errors in the length and azimuth
of any side c which have been generated
in the course of the triangulation up to
it from the base-line and the azimuth
station at the origin. The errors in the
latitude and longitude of any station
which are due to the triangulation are
d\, = [<2.AX], and dL, = [S.A£]. Let
station I be the origin, and let 2,3,...
be the succeeding stations taken along
a predetermined line of traverse, which
may either run from vertex to vertex
of the successive triangles, zigzagging
between the flanks of the chain, as in
fig. 3 (i), or be carried directly along one
of the flanks, as in fig. 3 (2). For the
general symbols of the differential equa-
tions substitute AX,,, AL*, A/1,,, Cn, A,,
and 5n, for the side between stations n
and M + I of the traverse; and let Scn
and &An be the errors generated between
the sides Cn-i and c»; then
we get
., _
Ci ~ Ci ' Ci ~ d "*"C2''" ,C» iL^J'
Performing the necessary substitutions and summations,
t ~ S f Rr
cot A] sin
+j"[AZ, cot /l]S^i+"[AZ, cot A]&A2+. . .
+AL, cot An&An) sin i".
Thus we have the following expression for any geodetic error: —
*- t j-
-E, (8)
where n and <t> represent the respective summations which are the
coefficients of dc and 6A in each instance but the first, in which I
is added to the summation in forming the coefficient of &A.
The angular errors x, y and z must now be introduced, in place
of Sc and SA, into the general expression, which will then take differ-
ent forms, according as the route adopted for the line of traverse
was the zigzag or the direct. In the former, the number of stations
on the traverse is ordinarily the same as the number of triangles,
and, whether or no, a common numerical notation may be adopted
for both the traverse stations and the Collateral triangles; thus the
angular errors of every triangle enter the general expression in the
form =*= if>x + cot Y . n'y — cot Z.n'z,
in which it.' = n sin I *, and the upper sign of <t> is taken if the triangle
lies to the left, the lower if to the right, of the line of traverse. When
the direct traverse is adopted, there are only half as many traverse
stations as triangles, and therefore only half the number of /j.'s and
<t>'s to determine; but it becomes necessary to adopt different
numberings for the stations and the triangles, and the form of the
coefficients of the angular errors alternates in successive triangles.
Thus, if the pth triangle has no side on the line of the traverse but
only an angle at the /th station, the form is
+ <t>i . xf + cot Yj . MI' • yf— cot Zp . n't . gf.
If the gth triangle has a side between the /th and the (Z+i)th
stations of the traverse, the form is
cot XJji'i — n'i+i)x, + (<t>i + n'i+i cot y8)ya —(<#>J+i — M/ cot Z^z,.
As each circuit has a right-hand and a left-hand branch, the errors
of the angles are finally arranged so as to present equations of the
general form
[ax+by+cz],— [ax+by+cz]i =E.
The eleven circuit and base-line equations of condition having
been duly constructed, the next step is to find values of the angular
errors which will satisfy these equations, and be the most probable
of any system of values that will do so, and at the same time will
not disturb the existing harmony of the angles in each of the seventy-
two triangles. Harmony is maintained by introducing the equation
of condition #+y+z=o for every triangle. The most probable
results are obtained by the method of minimum squares, which
may be applied in two ways.
i. A factor X may be obtained for each of the eighty-three equa-
tions under the condition that
;; is made a minimum,
u, v and w being the reciprocals of the weights of the observed angles.
This necessitates the simultaneous solution of eighty-three equations
to obtain as many values of X. The resulting values of the errors
of the angles in any, the pth, triangle, are
XT = uf[ap\\ ; yp =vp[bp\] | ; z, =wp[cp*]. (9)
ii. One of the unknown quantities in every triangle, as x, may
be eliminated from each of the eleven circuit and base-line equa-
tions by substituting its equivalent— (y+z) for it, a similar substi-
tution being made in the minimum. Then the equations take the
form [(b— a)y+(c— o)z] = £, while the minimum becomes
(y+z)» , y' . z'1
u *p 'w] '
Thus we have now to find only eleven values of X by a simultaneous
solution of as many equations, instead of eighty-three values from
eighty-three equations; but we arrive at more complex expressions
for the angular errors as follows : —
- B,)x]}
(ro)
The second method has invariably been adopted, originally be-
cause it was supposed that, the number of the factors X being re-
duced from the total number of equations to that of the circuit and
base-line equations, a great saving of labour would be effected. But
subsequently it was ascertained that in this respect there is little
to choose between the two methods; for, when x is not eliminated,
and as many factors are introduced as there are equations, the factors
for the triangular equations may be readily eliminated at the outset.
Then the really severe calculations will be restricted to the solution
of the equations containing the factors for the circuit and base-line
equations as in the second method.
In the preceding illustration it is assumed that the base-lines are
errorless as compared with the triangulation. Strictly speaking,
however, as base-lines are fallible quantities, presumably of differ-
ent weight, their errors should be introduced as unknown quantities
of which the most probable values are to be determined in a simul-
taneous investigation of the errors of all the facts of observation,
whether linear or angular. When they are connected together
by so few triangles that their ratios may be deduced as accurately,
or nearly so, from the triangulation as from the measured lengths,
this ought to be done; but, when the connecting triangles are so
numerous that the direct ratios are of much greater weight than
the trigonometrical, the errors of the base-lines may be neglected.
In the reduction of the Indian triangulation it was decided, after
examining the relative magnitudes of the probable errors of the
linear and the angular measures and ratios, to assume the base-lines
to be errorless.
The chains of triangles being largely composed of polygons or
other networks, and not merely of single triangles, as has been
assumed for simplicity in the illustration, the geometrical harmony
to be maintained involved the introduction of a large number of
" side," " central " and " toto-partial " equations of condition, as
well as the triangular. Thus the problem for attack was the simul-
taneous solution of a number of equations of condition = that of all
the geometrical conditions of every figure-Hour times the number
of circuits formed by the chains of triangles +the number of base-
lines— I, the number of unknown quantities contained in the
equations being that of the whole of the observed angles; the
method of procedure, if rigorous, would be precisely similar to that
already indicated for " harmonizing the angles of trigonometrical
figures," of which it is merely an expansion from single figures to
great groups.
The rigorous treatment would, however, have involved the simul-
taneous solution of about 4000 equations between 9230 unknown
quantities, which was impracticable. The triangulation was
therefore divided into sections for separate reduction, of which
the most important were the five between the meridians of 67°
and 92° (see fig. i), consisting of four quadrilateral figures and a
trigon, each comprising several chains of triangles and some base-
lines. This arrangement had the advantage of enabling the final
reductions to be taken in hand as soon as convenient after the
completion of any section, instead of being postponed until all
were completed. It was subject, however, to the condition that
the sections containing the best chains of triangles were to be first
reduced; for, as all chains bordering contiguous sections would
necessarily be " fixed " as a part of the section first reduced, it was
obviously desirable to run no risk of impairing the best chains by
forcing them into adjustment with others of inferior quality. It
happened that both the north-east and the south-west quadrilaterals
contained several of the older chains; their reduction was therefore
made to follow that of the collateral sections containing the modern
chains.
But the reduction of each of these great sections was in itself a
very formidable undertaking, necessitating some departure from
a purely rigorous treatment. For the chains were largely composed
of polygonal networks and not of single triangles only as assumed
in the illustration, and therefore cognizance had to be taken of a
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION]
SURVEYING
number of " side " and other geometrical equations of condition,
which entered irregularly and caused great entanglement. Equa-
tions 9 and 10 of the illustration are of a simple form because they
have a single geometrical condition to maintain, the triangular,
which is not only expressed by the simple and symmetrical equation
x-\-y-\-z = o, but — what is of much greater importance — recurs in
a regular order of sequence that materially facilitates the general
solution. Thus, though the calculations must in all cases be very
numerous and laborious, rules can be formulated under which they
can be well controlled at every stage and eventually brought to a
successful issue. The other geometrical conditions of networks are
expressed by equations which are not merely of a more complex
form but have no regular order of sequence, for the networks pre-
sent a variety of forms; thus their introduction would cause much
entanglement and complication, and greatly increase the labour of
the calculations and the chances of failure. Wherever, therefore,
any compound figure occurred, only so much of it as was required
to form a chain of single triangles was employed. The figure having
previously been made consistent, it was immaterial what part was
employed, but the selection was usually made so as to introduce
the fewest triangles. The triangulation for final simultaneous
reduction was thus made to consist of chains of single triangles
only; but all the included angles were "fixed" simultaneously.
The excluded angles of compound figures were subsequently har-
monized with the fixed angles, which was readily done for each
figure per se.
This departure from rigorous accuracy was not of material im-
portance, for the angles of the compound figures excluded from the
simultaneous reduction had already, in the course of the several
independent figural adjustments, been made to exert their full in-
fluence on the included angles. The figural adjustments had, how-
ever, introduced new relations between the angles of different
figures, causing their weights to increase caeteris paribus with the
number of geometrical conditions satisfied in each instance. Thus,
suppose w to be the average weight of the t observed angles of any
figure, and n the number of geometrical conditions presented for
satisfaction; then the average weight of the angles after adjustment
may betaken as w. t _ n> the factor thus being 1-5 fora triangle,
1-8 for a hexagon, 2 for a quadrilateral, 2-5 for the network around
the Sironj base-line, &c.
In framing the normal equations between the indeterminate
factors X for the final simultaneous reduction, it would have greatly
added to the labour of the subsequent calculations if a separate
weight had been given to each angle, as was done in the primary
figural reductions; this was obviously unnecessary, for theoretical
requirements would now be amply satisfied by giving equal weights
to all the angles of each independent figure. The mean weight
that was finally adopted for the angles of each group was therefore
taken as
'*l -n'
p being the modulus.
The second of the two processes for applying the method of
minimum squares having been adopted, the values of the errors
y and z of the angles appertaining to any, the £th, triangle were
finally expressed by the following equations, which are derived
from (10) by substituting « for the reciprocal final mean weight as
above determined : —
= — "[(2&p - IP -Cp)X]|
(ii)
The following table gives the number of equations of condition
and unknown quantities — the angular errors — in the five grea't
sections of the triangulation, which were respectively included in
the simultaneous general reductions and relegated to the sub-
sequent adjustments of each figure per se: —
Simultaneous.
External Figural.
Equations.
w
Equations.
— 2
*o 8
.
• J3
tg
i a
a
ATa
EC £
H_J
I
H B
%
Side.
•o'fi
< "
t£t ^
°1
a
a
0
&
i. N.W. Quad.
2. S.E. Quad.
23
15
550
277
1650
831
267
104
64
152
92
6
2
761
476
no
68
3. N.E. Quad. .
49
573
1719
112
56
69
O
50
4. Trigon.
5. S.W. Quad. .
22
24
3°3
172
909
516
192
83
79
32
IOI
52
2
I
547
237
77
40
The corrections to the angles were generally minute, rarely ex-
ceeding the theoretical probable errors of the angles, and therefore
applicable without taking any liberties with the facts of observa-
tion.
Azimuth observations in connexion with the principal triangula-
tion were determined by measuring the horizontal angle between
a referring mark and a circumpolar star, shortly before . . .
and after elongation, and usually at both elongations ob
in order to eliminate the error of the star's place. System-
atic changes of " face " and of the zero settings of the
azimuthal circle were made as in the measurement of the principal
angles; but the repetitions on each zero were more numerous;
the azimuthal levels were read and corrections applied to the star
observations for dislevelment. The triangulation was not adjusted,
in the course of the final simultaneous reduction, to the astronomi-
cally determined azimuths, because they are liable to be vitiated
by local attractions ; but the azimuths observed at about fifty stations
around the primary azimuthal station, which was adopted as the
origin of the geodetic calculations, were referred to that station,
through the triangulation, for comparison with the primary azimuth.
A table was prepared of the differences (observed at the origin —
computed from a distance) between the primary and the geodetic
azimuths; the differences were assumed to be mainly due to the
local deflexions of the plumb-line and only partially to error in the
triangulation, and each was multiplied by the factor
tangent of latitude of origin,
tangent of latitude of comparing station
in order that the effect of the local attraction on the azimuth ob-
served at the distant station — which varies with the latitude and
is = the deflexion in the prime vertical X the tangent of the latitude
— might be converted to what it would have been had the station
been situated in the same latitude as the origin. Each deduction
was given a weight, w, inversely proportional to the number of
triangles connecting the station with the origin, and the most prob-
able value of the error of the observed azimuth at the origin was
taken as
[(observed— computed) p w] f .
[w] (I2)'
the value of x thus obtained was — l-l ".
The formulae employed in the reduction of the azimuth observa-
tions were as follows. In the spherical triangle PZS, in which
P is the pole, Z the zenith and S the star, the co-latitude PZ and
the polar distance PS are known, and, as the angle at S is a right
angle at the elongation, the hour angle and the azimuth at that
time are found from the equations
cosP = tanPScotPZ,
cosZ = cosPSsinP.
The interval, &P, between the time of any observation and that
of the elongation being known, the corresponding azimuthal angle,
SZ, between the two positions of the star at the times of observa-
tion and elongation is given rigorously by the following expression
— tan &Z
2sinH5P ,
cotPSsinPZsinPj I +tan2PScos6P+sec2PScotPsinSP) W'
which is expressed as follows for logarithmic computation —
m tan Z cos2 PS
i - n +1 '
where m - 2 sin2— cosec i", » = 2 sin2PS sin2—, and
l = cot P sin SP; I, m, and n are tabulated.
Let A and B (fig. 4) be any two points the normals at which meet
at C, cutting the sea-level at p and q; take Dq = Ap, then BD is
the difference of height ; draw . He,M aa<, t> —
the tangents Aa and Bb at offr,c,inn
A and B, then aAB is the Kefr*ct'
depression of B at A and bBA that of
A at B; join AD, then BD is determined
from the triangle A BD. The triangulation
gives the distance between A and B at
the sea-level, whence Pq = c; thus,
putting Ap, the height of A above the
sea-level, —H, and pC=r,
/ , H c* \ . .
AD=c(l+7-^) <'4).
Putting Da and £>& for the actual depres-
sions at A and B, S for the angle at A,
usually called the " subtended angle,"
and h for BD —
S = ±(Dt-D.) (15),
, . ,~ sin S , ,,
and h=AD^TD, <16)'
The angle at C be\ng = Db+D., S may FlG' *•
be expressed in terms of a single vertical angle and C when
observations have been taken at only one of the two points.
C, the "contained arc," =
•cosec l* in seconds. Putting P'0
and D't, for the observed vertical angles, and <£<,, <t>t for the amounts
by which they are affected by refraction, Da=D'<t+<t>a and
Dt,=D'i,+<fn; <t>, and <£& may differ in amount, but as they
148
SURVEYING
[LEVELLING
cannot be separately ascertained they are always assumed to be
equal; the hypothesis is sufficiently exact for practical purposes
when both verticals have been measured under similar atmospheric
conditions. The refractions being taken equal, the observed
verticals are substituted for the true in (15) to find 5, and the
difference of height is calculated by (16); the third term
within the brackets of (14) is usually omitted. The mean value of
the refraction is deduced from the formula
(17).
An approximate value is thus obtained from the observations
between the pairs of reciprocating stations in each district, and the
corresponding mean "coefficient of refraction," <t> + C, is computed
for the district, and is employed when heights have to be deter-
mined from observations at a single station only. When either of
the vertical angles is an elevation— £ must be substituted for D
in the above expressions.1
2. LEVELLING
Levelling is the art of determining the relative heights of points
on the surface of the ground as referred to a hypothetical surface
which cuts the direction of gravity everywhere at right angles.
When a line of instrumental levels is begun at the sea-level, a
series of heights is determined corresponding to what would be
found by perpendicular measurements upwards from the surface
of water communicating freely with the sea in underground
channels; thus the line traced indicates a hypothetical prolonga-
tion of the surface of the sea inland, which is everywhere
conformable to the earth's curvature.
The trigonometrical determination of the relative heights of
points at known distances apart, by the measurements of their
mutual vertical angles — is a method of levelling. But the method
to which the term " levelling " is always applied is that of the
direct determination of the differences of height from the
readings of the lines at which graduated staves, held vertically
over the points, are cut by the horizontal plane which passes
through the eye of the observer. Each method has its own
advantages. The former is less accurate, but best suited for
the requirements of a general geographical survey, to obtain the
heights of all the more prominent objects on the surface of the
ground, whether accessible or not. The latter may be conducted
with extreme precision, and is specially valuable for the deter-
mination of the relative levels, however minute, of easily
accessible points, however numerous, which succeed each other
at short intervals apart; thus it is very generally undertaken
pari passu with geographical surveys to furnish lines of level for
ready reference as a check on the accuracy of the trigonometrical
heights. In levelling with staves the measurements are always
taken from the horizontal plane which passes through the eye
of the observer; but the line of levels which it is the object of the
operations to trace is a curved line, everywhere conforming to
the normal curvature of the earth's surface, and deviating more
and more from the plane of reference as the distance from the
station of observation increases. Thus, either a correction for
curvature must be applied to every staff reading, or the instru-
ment must be set up at equal distances from the staves; the
curvature correction, being the same for each staff, will then be
eliminated from the difference of the readings, which will thus
give the true difference of level of the points on which the staves
are set up.
Levelling has to be repeated frequently in executing a long line
of levels — say seven times on an average in every mile — and must
be conducted with precaution against various errors. Instru-
mental errors arise when the visual axis of the telescope is not
perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and when the focusing tube
does not move truly parallel to the visual axis on a change of focus.
The first error is eliminated, and the second avoided, by placing
the instrument at equal distances from the staves; and as this
procedure has also the advantage of eliminating the corrections
for both curvature and refraction, it should invariably be adopted.
1 In topographical and levelling operations it is sometimes con-
venient to apply small corrections to observations of the height
for curvature and refraction simultaneously. Putting d for the
distance, r for the earth's radius, and K for the coefficient of
refraction, and expressing the distance and radius in miles and
the correction to height in feet, then correction for curvature
= fd2; correction for refraction = — Jud2; correction for both
Errors of staff readings should be guarded against by having the
staves graduated on both faces, but differently figured, so that
the observer may not be biased to repeat an error of the first
reading in the second. The staves of the Indian survey have one
face painted white with black divisions — feet, tenths and hundredths
— from o to 10, the other black with white divisions from 5-55 to
15.55. Deflexion from horizontality may either be measured and
allowed for by taking the readings of the ends of the bubble of the
spirit-level and applying corresponding corrections to the staff
readings, or be eliminated by setting the bubble to the same position
on its scale at the reading of the second staff as at that of the first,
both being equidistant from the observer.
Certain errors are liable to recur in a constant order and to
accumulate to a considerable magnitude, though they may be too
minute to attract notice at any single station, as when the work
is carried on under a uniformly sinking or rising refraction— from
morning to midday or from midday to evening — or when the instru-
ment takes some time to settle down on its bearings after being set
up for observation. They may be eliminated (i.) by alternating the
order of observation of the staves, taking the back staff first at one
station and the forward first at the next; (ii.) by working in a
circuit, or returning over the same line back to the origin; (iii.)
by dividing a line into sections and reversing the direction of
operation in alternate sections. Cumulative error, not eliminable
by working in a circuit, may be caused when there is much northing
or southing in the direction of the line, for then the sun's light
will often fall endwise on the bubble of the level, illuminating the
outer edge of the rim at the nearer end and the inner edge at the
farther end, and so biasing the observer to take scale readings
of edges which are not equidistant from the centre of the bubble;
this introduces a tendency to raise the south or depress the north
ends of lines of level in the northern hemisphere. On long lines,
the employment of a second observer, working independently over
the same ground as the first, station by station, is very desirable.
The great lines are usually carried over the main roads of the country,
a number of " bench marks " being fixed for future reference. In
the ordnance survey of Great Britain lines have been carried across
from coast to coast in such a manner that the level of any common
crossing point may be found by several independent lines. Of these
points there are 1 66 in England, Scotland and Wales; the dis-
crepancies met with at them were adjusted simultaneously by the
method of minimum squares.
The sea-level is the natural datum plane for levelling opera-
tions, more particularly in countries bordering on the ocean.
The earliest surveys of coasts were made for the use
of navigators and, as it was considered very important
that the charts should everywhere show the minimum depth
of water which a vessel would meet with, low water of spring-
tides was adopted as the datum. But this does not answer the
requirements of a land survey, because the tidal range between
extreme high and low water differs greatly at different points on
coast-lines. Thus the generally adopted datum plane for land
surveys is the mean sea-level, which, if not absolutely uniform
all the world over, is much more nearly so than low water. Tidal
observations have been taken at nearly fifty points on the coasts
of Great Britain, which were connected by levelling operations;
the local levels of mean sea were found to differ by larger
magnitudes than could fairly be attributed to errors in the lines
of level, having a range of 1 2 to 15 in. above or below the mean
of all at points on the open coast, and more in tidal rivers.2 But
the general mean of the coast stations for England and Wales was
practically identical with that for Scotland. The observations,
however, were seldom of longer duration than a fortnight, which
is insufficient for an exact determination of even the short
period components of the tides, and ignores the annual and semi-
annual components, which occasionally attain considerable mag-
nitudes. The mean sea-levels at Port Said in the Mediterranean
and at Suez in the Red Sea have been found to be identical,
and a similar identity is said to exist in the levels of the Atlantic
and the Pacific oceans on the opposite coasts of the Isthmus of
Panama. This is in favour of a uniform level all the world over ;
but, on the other hand, lines of level carried across the continent
of Europe make the mean sea-level of the Mediterranean at
Marseilles and Trieste from 2 to 5 ft. below that of the North
Sea and the Atlantic at Amsterdam and Brest — a result which
1 In tidal estuaries and rivers the mean water-level rises above
the mean sea-level as the distance from the open coast-line increases ;
for instance, in the Hooghly river, passing Calcutta, there is a rise
of 10 in. in 42 m. between Sagar (Saugor) Island at the mouth of
the river and Diamond Harbour, and a further rise of 20 in. in 43 m.
between Diamond Harbour and Kidderpur.
Sea-level.
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS]
SURVEYING
149
it is not easy to explain on mechanical principles. In India
various tidal stations on the east and west coasts, at which the
mean sea-level has been determined from several years' observa-
tions, have been connected by lines of level run along the coasts
and across the continent; the differences between the results were
in all cases due with greater probability to error generated in
levelling over lines of great length than to actual differences of
sea-level in different localities.
The sea-level, however, may not coincide everywhere with the
geometrical figure which most closely represents the earth's
aeoidor surface, but may be raised or lowered, here and there,
Deformed under the influence of local and abnormal attrac-
Surface. tions, presenting an equipotential surface — an ellip-
soid or spheroid of revolution slightly deformed by bumps and
hollows — which H. Bruns calls a " geoid." Archdeacon Pratt
has shown that, under the combined influence of the positive
attraction of the Himalayan Mountains and the negative attrac-
tion of the Indian Ocean, the sea-level may be some 560 ft.
higher at Karachi than at Cape Comorin; but, on the other hand,
the Indian pendulum operations have shown that there is a
deficiency of density under the Himalayas and an increase under
the bed of the ocean, which may wholly compensate for the excess
of the mountain masses and deficiency of the ocean, and leave
the surface undisturbed. If any bumps and hollows exist, they
cannot be measured, instrumentally; for the instrumental levels
will be affected by the local attractions precisely as the sea-level
is, and will thus invariably show level surfaces even should there
be considerable deviations from the geometrical figure.
3. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS
The skeleton framework of a survey over a large area should
be triangulation, although it is frequently combined with travers-
ing. The method of filling in the details is necessarily influenced
to some extent by the nature of the framework, but it depends
mainly on the magnitude of the scale and the requisite degree
of minutiae. In all instances the principal triangles and circuit
traverses have to be broken down into smaller ones to furnish a
sufficient number of fixed points and lines for the subsequent
operations. The filling in may be performed wholly by linear
measurements or wholly by direction intersections, but is most
frequently effected by both linear and angular measures, the
former taken with chains and tapes and offset poles, the latter
with small theodolites, sextants, optical squares or other reflect-
ing instruments, magnetized needles, prismatic compasses and
plane tables. When the scale of a survey is large, the linear and
angular measures are usually recorded on the spot in a field-
book and afterwards plotted in office; when small they are
sometimes drawn on the spot on a plane table and the field-book
is dispensed with.
In every country the scale is generally expressed by the ratio
of some fraction or multiple of the smallest to the largest national
units of length, but sometimes by the fraction which indicates the
ratio of the length of a line on the paper to that of the correspond-
ing line on the ground. The latter form is obviously preferable,
being international and independent of the various units of length
adopted by different nations (see MAP). In the ordnance
survey of Great Britain and Ireland and the Indian survey the
double unit of the foot and the Gunter's link (=-ffo of a foot)
are employed, the former invariably in the triangulation, the
latter generally in the traversing and filling in, because of its
convenience in calculations and measurements of area, a square
chain of too Gunter's links being exactly one-tenth of an acre.
In the ordnance survey all linear measures are made with the
Gunter's chain, all angular with small theodolites only; neither
magnetized nor reflecting instruments nor plane tables are ever
employed, except in hill sketching. As a rule the filling in is done
by triangle-chaining only; traverses with theodolite and chain are
occasionally resorted to, but only when it is necessary to work round
woods and hill tracts across which right lines cannot be carried.
Detail surveying by triangles is based on the points of the minor
triangulation. The sides are first chained perfectly straight, all
the points where the lines of interior detail cross the sides being
fixed; the alignment is effected with a small theodolite, and
marks are established at the crossing points and at any other
points on the sides where they may be of use in the subsequent
operations. The surveyor is given a diagram of the triangulation,
but no side lengths, as the accuracy of his chaining is tested by
comparison with the trigonometrical values. Then straight lines
are carried across the intermediate detail between the points
established on the sides; they constitute the principal " cutting up
or split lines"; their crossings of detail are marked in turn and
straight lines are run between them. The process is continued until
a sufficient number of lines and marks have been established on
the ground to enable all houses, roads, fences, streams, railways,
canals, rivers, boundaries and other details to be conveniently
measured up to and fixed. Perpendicular offsets are limited to
eighty and twenty links for the respective scales of 6 in. to a mile
and suVa.
When a considerable area has to be treated by traverses it is
divided into a number of blocks of convenient size, bounded by
roads, rivers or parish boundaries, and a " traverse on the meridian
of the origin " is carried round the periphery of each block. Be-
ginning at a trigonometrical station, the theodolite is set to circle
reading o° o' with the telescope pointing to the north, and at every
" forward " station of the traverse the circle is set to the same
reading when the telescope is pointed at the " back " station as
was obtained at the back station when the telescope was pointing
to the forward one. When the circuit is completed and the theodo-
lite again put up at the origin and set on the last back station with
the appropriate circle reading, the circle reading, with the telescope
again pointed to the first forward station, will be the same as at
first, if no error has been committed. This system establishes a
convenient check on the accuracy of the operations and enables
the angles to be readily protracted on a system of lines parallel
to the meridian of the origin. As a further check the traverse
is connected with all contiguous trigonometrical stationsby measured
angles and distances. Traverses are frequently carried between
the points already fixed on the sides of the minor triangles; the
initial side is then adopted, instead of the meridian, as the axis of
co-ordinates for the plotting, the telescope being pointed with circle
reading o° o' to either of the trigonometrical stations at the ex-
tremities of the side.
The plotting is done from the field-books of the surveyors by a
separate agency. Its accuracy is tested by examination on the
ground, when all necessary addenda are made. The examiner
— who should be surveyor, plotter and draughtsman — verifies
the accuracy of the detail by intersections and productions and
occasional direct measurements, and generally endeavours to cause
the details under examination to prove the accuracy of each other
rather than to obtain direct proof by remeasurement. He fixes con-
spicuous trees and delineates the woods, footpaths, rocks, precipices,
steep slopes, embankments, &c., and supplies the requisite infor-
mation regarding minor objects to enable a draughtsman to make
a perfect representation according to the scale of the map. In ex-
amining a coast-line he delineates the foreshore and sketches the
strike and dip of the stratified rocks. In tidal rivers he ascertains
and marks the highest points to which the ordinary tides flow.
The examiner on the 25-344 in- scale ( = jsW) is required to give all
necessary information regarding the parcels of ground of different
character — whether arable, pasture, wood, moor, moss, sandy —
defining the limits of each on a separate tracing if necessary. He
has also to distinguish between turnpike, parish and occupation
roads, to collect all names, and to furnish notes of military, baronial
and ecclesiastical antiquities to enable them to be appropriately
represented in the final maps. The latter are subjected to a double
examination — first in the office, secondly on the ground; they are
then handed over to the officer in charge of the levelling to have the
levels and contour lines inserted, and finally to the hill sketchers,
whose duty it is to make an artistic representation of the features
of the ground.
In the Indian survey all filling in is done by plane-tabling on a
basis of points previously fixed; the methods differ simply in the
extent to which linear measures are introduced to supplement
the direction rays of the plane-table. When the scale of the survey
is small, direct measurements of distance are rarely made and the
filling is usually done wholly by direction intersections, which fix all
the principal points, and by eye-sketching; but as the scale is
increased linear measures with chains and offset poles are introduced
to the extent that may be desirable. A sheet of drawing paper is
mounted on cloth over the face of the plane-table; the points,
previously fixed by triangulation or otherwise, are projected on
it— the collateral meridians and parallels, or the rectangular co-
ordinates, when these are more convenient for employment than
the spherical, having first been drawn; the plane-table is then
ready for use. Operations are begun at a fixed point by aligning
with the sight rule on another fixed point, which brings the meridian
line of the table on that of the station. The magnetic needle
may now be placed on the table and a position assigned to it for
future reference. Rays are drawn from the station point on the
table to all conspicuous objects around with the aid of the sight rule.
The table is then taken to other fixed points, and the process of
ray-drawing is repeated at each ; thus a number of objects, some
of which may become available as stations of observation, are
fixed. Additional stations may be established by setting up the
SURVEYING
[GEOGRAPHICAL
table on a ray, adjusting it on the back station — that from which
the ray was drawn — and then obtaining a cross intersection with
the sight rule laid on some other fixed point, also by interpolating
between three fixed points situated around the observer. The
magnetic needle may not be relied on for correct orientation,
but is of service in enabling the table to be set so nearly true at the
outset that it has to be very slightly altered afterwards. The error
in the setting is indicated by the rays from the surrounding fixed
points intersecting in a small triangle instead of a point, and a slight
change in azimuth suffices to reduce the triangle to a point, which
will indicate the position of the station exactly. Azimuthal error
being less apparent on short than on long lines, interpolation is
best performed by rays drawn from near points, and checked by
rays drawn to distant points, as the latter show most strongly the
magnitude of any error of the primary magnetic setting. In this
way, and by self-verificatory traverses " on the back ray " between
fixed points, plane-table stations are established over the ground
at appropriate intervals, depending on the scale of the survey ; and
from these stations all surrounding objects which the scale permits
of being shown are laid down on the table, sometimes by rays only,
sometimes by a single ray and a measured distance. The general
configuration of the ground is delineated simultaneously. In
checking and examination various methods are followed. For large
scale work in plains it is customary to run arbitrary lines across
it and make an independent survey of the belt of ground to a dis-
tance of a few chains on either side for comparison with the original
survey; the smaller scale hill topography is checked by examination
from commanding points, and also by traverses run across the
finished work on the table.
4. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING
The introduction by mechanical means of superior graduation
in instruments of the smaller class has enabled surveyors to effect
Base good results more rapidly, and with less expenditure
Measure- on equipment and on the staff necessary for transport
meats. jn ^ne field, than was formerly possible. The i2-in.
theodolite of the present day, with micrometer adjustments to
assist in the reading of minute subdivisions of angular graduation,
is found to be equal to the old 24-in. or even 36-in. instruments.
New Methods for the measurement of bases have largely
superseded the laborious process of measurement by the align-
ment of " compensation " bars, though not entirely independent
of them. The Jaderin apparatus, which consists of a wire 25
metres in length stretched along a series of cradles or supports, is
the simplest means of measuring a base yet devised; and experi-
ments with it at the Pulkova observatory show it to be capable
of producing most accurate results. But there is a measurable
defect in the apparatus, owing to the liability of the wires to
change in length under variable conditions of temperature. It
is therefore considered necessary, where base measurements for
geodetic purposes are to be made with scientific exactness, that
the Jaderin wires should be compared before and after use with
a standard measurement, and this standard is best attained by
the use of the Brunner, or Colby, bars. The direct process of
measurement is not extended to such lengths as formerly, but from
the ends of a shorter line, the length of which has been exactly
determined, the base is extended by a process of triangulation.
There are vast areas in which, while it is impossible to apply
the elaborate processes of first-class or " geodetic " triangulation,
Secondary it is nevertheless desirable that we should rapidly
Trtaoguia- acquire such geographical knowledge as will enable
tioa. us to jay down political boundaries, to project roads
and railways, and to attain such exact knowledge of special
localities as will further military ends. Such surveys are called
by various names — military surveys, first surveys, geographical
surveys, &c.; but, inasmuch as they are all undertaken with the
same end in view, i.e. the acquisition of a sound topographical
map on various scales, and as that end serves civil purposes as
much as military, it seems appropriate to designate them geo-
graphical surveys only.
The governing principles of geographical surveys are rapidity
and economy. Accuracy is, of course, a recognized necessity, but
Principles tne term must admit of a certain elasticity in geo-
H-ftit/i graphical work which is inadmissible in geodetic
govern Oeo- or cadastral functions. It is obviously foolish to
Su^^s ' exPen<1 as much money over the elaboration of topo-
graphy in the unpeopled sand wastes which border
the Nile valley, for instance (albeit those deserts may be full of
topographical detail), as in the valley itself — the great centre
of Egyptian cultivation, the great military highway of northern
Africa. On the other hand, the most careful accuracy attainable
in the art of topographical delineation is requisite in illustrating
the nature of a district which immediately surrounds what may
prove hereafter to be an important military position. And this,
again, implies a class of technical accuracy which is quite apart
from the rigid attention to detail of a cadastral survey, and
demands a much higher intelligence to compass.
The technical principles of procedure, however, are the same in
geographical as in other surveys. A geographical survey must
equally start from a base and be supported by
triangulation, or at least by some process analogous
to triangulation, which will furnish the necessary
skeleton on which to adjust the topography so as to ensure a
complete and homogeneous map.
This base may be found in a variety of ways. If geodetic
triangulation exists in the country, that triangulation should of
course include a wide extent of secondary determina- The BMe
tions, the fixing of peaks and points in the landscape
far away to either flank, which will either give the data for
further extension of geographical triangulation, or which may
even serve the purposes of the map-maker without any such
extension at all. In this manner the Indus valley series of the
triangulation of India has furnished the basis for surveys across
Afghanistan and Baluchistan to the Oxus and Persia.
Should no such preliminary determinations of the value of one
or two starting-points be available, and it becomes necessary to
measure a base and to work ab initio, the Jaderin wire apparatus
may be adopted. It is cheap (cost about £50), and far more
accurate than the process of measuring either by any known
" subtense " system (in which the distance is computed from the
angle subtended by a bar of given length) or by measurement with
a steel chain. This latter method may, however, be adopted so
long as the base can be levelled, repeated measurements obtained,
and the chain compared with a standard steel tape before and
after use.
The initial data on which to start a comprehensive scheme of
triangulation for a geographical survey are: (i) latitude; lam^Data
(2) longitude; (3) azimuth; and (4) altitude, and
this data should, if possible, be obtained part passu with the
measurement of the base.
A 6-in. transit theodolite, fitted with a micrometer eyepiece
and extra vertical wires, is the instrument par excellence for work
of this nature; and it possesses the advantages of portability and
comparative cheapness.
The method of using it for the purposes of determining values
for (i) and (3), i.e. for ascertaining the latitude of one end of the
base and the azimuth of the other end from it, are , _.„. . -
fully explained in Major Talbofs paper on Military ",
Surveying _in the Field (J. Mackay & Co., Chatham, Azi
1889), which is not a theoretical treatise, but a practical illustration
of methods employed successfully in the geographical survey of a
very large area of the Indian transfrontier districts. It should be
noted that these observations are not merely of an initial character.
They should be constantly repeated as the survey advances, and
under certain circumstances (referred to subsequently) they require
daily repetition.
The problems connected with the determination of (2) longitude
have of late years occupied much of the attention of scientific
surveyors. No system of absolute determination is , ...
accurate enough for combination with triangulation, Lon^ttt
as affording a check on the accuracy of the latter, and the spaces
in the world across which geographical surveying has yet to be
carried are rapidly becoming too restricted to admit of any liability
to error so great as is invariably involved in such determinations.
It is true that absolute values derived from the observation of lunar
distances, or occultations, have often proved to be of the highest
value; but there remains a degree of uncertainty (possibly due
to the want of exact knowledge of the moon's position at any in-
stant of time), even when observations have been taken with all
the advantages of the most elaborate arrangements and the most
scientific manipulation, which renders the roughest form of tri-
angulation more trustworthy for ascertaining differential longitude
than any comparison between the absolute determination of any
two points. Consequently, if an absolute determination is neces-
sary it should be made once, with all possible care, and the value
obtained should be carried through the whole scheme of triangula-
tion. It rests with the surveyor to decide at what point of the
general survey this value can beet be introduced, provided he
GEOGRAPHICAL]
SURVEYING
can estimate the probable longitudinal value of his initial base
within a few minutes of the truth. A final correction in longi-
tude is constant, and can easily be applied. With reference to
such absolute determinations of longitude, Major S. Grant's " Dia-
gram for determining the parallaxes in declination and right ascen-
sion of a heavenly body and its application to the prediction ol
occupations " (Roy. Geog. Soc. Journ. for June 1896) will afford the
observer valuable assistance.
But the recognized method of obtaining a longitude value in
recent geographical fields is by means of the telegraph — a method
so simple and so accurate that it may be applied with
advantage even to the checking of long lines of tri-
a" angulation. No effort should be spared to introduce a
telegraphic longitude value into any scheme of geo-
graphical survey. It involves a clear line and an instructed observer
at each end, but, given these desiderata, the interchange of time
signals sufficient for an accurate record only requires a night or
two of clear weather. But inasmuch as rigorous accuracy in the
observations for time is necessary, it would be well for the surveyor
in the field to be provided with a sidereal chronometer. Under all
other circumstances demanding time observations (and they are
an essential supplement to every class of astronomical determina-
tion) an ordinary mean time watch is sufficient.
With reference to altitude determinations, there has lately been
observable amongst surveyors a growing distrust of barometric
Altlt d results and a reaction in favour of direct levelling, or of
differential results derived from direct observation with
the theodolite (or clinometer) rather than from comparison of those
determined by aneroid or hypsometer. It is indeed impossible to
eliminate the uncertainties due to the variable atmospheric pressure
introduced by " weather " changes from any barometric record. A
mercurial barometer advantageously placed and carefully observed
at fixed diurnal intervals throughout a comparatively long period
may give fairly trustworthy results if a constant comparison can
be maintained throughout that period with similar records at sea-
level, or at any fixed altitude. Yet observations extending over
several months have been found to yield results which compare
most unfavourably with those attained during the process of
triangulation by continued lines of vertical observations from point
to point, even when the uncertainties of the correction for refraction
are taken into account. Errors introduced into vertical observa-
tions by refraction are readily ascertainable and comparatively
unimportant in their effect. Those due to variable atmospheric
conditions on barometric records are still indefinite, and are likely
to remain so. The result has been that the latter have been rele-
gated to purely local conditions of survey, and that whenever
practicable the former are combined with the general process of
triangulation.
The conditions under which geographical surveys can be
carried out are of infinite variety, but those conditions are rare
which absolutely preclude the possibility of any such
under J^fc/i survevs at a11- Perfect freedom of action, and the
aeographi- recognition of such work as a public benefit, are not
cat Surveys often attainable. Far more frequently the oppor-
tunity offers itself to the surveyor with the progress
of a political mission or the advance of an army in the
field. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that geographical
surveys are functions of both civil and military operations. Very
much of such work is also possible where a country lies open to
exploration, not actively hostile, but yet unsettled and adverse to
strangers. .The geographical surveyor has to fit himself to all
such conditions, and it may happen that a continuous, compre-
hensive scheme of triangulation as a map basis is impossible.
Under such circumstances other expedients must be adopted to
ensure that accuracy of position which cannot be attained by
the topographer unaided.
During a long-continued march extending through a line of
country generally favourable for survey purposes — a condition
„ . which frequently occurs — when forward movement is
Surveylaz a '^^^fYi aPd an average of 10 to 15 m. of daily
'* progress is maintained, one officer and an assistant can
measure a daily base, obtain the necessary astronomical deter-
minations, triangulate from both ends so as to fix the azimuth and
distance from the base of points passed yesterday and those to be
passed to-morrow; project those points on to the topographer's
plane-table to be ready for the next day's work, and check each
day's record by latitude; whilst a second assistant runs the topo-
graphy through the route, basing his work on points so fixed, on
the scale of 2 or 4 m. to the inch, according to the amount of detail.
Occasionally a hill can be reached in the course of the day's march,
or during a day's halt, which will materially assist to consolidate
and strengthen the series.
_ It may, however, frequently be impossible to maintain a con-
sistent series of triangulation for the " control " (to use an American
are carried
out.
expression) of the topography, even when the configuration of
the land surface is favourable. In such circumstances the method
of observing azimuths to points situated approximately
near to the probable route in advance, and of deter- Triangula-
mining the exact position of those points in latitude **""""
as one by one they are passed by the moving force, Coa<n">
has been found to yield results which are quite sufficiently
accurate to ensure the final adjustment of the entire route geography
to any subsequent system of triangulation which may be extended
through the country traversed, without serious discrepancies in
compilation. It is, however, obvious that as accuracy depends
greatly on the exact determination of absolute latitude values,
this method is best adapted to a route running approximately
parallel to a meridian, and is at complete disadvantage in one
running east and west. Where the conditions are favourable to
its application, it has been adopted with most satisfactory results;
as, for instance, on the route between Seistan and Herat, where the
initial data for the Russo-Afghan boundary delimitation was secured
by this means, and more recently on the boundary surveys of
western Abyssinia.
When an active enemy is in the field, and topographical opera-
tions are consequently restricted, it is usually possible to obtain
the necessary "control" (i.e. a few well-fixed points
determined by triangulation) for topography in advance M
of a position securely held. With a very little assist- Oe°STaPtly-
ance from the triangulator an experienced topographer will be
able to sketch a field of action with far more certainty and rapidity
than can be attained by the ordinary so-called " military surveyor,
and he may, in favourable circumstances, combine his work with
that of the military balloonist in such a way as to represent every
feature of importance, even in a widely extended position held by
the enemy. The application of the camera and of telephotography
to the evolution of a map of the enemy's position is well understood
in France (vide Colonel Laussedat's treatise on " The History of
Topography "), as it is in Russia, and we must in future expect
that all advantages of an expert and professional map of the whole
theatre of a campaign will lie in the hands of the general who is
best supplied with professional experts to compass them. Geo-
graphical surveying and military surveying are convertible terms,
and it is important to note that both equally require the services
of a highly trained staff of professional topographers. During the
war between Russia and- Turkey (1877-78) upwards of a hundred
professional geographical surveyors were pressed into military
service, besides the regular survey staff which is attached to every
army corps. Triangulation was carried across the Balkans by
eight different series; every pass and every notable feature of the
Balkans and Rhodope Mountains was accurately surveyed, as well
as the plains intervening between the Balkans and Constantinople.
Surveys on a scale which averaged about I m. = I in. were
carried up to the very gates of the city.
The use of the camera as an accessory to the plane table (i.e.
the art of photo-topography) has been applied almost exclusively
to geographical or exploratory surveys. The camera
is specially prepared, resting on a graduated horizontal phot°-<°P°-
plate which is read with verniers, and with a small WP^-
telescope and vertical arc attached. Cross wires are fixed in the
focal plane of the camera, which is also fitted with a magnetic
needle and a scale so placed that the magnetic declination, the
scale, and the intersection of the cross wires are all photographed
on the plate containing the view. A panoramic group of views
(slightly overlapping each other) is taken at each station, and
the angular distance between each is measured on the horizontal
circle. The process of constructing the horizontal projection
from these perspective views involves plotting the skeleton tri-
angulation, as obtained from the primary triangulation, with the
theodolite (which precedes the photo- topographical survey), or
from the horizontal plate of the camera. I With several stations so
plotted, the view from each of them of a certain portion of the
country may be projected on the plane of the map, and salient
points seen in perspective may be fixed by intersection.
The field work of a photo-topographic party consists primarily
in execution of a triangulation by the usual methods which would
be adapted to any ordinary topographical survey. To this is
added a secondary triangulation, which is executed pari passu
with the photography for the purpose of fixing the position of the
camera stations. From such stations alone the topographical
details are finally secured with the aid of the photographs. Great
:are is necessary in the selection of stations that will be suitable
both for the extension of triangulation and the purposes of closely
overlooking topographical details. In order to obtain means for
correctly orienting the photographic views when plotting the map
From them, it is usual, whilst making the exposures, to observe
two or three points in each view with the alt-azimuth attached to the
:amera, in order to ascertain the horizontal and vertical angles
between them. It is also advisable to keep an outline sketch
of the landscape for the purpose of recording names of roads,
buildings, &c.
The process of projecting the map from the photographs involves
the use of two drawing-boards, on one of which the graphical
determination of the points is made, and on the other the details
152
SURVEYING
[TRAVERSING AND FISCAL
of the final topography are drawn. The principal trigonometrical
points are plotted on both these boards by their co-ordinates,
and the camera stations either by their co-ordinate values or by
intersection. Intermediate points, selected as appearing on two
or more negatives, are then projected by intersection. The hori-
zontal projection of a panorama consisting of any given number of
plates is a regular geometrical figure of as many sides as there are
plates, enclosing an inscribed circle whose radius is the focal length
of the camera. Having correctly plotted the position of one plate,
or view, with reference to the projected camera station by means
of the angle observed to some known point within it, it is possible
to plot the position of the rest of the series, with reference to the
camera station and the orienting triangulation point, by the angular
differences which are dependent on the number of photographs
forming the sides of the geometrical figure. Having secured the
correct orientation of the horizontal plan, direction lines are drawn
from the plotted camera station to points photographed, and the
position of topographical features is fixed by intersection from two
or more camera stations.
The plane-table is the instrument, par excellence, on which the
geographical surveyor must depend for the final mapping of the
physical features of the country under survey. The
methods of adapting the plane-table to geographical
table. requirements differ with those varying climatic con-
ditions which affect its construction. In the comparatively dry
climate of Asiatic Russia or of the United States, where errors
arising from the unequal expansion of the plane-table board are
insignificant, the plane-table is largely made use of as a triangulat-
ing instrument, and is fitted with slow-motion screws and with
other appliances for increasing the certainty and the accuracy
ot observations. Such an adaptation of the plane-table is found
to be impossible in India, where the great alternations of tempera-
ture, no less than of atmospheric humidity, tend to vitiate the ac-
curacy of the projections on the surface of the board by the unequal
effects of expansion in the material of which it is composed. The
Indian plane-table is of the simplest possible construction, and it
is never used in connexion with the stadia for ascertaining the
distances of points and features of the ground (as is the case in
America) ; and in place of the complicated American alidade,
with its telescope and vertical arc, a simple sight rule is used, and
a chirometer for the measurement of vertical angles. The Indian
plane-table approximates closely in general construction to the
Gannett '' pattern of America, which is specially constructed
for exploratory surveys.
The scale on which geographical surveys are conducted is neces-
sarily small. It may be reckoned at from I : 500000 to I t 125000,
or from I in. = 8 m. to I in. = 2 m. The I in. = I m.
Sca'e' scale is the normal scale for rigorous topography, and
although it is impossible to fix a definite line beyond which geo-
graphical scales merge into topographical (for instance, the I -in.
scale is classed as geographical in America whenever the con-
tinuous line contour system of ground representation gives place
to hachuring), it is convenient to assume generally that geographical
scales of mapping are smaller than the l-in. scale.
On the smaller scales of I : 500000 or I : 250000 an experienced
geographical surveyor, in favourable country, will complete an area
of mapping from day to day which will practically cover
Out-turn. neariy an that {aiis within his range of vision; and he
will, in the course of five or six months of continuous travelling
(especially if provided with the necessary " control ") cover an
area of geographical mapping illustrating all important topographical
features representable on the small scale of his survey, which may
be reckoned at tens of thousands of square miles. But inasmuch
as everything depends upon his range of vision, and the constant
occurrence of suitable features from which to extend it, there is
obviously no guiding rule by which to reckon his probable out-turn.
The same uncertainty which exists about " out-turn " manifestly
exists about " cost." The normal cost of the i-in. rigorous topo-
£^s< graphical survey in India, when carried over districts
which present an average of hills, plains and forests,
may be estimated as between 35 to 40 shillings a square mile. This
compares favourably with the rates which obtain in America
over districts which probably present far more facilities for survey-
ing than India does, but where cheap native labour is unknown.
The geographical surveyor is simply a topographer employed
on a smaller scale survey. His equipment and staff are somewhat
less, but, on the other hand, his travelling expenses are greater.
It is found that, on the whole, a fair average for the cost of geo-
graphical work may be struck by applying the square of the unit
of scale as a factor to i-in. survey rates; thus a quarter-inch scale
survey (i.e. 4m. to the in.), should be one-sixteenth of the cost per
mile of the i-in. survey over similar ground. A geographical recon-
naissance on the scale of I : 500000 (8 m. = I in.) should be one-sixty-
fourth of the square-mile cost of the i-in. survey, &c. This is,
indeed, a close approximation to the results obtained on the Indian
transfrontier, and would probably be found to hold good for British
colonial possessions.
In processes of map reproduction an invention for the reproduction
of drawings by a method of direct printing on zinc without the
intervention of a negative has proved of great value. By this
method a considerable quantity of work has been turned out in
much less time and at a much lower cost than would be MapK,pm.
involved by any process of photo-zincography °* auction.
lithography. A large number of cadastral maps
have been reproduced at about one-ninth of the ordinary
cadastral rate.
For the rapid reproduction of geographical maps m the field in
order to meet the requirements of a general conducting a campaign,
or of a political officer on a boundary mission, no better method
has been evolved than the ferrotype process, by which blue prints
can be secured in a few hours from a drawing of the original on
tracing-cloth. The sensitized paper and printing-frame are far
more portable than any photo-lithographic apparatus. Sketches
illustrative of a field of action may be placed in the hands of the
general commanding on the day following the action, if the weather
conditions are favourable for their development. The necessity
for darkness whilst dealing with the sensitized material is a draw-
back, but it may usually be arranged with blankets and waterproof
sheets when a tent is not available.
5. TRAVERSING AND FISCAL, OR REVENUE, SURVEYS
Traversing is a combination of linear and angular measures in
equal proportions; the surveyor proceeds from point to point,
measuring the lines between them and at each point the angle
between the back and forward lines; he runs his lines as much as
possible over level and open ground, avoiding obstacles by work-
ing round them. The system is well suited for laving down roads,
boundary lines, and circuitous features of the ground, and is
very generally resorted to for filling in the interior details of
surveys based on triangulation. It has been largely employed
in certain districts of British India, which had to be surveyed in a
manner to satisfy fiscal as well as topographical requirements;
for, the village being the administrative unit of the district, the
boundary of every village had to be laid down, and this necessi-
tated the survey of an enormous number of circuits. Moreover,
the traverse system was better adapted for the country than a
network of triangulation, as the ground was generally very flat
and covered with trees, villages, and other obstacles to distant
vision, and was also devoid of hills and other commanding points
of view. The principal triangulation had been carried across it,
but by chains executed with great difficulty and expense, and
therefore at wide intervals apart, with the intention that the
intermediate spaces should be provided with points as a basis
for the general topography in some other way. A system of
traverses was obviously the best that could be adopted under the
circumstances, as it not only gave all the village boundaries, but
was practically easier to execute than a network of minor
triangulation.
In the Indian survey the traverses are executed in minor
circuits following the periphery of each village and in major
circuits comprising groups of several villages; the former are
done with 4" to 6" theodolites and a single chain, the latter with
7* to io* theodolites and a pair of chains, which are compared
frequently with, a standard. The main circuits are connected
with every station of the principal triangulation within reach.
The 'meridian of the origin is determined by astronomical obser-
vations; the angle at the origin between the meridian and the
next station is measured, and then at each of the successive
stations the angle between the immediately preceding and follow-
ing stations; summing these together, the " inclinations " of the
lines between the stations to the meridian of the origin are succes-
sively determined. The distances between the stations, multi-
plied by the cosines and sines of the inclinations, give the distance
of each station from the one preceding it, resolved in the direc-
tions parallel and perpendicular respectively to the meridian of
the origin; and the algebraical sums of these quantities give the
corresponding rectangular co-ordinates of the successive stations
relatively to the origin and its meridian. The area included in
any circuit is expressed by the formula
area=half algebraical sum of products (xi+*i) (yi—yi) (18),
*i, yi being the co-ordinates of the first, and *2, y2 those of the
second station, of every line of the traverse in succession round
the circuit.
Of geometrical tests there are two, both applicable at the close
of a circuit: the first is angular, viz. the sum of all the interior
angles of the described polygon should be equal to twice as many
NAUTICAL]
right angles as the figure has sides, less four; the second is linear,
viz. the algebraical sum of the x co-ordinates and that of the y
co-ordinates should each be=o. The astronomical test is this:
at any station of the traverse the azimuth of a referring mark may
be determined by astronomical observations ; the inclination of
the line between the station and the referring mark to the meridian
of the origin is given by the traverse, the two should differ by the
convergency of the meridians of the station and the origin. In
practice the angles of the traverse are usually adjusted to satisfy
their special geometrical and astronomical tests in the first instance,
and then the co-ordinates of the stations are calculated and adjusted
by corrections applied to the longest, that the angles may be least
disturbed, as no further corrections are given them.
The exact value of the convergence, when the distance and azi-
Coaver- muth of the second astronomical station from the first
geocyof are known, is that of B-(ir+A) of equation (5);
Meridians but, as the first term is sufficient for a traverse, we have
SURVEYING
153
convergency = x tan X
cosecl
of Tra-
verses to
Trlangula
(/on.
substituting *, the co-ordinate of the second station perpendicular
to the meridian of the origin, for c sin A.
The co-ordinates of the principal stations of a trigonometrical
survey are usually the spherical co-ordinates of latitude and longi-
tude ; those of a traverse survey are always rectangular,
Adjustment ]ane fof a small area but spherical for a large one.
It is often necessary, therefore, for purposes of com-
parison and check at stations common to surveys of
both descriptions, to convert either rectangular co-
ordinates into latitudes and longitudes, or vice versa,
in order that the errors of traverses may be dispersed by proportion
over the co-ordinates of the traverse stations, if desired, or adjusted
in the final mapping. The latter is generally all that is necessary,
more particularly when the traverses are referred to successive
trigonometrical stations as origins, as the operations are being
extended, in order to prevent any large accumulation of error.
Similar conversions are also frequently necessary in map projections.
The method of effecting them will now be indicated.
Let A and B be any two points, Aa the meridian of A, Bb the
parallel of latitude of B; then Ab, Bb will be their differences in
latitude and longitude ; from B draw BP
rrans'orma- perpendicular to Aa; then AP, BP
tloa of Co- wj[j ke tne rectangular spherical co-ordin-
ordlaates.
ates of B relatively to A. Put BP = x,
AP = y, the arc Pb=ti, and the arc Bb, the differ-
ence of longitude, = a; also let X0, X& and Xp be
the latitudes of A, B, and the point P, pp the radius
of curvature of the meridian, and vp the normal ter-
minating in the axis minor for the latitude Xp; and
FIG. 5. iet p0 be the radius of curvature for the latitude
KXa+Xp). Then, when the rectangular co-ordinates are given, we
have, taking A as the origin, the latitude of which is known,
2 "^
\ =X(,+2cosec i"; t\ = -^— tan Xp cosec i";
PO 2PPVP l<-
Xt — Xo=»- cosec \" — rf, u=—
(20).
And, when the latitude and longitude are given, we have 1
ij= ( — )— sin 2 X& sin i"]
\2/P6 I
y = Po(Xi, — X,, + rjjsin i" I
x= ucpcos (X(,+ Ji?)sin l"J
When a hill peak or other prominent object has been observed
from a number of stations whose co-ordinates are already fixed, the
converging rays may be projected graphically, and from
tM-ordlaates an examination of their several intersections the most
probable position of the object may be obtained almost
as accurately as by calculations by the method of least
squares, which are very laborious and out of place for the deter-
mination of a secondary point. The following is a description
of the application of this method to points on a plane surface
in the calculations of the ordnance survey. Let Si, si, . . . be
stations whose rectangular co-ordinates, x\, xt, . • • perpendicular,
and yi, yi, . . . parallel, to the meridian of the origin are given;
let 01, 02, ... be the bearings — here the direction-inclinations
with the meridian of the origin — of any point P, as observed at
the several stations; and let p be an approximate position of P,
with co-ordinates xp, yp, as determined by graphical projection on
a district map or by rough calculation. Construct a diagram of
the rays converging around p, by taking a point to represent p
and drawing two lines through it at right angles to each other to
1 In the Indian survey, tables are employed for these calculations
which give the value of I* of arc in feet on the meridian, and on
each parallel of latitude, at intervals of 5' apart ; also a corresponding
table of arc-versines (Pb) of spheroidal arcs of parallel (Bb) i° in
length, from which the arc-versines for shorter or longer arcs are
obtained proportionally to the squares of the arcs; * is taken as the
difference of longitude converted into linear measure.
indicate the directions of north, south, east and west. Calculate
accurately (yp— yi) tan 01. and compare with <xp — xi); the differ-
ence will show how far the direction of the ray from $1 falls to the
east or west of p. Or calculate (xp — xt) cot a,, and compare with
(jip— yi) to find how far the direction falls to the north or south of
p. Set off the distance on the corresponding axis of p, and through
FIG. 6.
the point thus fixed draw the direction 01 with a common protractor.
All the other rays around p may be drawn in like manner; they will
intersect each other in a number of points, the centre of which may
be adopted as the most probable position of P. The co-ordinates
of P will then be readily obtained from those of p±the distances
on the meridian and perpendicular. In the annexed diagram
(fig. 6) P is supposed to have been observed from five stations,
giving as many intersecting rays, (i, i), (2, 2), . . . ; there are ten
points of intersection, the mean position of which gives the true
position of P, the assumed position being p. The advantages
claimed for the method are that, the bearings being independent,
an erroneous bearing may be redrawn without disturbing those that
are correct; similarly new bearings may be introduced without
disturbing previous work, and observations from a large number
of stations may be readily utilized, whereas, when calculation
is resorted to, observations in excess of the minimum number
required are frequently rejected because of the labour of computing
them.
AUTHORITIES. — Clarke, Geodesy (London) ; Waller, _ " India's
Contribution to Geodesy," Trans. Roy. Soc., vol. clxxxvi. (1895);
Thuillier, Manual of Surveying for India (Calcutta) ; Gore, Hand-
book of Professional Instructions for the Topographical Branch
Survey of India Department (Calcutta); D'A. Jackson, Aid to
Survey Practice (London, 1899); Woodthorpe, Hints to Travellers
(Plane-tabling section); Grant, "Diagram for Determining Paral-
laxes," &c., Geog. Journ. (June 1896); Pierce, "Economic Use
of the Plane-Table," vol. xcii. pt. ii., Pro. Inst. Civ. Eng.; Bridges-
Lee, Photographic Surveying (1899); London Society of Engineers;
Laussedat, Recherches sur les instruments les methodes et le dessin
topographique (Paris, 1898); H. M. Wilson, Topographic Surveying
(New York, 1905) ; Professional Papers Royal Engineers (occasional
paper series), vol. xiii. paper v. by Holdich; vol. xiv. paper ii. by
Talbot ; vol. xxvi. paper i. by MacDonnell (R.E. Institute, Chatham).
(T. H. H.*)
6. NAUTICAL SURVEYING
The great majority of nautical surveys are carried out by
H.M. surveying vessels under the orders of the hydrographer
of the admiralty. Plans of harbours and anchorages are also
received from H.M. ships in commission on foreign stations,
but surveys of an extended nature can hardly be executed
except by a ship specially fitted and carrying a trained staff
of officers. The introduction of steam placed means at the
disposal of nautical surveyors which largely modified the con-
ditions under which they had to work in the earlier days of sailing
vessels, and it has enabled the ship to be used in various ways
previously impracticable. The heavy draught of ships in the
present day, the growing increase of ocean and coasting traffic
all over the world, coupled with the desire to save distance by
rounding points of land and other dangers as closely as possible,
demand surveys on larger scales and in greater detail than
was formerly necessary; and to meet these modern requirements
resurveys of many parts of the world are continually being
called for. Nautical surveys vary much in character according
to the nature of the work, its importance to navigation, and the
time available. The elaborate methods and rigid accuracy of
a triangulation for geodetic purposes on shore are unnecessary,
154
SURVEYING
[NAUTICAL
Instru-
ments.
and are not attempted; astronomical observations at intervals
in an extended survey prevent any serious accumulation of errors
consequent upon a triangulation which is usually carried out
with instruments, of which an 8-in. theodolite is the largest
size used, whilst s-in. theodolites generally suffice, and the
sextant is largely employed for the minor triangulation. The
scales upon which nautical surveys are plotted range from ^ in.
to 2 or 3 in. to the sea-mile in coast surveys for the ordinary
purposes of navigation, according to the requirements; for
detailed surveys of harbours or anchorages a scale of from 6 to
12 in. is usually adopted, but in special cases scales as large as
60 in. to the mile are used.
The following arc the principal instruments required for use in
the field: Theodolite, 5 in., fitted with large telescope of high power,
with coloured shades to the eye-piece for observing
the sun for true bearings. Sextant, 8 in. observing, stand
and artificial horizon. Chronometers, eight box, and
two or three pocket, are usually supplied to surveying vessels.
Sounding sextants, differing from ordinary sextants in being lighter
and handier. The arc is cut only to minutes, reading to large
angles of as much as 140°, and fitted with a tube of bell shape so as
to include a large field in the telescope, which is of high power.
Measuring chain 100 ft. in length. Ten-foot pole for coast-lining,
is a light pole carrying two oblong frames, 18 in. by 24 in., covered
with canvas painted white, with a broad vertical black stripe in the
centre and fixed on the pole 10 ft. apart. Station- pointer, an instru-
ment in constant requisition either for sounding, coast-lining, or
topographical plotting, which enables an observer's position to be
fixed by taking two angles between three objects suitably situated.
The movable legs being set to the observed angles, and placed on the
plotting sheet, the chamfered edges of the three legs are brought to
pass through the points observed. The centre of the instrument
then indicates the observer's position. Heliostals, for reflecting the
rays of the sun from distant stations to indicate their position, are
invaluable. The most convenient form is Gallon's sun signal ; but an
ordinary swing mirror, mounted to turn horizontally, will answer
the purpose, the flash being directed from a hole in the centre of
the mirror. Pocket aneroid barometer, required for topographical
purposes. Prismatic compass, patent logs (taffrail and harpoon),
Lucas wire sounding machine (large and small size), and James's
submarine sentry are also required. For chart-room use are pro-
vided a graduated brass scale, steel straight-edges and beam com-
passes of different lengths, rectangular vulcanite or ivory protractors
of 6-in. and 12-in. length, and semicircular brass protractors of lo-in.
radius, a box of good mathematical drawing instruments, lead
weights, drawing boards and mounted paper.
Every survey must have fixed objects which are first plotted on
the sheet, and technically known as " points." A keen eye is
Marks and reclu'rec' f°r natural marks of all kinds, but these must
Beacons. °f.terl be supplemented by whitewash marks, cairns,
tripods or bushes covered with white canvas or calico,
and flags, white or black according to background. On low coasts,
flagstaffs upwards of 80 ft. high must sometimes be erected in order
to get the necessary range of vision, and thereby avoid the evil of
small triangles, in working through which errors accumulate so
rapidly. A barling spar 35 ft. in length, securely stayed and
carrying as a topmast (with proper guys) a somewhat lighter spar,
lengthened by a long bamboo, will give the required height. A
fixed beacon can be erected in shallow water, 2 to 3 fathoms in
depth, by constructing a tripod of spars about 45 ft. long. The
heads of two of them are lashed together, and the heels kept open
at a fixed distance by a plank about 27 ft. long, nailed on at about
5 ft. above the heels of the spars. These are taken out by three
boats, and the third tripod leg lashed in position on the boats, the
heel in the opposite direction to the other two. The first two legs,
weighted, are let go together; using the third leg as a prop, the tripod
is hauled into position and secured by guys to anchors, and by addi-
tional weights slipped down the legs. A vertical pole with bamboo
can now be added, its weighted heel being on the ground and lashed
to the fork. On this a flag 14 ft. square may be hoisted. Floating
beacons can be made by filling up flush the heads of two 27-gallon
casks, connected by nailing a piece of thick plank at top and bottom.
A barling spar passing through holes cut in the planks between the
casks, projecting at least 20 ft. below and aoout 10 ft. above them, is
togg ed securely by iron pins above the uoper and below the lower
plank To the upper part of the spar is lashed a bamboo, 30 to
35 ft. long, carrying a black flag 12 to 16 ft. square, which will be
visible trom the ship 10 m. in clear weather. The ends of a span of
j-in. chain are secured round the spar above and below the casks
with a long link travelling upon it, to which the cable is attached by
a slip, the end being carried up and lightly stopped to the bamboo
below the flag. A wire strop, kept open by its own stiff ness, is fitted
to the casks for convenience in slipping and picking up. The beacon
is moored with chain and rope half as long again as the depth of
water. Beacons have been moored by sounding line in as great
depth as 3000 fathoms with a weight of 100 Ib.
There is nothing in a nautical survey which requires more
attention than the " fix "; a knowledge of the principles involved
is essential in order to select properly situated •./.-/JrJrD ,,
objects. The method of fixing by two angles
between three fixed points is generally known as the "two-circle
method," but there are really three circles involved. The
" station-pointer " is the instrument used for plotting fixes.
Its contraction depends upon the fact that angles subtended
by the chord of a segment of a circle measured from any point
in its circumference are equal. The lines joining three fixed
points form the chords of segments of three circles, each of which
passes through the observer's position and two of the fixed
points. The more rectangular the angle at which the circles
intersect each other, and the more sensitive they are, the better
will be the fix; one condition is useless without the other. A
circle is " sensitive " when the angle between the two object*
responds readily to any small movement of the observer towards or
away from the centre of the circle passing through the observer's
position and the objects. This
is most markedly the case
when one object is very close
to the observer and the other
very distant, but not so when
both objects are distant.
Speaking generally, the sensi-
bility of angles depends upon
the relative distance of the
two objects from the observer,
as well as the absolute distance
of the nearer of the two. In
the accompanying diagram A,
N
FIG. 7.
B, C are the objects, and X
the observer. Fig. 7 shows
the circle passing through C, B and X, cutting the circle ABX at
a good angle, and therefore fixing X independently of the circle
CAX, which is less sensitive than either of the other two. In fig. 8
the two first circles are very sensitive, but being nearly tangential
FIG. 8.
they give no cut with each other. The third circle cuts both
at right angles; it is, however, far less sensitive, and for that
reason if the right and left hand objects are both distant the
fix must be bad. In such a case as this, because the angles
CXB, BXA are both so sensitive, and the accuracy of the fix
depends on the precision with which the angle CXA is measured,
that angle should be observed direct, together with one of the
other angles composing it. Fig. 9 represents a case where the
points are badly disposed, approaching the condition known
as " on the circle," passing through
the three points. All three circles
cut one another at such a fine angle
as to give a very poor fix. The centre
of the station-pointer could be moved
considerably without materially
affecting the coincidence of the legs
with the three points. To avoid a
bad fix the following rules are
safe: —
1 . Never observe objects of which
the central is the furthest unless it
is very distant relatively to the other
two, in which case the fix is admis-
sible, but must be used with caution.
2. Choose objects disposed as follows: (a) One outside object
distant and the other two near, the angle between the two near
FIG. 9.
NAUTICAL]
SURVEYING
'55
objects being not less than 30° or more than 140°. The amount
of the angle between the middle and distant object is immaterial.
(6) The three objects nearly in a straight line, the angle between
any two being not less than 30°. (c) The observer's position
being inside the triangle formed by the objects.
A fix on the line of two points in transit, with an angle to a
third point, becomes more sensitive as the distance between
the transit points increases relatively to the distance between
the front transit point and the observer; the more nearly the
angle to the third point approaches a right angle, and the nearer
it is situated to the observer, the better the fix. If the third
point is at a long distance, small errors either of observation
or plotting affect the result largely. A good practical test for
a fix is afforded by noticing whether a very slight movement of
the centre of the station-pointer will throw one or more of the
points away from the leg. If it can be moved without appreci-
ably disturbing the coincidence of the leg and all three points,
the fix is bad.
Tracing-paper answers exactly the same purpose as the station-
pointer. The angles are laid off from a centre representing
the position, and the lines brought to pass through the points
as before. This entails more time, and the angles are not so
accurately measured with a small protractor. Nevertheless
this has often to be used, as when points are close together on
a small scale the central part of the station-pointer will often
hide them and prevent the use of the instrument. The use of
tracing-paper permits any number of angles to different points
to be laid down on it, which under certain conditions of fixing
is sometimes a great advantage.
Although marine surveys are in reality founded upon triangula-
tion and measured bases of some description, yet when plotted
Btses irregularly the system of triangles is not always
apparent. The triangulation ranges from the rough
triangle of a running survey to the carefully formed triangles
of detailed surveys. The measured base for an extended survey
is provisional only, the scale resting ultimately mainly upon the
astronomical positions observed at its extremes. In the case
of a plan the base is absolute. The main triangulation, of which
the first triangle contains the measured base as its known side,
establishes a series of points known as main stations, from
which and to which angles are taken to fix other stations. A
sufficiency of secondary stations and marks enables the detail
of the chart to be filled in between them. The points embracing
the area to be worked on, having been plotted, are transferred
to field boards, upon which the detail of the work in the field
is plotted; when complete the work is traced and re-transferred
to the plotting-sheet, which is then inked in as the finished chart,
and if of large extent it is graduated on the gnomonic projection
on the astronomical positions of two points situated near opposite
corners of the chart.
The kind of base ordinarily used is one measured by chain
on flat ground, of 5 to 15 m. in length, between two points visible
from one another, and so situated that a triangulation can be
readily extended from them to embrace other points in the survey
forming well-conditioned triangles. The error of the chain is
noted before leaving the ship, and again on returning, by com-
paring its length with the standard length of 100 ft. marked
on the ship's deck. The correction so found is applied to obtain
the final result. If by reason of water intervening between the
base stations it is impossible to measure the direct distance
between them, it is permissible to deduce it by traversing.
A Masthead Angle Base is useful for small plans of harbours,
&c., when circumstances do not permit of a base being measured
on shore. The ship at anchor nearly midway between two base
stations is the most favourable condition for employing this method.
Theodolite reading of the masthead with its elevation by sextant
observed simultaneously at each base station (the mean of several
observations being employed) give the necessary data to calculate
the distance between the base stations from the two distances
resulting from the elevation of the masthead and the simultaneous
theodolite-angies between the masthead and the base stations.
The height of the masthead may be temporarily increased by secur-
ing a spar to extend 30 ft. or so above it, and the exact height from
truck to netting is found by tricing up the end of the measuring
chain. The angle of elevation should not be diminished below about
1° from either station.
Base by Sound. — The interval in seconds between the flash and
report of a gun, carefully noted by counting the beats of a watch
or pocket chronometer, multiplied by the rate per second at which
sound travels (corrected for temperature) supplies a means of
obtaining a base which is sometimes of great use when other methods
are not available. Three miles is a suitable distance for such a
base, and guns or small brass Cohorn mortars are fired alternately
from either end, and repeated several times. The arithmetical
mean is not strictly correct, owing to the retardation of the sound
against the wind exceeding the acceleration when travelling with
2//'
it; the formula used is therefore T = -T-T-J, where T is the mean
t-rl
interval required, / the interval observed one way, t' the interval the
other way. The method is not a very accurate one, but is suffi-
ciently so when the scale is finally determined by astronomical
observations, or for sketch surveys. The measurement should be
across the wind if possible, especially if guns can only be fired from
one end of the base. Sound travels about 1090 ft. per second at a
temperature of 32° F., and increases at the rate of 1-15 ft. for each
degree above that temperature, decreasing in the same proportion
for temperatures below 32°.
Base by Angle of Short Measured Length. — An angle measured by
sextant between two well-defined marks at a carefully measured
distance apart, placed at right angles to the required base, will give
a base for a small plan.
Astronomical Base. — The difference of latitude between two
stations visible from each other and nearly in the same meridian,
combined with their true bearings, gives an excellent base for an
extended triangulation; the only drawback to it is the effect of
local attraction of masses of land in the vicinity on the pendulum,
or, in other words, on the mercury in the artificial horizon. The
base stations should be as far apart as possible, in order to minimize
the effect of any error in the astronomical observations. The obser-
vation spots would not necessarily be actually at the base stations,
which would probably be situated on summits at some little distance
in order to command distant views. In such cases each observation
spot would be connected with its corresponding base station by a
subsidiary triangulation, a short base being measured for the pur-
pose. The ship at anchor off the observation spot frequently affords
a convenient means of effecting the connexion by a masthead angle
base and simultaneous angles. If possible, the observation spots
should be east or west of the mountain stations from which the true
bearings are observed.
If the base stations A and B are so situated that by reason of
distance or of high land intervening they are invisible from one
another, but both visible from some main station C between them,
when the main triangulation is completed, the ratio of the sides
AC, BC can be determined. From this ratio and the observed
angle ACB, the angles ABC, BAG can be found. The true bearing
of the lines AC or BC being known, the true bearing of the base
stations A and B can be deduced.
Extension of Base. — A base of any description is seldom long
enough to plot from directly, and in order to diminish errors of
plotting it is necessary to begin on the longest side possible so as
to work inwards. A short base measured on flat ground will give
a better result than a longer one measured over inequalities, provided
that the triangulation is carefully extended by means of judiciously
selected triangles, great care being taken to plumb the centre of each
station. To facilitate the extension of the base in as few triangles
as possible, the base should be placed so that there are two stations,
one on each side of it, subtending angles at them of from 30° to 40°,
and the distances between which, on being calculated in the triangles
of the quadrilateral so formed, will constitute the first extension of
the base. Similarly, two other stations placed one on each side of
the last two will form another quadrilateral, giving a yet longer side,
and so on.
The angles to be used in the main triangulation scheme must
be very carefully observed and the theodolite placed exactly
over the centre of the station. Main angles are
usually repeated several times by resetting the vernier
at intervals equidistant along the arc, in order to
eliminate instrumental errors as well as errors of observation.
The selection of an object suitable for a zero is important.
It should, if possible, be another main station at some
distance, but not so far or so high as to be easily obscured,
well defined, and likely to be permanent. Angles to secondary
stations and other marks need not be repeated so many times
as the more important angles, but it is well to check all angles
once at least. Rough sketches from all stations are of great
assistance in identifying objects from different points of view,
the angles being entered against each in the sketch.
False Station. — When the theodolite cannot for any reason be
placed over the centre of a station, if the distance be measured
i56
SURVEYING
[NAUTICAL
Hi
FIG. 10.
and the theodolite reading of it be noted, the observed angles may
be reduced to what they would be at the centre of the station.
False stations have frequently to be made in practice; a simple
rule to meet all cases is of great assistance to avoid the possibility
of error in applying the correction with its proper sign. This
may very easily be found as follows, without having .to bestow a
moment's thought beyond applying the rule, which is a matter of
no small gain in, time when a large number of angles have to be
corrected.
Rule. — Put down the theodolite reading which it is required to
correct (increased if necessary by 360°), and from it subtract the
theodolite reading of the centre of the
station. Call this remainder 6. With
6 as a " course " and the number of feet
from the theodolite to the station as a
" distance, "enter the traverse table and
take out the greater increment if 0 lies
between 45° and 135°, or between 225°
an.d 315°, and the lesser increment for
other angles. The accompanying dia-
gram (fig. 10) will assist the memory.
Refer this increment to the " table of
subtended angles by various lengths at
different distances ' (using the distance
of the object observed) and find the
corresponding correction in arc, which
mark + or — according as 8 is under or over 180°. Apply this
correction to the observed theodolite angle. A " table of subtended
angles " is unnecessary if the formula
... , number of feet subtended X 34 . , • ,
Ancle in seconds = T! ? — *-• = "f" be used instead.
distance of object in sea-miles
Convergency of Meridians. — The difference of the reciprocal true
bearings between two stations is called the " convergency." The
formula for calculating it is : Conv. in minutes = dist. in sea-miles
X sin. Merc, bearing X tan. mid. lat. Whenever true bearings
are used in triangulation, the effect of convergency must be con-
sidered and applied. In north latitudes the southerly bearing is
the greater of the two, and in south latitudes the northerly bearing.
The Mercatorial bearing between two stations is the mean of their
reciprocal true bearings.
After a preliminary run over the ground to note suitable
positions for main and secondary stations on prominent head-
Triaaga- lands, islands and summits not too far back from
lated Coast the coast, and, if no former survey exists, to make
Survey. at ^ same ^;me a rough plot of them by compass
and patent log, a scheme must be formed for the main
triangulation with the object of enclosing the whole survey in
as few triangles as possible, regard being paid to the limit of
vision of each station due to its height, to the existing meteoro-
logical conditions, to the limitations imposed by higher land
intervening, and to its accessibility. The triangles decided
upon should be well-conditioned, taking care not. to introduce
an angle of less than 30° to 35°, which is only permissible when
the two longer sides of such a triangle are of nearly equal length,
and when in the calculation that will follow one of these sides
shall be derived from the other and not from the short side.
In open country the selection of stations is comparatively an
easy matter, but in country densely wooded the time occupied
by a triangulation is mainly governed by the judicious selection
of stations quickly reached, sufficiently elevated to command
distant views, and situated on summits capable of being readily
cleared of trees in the required direction, an all-round view being,
of course, desirable but not always attainable. The positions
of secondary stations will also generally be decided upon during
the preliminary reconnaissance. The object of these stations
is to break up the large primary triangles into triangles of smaller
size, dividing up the distances between the primary stations
into suitable lengths; they are selected with a view to greater
accessibility than the latter, and should therefore usually be
near the coast and at no great elevation. Upon shots from these
will depend the position of the greater number of the coast-line
marks, to be erected and fixed as the detailed survey of each
section of the coast is taken in hand in regular order. The nature
of the base to be used, and its position in order to fulfil the con-
ditions specified under the head of Bases must be considered,
the base when extended forming a side of one of the main triangles.
It is immaterial at what part of the survey the base is situated,
but if it is near one end, a satisfactory check on the accuracy
of the triangulation is obtained by comparing the length of a
side at the other extreme of the survey, derived by calculation
through the whole system of triangles, with its length deduced
from a check base measured in its vicinity. It is generally a
saving of time to measure the base at some anchorage or harbour
that requires a large scale plan. The triangulation involved
in extending the base to connect it with the main triangulation
scheme can thus be utilized for both purposes, and while the
triangulation is being calculated and plotted the survey of the
plan can be proceeded with. True bearings are observed at
both ends of the survey and the results subsequently compared.
Astronomical observations for latitude are obtained at observa-
tion spots near the extremes of the survey and the meridian
distance run between them, the observation spots being connected
with the primary triangulation; they are usually disposed at
intervals of from 100 to 150 m., and thus errors due to a tri-
angulation carried out with theodolites of moderate diameter
do not accumulate to any serious extent. If the survey is
greatly extended, intermediate observation spots afford a satis-
factory check, by comparing the positions as calculated in the
triangulation with those obtained by direct observation.
Calculating the Triangulation. — The triangles as observed being
tabulated, the angles of each triangle are corrected to bring their
sum to exactly 180°. We must expect to find errors in the triangles
of as much as one minute, but under favourable conditions they
may be much less. In distributing the errors we must consider
the general skill of the observer, the size of his theodolite relatively
to the others, and the conditions under which his angles were
observed; failing any particular reason to assign a larger error to
one angle than to another, the error must be divided equally,
bearing in mind that an alteration in the small angle will make
more difference in the resulting position than in either of the other
two, and as it approaches 30° (the limit of a receiving angle) it is
well to change it but very slightly in the absence of any strong
reason to the contrary. The length of base being determined, the
sides of all the triangles involved are calculated by the ordinary
rules of trigonometry. Starting from the true bearing observed at
one end of the survey, the bearing of the side of each triangle that
forms the immediate line of junction from one to the other is found
by applying the angles necessary for the purpose in the respective
triangles, not forgetting to apply the convergency between each pair
of stations when reversing the bearings. The bearing of the final
side is then compared with the bearing obtained by direct observa-
tion at that end of the survey. The difference is principally due to
accumulated errors in the triangulation; half of the difference is then
applied to the bearing of each side. Convert these true bearings
into Mercatorial bearings by applying half the convergency between
each pair of stations. With the lengths of the connecting sides
found from the measured base and their Mercatorial bearing, the
Mercatorial bearing of one observation spot from the other is found
by middle latitude sailing. Taking the observed astronomical
positions of the observation spots and first reducing their true
difference longitude to departure, as measured on a spheroid from
the formula Dep.=T. D. long. na %• in * m" of '°-^, then with the
• no. ft. in i m. of lat.
d. lat. and dep. the Mercatorial true bearing and distance between
the observation spots is calculated by middle latitude sailing, and
compared with that by triangulation and measured base. To
adjust any discrepancy, it is necessary to consider the probable
error of the observations for latitude and meridian distance; within
those limits the astronomical positions may safely be altered in order
to harmonize the results ; it is more important to bring the bearings
into close agreement than the distance. From the amended
astronomical positions the Mercatorial true bearings and distance
between them are re-calculated. The difference between this
Mercatorial bearing and that found from the triangulation and
measured base must be applied to the bearing of each side to get
the final corrected bearings, and to the logarithm of each side of
the triangulation as originally calculated must be added or sub-
tracted the difference between the logarithms of the distance of the
amended positions of the observation spots and the same distance by
triangulation.
Calculating Intermediate Astronomical Positions. — The latitude
and longitude of any intermediate main station may now be
calculated from the finally corrected Mercatorial true bearings
and lengths of sides. The difference longitude so found is what it
would be if measured on a true sphere, whereas we require it as
measured on a spheroid, which is slightly less. The correction
= d. long.005 m' ' must therefore be subtracted; or the true
difference longitude may be found direct from the formula
no. ft. in i m. of lat. r- . , .. • ...
deP' no. ft. in I m. of long." From the foreS°mS U 1S *» ^hat
in a triangulation for hydrographical purposes both the bearings
NAUTICAL]
SURVEYING
'57
of the sides and their lengths ultimately depend almost entirely
upon the astronomical observations at the extremes of the survey;
the observed true bearings and measured base are consequently
more in the nature of checks than anything else. It is obvious,
therefors, that the nearer together the observation spots, the greater
effect will a given error in the astronomical positions _have upon
the length and direction of the sides of the triangulation, and in
such cases the bearings as actually observed must not be altered
to any large extent when a trifling change in the astronomical
positions might perhaps effect the required harmony. For the
reasons given under Astronomical Base, high land near observation
spots may cause very false results, which may often account for
discrepancies when situated on opposite sides of a mountainous
country.
Great care is requisite in projecting on paper the points of a
survey. The paper should be allowed to stretch and shrink
as it pleases until it comes to a stand, being exposed
* to the air for four or five hours daily, and finally
well flattened out by being placed on a table with drawing
boards placed over it heavily weighted. If the triangulation
has been calculated beforehand throughout, and the lengths of
all the different sides have been found, it is more advantageous
to begin plotting by distances rather than by chords. The
main stations are thus got down in less time and with less trouble,
but these are only a small proportion of the points to be plotted,
and long lines must be ruled between the stations as zeros for
plotting other points by chords. In ruling these lines care
must be taken to draw them exactly through the centre of the
pricks denoting the stations, but, however carefully drawn, there
is liability to slight error in any line projected to a point lying
beyond the distance of the stations between which the zero line
is drawn. In plotting by distances, therefore, all points that
will subsequently have to be plotted by chords should lie well
within the area covered by the main triangulation. Three
distances must be measured to obtain an intersection of the arcs
cutting each other at a sufficiently broad angle; the plotting
of the main stations once begun must be completed before
distortion of the paper can occur from change in the humidity
of the atmosphere. Plotting, whether by distance or by chords,
must be begun on as long a side as possible, so as to plot inwards,
or with decreasing distances. In plotting by chords it is impor-
tant to remember in the selection of lines of reference (or zero
lines), that that should be preferred which makes the smallest
angle with the line to be projected from it, and of the angular
points those nearest to the object to be projected from them.
Irregular Methods o/ Plotting.— In surveys for the ordinary
purposes of navigation, it frequently happens that a regular cystem
of triangulation cannot be carried out, and recourse must be had to
a variety of devices; the judicious use of the ship in such cases is
often essential, and with proper care excellent results may be
obtained. A few examples will best illustrate some of the methods
used, but circumstances vary so much in every survey that it is
only possible to meet them properly by studying each case as it
arises, and to improvise methods. Fixing a position by means of
the " back-angle " is one of the most ordinary expedients. Angles
haying been observed at A, to the station B, and certain other fixed
points of the survey, C and D for instance; if A is shot up from B,
at which station angles to the same fixed points have been observed,
then it is not necessary to visit those points to fix A. For instance,
in the triangle ABC, two of the angles have been observed, and there-
fore the third angle at C is known (the three angles of a triangle being
equal to 180°), and it is called the " calculated or back-angle from
C." A necessary condition is that the receiving angle at A, between
any two lines (direct or calculated), must be sufficiently broad to
give a good cut; also the points from which the " back-angles " are
calculated should not be situated at too great distances from A,
relatively to the distance between A and B. A station may be
plotted by laying down the line to it from some other station, and
then placing on tracing-paper a number of the angles taken at it,
including the angle to the station from which it has been shot up. If
the points to which angles are taken are well situated, a good
position is obtained, its accuracy being much strengthened by
being able to plot on a line to it, which, moreover, forms a good
zero line for laying off other angles from the station when plotted.
Sometimes the main stations must be carried on with a point
plotted by only two angles. An effort must be made to check this
subsequently by getting an " angle back " from stations dependent
upon it to some old well-fixed point ; failing this, two stations
being plotted with two angles, pricking one and laying down the
line to the other will afford a check. A well-defined mountain
peak, far inland and never visited, when once it is well fixed is
FIG. II.
often invaluable in carrying on an irregular triangulation, as it
may remain visible when all other original points of the survey
have disappeared, and " back-angles " from it may be continually
obtained, or it may be Used for plotting on true bearing lines of
it. In plotting the true bearing of such a peak, the convergency
must be foundi and applied to get the reversed bearing, which is
then laid down from a meridian drawn through it; or the reversed
bearing of any other line already drawn through the peak being
known, it may simply be laid down with that as a zero. A rough
position of the spot from which the true bearing was taken must
be assumed in order to calculate -the
convergency. Fig. II will illustrate
the foregoing remarks. A and B are
astronomical observation spots at the
extremes of a survey, from both of
which the high, inaccessible peak C is
visible. D, E, F are intermediate
stations; A and D, D and E, E and
F, F and B being respectively visible
from each other. G is visible from
A and D, and C is visible from all
stations. The latitudes of A and B
and meridian distance between them
being determined, and the true bear-
ing of C being observed from both
observation spots, angles are observed at all the stations. Calcu-
lating the spheroidal correction (from the formula, correction =
d. long. Pos" mid. lat- j ancj adding it to the true (or chronometric)
difference longitude between A and B to obtain the spherical
d. long. ; with this spherical d. long, and the d. lat., the Mer-
catorial true bearing and distance is found by middle latitude
sailing (which is an equally correct but shorter method than by
spherical trigonometry, and may be safely used when dealing with
the distances usual between observation spots in nautical surveys).
The convergency is also calculated, and the true bearing of A from
B and B from A are thus determined. In the plane tnangle ABC
the angle A is the difference between the calculated bearing of B and
the observed bearing of C from A; similarly angle B is the difference
between calculated bearing of A and observed bearing of C from B.
The distance AB having been also calculated, the side AC is found.
Laying down AC on the paper on the required scale, D is plotted on
its direct shot from A, and on the angle back from C, calculated in
the triangle ACD. G is plotted on the direct shots from A and D,
and on the angle back from C, calculated either in the triangle
ACG or GCD. The perfect intersection of the three lines at G
assures these four points being correct. E, F and B are plotted
in a similar manner. The points are now all plotted, but they
depend on calculated angles, and except for the first four points
we have no check whatever either on the accuracy of the angles
observed in the field or on the plotting. Another well-defined
object in such a position, for instance as Z, visible from three or
more stations, would afford the necessary check, if lines laid off to it
from as many stations as possible gave a good intersection. If no
such point, however, exists, a certain degree of check on the angles
observed is derived by applying the sum of all the calculated angles
at C to the true bearing of A from C (found by reversing observed
bearing of C from A with convergency applied), which will give the
bearing of B from C. Reverse this bearing with convergency
applied, and compare it with the observed bearing of C from B.
If the discrepancy is but small, it will be a strong presumption in
favour of the substantial accuracy of the work. If the calculated
true bearing of B from A be now laid down, it is very unlikely that
the Hne will pass through B, but this is due to the discrepancy which
must always be expected between astronomical positions and trian-
gulation. If some of the stations between A and B require to be
placed somewhat closely to one another, it may be desirable to
obtain fresh true bearings of C instead of carrying on the original
bearing by means of the calculated angle.
In all cases of irregular plotting the ship is very useful, especially
if she is moored taut without the swivel, and angles are observed
from the bow. Floating beacons may also assist an irregular
triangulation.
Surveys of various degrees of accuracy are included among
sketch surveys. The roughest description is the ordinary
running survey, when the work is done by the ship
steaming along the coast, fixing points, and sketching
in the coast-line by bearings and angles, relying for
her position upon her courses and distances as registered by
patent log, necessarily regardless of the effect of wind and current
and errors of steerage. At the other extreme comes the modified
running survey, which in point of practical accuracy falls little
short of that attained by irregular triangulation. Some of these
modifications will be briefly noticed. A running survey of a
coast -line between two harbours, that have been surveyed inde-
pendently and astronomically fixed, may often be carried out
Sketch
Surveys.
i58
SURVEYING
[NAUTICAL
by fixing the ship on the points already laid down on the harbour
surveys and shooting up prominent intermediate natural objects,
assisted possibly by theodolite lines from the shore stations.
Theodolite»lines to the ship at any of her positions are particu-
larly valuable, and floating beacons suitably placed materially
increase the value of any such work. A sketch survey of a coast
upon which it is impossible to land may be well carried out by
dropping beacons at intervals of about 10 m., well out from
the land and placed abreast prominent natural objects called the
" breastmarks," which must be capable of recognition from
the beacons anchored off the next " breastmark " on either side.
The distance between the beacons is found by running a patent log
both ways, noting the time occupied by each run; if the current
has remained constant, a tolerably good result can be obtained.
At the first beacon, angles are observed between the second beacon
and the two " breastmarks," an " intermediate " mark, and
any other natural object which will serve as " points." At the
second beacon, angles are observed between the first beacon
and the same objects as before. Plotting on the line of the two
beacons as a base, all the points observed can be pricked in on
two shots. At a position about midway between the beacons,
simultaneous angles are observed to all the points and laid off
on tracing-paper, which will afford the necessary check, and the
foundation is thus laid for filling in the detail of coast-line,
topography, and soundings off this particular stretch of coast
in any detail desired. Each section of coast is complete in itself
onitsown base; the weak pointliesin the junction of the different
sections, as the patent log bases can hardly be expected to agree
precisely, and the scales of adjacent sections may thus be slightly
different. This is obviated, as far as possible, by fixing on the
points of one section and shooting up those of another, which
will check any great irregularity of scale creeping in. The
bearing is preserved by getting occasional true bearing lines
at the beacons of the most distant point visible. Space does
not here permit of dwelling upon the details of the various pre-
cautions that are necessary to secure the best results the method
is capable of; it can only be stated generally that in all cases
of using angles from the ship under weigh, several assistants
are necessary, so that the principal angles may be taken simul-
taneously, the remainder being connected immediately after-
wards with zeros involving the smallest possible error due to
the ship not being absolutely stationary, these zeros being
included amongst the primary angles. When close to a beacon,
if its bearing is noted and the distance in feet obtained from its
elevation, the angles are readily reduced to the beacon itself.
Astronomical positions by twilight stars keep a check uoon the
work.
Sketch Surveys by Compass Bearings and Vertical Angles. — In
the case of an island culminating in a high, well-defined summit
visible from all directions, a useful and accurate method is to
steam round it at a sufficient distance to obtain a true horizon,
stopping to make as many stations as may be desirable, and fixing
by compass bearing of the summit and its vertical angle. The
height is roughly obtained by shooting in the summit, from two
positions on a patent log base whilst approaching it. With this
approximate height and Lecky's vertical danger angle tables,
each station may be plotted on its bearing of the summit. From
these stations the island is shot in by angles between its tangents
and the summit, and angles to any other natural features, plotting
the work as we go on any convenient scale which must be con-
sidered only as provisional. On completing the circuit of the
island, the true scale is found by measuring the total distance in
inches on the plotting-sheet from the first to the last station, and
dividing it by the distance in miles between them as shown by
patent log. The final height of the summit bears to the rough
height used in plotting the direct proportion of the provisional
scale to the true scale. This method may be utilized for the sketch
survey of a coast where there are well-defined peaks of sufficient
height at convenient intervals, and would be superior to an ordinary
running survey. From positions of the ship fixed by bearings and
elevations of one peak, another farther along the coast is shot in and
its height determined; this second peak is then used in its turn to
fix a third, and so on. The smaller the vertical angle the more
liability there is to error, but a glance at Lecky's tables will show
what effect an error of say i' in altitude will produce for any given
height and distance, and the limits of distance must depend upon
this consideration.
Surveys of Banks out of Sight of Land.— On striking shoal soundings
unexpectedly, the ship may either be anchored at once and the
shoal sounded by boats starring round her, using prismatic com-
pass and masthead angle; or if the shoal is of large extent and
may be prudently crossed in the ship, it is a good plan to get two
beacons laid down on a bearing from one another and patent
log distance of 4 or 5 m. With another beacon (or mark-boat,
carrying a large black flag on a bamboo 30 ft. high) fixed on this
base, forming an equilateral triangle, and the ship anchored as a
fourth point, soundings may be carried out by the boats fixing by
station-pointer. The ship's position is determined by observations
of twilight stars.
In a detailed survey the coast is sketched in by walking along
it, fixing by theodolite or sextant angles, and plotting by tracing-
paper or station-pointer. A sufficient number of
fixed marks along the shore afford a constant check
on the minor coast-line stations, which should be
plotted on, or checked by, lines from one to the other wherever
possible to do so. When impracticable to fix in the ordinary
way, the ten-foot pole may be used to traverse from one fixed
point to another. With a coast fronted by broad drying, coral
reef or flats over which it is possible to walk, the distance between
any two coast-line stations may be found by measuring at one
of them the angle subtended by a known length placed at right
angles to the line joining the stations. There is far less liability
to error if the work is plotted at once on the spot on field board
with the fixed points pricked through and circled in upon it ; but
if circumstances render it necessary, the angles being registered
and sketches made of the bits of coast between the fixes on a
scale larger than that of the chart, they may be plotted after-
wards; to do this satisfactorily, however, requires the surveyor
to appreciate instinctively exactly what angles are necessary
at the time. It is with the high-water line that the coast-liner
is concerned, delineating its character according to the admiralty
symbols. The officer sounding off the coast is responsible for
the position of the dry line at low-water, and on large scales
this would be sketched in from a small boat at low-water springs.
Heights of cliffs, rocks, islets. &c., must be inserted, either from
measurement or from the formula,
. . , . , angle of elevation in seconds X distance in miles,
height in feet = — — !
OT
and details of topography close to the coast, including roads,
houses and enclosures, must be shown by the coast-liner. Rocks
above water or breaking should be fixed on passing them. Coast-
line may be sketched from a boat pulling along the shore, fixing
and shooting up any natural objects on the beach from positions
at anchor.
The most important feature of a chart is the completeness
with which it is sounded. Small scale surveys on anything less
than one inch to the mile are apt to be very misleading; s
such a survey may appear to have been closely sounded,
but in reality the lines are so far apart that they often fail to
disclose indications of shoal-water. The work of sounding
may be proceeded with as soon as sufficient points for fixing
are plotted; but off an intricate coast it is better to get the coast-
line done first. The lines of soundings are run by the boats
parallel to one another and perpendicular to the coast at a dis-
tance apart which is governed by the scale; five lines to the inch
is about as close as they can be run without overcrowding; if
closer lines are required the scale must generally be increased.
The distance apart will vary with the depth of water and the
nature of the coast; a rocky coast with shallow water off it and
projecting points will need much closer examination than a
steep-to coast, for instance. The line of prolongation of a point
under water will require special care to ensure the fathom lines
being drawn correctly. If the soundings begin to decrease when
pulling off-shore it is evidence of something suspicious, and
intermediate lines of soundings or lines at right angles to those
previously run should be obtained. Whenever possible lines
of soundings should be run on transit lines; these may often
be picked up by fixing when on the required line, noting the angle
on the protractor between the line and some fixed mark on the
field board, and then placing the angle on the sextant, reflecting
the mark and noting what objects are in line at that angle. On
NAUTICAL]
SURVEYING
'59
large scale surveys whitewash marks or flags should mark the
ends of the lines, and for the back transit marks natural objects
may perhaps be picked up; if not, they must be placed in the
required positions. The boat is fixed by two angles, with an
occasional third angle as a check; the distance between the fixes
is dependent upon the scale of the chart and the rapidity with
which the depth alters; the 3, 5 and 10 fathom lines should always
be fixed, allowing roughly for the tidal reduction. The nature
of the bottom must be taken every few casts and recorded. It
is best to plot each fix on the sounding board at once, joining
the fixes by straight lines and numbering them for identification.
The tidal reduction being obtained, the reduced soundings are
written in the field-book in red underneath each sounding as
originally noted; they are then placed in their proper position
on the board between the fixes. Suspicious ground should be
closely examined; a small nun buoy anchored on the shoal is
useful to guide the boat while trying for the least depth. Sweep-
ing for a reported pinnacle rock may be resorted to when sounding
fails to discover it. Local information from fishermen and
others is often most valuable as to the existence of dangers. Up
to depths of about 15 fathoms the hand lead-line is used from
the boats, but beyond that depth the small Lucas machine for
wire effects a great saving of time and labour. The deeper
soundings of a survey are usually obtained from the ship, but
steamboats with wire sounding machines may assist very materi-
ally. By the aid of a steam winch, which by means of an endless
rounding line hauls a too-lb lead forward to the end of the lower
boom rigged out, from which it is dropped by a slipping apparatus
which acts on striking the water, soundings of 40 fathoms may
be picked up from the sounding platform aft, whilst going at a
speed of 4.5 knots. In deeper water it is quicker to stop the ship
and sound from aft with the wire sounding machine. In running
long lines of soundings on and off shore, it is very essential to
be able to fix as far from the land as possible. Angles will be
taken from aloft for this purpose, and a few floating beacons
dropped in judiciously chosen positions will often well repay
the trouble. A single fixed point on the land used in conjunc-
tion with two beacons suitably placed will give an admirable
fix. A line to the ship or her smoke from one or two theodolite
stations on shore is often invaluable; if watches are compared,
observations may be made at stated times and plotted after-
wards. True bearings of a distant fixed object cutting the
line of position derived from an altitude of the sun is another
means of fixing a position, and after dark the true bearing of
a light may be obtained by the time azimuth and angular dis-
tance of a star near the prime vertical, or by the angular distance
of Polaris in the northern hemisphere.
A very large percentage of the bugbears to navigation denoted
by vigias1 on the charts eventually turn out to have no ex-
istence, but before it is possible to expunge them a
large area has to be examined. No-bottom soundings
are but little use, but the evidence of positive soundings should
be conclusive. Submarine banks rising from great depths
necessarily stand on bases many square miles in area. Of recent
years our knowledge of the angle of slope that may be expected
to occur at different depths has been much extended. From
depths of upwards of 2000 fathoms the slope is so gradual that
a bank could hardly approach the surface in less than 7 m. from
such a sounding; therefore anywhere within an area of at least
r 50 sq. m. all round a bank rising from these depths, a sounding
must show some decided indications of a rise in the bottom.
Under such circumstances, soundings at intervals of 7 m., and
run in parallel lines 7 m. apart, enclosing areas of only 50 sq. m.
between any four adjacent soundings, should effectually clear
up the ground and lead to the discovery of any shoal; and in
fact the soundings might even be more widely spaced. From
depths of 1500 and 1000 fathoms, shoals can scarcely occur
within 35 m. and 2 m. respectively; but as the depth decreases
the angle of slope rapidly increases, and a shoal might occur
within three-quarters of a mile or even half a mile of such a
1 A Spanish word meaning " look-out," used of marks on the
chart signifying obstructions to navigation.
Vlglas.
sounding as 500 fathoms. A full appreciation of these facts
will indicate the distance apart at which it is proper to place
soundings in squares suitable to the general depth of water.
Contour lines will soon show in which direction to prosecute
the search if any irregularity of depth is manifested. When
once a decided indication is found, it is not difficult to follow it
up by paying attention to the contour lines as developed by suc-
cessive soundings. Discoloured water, ripplings, fish jumping or
birds hovering about may assist in locating a shoal, but the sub-
marine sentry towed at a depth of 40 fathoms is here invaluable,
and may save hours of hunting. Reports being more liable to
errors of longitude than of latitude, a greater margin is necessary
in that direction. Long parallel lines east and west are prefer-
able, but the necessity of turning the ship more or less head to
wind at every sounding makes it desirable to run the lines with
the wind abeam, which tends to disturb the dead reckoning
least. A good idea of the current may be obtained from the
general direction of the ship's head whilst sounding considered
with reference to the strength and direction of the wind, and it
should be allowed for in shaping the course to preserve the paral-
lelism of the lines, but the less frequently the course is altered
the better. A good position in the morning should be obtained
by pairs of stars on opposite bearings, the lines of position of
one pair cutting those of another pair nearly at right angles.
The dead reckoning should be checked by lines of position from
observations of the sun about every two hours throughout the
day, preferably whilst a sounding is being obtained and the ship
stationary. Evening twilight stars give another position.
Tides. — The datum for reduction of soundings is low-water
ordinary springs, the level of which is referred to a permanent
bench mark in order that future surveys may be reduced to the
same datum level. Whilst sounding is going on the height of the
water above this level is observed by a tide gauge. The time of
high-water at full and change, called the " establishment," and the
heights to which spring and neap tides respectively rise above the
datum are also required. It is seldom that a sufficiently long
series of observations can be obtained for their discussion by har-
monic analysis, and therefore the graphical method is preferred;
an abstract form provides for the projection of high and low waters,
lunitidal intervals, moon's meridian passage, declination of sun and
moon, apogee and perigee, and mean time of high-water following
superior transit, and of the highest tide in the twenty-four hours. A
good portable automatic tide gauge suitable for all requirements is
much to be desired.
Tidal Streams and Surface Currents are observed from the ship
or boats at anchor in different positions, by means of a current log ;
or the course of a buoy drifted by the current may be followed by
a boat fixing at regular intervals. Tidal streams often run for
some hours after high and low water by the shore; it is important
to find out whether the change of stream occurs at a regular time of
the tide. Undercurrents are of importance from a scientific point
of view. A deep-sea current meter, devised (1876) by Lieut.
Pillsbury, U.S.N., has, with several modifications, been used with
success on many occasions, notably by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey steamer " Blake " in the investigation of the Gulf Stream.
The instrument is first lowered to the required depth, and when
ready is put into action by means of a heavy
weight, or messenger, travelling down the supporting
line and striking on a metal plate, thus closing the
jaws of the levers and enabling the instrument to
begin working. The rudder is then free to revolve inside the
framework and take up the direction of the current; the small
cones can revolve on their axis and register the number of revolu-
tions, while the compass needle is released and free to take up the
north and south line. On the despatch of a second -messenger,
which strikes on top of the first and fixes the jaws of the levers
open, every part of the machine is simultaneously locked. Having
noted the exact time of starting each of the messengers, the time
during which the instrument has been working at the required
depth is known, and from this the velocity of the current can be
calculated, the number of revolutions having been recorded, while
the direction is shown by the angle between the compass needle and
the direction of the rudder.
The instrument is shown in fig. 12. AA are the jaws of the
levers through which the first messenger passes and strikes on
the metal plate B. The force Of the blow is sufficient to press
B down, thus bringing the jaws as close together as possible, and
putting the meter into action. The second messenger falling on
the first opens the levers again and prevents their closing, thus
keeping all parts of the machine locked. C is the rudder which
takes up the direction of the current when the levers are unlocked.
D is a set of small levers on the rudder in connexion with AA. The
i6o
SURVEYING
[NAUTICAL
outer end on the tail of the rudder fits into the notches on the outer
ring of the frame when the machine is locked and thus keeps the
rudder fixed, but when the first messenger has started the machine
by pressing down B and opening the levers AA, this small lever is
raised and the rudder can revolve freely. EE are four small cones
which revolve on their axis in a vertical
plane, similar to an anemometer; the
axis is connected by a worm screw to
gearedjwheels which register the number
of revolutions up to 5000, corresponding
to about 4 nautical miles. There is a
small lever in connexion with AA which
prevents the cones revolving when the
machine is locked, but allows them to
revolve freely when the machine is in
action. Below the rudder-post is a
compass-bowl F, which is hung in
gimbals and capable of removal. The
needle is so arranged that it can be
lifted off the pivot by means of a lever
in connexion with AA ; when the meter
is in action the needle swings freely on
its pivot, but .when the levers are
FIG. 12.
locked it is raised off its pivot by the inverted cup-piece K placed
inside the triple claws on the top of the compass and screwed
to the lever, thus locking the needle without chance of moving.
The compass bowl should be filled with fresh water before lowering
the instrument into the sea, and the top screwed home tightly.
The needle should be removed and carefully dried after use, to pre-
vent corrosion. The long arm G is to keep the machine steady in
one direction ; it works up and down a jackstay which passes between
two sheaves at the extremity of the long arm. This also assists to
keep the machine in as upright a position as possible, and prevents
it from being drifted astern with the current. A weight of as much
as 8 or 10 cwt. is required at the bottom of the jackstay in a very
strong current. An elongated weight of from 60 to 80 ft must be
suspended from the eye at the bottom of the meter to help to keep
it as vertical as possible. On the outer part of the horizontal
notched ring forming the frame, and placed on the side of the machine
opposite to the projecting arm G, it has been found necessary to
bolt a short arm supported by stays from above, from which is sus-
pended a leaden counterpoise weight to assist in keeping the appara-
tus upright. This additional fitting is not shown in fig. 12. A f-in.
phosphor-bronze wire rope is used for lowering the machine; it is
rove through a metal sheave H and india-rubber washer, and spliced
round a heart which is attached to metal plate B. The messengers
are fitted with a hinged joint to enable them to be placed round the
wire rope, and secured with a screw bolt. To obtain the exact
value of a revolution of the small cones it is necessary to make
experiments when the actual speed of the current is known, by
immersing .the meter just below the surface and taking careful
observations of the surface-current by means of a current log or
weighted pole. From the number of revolutions registered by the
meter in a certain number of minutes, and taking the mean of several
observations, a very fair value for a revolution can be deduced.
On every occasion of using the meter for under-current observations
the value of a revolution should be re-determined, as it is apt to vary
owing to small differences in the friction caused by want of oil or
the presence of dust or grit ; while the force of the current is probably
another important factor in influencing the number of revolutions
recorded.
The features of the country should generally be delineated
as far back as the skyline viewed from seaward, in order to assist
_ the navigator to recognize the land. The summits
topography, fi.ui • /- , . , i
of hills and conspicuous spurs are fixed either by
lines to or by angles at them; their heights are determined
by theodolite elevations or depressions to or from stations
Latitude*.
whose height above high-water is known. As much of the
ground as possible is walked over, and its shape is delineated
by contour lines sketched by eye, assisted by an aneroid
barometer. In wooded country much of the topography may
have to be shot in from the ship; sketches made from different
positions at anchor along the coast with angles to all prominent
features, valleys, ravines, spurs of hills, &c., will give a very
fair idea of the general lie of the country.
Circum-meridian altitudes of stars on opposite sides of the
zenith observed by sextant in the artificial horizon is the method
adopted wherever possible for observations for
latitudes. Arranged in pairs of nearly the same
altitude north and south of zenith, the mean of each pair should
give a result from which instrumental and personal errors and
errors due to atmospheric conditions are altogether eliminated.
The mean of several such pairs should have a probable error
of not more than ± i". As a rule the observations of each star
should be confined to within 5 or 6 minutes on either side of
the meridian, which will allow of from fifteen to twenty observa-
tions. Two stars selected to " pair " should pass the meridian
within an hour of each other, and should not differ in altitude
more than 2° or 3°. Artificial horizon roof error is eliminated
by always keeping the same end of the roof towards the observer;
when observing a single object, as the sun, the roof must be
reversed when half way through the observations. The observa-
tions are reduced to the meridian by Raper's method. When
pairs of stars are not observed, circum-meridian altitudes of
the sun alone must be resorted to, but being observed on one
side of the zenith only, none of the errors to which all observa-
tions are liable can be eliminated.
Sets of equal altitudes of sun or stars by sextant and artificial
horizon are usually employed to discover chronometer errors.
Six sets of eleven observations, a.m. and p.m., chrono-
observing both limbs of the sun, should give a result meter
which, under favourable conditions of latitude and Errors.
declination, might be expected to vary less than two-tenths
of a second from the normal personal equation of the observer.
Stars give equally good results. In high latitudes sextant
observations diminish in value owing to the slower movement
in altitude. In the case of the sun all the chronometers are
compared with the " standard " at apparent noon; the com-
parisons with the chronometer used for the observations on
each occasion of landing and returning to the ship are worked
up to noon. In the case of stars, the chronometer compari-
sons on leaving and again on returning are worked up to an
intermediate time. A convenient system, which retains the
advantage of the equal altitude method, whilst avoiding the
necessity of waiting some hours for the p.m. observation, is to
observe two stars at equal altitudes on opposite sides of the
meridian, and, combining the observations, treat them as rela-
ting to an imaginary star having the mean R.A. and mean
declination of the two stars selected, which should have nearly
the same declination and should differ from 4* to 8* in R.A.
The error of chronometer on mean time of place being obtained,
the local time is transferred from one observation spot to another
by the ship carrying usually eight box chronometers.
The best results are found by using travelling rates, Meridian
which are deduced from the difference of Ijie errors
found on leaving an observation spot and returning to it; from
this difference is eliminated that portion which may have
accumulated during an interval between two determinations
of error at the other, or any intermediate, observation spot.
A travelling rate may also be obtained from observations at
two places, the meridian distance between which is known; this
rate may then be used for the meridian distance between places
observed at during the passage. Failing travelling rates, the
mean of the harbour rates at either end must be used. The
same observer, using the same instrument, must be employed
throughout the observations of a meridian distance.
If the telegraph is available, it should of course be used. The
error on local time at each end of the wire is obtained, and
a number of telegraphic signals are exchanged between the
SURVILLE, C. DE— SUSA
161
observers, an equal number being transmitted and received at
either end. The local time of sending a signal from one place
being known and the local time of its reception being noted, the
difference is the meridian distance. The retardation due to the
time occupied by the current in travelling along the wire is elimin-
ated by sending signals in both directions. The relative personal
equation of the observers at either end, both in their observa-
tions for time, and also in receiving and transmitting signals,
is eliminated by changing ends and repeating the operations.
If this is impracticable, the personal equations should be deter-
mined and applied to the results. Chronometers keeping solar
time at one end of the wire, and sidereal time at the other end,
materially increase the accuracy with which signals can be
exchanged, for the same reason that comparisons between sidereal
clocks at an observatory are made through the medium of a
solar clock. Time by means of the sextant can be so readily
obtained, and within such small limits of error, by skilled
observers, that in hydrographic surveys it is usually employed;
but if transit instruments are available, and sufficient time
can be devoted to erecting them properly, the value of the
work is greatly enhanced in high latitudes.
True bearings are obtained on shore by observing with theo-
dolite the horizontal angle between the object selected as the
zero and the sun, taking the latter in each quadrant
Bearings as defined by the cross-wires of the telescope. The
altitude may be read on the vertical arc of the theo-
dolite; except in high latitudes, where a second observer with
sextant and artificial horizon are necessary, unless the pre-
cise errors of the chronometers are known, when the time can
be obtained by carrying a pocket chronometer to the station.
The sun should be near the prime vertical and at a low altitude;
the theodolite must be very carefully levelled, especially in the
position with the telescope pointing towards the sun. To elimin-
ate instrumental errors the observations should be repeated with
the vernier set at intervals equidistant along the arc, and a.m. and
p.m. observations should be taken at about equal altitudes.
At sea true bearings are obtained by measuring with a sextant
the angle between the sun and some distant well-defined object
making an angle of from 100° to 120° and observing the altitude
of the sun at the same time, together with that of the terrestrial
object. The sun's altitude should be low to get the best results,
and both limbs should be observed. The sun's true bearing is
calculated from its altitude, the latitude, and its declination;
the horizontal angle is applied to obtain the true bearing of the
zero. On shore the theodolite gives the horizontal angle direct,
but with sextant observations it must be deduced from the
angular distance and the elevation.
For further information see Wharton, Hydrographical Survey-ing
(London, 1898); Shortland, Nautical Surveying (London, 1890).
(A. M. F.*)
"SURVILLE, CLOTILDE DE," the supposed author of
the Poesies de Clotilde. The generally accepted legend gave
the following account of her. Marguerite Eleonore CJotilde de
Vallon Challis, dame de Surville, was born in the early years
of the i$th century at Vallon. In 1421 she married Berenger
de Surville, who was killed at the siege of Orleans in 1428. Her
husband's absence at the war inspired her heroic verses and his
death her elegiac poems. The last of her poems is a chant royal
addressed to Charles VIII.
In 1803 Charles Vanderbourg published as the Poesies de
Clotilde some forty poems dealing with love and war. The
history given in the introduction of the discovery of the manu-
script was evidently a fable, and the poems were set down by
most authorities as forgeries, especially as they contained many
anachronisms and were written in accordance with modern laws
of prosody. The manuscript had been in the possession of
Jean Francois Marie, marquis de Surville, an Emigre who returned
to France in 1798 to raise an insurrection in Provence, and had
paid the penalty with his life. In 1863 Antonin Mace made
further inquiries on the subject and discovered letters from
Vanderbourg to Surville's widow. This correspondence makes it
clear that Vanderbourg was innocent of forgery and believed that
xxvi. 6
the poems were of isth-century date, and that the anachronisms
of matter and form were due to retouching by Surville. But
the researches of M. Mace interested local antiquarians, and
documentary evidence was produced that the wife of Berenger
de Surville was Marguerite Chalis, not Clotilde, and that the
marriage dated only from 1428. Moreover Berenger, whose
death at the siege of Orleans was one of the leading motives
of the book, lived for twenty years after that date. Friends
of M. de Surville also disclosed the fact that the marquis had
contributed archaic poetry to a Lausanne journal.
See A. Mace", Un proces d'histoire litteraire (1870); A. Mazon,
Marguerite Chalis et la legende de Clotilde de Surville (1875); articles
by Gaston Paris in the Revue critique d'histoire et de lilterature (March I ,
1873 and May 30, 1874), by Paul Cottin in the Bulletin du bibliophile
(1894); E. K. Chambers, Literary Forgeries (1891); and further
references in the Bibliographie des femmes celebres (Turin and Paris,
1892, &c.).
SUS, a province of southern Morocco, once an independent
kingdom, and still too unruly to be opened to Europeans, who
have nevertheless for centuries past made efforts to secure a
foothold. Its principal towns are Tarudant, High (the old
capital), and Glimin on the Wad Nun. Tarudant, the present
capital, flourished in the i2th century on account of the neigh-
bouring copper-mines. Saltpetre is now the only important
product. Ports might be opened at Agadir Ighir (once occupied
by the Portuguese for thirty years as Santa Cruz), Massa, Ifni,
Arksis and Assaka at the mouth of the Wad Nun. As a coveted
district, all kinds of natural riches are attributed to Sus, but
it may be assumed that they are exaggerated. Europeans land
at their peril, since the coast is by imperial order closed to trade,
no custom-house being provided. Most of the business of Sus
is carried on at great fairs lasting eight or fifteen days, during
which time all roads of approach are guaranteed safe by the
tribesmen that trade may be uninterrupted. Caravans from
Sus laden with copper-ware, olive oil, butter, saffron, wax, skins,
dates, dried roses, &c., are sent to Marrakesh, four days' journey
from Tarudant. Susis are well known in the north of Morocco
as able tradesmen and clever metal workers. They live frugally,
and are only prodigal in powder and human life. Their language
is almost exclusively Shilhah, a dialect of Berber. (K.A.M.*)
SUSA (Biblical, Shushan), the capital of Susiana or Elam
and from the time of Darius I. the chief residence of the Achae-
menian kings. It had been the centre of the old monarchy of
Elam and had undergone many vicissitudes before it fell into
the hands of the Persians (see ELAM). "fhe site, fixed by the
explorations of W. K. Loftus, lies in the plain, but within sight
of the mountains, between the courses of the Kerkha (Choaspes)
and the Dizful, one of the affluents of the Pasitigris. The
Shaur, a small tributary of the Dizful, washes the eastern base
of the mounds of Shush, and seems to be the representative of
the ancient Ulai or Eulaeus. Thus the whole district was fruit-
ful and well watered; the surrounding rivers with their canals
gave protection and a waterway to the Persian Gulf; while
the position of the town between the Semitic and Iranian lands
of the empire was convenient for administrative purposes.
Susa therefore became a vast and populous capital; Greek
writers assign to it a circuit of 15 or 20 m.
The remains include four mounds, of which one is the site
of the citadel called Memnonion by the Greeks, while another
(the Apadana to the east of it) represents the palace of Darius I.
and Artaxerxes II. Mnemon. This latter has been excavated
by M. Dieulafoy and the enamelled bricks with which its walls
were adorned are now in the Louvre. South of these two mounds
is the site of the royal Elamite city. The fourth mound, covering
the remains of the poorer houses, is on the right bank of the river
between the Shaur and the Kerkha. J. de Morgan's excava-
tions (since 1897} have been principally in the citadel mound,
which measures rougnly 1500 ft. by 825 ft. and is 125 ft. high.
The two lowest strata belong to the stone age, and the first
is characterized by a fine thin pottery, with yellow paste decor-
ated with geometrical patterns and animal or vegetable figures
in black and brown-red. Some of it is similar to the prehistoric
SUSA— SUSO
pottery of Egypt. The pottery of the second neolithic stratum
is much inferior. Above these strata come the remains of
Elamite and early Babylonian civilization with inscribed objects,
the oldest of which exhibit the pictorial characters out of which
the cuneiform were evolved. Under the foundations of the
temple of In-Susinak (in the north-west part of the mound) a vast
quantity of bronze objects has been discovered, for the most
part earlier than the loth century B.C. Among the monuments
brought to light in other parts of the mound are the obelisk
of Manistusu (see BABYLONIA), the stela of Naram-Sin and the
code of Khammurabi, along with a great number of historically
valuable boundary-stones. The upper portions of the mounds
have yielded, besides Persian remains, Greek pottery and
inscriptions of the 4th century B.C., numerous coins of the
Kamnaskires dynasty and other kings of Elymais in the Seleucid
era, and Parthian and Sassanian relics. In the Sassanian period
the city was razed in consequence of a revolt, but rebuilt by
Sapor (Shapur) II.; the walls were again destroyed at the
time of the Mahommedan conquest, but the site, which is now
deserted, was a seat of sugar manufacture in the middle ages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea
andSusiana (1857); M. Dieulafoy, L' Art antique de la Perse (1884-85),
L'Acropole de Suse (1890) ; A. Billerbeck, Stisa (1893) ; J. de Morgan,
Memoires de la delegation en Perse, vols. i.-viii. (from 1899). See
also PERSIA: Ancient History, § v. 2. (A. H. S.)
SUSA (Fr. Sousse) , a city of Tunisia, on the Gulf of Hammamet,
in 35° 49' N., 10° 39' E., 36 m. by rail E. by N. of Kairawan,
of which it is the port, and 93 m. S. by E. by rail of Tunis. Susa,
which occupies part of the site of the ancient Hadrumetum, is
built on the side of a hill sloping seawards, and is surrounded
by a crenellated wall, strengthened by towers. Recesses in
the inner side of the wall are used as shops and warehouses.
The kasbah, or citadel, built on the highest point within the
town, was thoroughly restored by the French after their occupa-
tion of the country in 1881, and serves as military headquarters
for the district, the camp for the troops being outside the walls
west of the citadel. The native town has been little changed
since the French occupation, but north of the port a European
quarter has been created, and here are public buildings such as
law courts, a museum and a town-hall. The museum contains
many archaeological treasures, notable mosaics and sculptures.
The most interesting buildings in the old town are the Kasr-
er-Ribat and the Kahwat-el-Kubba. The Kasr-er-Ribat is a
square fortress with a high tower and seven bastions. Its date
is uncertain, but is not later than the gth century. The Kahwat-
el-Kubba (Cafe of the Dome) is a curious house, square at the
base, then cylindrical, and surmounted by a fluted dome. It
was probably a church during the Byzantine period. Another
domed building, now used as oil-mills, dates from Roman and
Byzantine times. In the Bab-el-Gharbi (West Gate) a Roman
sarcophagus of marble has been built into the wall, and serves
as a drinking fountain. The grand mosque is in the north-east
part of the town. The ancient harbours are silted up, but
vestiges of the Roman breakwaters may be seen. The modern
port, completed in 1901, enables steamers drawing 21 ft. to lie at
the quays. Exports are chiefly phosphates and other minerals,
olive oil, esparto and cereals; imports: cotton goods, building
material, &c. The population, less than 10,000 at the time
of the French occupation, had increased in 1907 to over 25,000,
of whom 1500 were French and 4000 other Europeans, chiefly
Italians and Maltese.
Susa, the Arab town which succeeded Hadrumetum (q.v.),
was fortified by the Aghlabite rulers of Kairawan in the gth
century A.D. It shared the general fortunes of Tunisia and
became a noted haunt of pirates, who raided the coast of Italy.
In 1537 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the marquis of Terra
Nova, in the service of Charles V., but in 1539 was captured for
the emperor by Andrea Doria. As soon as the imperial forces
were withdrawn it became again the seat of Turkish piracy.
The town was attacked by the French and the Knights of
St John in 1770, and by the Venetians in 1764. It remained,
however, in the possession of the bey of Tunis.
Some 35 m. due south of Susa, and half way on the road to Sfax
is El Jem, the site of the city of Thysdrus. Of the ancient city there
are scarcely any remains save the amphitheatre — a magnificent ruin
scarcely inferior to that of the Colosseum in Rome. There is no
record of the building of the amphitheatre, which is usually assigned
to the reign of Gordian III. (A.D. 238-244). It is made of limestone
brought from Sallecta, 20 m. distant, bears evidence of hasty con-
struction, and was probably never finished. It is of four storeys —
three open arcades crowned by a fourth storey with windows. The
first and third arcades are Corinthian; the middle one Composite.
Each of these galleries has sixty-four columns and the same number
of arches. Constantly used as a fortress since the Arab invasion,
the amphitheatre suffered much, and in 1697 the bey of Tunis made
a great breach in its western end to .prevent it being again used for
defence. But even in its present condition the amphitheatre —
standing solitary in a desolate district — is grandly impressive. Its
major axis is 488 ft., its minor axis 406 ft. (The figures of the
Colosseum are 615 and 510$ respectively.)
SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.ii.), a city and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin, from which it is 33 m. W. by
rail. Pop. (1901), 3607 (town); 5023 (commune). It is situated
on the Dora Riparia, a tributary of the Po, 1625 ft. above
sea-level, and is protected from the northern winds by the
Rocciamelone. Among the medieval buildings of Susa the first
place belongs to the church of San Giusto, founded in 1029 by
Olderico Manfredi II. and the countess Berta, and in 1772 raised
to be the cathedral. It has a fine brick campanile and brick
decoration, and contains a bronze triptych of 1358 in niello,
with the Virgin and Child. In the Valle di Susa, about 14 m.
east of it, towards Turin, near S. Ambrogio di Torino, is the
monastery of S. Michele with a Romanesque church, situated on
a rocky mountain (998-1002).
After the time of Charlemagne a marquisate of Susa was
established ; and the town became in the nth century the capital
of Adelaide countess of Savoy, who was mistress of the whole
of Piedmont. On his retreat from Legnano in 1176 Barbarossa
set fire to Susa; but the town became more than ever important
when Emmanuel Philibert fortified it at great expense in the i6th
century. It was, however, dismantled by Napoleon I. in 1796.
SUSARION, Greek comic poet, a native of Tripodiscus in
Megaris. About 580 B.C. he transplanted the Megarian comedy
(if the rude extempore jests and buffoonery deserve the name)
into the Attic deme of Icaria, the cradle also of Greek tragedy
and the oldest seat of the worship of Dionysus. According to
the Parian Chronicle, there appears to have been a competition
on this occasion, in which the prize was a basket of figs and
an amphora of wine. Susarion's improvements in his native
farces did not include a separate actor or a regular plot, but
probably consisted in substituting metrical compositions for the
old extempore effusions of the chorus. These were intended
for recitation, and not committed to writing. But such per-
formances did not suit the taste of the Athenians, and nothing
more is heard of them until eighty years after the time of Susarion.
U. von. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (in Hermes, ix.) considers the
so-called Megarian comedy to have been an invention of the
Athenians themselves, intended as a satire on Megarian coarse-
ness and vulgarity. The lines attributed to Susarion (in Meineke,
Poetarum comicorum graecorum fragmenta) are probably not
genuine. <
SUSO [SEUSE], HEINRICH (1300-1366), German mystic, was
born of good family at Uberlingen on Lake Constance on the
2ist of March, in all probability in the year 1300; he assumed
the name of his mother, his father being a Herr von Berg. He
was educated for the Church, first at Constance, then at Cologne,
where he came under the influence of the greatest of the German
mystics, Meister Eckart. He subsequently entered a monastery
in Constance, where he subjected himself to the severest ordeals
of asceticism. In 1335 he wandered through Swabia as a
preacher, and won all hearts by his gentle, persuasive eloquence;
the effusive lyricism of his language made him an especial
favourite among the nuns. About 1348 he seems to have settled
in Ulm, where he died on the 25th of January 1366. Suso's
first work, Das Buchlein der Wahrheit, was written in Cologne
about 1329; setting out from Eckart's doctrines, he presents
the mystic faith from its speculative or theoretical side; whereas
SUSPENSURA— SUSSEX, EARLS OF
163
in Das Biichlein der evngen Weisheit, written some years later
in Constance, he discusses the practical aspects of mysticism.
The latter work, which Suso also translated into Latin under
the title of Horologium sapientiae, has been called the finest
fruit of German mysticism. Suso is the poet of the early mystic
movement, " the Minnesinger of Gotiesminne." But his faith
is purely medieval in tone, inspired by the romanticism of the
age of chivalry; the individualism, the philosophic insight and
the anti-Catholic tendencies which made the mystic movement
in its later manifestations so important a forerunner of the
Reformation are absent.
Suso's works were collected as early as 1482 and again in 1512;
recent editions: Heinrich Suso's Leben und Schriften, ed. by M.
Diepenbrock (1829; 4th ed., 1884); Suso's Deutsche Schriften, by
F. H. S. Denifle (1878-1880, not completed), and Deutsche Schriften,
by K. Bihlmeyer (2 vols., 1907). See also W. Preger, Die Briefe
Heinrich Susos (1867); W. Preger, Geschichle der deutschen Mystik
(1882), vol. ii. ; J. Jager, Heinrich Seuse aus Schwaben (1894).
SUSPENSURA, the architectural term given by Vitruvius
(v. 10) to the hollow space under the floor of a Roman bath,
in which the smoke from the furnace passed to the vertical flues
in the wall (see HYPOCAUST).
SUSSEX, EARLS OF. The early history of the earldom of
Sussex, a title that has been borne at different periods by several
English families, is involved in some obscurity, owing to the
fact that under the Norman kings the titles of earls were often
indifferently derived from a county, from its chief town, or from
the earl's principal residence, although the distinctive mark of
an earl was deemed to be his right to " the third penny " of
the pleas of a county (see EARL). Thus in the I2th century
the same person is sometimes found described as earl of Sussex,
sometimes as earl of Chichester, and sometimes as earl of Arundel,
while the inclusion of the counties of Sussex and Surrey under
the jurisdiction of a single sheriff led at one time, as will be seen,
to a further confusion between the earldoms of those counties.
The difficulty is, again, increased by the Crown's admission
in, 1433 that the possession of the castle of Arundel carried with
it the right to the title of earl of Arundel, though later investiga-
tion (see Lords' Reports on the Dignity of a Peer, i. 404-429) has
proved the invalidity of the claim, and Mr J. H. Round and
other modern authorities maintain that inasmuch as Norman
earls were earls of counties, the earldom of Arundel was strictly
that of Sussex.
On the other hand G. E. Cockayne (Complete Peerage, i. 138,
139) holds that Roger de Montgomery, who received grants
from William the Conqueror of a large part of the county of
Sussex, including the city of Chichester and the castle and honour
of Arundel, besides lands in Shropshire with the castles of
Shrewsbury and Montgomery, but who does not appear to have
had " the third penny " of any county, " was an earl pure and
simple, and that, as was usual in those early times, his earldom
was indifferently styled either from the territories of Chichester
or of Shropshire, or from the castles of Arundel, Shrewsbury
or Montgomery." This Roger de Montgomery was considered
by Dugdale, a 17th-century authority, to have been earl of
Sussex.
Whatever Roger's titles may have been, they were forfeited
to the Crown when his son Robert was attainted in 1102, and
the forfeited estates were conferred by Henry I. on his second
wife Adelicia, who after Henry's death married William de Albini,
or d'Aubigny. The latter was created earl of Sussex by King
Stephen, and " the third penny " of that county was confirmed
to him by an instrument of the reign of Henry II., in which
however, he is styled earl of Arundel, a designation by which
he was more generally known. His grandson William, 3rd earl
of Sussex, was one of King John's sureties for the observance
of Magna Carta; and the earldom remained in his family till
1243, when it reverted to the Crown on the death of Hugh de
Albini, sth earl of the line (see ARUNDEL, EARLS OF). This Hugh
married Isabel, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey,
who survived him by nearly forty years, during which time she
held the estates of the earldom of Sussex in dower; after her
death in 1282 her brother John de Warenne, earl of Surrey,
was in various writs described as " earl of Surrey and Sussex,"
the same style being also used by his grandson and successor,
another John de Warenne (1286-1347), though it is not clear
that either of these Warennes had any right to the Sussex title,
the confusion having perhaps arisen through both counties
being under the jurisdiction of one sheriff. In any case the earl-
dom of Sussex, if vested in the younger Warenne, reverted to
the Crown on his death without legitimate issue in 1347, when
his estates devolved on his nephew Richard Fitzalan, earl of
Arundel. Since the death of the last earl of the de Albini line
in 1 243 the earldoms of Arundel and Sussex had been separate.
For nearly two hundred years, from 1347 to 1529, the title of
earl of Sussex did not exist in the English peerage. In 1529,
however, it was conferred on Robert Radcliffe, Radclyffe or
Ratclyffe (c. 1483-1542), who had been made Viscount Fitzwalter
in 1525. Radcliffe was a son of John Radcliffe, Baron Fitzwalter
(c. 1452-1496), and a grandson of Sir John Radcliffe of Attle-
borough in Norfolk, who became Baron Fitzwalter by right of
his wife Elizabeth. The younger John Radcliffe shared in the
conspiracy of Perkin Warbeck and was beheaded for high treason
in 1496. The attainder being reversed in 1506, his son Robert
became Baron Fitzwalter in 1506 and was soon a prominent
person at the court of Henry VIII. In 1529 he was created earl
of Sussex and in 1540 he was appointed great chamberlain of
England. He died on the 26th of November 1542, when his
son Henry (c. 1506-1557) became the 2nd earl. Henry's son,
Thomas Radcliffe (see below), became the 3rd earl. Thomas was
succeeded in 1 583 by his brother Henry (c. 1530-1593) who served
Elizabeth in Ireland. His son Robert (c. I56g-i629).the sth earl,
was a soldier and a patron of men of letters. When Robert's
son, Edward, the 6th earl (c. 1552-1641), died, the title became
extinct, but the barony of Fitzwalter passed to the family of
Mildmay, which held it until 1756, when it fell into abeyance.
In 1644 Thomas Savile (c. 1 590-6. 1659), son of John Savile,
ist Baron Savile of Pontefract (1566-1630), was created earl of
Sussex. Having been elected to the House of Commons as
member for Yorkshire in 1624, Savile became an opponent of
Wentworth, afterwards earl of Strafford, the rivalry between
the Saviles and the Wentworths having long been a feature
of the history of Yorkshire, and attaching himself to the duke
of Buckingham, he was created Viscount Savile of Castlebar
in the peerage of Ireland in 1628, and two years later succeeded
to his father's English peerage. His growing enmity to Straf-
ford led him into violent opposition to the government as the
earl's power increased, and in 1640 he entered into correspon-
dence with the Scots, to whom he sent a promise of support
to which he forged the signatures of six peers. He was appointed
lord president of the council of the north in succession to Straf-
ford, but after the fall of the latter he went over to the Royalist
party, in whose interest he exerted his influence in Yorkshire
in a manner that brought upon him the displeasure of the
parliament in 1642. His efforts to exonerate himself led to his
being suspected by the Royalists, and to his arrest, while his
residence, Howley Hall, was sacked by Newcastle, the Royalist
general. Having been pardoned by Charles, whom Savile attended
at Oxford, he was created earl of Sussex in 1644; but his efforts
to promote peace on terms distasteful to the king brought him
again into disfavour, and in 1645 he was imprisoned and accused
of high treason. Escaping from this charge on the ground of
his privilege as a peer, he went to London and again ingratiated
himself with the popular party. Intriguing simultaneously
with both parties, he continued to play a double game with
considerable skill, although he suffered imprisonment in 1645
for accusing Holies and Whitelocke of treachery in negotiations
with the king, and was heavily fined. After this he retired
into private life at Howley Hall, where he died about 1659.
He was succeeded in the earldom of Sussex by his son James,
on whose death without issue in 1671 the title became extinct.
It was revived in 1684 in favour of Thomas Lennard, I5th
Baron Dacre, whose wife Ann (d. 1722) was a daughter of the
famous duchess of Cleveland by King Charles II., and again
became extinct at this nobleman's death in 1715. The title
164
SUSSEX, 3RD EARL OF
was next conferred in 1717 on Talbot Yelverton, 2nd Viscount
de Longueville and i6th Baron Grey de Ruthyn (c. 1692-1731),
from whom it descended to his two sons successively, becoming
once more extinct on the death of the younger of these, Henry,
3rd earl of Sussex of this creation, in 1799.
In 1801 Prince Augustus Frederick (1773-1843) the sixth son
of George III., was created duke of Sussex. Spending his early
years abroad, the prince was married in Rome in 1793 to Lady
Augusta (d. 1 830) daughter of John Murray, 4th earl of Dunmore.
The ceremony was repeated in London and two children were
born, but under the Royal Marriage Act of 1772 the Court of
Arches declared the union illegal. The children took the name
of d'Este. The son, Sir Augustus Frederick d'Este (1794-1848),
became a colonel in the British army. In 1843 he claimed his
father's honours, but the House of Lords decided against him.
He died unmarried. The daughter, Augusta Emma (1801-
1866) married Sir Thomas Wilde, afterwards Lord Truro.
Unlike his brothers the duke of Sussex was a man of liberal
ideas; he favoured the abolition of the slave trade, the repeal
of the corn laws, and the removal of the civil disabilities of
Roman Catholics, Dissenters and Jews. His second wife,
Cecilia, widow of Sir George Buggin, was created duchess of
Inverness in 1840. He died at Kensington Palace on the
2ist of April 1843.
The older title of earl of Sussex was revived in 1874 when
it was conferred upon Prince Albert, the third son of Queen
Victoria, who at the same time was created duke of Connaught
and Strathearn.
See G. E. C., Complete Peerage, s.v. " Sussex," " Surrey," " Arun-
del," vols. i. and vii. (London, 1887-1896) ; Sir William Dugdale, The
Baronage of England (London, 1675). For the earls of the Radcliffe
family see also John Strype, Memorials of Thomas Cranmer (London,
1694), Annals of the Reformation (London, 1725), and Ecclesiastical
Memorials (3 vols., London, 1721); P. F. Tytler, England under the
Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary (2 vols., London, 1839) ; Calendars of
State Papers: Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. For
the ist earl of the Savile line see S. R. Gardiner, Hist, of England,
1603-1642 (10 vols., London, 1883-1884), and Hist, of the Great Civil
War (3 vols., London, 1886-1891); and John Rushworth, Historical
Collections (8 vols., London, 1659-1701).
SUSSEX, THOMAS RADCLYFFE [or RATCLYFFE], 3RD EARL
OF (c. 1525-1583), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, eldest son of Henry,
2nd earl of Sussex (see SUSSEX, EARLS OF), by his first wife,
Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd duke of Norfolk,
was born about 1525, and after his father's succession to the
earldom in 1542 was styled Viscount Fitzwalter. After serving
in the army abroad, he was employed in 1551 in negotiating a
marriage between Edward VI. and a daughter of Henry II.,
king of France. His prominence in the kingdom was shown by
his inclusion among the signatories to the letters patent of the
1 6th of June 1553 settling the crown on Lady Jane Grey;
but he nevertheless won favour with Queen Mary, who employed
him in arranging her marriage with Philip of Spain, and who
raised him to the peerage as Baron Fitzwalter in August 1553.
Returning to England from a mission to the emperor Charles V.
in April 1556, Fitzwalter was appointed lord deputy of Ireland.
The prevailing anarchy in Ireland, a country which, nominally
subject to the English Crown, was torn by feuds among its
practically independent native chieftains, rendered the task
of the lord deputy one of no ordinary difficulty; a difficulty
that was increased by the ignorance of English statesmen con-
cerning Ireland and Irish conditions, and by their incapacity to
devise or to carry into execution any consistent and thorough-
going policy for bringing the half-conquered island under an
orderly system of administration. The measures enjoined
upon Fitzwalter by the government in London comprised the
reversal of the partial attempts that had been made during the
short reign of Edward VI. to promote Protestantism in Ireland,
and the " plantation " by English settlers of that part of the
country then known as Offaly and Leix. But before Fitzwalter
could give his attention to such matters he found it necessary
to make an expedition into Ulster, which was being kept in a
constant state of disturbance by the Highland Scots from
Kintyre and the Islands who were making settlements along
the Antrim coast in the district known as the Glynnes (glens),
and by the efforts of Shane O'Neill to convert into effective
sovereignty the chieftainship of his clan which he had recently
wrested from his father, Conn, ist earl of Tyrone. Having
defeated O'Neill and his allies the MacDonnells, the lord deputy,
who by the death of his father in February 1557 became earl of
Sussex, returned to Dublin, where he summoned a parliament
in June of that year. Statutes were passed declaring the legiti-
macy of Queen Mary, reviving the laws for the suppression of
heresy, forbidding the immigration of Scots, and vesting in the
Crown the territory comprised in what are now the King's County
and Queen's County, which were then so named after Philip
and Mary respectively. Having carried this legislation, Sussex
endeavoured to give forcible effect to it, first by taking the field
against Donough O'Conor, v/hom he failed to capture, and
afterwards against Shane O'Neill, whose lands in Tyrone he
ravaged, restoring to their nominal rights the earl of Tyrone
and his reputed son Matthew O'Neill, baron of Dungannon
(see O'NEILL). In June of the following year Sussex turned his
attention to the west, where the head of the O'Briens had ousted
his nephew Conor O'Brien, earl of Thomond, from his possessions,
and refused to pay allegiance to the Crown; he forced Limerick
to open its gates to him, restored Thomond, and proclaimed
The O'Brien a traitor. In the autumn of 1558 the continued
inroads of the Scottish islanders in the Antrim glens called
for drastic treatment by the lord deputy. Sussex laid waste
Kintyre and some of the southern Hebridean isles, and land-
ing at Carrickfergus he fired and plundered the settlements of
the Scots on the Antrim coast before returning to Dublin for
Christmas.
In the metropolis the news reached him of the queen's death.
Crossing to England, he took part in the ceremonial of Queen
Elizabeth's coronation in January 1559; and in the following
July he returned to Ireland with a fresh commission, now as
lord lieutenant, from the new queen, whose policy required him
to come to terms if possible with the troublesome leaders of
the O'Neills and the MacDonnells. Shane O'Neill refused to
meet Sussex without security for his safety, and having estab-
lished his power in Ulster he demanded terms of peace which
Elizabeth was unwilling to grant. Sussex failed in his efforts to
bring Shane to submission, either by open warfare or by a
shameful attempt to procure the Irish chieftain's assassination.
He was preparing for a fresh attempt when he was superseded
by the earl of Kildare, who was commissioned by Elizabeth to
open negotiations with O'Neill, the result of which was that
the latter repaired to London and made formal submission to
the queen. Shane's conduct on his return to Ireland was no
less rebellious than before, and energetic measures against him
became more imperative than ever. Having obtained Eliza-
beth's sanction, Sussex conducted a campaign in the summer of
^63 with Armagh as his temporary headquarters; but except
for some indecisive skirmishing and the seizure of many of
O'Neill's cattle, the operations led to no result and left Shane
O'Neill with his power little diminished. His continued failure
to effect a purpose for the accomplishment of which he possessed
inadequate resources led Sussex to pray for his recall from '
Ireland; and his wish was granted in May 1564. His govern-
ment of Ireland had not, however, been wholly without fruit.
Sussex was the first representative of the English Crown who
enforced authority to any considerable extent beyond the
limits of the Pale; the policy of planting English settlers in
Offaly and Leix was carried out by him in 1562 with a certain
measure of success; and although he fell far short of estab-
lishing English rule throughout any large part of Ireland, he
made its influence felt in remote parts of the island, such as
Thomond and the Glynnes of Antrim, where the independence
of the native septs had hitherto been subjected not even to
nominal interference. His letters from Ireland display a just
conception of the problems with which he was confronted, and
of the methods by which their solution should be undertaken;
and his failure was due, not to lack of statesmanship or of
executive capacity on his own part, but to the insufficiency
SUSSEX
165
of the resources placed at his command and want of insight and
persistence on the part of Elizabeth and her ministers.
On his return to England, Sussex, who before leaving Ireland
had to endure the indignity of an inquiry into his administra-
tion instigated by his enemies, threw himself into opposition to
the earl of Leicester, especially in regard to the suggested
marriage between that nobleman and the queen. He does
not appear to have on that account incurred Elizabeth's dis-
pleasure, for in 1566 and the following year she employed him in
negotiations for bringing about a different matrimonial alliance
which he warmly supported, namely, the proposal that she
should bestow her hand on the archduke Charles. When this
project fell to the ground Sussex returned from Vienna to
London in March 1568, and in July he was appointed lord
president of the north, a position which threw on him the
responsibility of dealing with the rebellion of the earls of
Northumberland and Westmorland in the following year. The
weakness of the force at his disposal rendered necessary at the
outset a caution which engendered some suspicion of his loyalty;
and this suspicion was increased by the counsel of moderation
which he urged upon the queen; but in 1570 he laid waste the
border, invaded Scotland, and raided the country round Dum-
fries, reducing the rebel leaders to complete submission. In
July 1572 Sussex became lord chamberlain, and he was hence-
forth in frequent attendance on Queen Elizabeth, both in her
progresses through the country and at court, until his death on
the gth of June 1583.
The earl of Sussex was one of the great nobles of the Eliza-
bethan period. Though his loyalty was questioned by his
enemies, it was as unwavering as his patriotism. He shone as a
courtier; he excelled in diplomacy; he was a man of cultivation
and even of scholarship, a patron of literature and of the drama
on the eve of its blossoming into the glory it became soon after
his death. He was twice married: first to Elizabeth, daughter
of Thomas Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and secondly
to Frances, daughter of Sir William Sidney. His second wife
was the foundress of Sidney Sussex College at Cambridge,
which she endowed by her will, and whose name commemorates
the father and the husband of the countess. The earl left no
children, and at his death his titles passed to his brother Henry
(see SUSSEX, EARLS OF).
See P. F. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary
(2 vols., London, 1839); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors
(3 vols., London, 1885-1890) ; Calendar of the Carew MSS. ; John
Stow, Annales (London, 1631) ; Charles Henry Cooper, Athenae canta-
brigienses, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1858), containing a biography of the
earl of Sussex; John Strype, Ecclesiastical Memorials (Oxford, 1822) ;
Sir Cuthbert Sharpe, Memorials of the Rebellion of 1569 (London,
1840); John Nichols, Progresses and Public Processions of Queen
Elizabeth (3 vols., London, 1823) ; Sir William Dugdale, The Baronage
of England (London, 1675). (R. J. M.)
SUSSEX, a southern county of England, bounded N. by
Surrey, N.E. by Kent, S. by the English Channel, and W. by
Hampshire. The area is 1459-2 sq. m. The extreme length
from E. to W. is 78 m., while the breadth never exceeds 28 m.,
but the county is not wholly on the southward slope, for in the
middle northern district it contributes a small drainage area
to the Thames basin, and the river Medway rises in it. A line
of hills known as the Forest Ridges forms the watershed. Its
direction is E.S.E. from the northern part of the county to the
coast at Fairlight Down east of Hastings, and it reaches a height
of about 800 ft. in the neighbourhood of Crowborough. The
salient physical feature of the county, however, is the hill
range called the South Downs (see DOWNS). Entering in the
west, where its summit is about 10 m. from the sea, it runs east
for some 50 m., gradually approaching the coast, and terminating
in the bold promontory of Beachy Head near Eastbourne. The
average height is about 500 ft., though some summits exceed
700, and Ditchling Beacon is over 800. The portion of the county
north of the South Downs is called the Weald (q.v.). It was
formerly covered with forest, and this part of the county is
still well wooded. About 1660 the total area under forest
was estimated to exceed 200,000 acres, but much wood was
cut to supply the furnaces of the ironworks which formed an
important industry in the county down to the I7th century,
and survived even until the early years of the ipth.
The rivers wholly within the county are small. All rise in
the Forest Ridges, and all, except the Rother, which forms
part of the boundary with Kent, and falls into the sea below
Rye, breach the South Downs. From east to west they are the
Cuckmere, rising near Heathfield; the Ouse, Adur and Arun,
all rising in the district of St Leonard's Forest, and having at
their mouths the ports of Newhaven, Shoreham and Little-
hampton respectively. The natural trench known as the Devil's
Dike is a point greatly favoured by visitors from Brighton.
The coast-line is practically coextensive with the extreme breadth
of the county, and its character greatly varies. The sea has
done great damage by incursion at some points, and has receded
in others, within historic times. Thus what is now marsh-
land or "Levels" round Pevensey was formerly an island-
studded bay. In the east Winchelsea and Rye, members of
the Cinque Ports, and great medieval towns, are deprived of
their standing, the one wholly and the other in part, since a low
flat tract interposes between their elevated sites where formerly
was a navigable inlet. Yet the total submergence of the site
of Old Winchelsea was effected in the I3th century. The site
of the ancient cathedral of Selsey is a mile out at sea. Between
1292 and 1340 upwards of 5500 acres were submerged. In
the early part of the I4th century Pagham Harbour was formed
by a sudden irruption of the sea, devastating 2700 acres, since
reclaimed. There is reason to believe that the whole coast-
line has subsequently been slightly raised. These changes are
reflected in the numerous alterations recorded in the course of
certain of the rivers near their mouths. Thus the Rother was
diverted by a great storm on the I2th of October 1250, before
which date it entered the sea 12 m. to the east. The out-
let of the Ouse was at Seaford until 1570, and that of the
Adur formerly shifted from year to year, ranging east and
west over a distance of 2 m. Submerged forests are found
off the shore at various points. Long stretches of firm sand,
and the mild climate of the coast, sheltered by the hills from
north and east winds, have resulted in the growth of numerous
watering-places, of which the most popular are Brighton,
Hastings, Eastbourne, Bexhill, Seaford, Shoreham, Worthing,
Littlehampton and Bognor.
Geology. — The disposition of the rock formations of Sussex is
simple. The South Downs consist of chalk, which extends from
Beachy Head by Seaford, Brighton, Lewes, Steyning and Goodwood
to the western border. The dip of the chalk is southerly, while a
strong escarpment faces the north. From the summit of the Downs
the hilly country observed on the northern side is occupied mainly
by the Hastings Beds and the Weald Clay; at the foot of the escarp-
ment lie the Gault and Upper Greensand, while between these forma-
tions and the Wealden rocks there is an elevated ridge of ground
formed by the Lower Greensand. On the southern side, narrow at
Brighton but broadening westward, is a level tract, 8 m. wide in
the peninsula of Selsey, which owes its level character to the action
of marine planation. This tract is occupied partly by Chalk and
partly by Tertiary rocks, both much obscured by more recent
deposits. On this side the chalk hills are deeply notched by dry
valleys or coombs, which frequently end in cirques near the north-
ward escarpment. The present aspect of the strata has been
determined by the broad east and west fold with its subordinate
members, known as the Wealden anticline. Only the southern and
central portions of this anticline are included in this country ; at one
time there is no doubt that the Chalk, Greensand and Gault covered
the entire area in the form of an uplifted dome, but denudation has
removed the Chalk and most of the other formations as far as the
North Downs, exposing thereby the underlying Wealden Beds.
The oldest rocks thus brought to light along the crest of the anticline
are the Purbeck Beds, small patches of sliale and limestone, with
some important beds of gypsum, which lie north-west of Battle.
A deep boring (1905 ft.) at Netherfield, passed through Portlandian
Beds and Kimmeridge Clay into Oxford Clay, but these do not appear
anywhere at the surface. Above the Purbeck Beds, and covering all
the north-eastern portion of the county from the coast at Bexhill and
Rye to Horsham, are sands and clays of the Lower Wealden or
Hastings Beds. This incjudes the following local subdivisions, in
ascending order; the Fairlight Clay, Ashdown Sand, Wadhurst
Clay, Lower Tunbridge Wells Sand, Grinstead Clay and Upper
Tunbridge Wells Sand (with Tilgate stone at the top and Cuckficld
Clay at the base). The Weald Clay occupies a belt of lower ground
i66
SUSSEX
on the south and west of the Hastings Sands, it consists of blue and
mottled clays with thin sand layers and beds of hard limestone,
the " Sussex marble" with the shells of Paludina. The Horsham Stone
is another local hard bed. Near Tilgate the remains of Iguanodon
have been found in this formation. Bordering the outcrop of the
Weald Clay is the Lower Greensand; it appears a little north of
Eastbourne and passes thence through Ringmer, Storrington,
Pulborough, Petworth, Midhurst and Linchmere. It contains the
following divisions in ascending order — the Atherfield Clay, Hythe
Beds (sandy limestone, sandstone and chert), Sandgate Beds and
Folkestone Beds. The Eocene strata lying south of the Downs and
west of Brighton — with the exception of some outliers of Reading
Beds near Seaford — include the Woolwich and Reading Beds,
London Clay (with hard " Bognor Rock"), the Bagshot and Brackles-
ham Beds; the last-named formation is very fossiliferous in the bay
of that name. As already mentioned, superficial deposits cover
much of the low ground west of Brighton; these include glacial
deposits with large boulders, raised beaches, brick earth and gravels,
marine and estuarine, and the interesting Coombe rock or Brighton
Elephant Bed, a coarse rubble of chalk waste formed late in the
Glacial period, well exposed in the cliff at Black Rock east of
Brighton, where it rests on a raised beach. The natural gas of
Heathfield comes from the Lower Wealden and Purbeck Beds. The
Wadhurst Clay was formerly an important source of iron ore.
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate of the coast district is
mild, equable ana dry, while that of the Wealden shows greater
extremes of temperature, and is rather wetter. The mean daily
range of temperature in the Weald is about half as much again as
on the coast. The influence of the sea in modifying the temperature
of the coast district is specially noticeable in the autumn months,
when the temperature is higher than in the Weald and other parts
of England northwards. The coast district is specially suitable
for market gardens and for growing fruit trees. The fig gardens of
West Tarring are celebrated. About seven-tenths of the total area
is under cultivation, and of this nearly three-fifths is in permanent
pasture. Sussex is still one of the best-wooded counties in England.
The acreage under grain crops shows a large decrease; nearly the
whole of it is occupied by oats and wheat. The acreage under green
crops is mainly devoted to turnips and other food for cattle and to
the supply of vegetables for the London market. The growing of
hops has not kept pace with that in the neighbouring county of Kent.
Cattle are kept in increasing numbers both for breeding and for
dairy purposes. The South Downs afford excellent pasture for
sheep and Sussex is famed for a special breed of black-faced sheep.
The numbers, however, show a steady decrease. Poultry farming is
largely carried on in some parts. The custom of borough-English,
by which land descends to the youngest son, prevailed to an extra-
ordinary degree in Sussex, and no fewer than 140 manors have been
catalogued in which it was found. Gavelkind tenure existed in Rye,
in the large manor of Brede, and in Coustard manor (in Brede parish).
Other Industries. — The manufacturing industries are meagre.
The London, Brighton & South Coast Railway Company has large
works at Brighton. At Heathfield in 1901 the development of the
field of natural gas was begun by a private company. The fisheries
are of great importance, including cod, herrings, mackerel, sprats,
plaice, soles, turbot, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, oysters, mussels,
cockles, whelks and periwinkles. Bede records that St Wilfrid,
when he visited the county in 681, taught the people the art of net-
fishing. At the time of the Domesday survey the fisheries were
extensive, and no fewer than 285 salinae (saltworks) existed. The
customs of the Brighton fishermen were reduced to writing in 1579.
Communications. — Communications are provided by the London,
Brighton & South Coast railway by lines from the north to St
Leonards and Hastings, to Eastbourne, to Lewes and Newhaven,
to Brighton, to Shoreham, and to Arundel and Chichester, with
numerous branches and a connecting line along the coast. The
South-Eastern & Chatham railway serves Bexhill, St Leonards and
Hastings, with a coastal branch eastward by Rye. Light railways
run from Chichester to Selsey (Selsey railway) and from Roberts-
bridge to Bodiam and Tenterden (Rother Valley railway). There
are no good harbours, and none of the ports is of first importance.
From N.ewhaven, however, a large trade is carried on with France,
and daily services of passenger steamers of the Brighton Railway
Company ply to Dieppe.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county
is 933.887 acres, with a population in 1891 of 550,446 and in 1901 of
605,202. The earliest statement as to the population is made by
Bede, who describes the county as containing in the year 681 land
of 7000 families; allowing ten to a family (not an unreasonable
estimate at that date), the total population would be 70,000. In
1693 the county is stated to have contained 21,537 houses. If
seven were allowed to a house at that date, the total population
would be 150,759. It is curious, therefore, to observe that in 1801
the population was only 159,311. The decline of the Sussex iron-
works probably accounts for the small increase of population during
several centuries, although after the massacre of St Bartholomew
upwards of 1500 Huguenots landed at Rye, and in 1685, after the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, many more refugees were added
to the county.
An act of Henry VII. (1504) directed that for convenience the
county court should be held at Lewes as well as at Chichester, and
this apparently gave rise to the division of Sussex into east and west
parts, each of which is an administrative county. East Sussex has
an area of 528,807 acres and West Sussex of 403, 602 acres. Sussex
includes the county boroughs of Brighton and Hastings. East
Sussex contains the municipal boroughs of Bexhill (pop. 12,213),
Brighton (123,478), Eastbourne (43,344), Hastings (65,528), Hove
(36,535), Lewes (11,249) and Rye (3900). The urban districts in
this division are Battle (2996), Burgess Hill (4888), Cuckfield (1813),
East Grinstead (6094), Haywards Heath (3717), Newhaven (6772),
Portslade-by-Sea(52i7), Seaford (3355) and Uckfield (2895). In
West Sussex the municipal boroughs are Arundel (2739), Chichester.
a city (12,244) and Worthing (20,015). The urban districts are
Bognor (6180), Horsham (9446), Littlehampton (7363), Shoreham
(3837) and Southwick (3364). The ancient county, which is almost
entirely in the diocese of Chichester, contains 377 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, wholly or in part. The total number of civil
parishes is 338. Sussex is divided into the following parliamentary
divisions: northern or East Grinstead, eastern or Rye, southern
or Eastbourne, mid or Lewes, south-western or Chichester, north-
western or Horsham, each returning one member; and contains the
parliamentary boroughs of Brighton, returning two members, and
Hastings, returning one.
History. — Apart from conclusions to be drawn from pre-
historic remains, the history of Sussex begins in 477, when the
Saxons landed in the west of the county under Ella and his
three sons, and built up the kingdom of the South Saxons (see
SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF, below). They took the Roman city of
Regnum, which became Chichester, and drove the British
westward, into the forest of Andred. The Roman fortress of
Anderida, the site of the, castle of Pevensey, also fell to the
Saxons. Ella became the most influential of the contemporary
Saxon chiefs, and was, according to Bede, the first Bretwalda.
After his time the kingdom of Sussex gradually declined, and
fell entirely under the dominion of Wessex in 823. Interest-
ing Saxon remains are found in numerous cemeteries, and
scattered burial places along the south slopes of the Downs.
The cemetery on High Down hill, where weapons, ornaments
and vessels of various kinds were found, and the Chanctonbury
hoard of coins, are among the most noticeable relics. A coin
of Offa of Mercia, found at Beddingham, recalls the charter
of Archbishop Wilfred in 825, in which Offa's connexion with the
monastery in that place is recorded. From 895 Sussex suffered
from constant raids by the Danes, till the accession of Canute,
after which arose the two great forces of the house of
Godwine and of the Normans. Godwine was probably a native
of Sussex, and by the end of the Confessor's reign a third part
of the county was in the hands of his family. Norman influence
was already strong in Sussex before the Conquest; the harbours
of Hastings, Rye, Winchelsea and Steyning being in the power
of the Norman abbey of Fecamp, while the Norman chaplain
of Edward the Confessor, Osbern, afterwards bishop of Exeter,
held the estate of Bosham.
The county was of great importance to the Normans; Hastings
and Pevensey being on the most direct route for Normandy.
William was accordingly careful to secure the lines of com-
munication with London by placing the lands in the hands of
men bound by close ties to himself, such as his half-brother,
the count of Mortain,- who held Pevensey, and his son-in-law,
William de Warenne, who held Lewes. With the exception
of lands held by the Church and the Crown, the five rapes of
Sussex were held by these and three other Norman tenants-in-
chief: William de Braose, the count of Eu, and Roger, earl of
Montgomery, who held respectively Bramber, Hastings and
Arundel. The honour of Battle was afterwards made into a
rape by the Conqueror, and provides one of the arguments in
favour of the theory of the Norman origin of these unique
divisions of the county. The county was divided into five
(afterwards six) strips, running north and south, and having
each a town of military, commercial and maritime importance.
These were the rapes, and each had its sheriff, in addition to
the sheriff of the whole county. Whether the origin of the
rapes, as districts, is to be found in the Icelandic territorial
division hreppr (rejected in the New English Dictionary), or in
the Saxon rap, a rope, or is of Norman origin, as lordships
SUSSEX
167
they undoubtedly owed their existence to the Normans. The
holdings — which had been scattered under the Saxons, so that
one man's holding might be in more than one rape — were now
determined, not by the manors in which they lay, but by the
borders of the rape. Another peculiarity of the division of
land in Sussex is that, apparently, each hide of land had eight
instead of the usual four virgates.
The county boundary was long and somewhat indeterminate
on the north, owing to the dense forest of Andredsweald, which
was uninhabited till the nth century. Evidence of this is
seen in Domesday Book by the survey of Worth and Lodsworth
under Surrey, and also by the fact that as late as 1834 the pre-
sent parishes of north and south Amersham in Sussex were part
of Hampshire. At the time of the Domesday Survey Sussex
contained sixty hundreds, which have been little altered since.
A few have been split up into two or three, making seventy-
three in all; and the names of some have changed, owing prob-
ably to the meeting-place of the hundred court having been
altered. These courts were in private hands in Sussex; either
of the Church, or of great barons and local lords. The county
court was held at Lewes and Shoreham until the Great Inquest,
when it was moved to Chichester. After several changes the
act of 1504 arranged for it to be held alternately at Lewes and
Chichester. There was no gaol in the county until 1487; that
at Guildford being used in common by Surrey and Sussex,
which were under one sheriff until 1567.
Private jurisdictions, both ecclesiastical and lay, played a
large part in the county. The chief ecclesiastical franchises
were those of the archbishop of Canterbury, of the bishop of
Chichester, of the Saxon foundation of Bosham, where Bishop
Wilfred had found the only gleam of Christianity in the county,
and of the votive abbey of Battle, founded by the Conqueror.
This abbey possessed, besides land in many other counties, the
" Lowy of Battle," a district extending, for 3 m. round
the nbbey. The see of Chichester was co-extensive with the
county, and has altered little. It is one of the oldest bishoprics,
having been founded by Wilfred at Selsey; the seat was re-
moved to Chichester by William I. Among the lay franchises,
the most noticeable are those of the Cinque Ports and of the
honor of Pevensey, named the honor of the Eagle from the
lords of L'Aigle or Aguila.
Sussex, from its position, was constantly the scene of pre-
parations for invasion, and was often concerned in rebellions.
Pevensey and Arundel play a great part in rebellions and
forfeiture during the troubled times of the early Norman kings.
In the barons' wars the county was a good centre for the king's
forces; Lewes being in the hands of the king's brother-in-law,
John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, Pevensey and Hastings in
those of his uncle, Peter of Savoy. The forces of the king and
of De Montfort met at Lewes, where the famous battle and
" Mise of Lewes " took place. The corrupt and burdensome
administration of the county during the i3th and i4th centuries,
combined with the constant passage of troops for the French
wars and the devastating plagues of the I4th century, were
the causes of such rebellions as the Peasants' Rising of 1381 and
Jack Cade's Rebellion in 1450. In the former Lewes Castle
was taken, and in the latter we find such men engaged as the
abbot of Battle and the prior of Lewes. During Elizabeth's
reign there was again constant levying of troops for warfare in
Flanders and the Low Countries, and preparations for defence
against Spain. The sympathies of the county were divided
during the Civil War, Arundel and Chichester being held for the
king, Lewes and the Cinque Ports for the parliament. Chichester
and Arundel were besieged by Waller, and the Roundheads
gained a strong hold on the county, in spite of the loyalty of
Sir Edward Ford, sheriff of Sussex. A royalist gathering in the
west of the county in 1645 caused preparations for resistance
at Chichester, of which Algernon Sidney was governor. In
the same year the " Clubmen " rose and endeavoured to compel
the armies to come to terms. Little active part in the national
history fell to Sussex from that time till the French Revolution,
when numbers of volunteers were raised in defence. At the
outbreak of war with France in 1793 a camp was formed at
Brighton; and at Eastbourne in 1803, when the famous Martello
towers were erected.
The parliamentary history of the county began in 1290,
for which year we have the first extant return of knights of the
shire for this county, Henry Hussey and William de Etchingham,
representatives of two well-known Sussex families, being elected.
Drastic reformation was effected by the Redistribution Act of
1832, when Bramber, East Grinstead, Seaford, Steyning and
Winchelsea were disfranchised after returning two members
each, the first being classed among the worst of the " rotten "
boroughs. Before 1832 two members each had been returned
also by Arundel, Chichester, Hastings, Horsham, Lewes, Mid-
hurst, New Shoreham (with the rape of Bramber) and Rye.
Arundel, Horsham, Midhurst and Rye were each deprived of a
member in 1832, Chichester and Lewes in 1867, and Hastings
in 1885. Arundel was disfranchised in 1868, and Chichester,
Horsham, Midhurst, New Shoreham and Rye in 1885. In
the 1 8th century the duke of Newcastle was all-powerful in the
county, where the Pelham family had been settled from the time
of Edward I.; the earl of Chichester being the present repre-
sentative of the family. Among the oldest county families of
Sussex may be mentioned the Ashburnhams of Ashburnham,
the Gages of Firle and the Barttelots of Stopham.
The industries of Sussex, now mainly agricultural, were once
varied. Among those noted in the Domesday Survey were the
herring fisheries, the salt pans of the coast and the wool trade;
the South Down sheep being noted for their wool, at home
and abroad, as early as the I3th century. The iron mines of
the county, though not mentioned in Domesday, are known to
have been worked by the Romans; and the smelting and
forging of iron was the great industry of the Weald from the
i3th to the i8th century, the first mention of the trade in the
county being in 1266. In the I5th century ordnance for the
government was made here. Some old banded guns with the
name of a Sussex maker on them may be seen at the Tower of
London. The first cast-iron cannon made in England came
from Buxted in Sussex, and were made by one Ralph Hogge,
whose device can be seen on a house in Buxted. The large
supply of wood in the county made it a favourable centre for
the industry, all smelting being done with charcoal till the
middle of the i8th century. In the time of Henry VIII. the
destruction of the forest for fuel began to arouse attention, and
enactments for the preservation of timber increased from this
time forward, till the use of pit-coal for smelting was perfected,
when the industry moved to districts where coal was to be
found. Camden, Thomas Fuller, and Drayton in his Polyolbion
refer to the busy and noisy Weald district, and lament the
destruction of the trees. The glass-making industry, which
had flourished at Chiddingfold in Surrey, and at Wesborough
Green, Loxwood and Petworth in Sussex, was destroyed by
the prohibition of the use of wood fuel in 1615. The timber
trade had been one of the most considerable in early times;
the Sussex oak being considered the finest shipbuilding timber.
Among the smaller industries weaving and fulling were also to
be found, Chichester having been noted for its cloth, also for
malt and needles.
Antiquities. — From early times castles guarded three impor-
tant entries from the coast through the South Downs into the
interior provided by the valleys of the Ouse, the Adur and the
Arun. These are respectively at Lewes, Bramber and Arundel.
The ruins of the first two, though imposing, do not compare in
grandeur with the third, which is still the seat of the dukes of
Norfolk. More famous than these are the massive remains,
in part Norman but mainly of the i3th century, of the strong-
hold of Pevensey, within the walls of Roman Anderida. Other
ruins are those of the finely situated Hastings Castle; the
Norman remains at Knepp near West Grinstead; the
picturesque and remarkably perfect moated fortress of Bodiam,
of the I4th century; and Hurstmonceaux Castle, a beautiful
15th-century building of brick. Specimens of ancient domestic
architecture are fairly numerous; such are the remnants of old
i68 SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF— SUTHERLAND, EARLS OF
palaces of the archbishops of Canterbury at Mayfield and West
Tarring; Amberley Castle, a residence until the i6th century
of the bishops of Chichester; and the Elizabethan mansions of
Parham and of Danny at Hurstpierpoint. There are many
fine residences dating from the i8th century or later; Goodwood
is perhaps the most famous. Here and elsewhere are fine
collections of paintings, though the county suffered a loss in
this respect through the partial destruction by fire of the modern
castle of Knepp in 1904.
Monastic remains are few and generally slight. The ruins
of Bayham Abbey near Tunbridge Wells, and of Battle Abbey,
may be noticed. There are numerous churches, however,
of great interest and beauty. Of those in the towns may be
mentioned the cathedral of Chichester, the churches of Shoreham
and Rye, and the mother church of Worthing at Broadwater.
Construction of pre-Norman date is seen in the churches of
Bosham, Sompting and, most notably, Worth. There is
very rich Norman work of various dates in the church of St
Nicholas, Steyning. Several perfect specimens of small Early
English churches are found, as at West Tarring, and at Climping
near Littlehampton. Perhaps the most interesting church in
the county is the magnificent Decorated fragment at Winchelsea;
another noteworthy church of this period is at Etchingham,
near the eastern border. The church of St Denis, Midhurst,
is mainly Perpendicular; but this style is not otherwise pre-
dominant. The large church at Fletching, of various styles,
contains the tomb of Gibbon the historian. At Cowfold, south-
east of Horsham, is a great Carthusian monastery, founded in
1877. The iron memorial slabs occurring in several churches
recall the period of the iron industry in Sussex.
Dialect. — A large number of Saxon words are retained and
pronounced in the old style; thus gate becomes ge-at. The letter
a is very broad in all words, as if followed by u, and in fact con-
verts words of one syllable into words of two, as fails (face), tatist
(taste), &c. Again, a before double d becomes ar, as arder and
larder for adder and ladder; oi is like a long i, as spile (spoil), intment
(ointment) ; an e is substituted for a in such words as rag, flag, &c.
The French refugees in the i6th and I7th centuries introduced many
words which are still in use. Thus a Sussex woman when unpre-
pared to receive visitors says she is in dishabille (d<5shabill6, undress) ;
if her child is unwell, it looks pekid (piqu6), if fretful, is a little peter-
grievous (petit-grief); she cooks with a broach (broche, a spit), and
talks of coasts (coste, O. Fr.), or ribs of meat, &c.
AUTHORITIES. — See T. W. Horsfield, History, Antiquities and
Topography of Sussex (Lewes, 1835); J. Dallaway, History of the
Western Division of Sussex (London, 1815-1832); M. A. Lower, History
of Sussex (Lewes, 1870), Churches of Sussex (Brighton, 1872) and
Worthies of Sussex (Lewes, 1865); Sussex Archaeological Society's
Collections; W. E. Baxter, Domesday Book for . . . Sussex (Lewes,
1876); Sawyer, Sussex Natural History and Folklore (Brighton,
1883), Sussex Dialect (Brighton, 1884) and Sussex Sones and Music
(Brighton, 1885); A. J. C. Hare, Sussex (London, 1894).
SUSSEX, KINGDOM OF (SuQ Seaxe, i.e. the South Saxons),
one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the boundaries
of which coincided in general with those of the modern county
of Sussex. A large part of that district, however, was covered
in early times by the forest called Andred. According to the
traditional account given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was
in 477 that a certain Ella (^Elle) led the invaders ashore at a
place called Cymenes ora and defeated the inhabitants. A
further battle at a place called Mearcredes burne is recorded
under the year 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ella
and Cissa his son sacked Anderida and slew all the inhabitants.
Ella is the first king of the invading race whom Bede describes
as exercising supremacy over his fellows, and we may probably
regard him as an historical person, though little weight can be
attached to the dates given by the Chronicle.
The history of Sussex now becomes a blank until 607, in which
year Ceolwulf of Wessex is found fighting against the South
Saxons. In 68 1 Wilfrid of York, on his expulsion from North-
umbria by Ecgfrith, retired into Sussex, where he remained
until 686 converting its pagan inhabitants. According to
Bede, ^Ethelwald, king of Sussex, had been previously baptized
in Mercia at the suggestion of Wulfhere, who presented him
with the Isle of Wight and the district about the Meon. After
Wilfrid's exertions in relieving a famine which occurred in
Sussex the king granted to him eighty-seven hides in and
near the peninsula of Selsey which, with a lapse until 709 after
Wilfrid's retirement, remained the seat of the South Saxon
bishopric until the Norman Conquest. Shortly afterwards,
however, ^Ethelwald was slain and his kingdom ravaged by
the exiled West Saxon prince Ceadwalla. The latter was
eventually expelled by two princes named Berhthun and
Andhun, who thereupon assumed the government of the king-
dom. In 686 the South Saxons attacked Hlothhere, king of
Kent, in support of his nephew Eadric, but soon afterwards
Berhthun was killed and the kingdom subjugated for a time
by Ceadwalla, who had now become king of Wessex.
Of the later South Saxon kings we have little knowledge
except from occasional charters. In 692 a grant is made by
a king called Nothelm to his sister, which is witnessed by two
other kings called Nunna and " Uuattus." Nunna is probably
to be identified with Nun, described in the Chronicle as the
kinsman of Ine of Wessex who fought with him against Gerent,
king of the West Welsh, in 710. According to Bede, Sussex
was subject to Ine for a number of years. A grant, dated by
Birch about 725, is made by Nunna to Eadberht, bishop of
Selsey, and to this too " Uuattus " appears as a witness. In
722 we find Ine of Wessex at war with the South Saxons,
apparently because they were supporting a certain Aldbryht,
probably an exile from Wessex. An undated grant is made by
Nunna about this time, which is witnessed by a King /Ethelberht.
After this we hear nothing more until shortly before 765, when a
grant of land is made by a king named Aldwulf with two other
kings, Aelfwald and Oslac, as witnesses. In 765 and 770 grants
are made by a King Osmund, the latter of which is witnessed by
Offa of Mercia. Offa also appears as witness to two charters
of an yEthelberht, king of the South Saxons, and in 772 he grants
land himself in Sussex, with Oswald, dux of the South Saxons,
as a witness. It is probable that about this time Offa definitely
annexed the kingdom of Sussex, as several persons, Osmund,
^Elfwald and Oslac, who had previously used the royal title,
now sign with that of dux. In 825 the South Saxons submitted
to Ecgberht, and from this time they remained subject to the
West Saxon dynasty. The earldom of Sussex seems later to
have been held sometimes with that of Kent.
AUTHORITIES. — Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 449, 477, 485, 491,
607, 722, 725, 823, 827 (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899) ; Bede,
Historia Ecclesiastica, i. 15, ii. 5, iv. 13, 15, 16, 26, v. 18, 19, 23
(ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium
Saxonicum, Nos. 78, 144, 145, 197, 198, 206, 208, 211, 212, 1334
(London, 1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.)
SUTHERLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The first earl of
Sutherland was a certain William (d. 1284), whose father, Hugh
Freskin (d. 1204), acquired the district of Sutherland about
1197. Probably about 1230 William was created earl of Suther-
land. His descendant William, the 4th earl (d. 1370), was a
person of some importance in the history of Scotland; he married
Margaret (d. 1358), daughter of King Robert Bruce. His
descendant John, the gth earl, a man of weak intellect, died
unmarried in 1514.
John's sister Elizabeth (d. 1535) married Adam Gordon '
(d. 1537), a younger son of George Gordon, 2nd earl of Huntly,
and a grandson of King James I., and before 1516 Gordon be-
came earl of Sutherland by right of his wife. He was succeeded
by his grandson John (c. 1526-1567), the 2nd earl of his line,
who played his part in the turbulent politics of the time and
was poisoned at the instigation of George Sinclair, 4th earl of
Caithness. His great-grandson John, the 5th earl (1609-1663),
was a strong Covenanter, being called by his associates " the
good Earl John"; he fought against Montrose at Auldearn,
but afterwards he rendered good service to Charles II. John
Gordon (c. 1660-1733), w^o became the seventh earl in 1703,
supported the revolution of 1688 and was a commissioner for
the union of England and Scotland. He was a Scottish repre-
sentative peer in four parliaments, president of the board of
trade and manufactures, and lord-lieutenant of the eight northern
counties of Scotland. He was active in putting down the rising
SUTHERLANDSHIRE
169
of 1715. This earl, who took the name of Sutherland instead
of that of Gordon, was succeeded by his grandson William
(c. 1708-1750), a representative peer, who helped to suppress the
rebellion of 1745. William, the next earl, died without male
issue in 1766. This earl's daughter Elizabeth (1765-1839)
claimed the peerage, and although her title thereto was con-
tested by Sir Robert Gordon, Bart., a descendant of the first
Gordon earl, it'was confirmed by the House of Lords in 1771.
Established in the possession of the title and the vast estates
of the earldom, the countess of Sutherland was married in 1785
to George Granville Leveson-Gower (1758-1833), who succeeded
his father as second marquess of Stafford in 1803. In addition
to the estates of the marquessate of Stafford, Leveson-Gower
inherited the Bridgewater Canal and 'estates from his maternal
uncle, Francis Egerton, 2nd duke of Bridgewater, and these
properties, together with his wife's estates, which included
almost the whole of the county of Sutherland, made him a
" leviathan of wealth," as he is called by Charles Greville.
In 1833 he was created duke of Sutherland. Leveson-Gower
was a member of parliament from 1778 to 1784 and again from
1787 to 1798 and was British ambassador in Paris from 1790
to 1792. From 1799 to 1810 he was joint postmaster-general.
He was a collector of paintings, and purchased Stafford House,
still the London residence of the dukes of Sutherland. As a
landlord he greatly improved his estates in Staffordshire and
Shropshire and then turned his attention to those of his wife in
Sutherlandshire. He was responsible for the construction of
about 450 m. of road and of many bridges, but his policy of
removing a large number of his tenants from the interior to the
coast aroused bitterness and criticism. However, he reduced
rents and brought thousands of acres into cultivation. He
died at Dunrobin Castle on the 5th of July 1833.
His elder son, George Granville (1786-1861), became the 2nd
duke, but the valuable Bridgewater estates passed to his younger
son, Lord Francis Leveson-Gower, who was created earl of
Ellesmere in 1846. The 2nd duke's wife, Harriet Elizabeth
Georgiana (1806-1868), a daughter of George Howard, 6th earl
of Carlisle, was one of Queen Victoria's most intimate friends.
She was mistress of the robes to the queen, whose refusal to
part with her in 1839 led to a ministerial crisis. Some of her
letters are published in Stafford House Letters, edited by her son
Lord Ronald Gower (1891).
George Granville William, the 3rd duke (1828-1892), spent
large sums in improving his estates. His wife Anne (1829-1888),
daughter of John Hay Mackenzie, was created countess of
Cromartie in 1861, and the earldom descended to her second son
Francis (1852-1893). When he died without sons the earldom
fell into abeyance, but this was terminated in 1895 in favour of
his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878), the author of The Days
of Fire and other books.
In 1892 Cromartie Leveson-Gower (b. 1851), who had been
M.P. for Sutherlandshire, became 4th duke of Sutherland.
His wife, Millicent Fanny, daughter of the 4th earl of Rosslyn,
became well known in literary as well as in social and philan-
thropic circles.
See Sir Robert Gordon and George Gordon, Genealogical History
of the Earldom of Sutherland (Edinburgh, 1813); and also the article
STAFFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.
SUTHERLANDSHIRE, a northern county of Scotland,
bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic, E. by Caithness, S.E. by
the North Sea and S. by the shire of Ross and Cromarty.
It has an area of 1,297, 846 acres or 2,028 sq. m., being the fifth
largest shire in Scotland. The western and northern shores
are much indented and terminate at many points in precipices
and rugged headlands. The mountains are distinguished by
grandeur of outline. Ben More (3273 ft.) in Assynt is the highest
in the shire, and next to it in height is Ben Clibreck (3154).
Ben Hope (Icelandic hdp, haven, 3040), in the north, is noted
as the only place in Great Britain where the Alpine Alsine
rubella is found, and also for its fauna, ptarmigan being common,
and even the wild cat and golden eagle occurring at rare intervals.
Other lofty hills include Foinaven (wart mountain, 2980) in
the north-west; Ben Hee (2864), the highest point in Reay
Forest; the serrated ridge of Quinag (2653) and Glasven (2541)
north, and the cone of Canisp (2779) south of Loch Assynt;
the precipitous Cam Stackie (2630) in Durness; Ben Arkle
(2580) and Ben Stack (2364), frowning above Loch Stack;
the fantastic peaks of Ben Loyal (the hill of the young calves,
or deer, 2504) in Tongue; and Suilven (2399). The greater
part of the mountainous region consists of wild and desolate
moorlands. The chief river is the Oykell, which, rising in
Coniveall (3234), a peak of Ben More, flows south and then
south-east for 33 m. to Dornoch Firth, forming the major part
of the southern boundary of the shire. Its principal left-hand
tributaries are the Shin and Cassley. Other rivers flowing to
Dornoch Firth are the Helmsdale (22 m.), issuing from Loch
an Ruathair; the Brora (28 m.), rising in Mt Uaran and pre-
serving in its name (bridge river) the fact that its bridge was
cnce the only important one in the county; and the Fleet (17),
the head of the estuary of which was embanked for 1000 yds.
in 1813 by Thomas Telford, whereby a considerable tract of rich
alluvial land was reclaimed from the sea. The longest rivers flow-
ing to the north coast are the Dionard (14) to Kyle of Durness,
the Naver (17) to Torrisdale Bay, and the Halladale (22), rising
in Knockfin on the borders of Caithness and entering the sea to
the east of Portskerry. Much of the surface in the district of
Assynt is honeycombed with lakes and tarns, but the only
large lake is Loch Assynt, which is 65 m. long, lies 215 ft. above
the sea, has a drainage area of 43 sq. m., and a greatest depth
of 282 ft., and empties into the sea by the Inver. Other lakes
are Loch Crocach, little more than i m. long by J m. wide, in
which the ratio of the area of islands to the total area of the loch
is greater than in any other British lake; Loch Shin (17 m. long);
Loch Loyal (4 m.)k; Loch Hope (6 m.); Loch Naver (6 m.);
and Loch More (4 m.). The principal inlets of the sea are,
on the north coast, Kyle of Tongue — on the east shore of
which stands Tongue House, once the property of the Reay
family, now a seat of the duke of Sutherland — Loch Eriboll
and Kyle of Durness; on the west, Lochs Inchard, Laxford
(salmon fjord), Cairnbawn, Glendhu, Glencoul, Eddrachilis
Bay and Loch Inver; and, on the south-east, Loch Fleet. There
are many waterfalls in the county. Those of Escuallin, near
the head of Glencoul, are among the finest in Great Britain.
There are three principal capes — Strathy Point on the north;
Cape Wrath at the extreme north-west; and Ru Stoer, near
which is the Old Man of Stoer, a detached pillar of rock about
250 ft. high. On its seaward face Cape Wrath (a corruption of
the Icelandic kuarf, turning-point) rises in precipitous cliffs
to a height of 300 ft. The gneiss rocks are scored with pink
granite. Sunken reefs keep the sea almost always in tumult.
Of the larger islands Handa, usually visited from Scourie on
the west coast, has magnificent cliff scenery, distinguished for its
beautiful coloration, its caverns and the richness and variety
of the bird life, especially on the north-west, where the Torri-
donian sandstone rocks are 406 ft. high. The cave of Smoo
(Icelandic smuga, hole: same root as smuggle) on the north
coast, i m. east of Durness, is the most famous cavern in the
shire; it consists of three chambers hollowed out of the lime-
stone; the entrance hall, 33 ft. high and 203 ft. long, is separated
from the inner chamber, 70 ft. long by 30 ft. wide, by a ledge of
rock beneath which pours a stream that descends as a cataract
from a hole in the roof, 80 ft. above. Behind the waterfall is
the third chamber, 120 ft. long by 8 ft. wide, which can only be
seen by artificial light.
Geology. — A very irregular line from Loch Eriboll on the north
coast to the neighbourhood of Cromalt near the southern boundary
separates the two rock groups that form the foundation of the major
portion of the county. On the western side of this line are the
ancient gneisses and schists (the Lewisian gneiss); these are pene-
trated by innumerable basic and acid dikes which generally have a
north-west to south-east trend. On the eastern side of the line,
occupying the whole of the remaining area except the eastern fringe
of the county, is a younger series of metamorphic rocks, the Moine
schists. Resting with marked unconformability upon the old
gneiss near Cape Wrath, at Ru Stoer, Quinag, Canisp and Suilven are
the dark red conglomerates, breccias and sandstones of Torridonian
1 7o SUTLEJ
age. Cambrian rocks succeed the Torridonian, again with strong
unconformity; they are represented in ascending order by (l) false
bedded quartzite, (2) quartzite with annelid burrows, the " pipe
rock," (3) the fucoid beds with Olenellus band, (4) serpulite
grit, (5) Durness limestone and dolomite and their marmorized
equivalents. The white quartzite that has been left as a cap on
such dark Torridonian hills as Quinag and Canisp forms a striking
feature in the landscape. These Cambrian rocks occupy a very
irregular belt along the line above mentioned; the broadest tract
is in the neighbourhood of Loch Assynt, another large area lies
about the southern end of Loch Eriboll and the Durness limestone
is extensively developed near the loch of that name. Along the belt
of Cambrian rocks there is abundant evidence of crustal deformation
on the most extensive scale; one after another great slices of rock,
often miles in extent, have been sheared off and ^pushed forward
by thrusts from a south-easterly direction, so that in several places
it is possible to find the Lewisian gneiss dragged up and carried
forward right on to the Cambrian ; in the Durness district the eastern
schists have been so transported from a distance of 10 m. The most
striking of the planes of thrusting is that known as the Moine,
others of great magnitude occur to the west of it, such as those by
Glencoul and Ben More. Masses of granite appear in the eastern
schists on the county boundary by Strath Halladale.at BenLaoghal,
Ben Stomino and east of Lairg. The Old Red Sandstone forms some
elevated ground around Dornoch and Golspie and patches occur at
Portskerra and elsewhere. A narrow strip of Mesozoic strata lies
along the coast from Golspie Burn to Ord. Triassic marls are seen
in the Golspie stream; these are succeeded northwards, near Dun-
robin Castle, by Lias, then by Great Oolite, with the Brora coal,
followed by Oxfordian, Corallian and Kimeridgian beds. Evidence
of ice action is everywhere apparent, the striations show that the
ice travelled towards the north-west and north, and from the eastern
part of the county, towards Moray Firth.
Climate and Agriculture. — The rainfall varies greatly, being lowest
on the south-east and highest in the mountainous hinterland of the
west, with an annual mean of 44-7 in. The average temperature for
theyearis47° F., for January 38-5°F.,for July 56-5°F. Only one-
fortieth of the total area is under cultivation, the shire ranking
lowest in Scotland in this respect. The great mass of the surface is
grazing ground and deer forest. The best latid adjoins Dornoch
Firth, where farming is in an advanced condition, but there are fer-
tile patches along the river valleys. At the beginning of the igth
century the crofters occupied almost every cultivable spot, and
were more numerous than the soil could support. The first duke of
Sutherland (then marquis of Stafford) adopted a policy of wholesale
clearance. Between 1811 and 1820 fifteen thousand peasants were
evicted from their holdings in the interior and transferred to the
coast. The duke incurred great obloquy, but persisted in his re-
forms, which included reduction of rent, improvement in the well-
being of the people, reclamation of thousands of acres, and abolition
of the tacksman or middleman, so that tenants should hold directly
of himself. He also did much to open up the shire generally. Be-
tween 1812 — when there was only one bridge and no road in Suther-
land— and 1832, he bore half the cost, the government contributing
the rest, of constructing 450 m. of road, 134 bridges, some of con-
siderable size, and the iron bridge at Bonar of 150 ft. span. The
3rd duke (1828-1892) carried out a large plan of reclamation.
Attempts have been made to repeople some of the glens (Strath-
naver, for example) depopulated by the clearances. Crofters still
largely predominate, nearly two-thirds of the holdings being under
5 acres — the highest proportion in Scotland. The chief grain crops
are oats and barley, the chief green crops turnips (including swedes)
and potatoes. The raising of livestock is the staple business of the
county. The sheep are mostly Cheviots, the cattle West Highland,
shorthorn and crossbred. Horses — principally ponies, though
Clydesdales are used on the bigger farms — are almost wholly kept
for agricultural purposes, and pigs are also reared. The deer forests
belonging to the duke of Sutherland are Reay, 64,600 acres; Ben
Armine and Coirna-fearn, 35,840; Glen Canisp, 34,490; and Dun-
robin, 12,180 — in all 147,110 acres, or more than one-ninth of the
whole area. Excepting the south-east coast, the valley of the Shin,
and a considerable portion of Strath Oykell, there are very few
districts under wood.
Other Industries. — Next to agriculture, the deep-sea fishery and
the salmon fisheries in the rivers are the most important interest.
Helmsdale (pop. 1259) is the only port of any consequence. Her-
rings are the principal catch, but cod, ling and other fishes are also
taken. Whisky is distilled at Clyne and Brora; some woollens
are manufactured at Rogart ; coal is mined at Brora, marble quarried
in Assynt and limestone and sandstone in several districts. The
exceptional facilities offered by the deer forests, moors and the many
lochs and rivers attract large numbers of sportsmen wh9se custom is
valuable to the inhabitants; and Dornoch and Lochinver are in
growing repute as holiday resorts. The Highland railway enters
the county at Invershin, goes northward to Lairg, then east to
Brora and north-east to Helmsdale, whence it runs north-west to
Kildonan, and north to Forsinard, where it shortly afterwards leaves
the shire. The Glasgow steamers call at Lochinver once a week, and
mail-cars run periodically from Lairg to Lochinver and Scourie in
the west and to Durness and Tongue in the north ; from Helmsdale,
by the coast, to Berriedale, Dunbeath, Latheron and Lybster; and
from Tongue to Thursp. Considering its scanty and scattered
population and mountainous character, the county is well inter-
sected by roads, many of which were constructed by successive
dukes of Sutherland, who own four-fifths of the shire.
Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population
amounted to 21,896, and in 1901 it was 21,440, or n persons to
the square mile, the least populous of Scottish counties. Several
islands lie off the west and north coast, but only Roan, at the
entrance to Kyle of Tongue, is inhabited (67). In 1901 there
were 469 persons speaking Gaelic only, 14,083 who spoke Gaelic
and English. The county returns a member to parliament,
and Dornoch, the county town, belongs to the Wick group of
parliamentary burghs. Sutherland forms a joint sheriffdom
with Ross and Cromarty, and a sheriff-substitute presides at
Dornoch. The county is under school-board jurisdiction;
some of the schools earn the grant for higher education, and the
" residue " grant is expended in bursaries. The Sutherland
combination poorhouse is situated in Creich and there is a
hospital, the Lawson Memorial, in Golspie.
History and Antiquities. — Of the Picts, the original inhabi-
tants, there are considerable remains in the form of brocks (or
round towers), numerous and widely scattered, Picts' houses,
tumuli, cairns and hut circles. Dun Dornadilla, in the parish
of Durness, 4 m. south of Loch Hope, is a tower, 150 ft. in
circumference, still in good preservation. The Norse jarl
Thorfinn overran the country in 1034 and the Scandinavian
colonists called it, in relation to their settlements in the Orkneys
and Shetlands, Sudrland, the " southern land," or Sutherland.
After the conquest of the district by the Scottish kings, Suther-
land was conferred on Hugh Freskin (a descendant of Freskin
of Moravia or Moray), whose son William was created earl of
Sutherland in 1228 by Alexander II. Assynt was peopled by
a branch of the Macleods of Lewis, till they were dispossessed by
the Mackenzies, who sold the territory to the earl of Sutherland
about the middle of the i8th century. The vast tract of the
Reay country, belonging to the Mackays, an ancient clan, also
fell piece by piece into the hands of the Sutherland family.
Killin, on the east bank of Loch Brora, was the site of an old
chapel dedicated to St Columba, an association commemorated
in the name of Kilcolmkill House, hard by. On the south shore
of Helmsdale creek stand the ruins of the castle in which the nth
earl of Sutherland and his wife were poisoned by his uncle's
widow in 1567, with a view to securing the title for her only
child who was next of kin to the earl and his son. Ardvreck
Castle, now in ruins, at the east end of Loch Assynt, was the
prison of the marquis of Montrose after his defeat at Invercarron
(1650), whence he was delivered up by Neil Macleod of Assynt
for execution at Edinburgh. In the graveyard of the old
church of Durness is a monument to Robert Mackay/called Rob
Donn (the brown), the Gaelic poet (1714-1778).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Sir Robert Gordon, History of the Earldom of
Sutherland (1813); R. Mackay, House and Clan of Mackay (1829);
C. W. G. St John, Tour in Sutherlandshire (1849); Hugh Miller,
Sutherland as it was and is (1843); D. W. Kemp, Bishop Pococke's
Tour in 1760 in Sutherland and Caithness (1888); Sir W. Fraser,
The Sutherland Book (1893); A.Gunn and S. J. Mackay, Sutherland
and the Reay Country (1897).
SUTLEJ, a river of India, one of the " Five Rivers " of the
Punjab. It rises E.S.E. of the Manasarowar lakes in Tibet, at
an elevation of about 15,200 ft., threads its way through the
gorges of the Himalayas with heights of 20,000 ft. on either side,
crosses Bashahr and the Simla hill states, and enters the British
district of Hoshiarpur. Thence it flows through the plains of
the Punjab, receives the Beas in Kapurthala state, and joins the
Chenab near Madwala. From that point the whole river bears
the name of Panjnad (" five rivers ") until it falls into the Indus
near Mithankot after a course of 900 m. In the time of
Ranjit Singh -the Sutlej formed the boundary line between the
Sikh and British dominions, and the Sikh states south of the
river still bear the title of Cis-Sutlej.
The Sutlej supplies two systems of irrigation works: the Sir-
hind canal, which draws off the whole of the cold season supply
of the Sutlej at Rupar, 100 m. above its junction with the
SUTLER— SUTTON, T.
171
Beas; and the inundation canals of the Upper and Lower Sutlej,
Ferozepur and Bahawalpur, which come below the junction.
SUTLER, a camp-follower who sells provisions, liquor and
other things to an army in the field, in camp or in quarters.
The word was one of the numerous naval and military terms
adapted in English from the Dutch, where it appears as soetelaar
or zoetelaar. It meant originally one who does dirty work, a
drudge, a scullion, and is derived from zoetelen, to foul, sully,
a word cognate with " suds," hot soapy water, " seethe," to
boil, and " sodden."
SUTRI (anc. Sutrium), a town and episcopal see of Italy, in
the province of Rome, 4 m. W.N.W. of the railway station of
Capranica, which is 36 m. from Rome; 955 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 2701. The town is picturesquely situated on a
narrow hill, surrounded by ravines, a narrow neck on the west
alone connecting it with the surrounding country. There are
some remains of the ancient city walls of rectangular blocks of
tufa on the southern side of the town, and some rock-cut sewers
in the cliffs below them. The cathedral is modern, but the
crypt, with twenty columns, is old, and the campanile dates
from the i3th century. In the cliffs opposite the town on the
south is the rock-cut church of the Madonna del Parto, developed,
no doubt, out of an Etruscan tomb, of which there are many
here; and close by is a rock-hewn amphitheatre of the Roman
period, with axes of 55 and 44 yds., now most picturesque.
The position of Sutri was important, commanding as it did
the road into Etruria, the later Via Cassia; and it is spoken of by
Livy as one of the keys of Etruria, Nepet being the other. It
came into the hands of Rome after the fall of Veii, and a Latin
colony was founded there; it was lost again in 386, but was
recovered and recolonized in 383 (?). It was besieged by the
Etruscans in 311-10 B.C., but not taken. With Nepet and ten
other Latin colonies it refused further help in the Hannibalic
War in 209 B.C. Its importance as a fortress explains, according
to Festus, the proverb Sutrium ire, of one who goes on important
business, as it occurs in Plautus. It is mentioned in the war of
41 B.C., and received a colony of veterans under the triumviri
(Colonia coniuncta lulia Sutrina). Inscriptions show that it
was a place of some importance under the empire, and it is
mentioned as occupied by the Lombards.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, \. 62 (London,
1883). (T. As.)
SUTTEE (an English corruption of Sanskrit sati, " good
woman " or true " wife "), the rite of widow-sacrifice, i.e. the
burning the living widow on the funeral pyre of her husband,
as practised among certain Hindu castes. As early as the
Atharva Veda the rite is mentioned as an " old custom,"
but European scholars have shown that the text of the still
earlier Rig Veda had been corrupted, probably wilfully, by the
Hindu priesthood, and that there was no injunction that the rite
should be observed. The directions of the Rig Veda seem to
have involved a merely symbolic suttee: the widow taking her
place on the funeral pile, but being recalled to " this world of
life " at the last moment by her brother-in-law or adopted child.
The practice was sporadically observed in India when the Mace-
donians reached India late in the 4th century B.C. (Diod. Sic. xix.
33-34); but the earlier Indian law books do not enjoin it,
and Manu simply commands the widow to lead a life of chastity
and asceticism. About the 6th century A.D. a recrudescence
of the rite took place, and with the help of corrupted Vedic
texts it soon grew to have a full religious sanction. But even so
it was not general throughout India. It was rare in the Punjab;
and in Malabar, the most primitive part of southern India,
it was forbidden. In its medieval form it was essentially a
Brahminic rite, and it was where Brahminism was strongest, in
Bengal and along the Ganges valley and in Oudh and Rajputana,
that it was most usual.
The manner of the sacrifice differed according to the district.
In south India the widow jumped or was forced into the fire-pit;
in western India she was placed in a grass hut, supporting the
corpse's head with her right hand while her left held the torch;
in the Ganges valley she lay down upon the already lighted pile;
while in Nepal she was placed beside the corpse, and when the
pile was lighted the two bodies were held in place by long poles
pressed down by relatives. The earliest attempt to stop suttee
was made by Akbar (1542-1605), who forbade compulsion,
voluntary suttees alone being permitted. Towards the end of
the i8th century the British authorities, on the initiative of
Sir C. Malet and Jonathan Duncan in Bombay , took up the
question, but nothing definite was ventured on till 1829 when
Lord William Bentinck, despite fierce opposition, carried in
council on the 4th of December a regulation which declared
that all who abetted suttee were "guilty of culpable homicide."
Though thus illegal, widow-burning continued into modern days
in isolated parts of India. In 1905 those who assisted at a suttee
in Behar were sentenced to penal servitude.
Widow sacrifice is not peculiar to India, and E. B. Tylor in his
Primitive Culture (ch. n) has collected evidence to support a theory
that the rite existed among all primitive Aryan nations. He thinks
that in enjoining it the medieval priesthood of India were making
no innovation, but were simply reviving an Aryan custom of a bar-
baric period long antedating the Vedas. See also Jakob Grimm,
Verbrennen der Leichen.
SUTTNER, BERTHA, BARONESS VON (1843- ), Austrian
writer, was born at Prague on the 9th of July 1843, the daughter
of Count Franz Kinsky, Austrian field marshal, who died shortly
after her birth. On her mother's side she was descended from
the family of the German poet, Theodor Korner. After receiv-
ing a careful education she travelled abroad and resided for a
long period in Paris and in Italy. In 1876 she married the
novelist, Freiherr Arthur Gundaccar von Suttner (1850-1902),
and for the next nine years lived with him at Tiflis in the
Caucasus. After 1885 she resided at Schloss Harmansdorf,
near Eggenburg, in Lower Austria. The Baroness von Suttner,
a fertile writer, has produced numerous tales, books on social
science and romances, among which the best known are Inven-
tarium einer Seele (1882), Die Waffen nieder (1889), Hanna
(1894), La Traviata (1898), Schach der Qual (1898), Martha's
Kinder (1903), a continuation of Die Waffen nieder. She was at
one time secretary to Alfred Nobel, and as a champion of the
" brotherhood of nations," had much influence on him and
others; and in this connexion has published Krieg und
Frieden (1896), Das Maschinen-Zeitalter, Zukunfts-Vorlesungen
iiber unsere Zeit (1899) and Die Haager Friedenskonferenz
(1900). In 1905 she was awarded a Nobel prize of £5000 for
her endeavours in the cause of peace.
Her Memoiren, full of interesting autobiographical matter, were
published at Stuttgart in 1908.
SUTTON, SIR RICHARD (d. c. 1524), the founder, with
William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, of Brasenose College,
Oxford, and the first lay founder of any college, is said to
have come of a good north-country family, the Suttons
of that ilk, near Macclesfield, Cheshire. Little is known of his
life, but he was a barrister, and in 1497 a member of the privy
council. In 1513 he became steward of the monastery of Sion,
a house of Brigittine nuns at Isleworth. How Smyth and Sutton
came to plan a college is not known, but in 1 508 we find Edmund
Croston, or Crofton, bequeathing £6, 135. 4d. towards the building
of " a college of Brasynnose " if the projects of " the bishop of
Lincoln and master Sotton " were carried into effect within a
stipulated period. In the same year Sutton obtained a ninety-
two year lease of Brasenose Hall and Little University Hall for
£3 per annum, and from that time until the end of his life was
occupied in purchasing estates with which he might endow the
new college. He is thought to have contributed to the funds
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, as well. He was knighted
some years before his death, which occurred about 1524.
SUTTON, THOMAS (c. 1532-1611), founder of Charterhouse
school and hospital, was the son of an official of the city of Lincoln,
and was educated at Eton College and probably at Cambridge.
He then spent some time travelling in Europe and appears to
have acted as secretary to two or three English noblemen. He
became a soldier, and in 1569 was with the troops engaged in
suppressing the rising in the north of England; in 1570 be was
172
SUTTON— SUVAROV
made master and surveyor of the ordnance in the northern parts
of the realm and in this capacity he took part in the siege of
Edinburgh Castle by the English in May 1573. Sutton obtained
great v/ealth by the ownership of coal mines in Durham and also
by his marriage in 1582 with Elizabeth (d. 1602), widow of John
Dudley of Stoke Newington. His wish to devote some of his
money to charitable purposes led him in 1611 to purchase for
£13,000 the Charterhouse (q.v.) from Thomas Howard, earl of
Suffolk. On this spot Sutton erected the hospital and school
which he had originally intended to build at Hallingbury in
Essex. Sutton died at Hackney on the I2th of December 1611
and was buried in the chapel in the Charterhouse. His wealth
was left for charitable uses, but in 1613 James I. ordered his
executors to make an allowance to his natural son, Roger
Sutton.
SUTTON, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 1 1 m. S. of London by the London
Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1891), 13,977; (1901)1
17,223. It is pleasantly situated at the edge of the Downs,
and is in favour as an outer residential district of London. The
manor, according to Domesday, belonged to the abbey of
Chertsey at the Conquest and continued so until the dissolution
of the monasteries by Henry VIII.
SUTTON COLDFIELD, a municipal borough in the Tamworth
parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, 7 m. N.E.
from Birmingham on branches of the London & North- Western
and Midland railways. Pop. (1901), 14,264. The town, which
lies high in a hilly situation, is the centre of a residential district
for persons having their business offices in Birmingham, Wal-
sall and other towns. The church of the Holy Trinity, Early
English and Late Perpendicular, enlarged in 1879, contains
a fine Norman font and the tomb of Bishop Vesey. On the
picturesque park near the town, 2400 acres in extent, the
inhabitants have the right of grazing horses and cattle at a small
fee. This, with the Crystal Palace gardens, forms a recreation
ground for the people of Birmingham. In the vicinity are New
Hall, an interesting mansion of the isth century, with a hall
of the i6th, used as a boys' school; and Peddimore Hall, a
moated mansion of the ancient family of Arden, of which
there are slight remains. The town is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 12,828 acres.
Sutton Coldfield (Svlone, Sutton in Colefeud, Sutton Colfild,
King's Sutton) is mentioned in the Domesday Survey as a
possession of the Conqueror and as having been held before that
time by Edwin, earl of Mercia. Henry I. exchanged it with
Roger de Newburgh, earl of Warwick, whose descendant,
William de Beauchamp, in the reign of Edward I., claimed by
prescription a court leet with assize of bread and ale and other
liberties here, which were allowed him, as it was found that his
ancestors had held the same. By the time of Henry VIII.
the town had fallen " into much ruin," according to Leland,
and would never have reached its present position but for the
interest of John Vesey, bishop of Exeter, a native of the place,
who procured for it a charter of incorporation in 1529 under the
title of the " Warden and Society of the Royal Town of Sutton
Coldfield." The charter also appointed a warden and twenty-
two fellows to be the common hall, and granted the town and
park to the corporation at a yearly rent of £58. Another
charter, dated 1664, appointed two capital burgesses to be
justices of the peace with the warden. In 1855 Sutton was
divided into six wards, with an alderman and three councillors
for each. Markets granted in 1300, 1353 and 1529 have been
discontinued. Fairs were granted in 1300, 1353 and 1529, to
be held at the feasts of Trinity, Michaelmas and St Simon and
St Jude, and are now held on Trinity Monday, the I4th of March,
the I9th of September and the 8th of November. Vesey set
up here a cloth trade which, however, soon became neglected.
SUTTON-IN-ASHFIELD, an urban district in the Mansfield
parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, lying in
a picturesque district on the border of Sherwood Forest, on
branch lines of the Midland and Great Northern railways, 15 m.
N. by W. of Nottingham. Pop. (1891), 10,562; (1901), 14,862.
The church of St Mary Magdalene of the i2th and i4th cen-
turies was restored in 1868. There are collieries and limeworks
in the vicinity. Cotton hosiery and thread are the principal
manufactures.
SUVAROV. ALEXANDER VASILIEVICH, COUNT SuvAROV
RIMNIKSKY, PRINCE ITALYSKY (1729-1800), Russian field
marshal, was born at Moscow on the 24th of November 1729,
the descendant of a Swede named Suvor who emigrated to
Russia in 1622. He entered the army as a boy, served
against the Swedes in Finland and against the Prussians
during the Seven Years' War. After repeatedly distinguishing
himself in battle he was made a colonel in 1762. He next
served in Poland, dispersed the Polish forces under Pulawski,
stormed Cracow (1768) and was made a major-general. In his
first campaigns against the Turks in 1773-74, and particularly
in the battle of Kosludscki in the latter year, he laid the
foundations of his reputation. In 1775 he suppressed the rebel-
lion of Pugachev, who was decapitated at Moscow. From
1777-1783 he served in the Crimea and the Caucasus, becoming
a lieutenant-general in 1780, and general of infantry in 1783,
on the conclusion of his work there. From 1787 to 1791 he
was again fighting the Turks and won many victories; he was
wounded at Kinburn (1787), took part in the siege of Ochakov,
and in 1 788 won two great victories at Focsani and on the Rimnik.
For the latter victory, in which an Austrian corps under Prince
Josias of Saxe-Coburg participated, Catherine II. made him a
count with the name Rimniksky in addition to his own name,
and the emperor Joseph II. created him a count of the Holy
Roman Empire. On the 22nd of December 1790 Suvarov
stormed Ismail in Bessarabia, and the sack and the massacre
that followed the capture equals in horror such events as the
" Spanish Fury " and the fall of Magdeburg. He was next
placed at the head of the army which subdued the Poles, and
repeated the triumph, and some of the cruelties, of Ismail
at Warsaw. He was now made a field marshal, and was retained
in Poland till 1795, when he returned to St Petersburg. But
his sovereign and friend Catherine died in 1796, and her suc-
cessor Paul dismissed the veteran in disgrace. Suvarov then
lived for some years in retirement on his estate of Konchauskoy,
near Moscow. He criticized the new military tactics and dress
introduced by the emperor, and some of his caustic verse •
reached the ears of Paul. His conduct was therefore watched
and his correspondence with his wife, who had remained at
Moscow — for his marriage relations had not been happy — was
tampered with. On Sundays he tolled the bell for church and
sang among the rustics in the village choir. On week days he
worked among them in a smock frock. But in February 1799
he was summoned by the tsar to take the field again, this time
against the French Revolutionary armies in Italy.
The campaign (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS) opened
with a series of victories (Cassano, Trebbia, Novi) which reduced
the French government to desperate straits and drove every
French soldier from Italy, save for the handful under Moreau,
which maintained a foothold in the Maritime Alps and around
Genoa. Suvarov himself was made a prince. But the later
events of the eventful year went uniformly against the allies.
Suvarov's lieutenant Korsakov was defeated by Massena at
Zurich, and the old field marshal, seeking to make his way over
the Swiss passes to the Upper Rhine, had to retreat to the
Vorarlberg, where the army, much shattered and aknost destitute
of horses and artillery, went into winter quarters. Early in 1800
Suvarov returned to St Petersburg in disgrace. Paul refused
to give him an audience, and, worn out and ill, he died a few
days afterwards on the i8th of May 1800 at St Petersburg.
Lord Whitworth, the English ambassador, was the only person
of distinction present at the funeral. Suvarov lies buried in the
church of the Annunciation in the Alexandro-Nevskii monastery,
the simple inscription on his grave being, according to his own
direction, " Here lies Suvarov." But within a year of his death
the tsar Alexander I. erected a statue to his memory in the
Field of Mars, St Petersburg.
His son Arkadi (1783-1811) was a general officer in the
SUWALKI— SUZERAINTY
173
Russian army during the Napoleonic and Turkish wars of the
early ipth century, and was drowned in the river Rimnik in
1811. His grandson Alexander Arkadievich (1804-1882)
was also a Russian general.
Among the Russians the memory of Suvarov is cherished to this
day. A great captain, viewed from the standpoint of any age of
military history, he is specially the great captain of the Russian
nation, for the character of his leadership responded to the character
of the Russian soldier. In an age when war had.become an act of
diplomacy he restored its true significance as an act of force. He was
reckless of human life, bent only on the achievement of the object
in hand, and he spared his own soldiers as little as he showed mercy
to the population of a fallen city. He was a man of great simplicity
of manners, and while on a campaign lived as a private soldier,
sleeping on straw and contenting himself with the humblest fare.
But he had himself passed through all the gradations of military
service; moreover, his education had been of the rudest kind. His
gibes procured him many enemies. He had all the contempt of a
man of ability and action foj ignorant favourites and ornamental
carpet-knights. But his drolleries served, sometimes to hide, more
often to express, a soldierly genius, the effect of which the Russian
army has not outgrown. If the tactics of the Russians in the war
of 1904-05 reflected too literally some of the maxims of Suvarov's
Turkish wars, the spirit of self-sacrifice, resolution and indifference
to losses there shown was a precious legacy from those wars. Drago-
mirov (g.f.) avowed that his teaching was based on Suvarov's
practice, which he held to be representative of the fundamental
truths of war and of the military qualities of the Russian nation.
See Anthing, Versuch einer Kriegsgeschichle des Grafen Suworow
(Gotha, 1796-1799); F. von Smitt, Suworows Leben und Heerz&ge
(Vilna, 1833-1834) and Suworow und Polens Untergang (Leipzig,
1858) ; Von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworows durch die Schweiz
(Zurich, 1896); Lieut.-Colonel Spalding, Suvorof (London, 1890);
G. von Fuchs, Suworows Korrespondenz, 1799 (Glogau, 1835) ;
Souvorov en Italie, by Gachot, Masse'na's biographer (Paris, 1903) ;
and the standard Russian biographies of Polevoi (1853; Ger.
trans., Mitau, 1853); Rybkin (Moscow, 1874) and Vasiliev
(Vilna, 1899).
SUWALKI, a government of Russian Poland, of which it
occupies the N.E. corner, extending to the N. between East
Prussia and the Russian governments of Vilna and Grodno, with
the government of Kovno on the N. Its area is 4846 sq. m. It
includes the east of the low Baltic swelling (800 to icoo ft. above
the sea) and is studded with lakes. Its northern slopes descend
to the valley of the Niemen, while in the south it falls away gently
to the marshy tract of the Biebrz. The rivers flow there in
deep-cut gorges and hollows, diversifying the surface. The
Niemen forms its eastern and northern boundary and has many
affluents from both slopes of the swelling. The Augustowo canal
connects the navigable Hancza, a tributary of the Niemen, with a
tributary of the Biebrz, which belongs to the basin of the Vistula,
and an active traffic is carried on by this canal. Forests cover
about one-fourth of the area. Tertiary and cretaceous strata
occupy large areas, and the entire surface is covered with Post-
Tertiary deposits. The bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet
of north Germany, containing scratched boulders and furrowed
by depressions having a direction N.N.E. and S.S.W., ex-
tended over immense tracts of the ridge of the lake-districts
and its slopes, while limited spaces are covered with well-
washed glacial sands and gravel. On the northern slopes of the
coast-ridge, the boulder-clay being covered with lacustrine
deposits, there are in many places areas of fertile soil; and in
the southern parts of the province the boulder-clay is stony,
and sometimes covered with gravel. Still, nearly nine-tenths
of the surface are suitable for cultivation.
The population in 1906 was estimated at 633,000. The
majority (52-2%) are Lithuanians, mostly in the north; there
are 21-5% Poles (and Mazurs), chiefly in the towns; 16-7%
Jews; 5-3 % Germans and 4-2% Russians. The chief towns of
the seven districts into which the government is divided are
• Suwalki, Augustowo, Kalwarya, Mariampol, Seiny, Wilkowiszki
(or Volkovyshki) and Wladislawow. The principal crops are rye,
wheat, oats, barley and potatoes, which are largely exported to
Prussia for use in the distilleries. Bee-keeping is widely spread,
and about 40,000 Ib of honey are obtained every year. The
weaving of linen, woollen cloth and fishing-nets is extensively
carried on in the villages as a domestic industry, and in small
factories. A large number of the inhabitants are compelled to
seek work in winter in other parts of the empire. The felling of
timber, which is floated down the Niemen, gives occupation
to many.
SUWALKI, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, situated at the source of the Hancza, a
tributary of the Niemen, 65 m. by rail N.W. of Grodno. Pop.
27,165. In the isth century it was a small village amid forests,
peopled by Lithuanians. Its trade is chiefly in timber, grain,
woollen cloth and other manufactured goods.
SUYUTl [Abu-1 Fadhl'Abd ur-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr Jalal
ud-Dm us-Suyuti] (1445-1505), Arabian encyclopaedic writer,
was the son of a Turkish slave woman. His father, who was
of Persian descent, had been cadi in Suyut (Upper Egypt) and
professor in Cairo, but died before his son was six years old. The
boy's training was taken in hand by a Sufi friend of the father.
He was precocious and is said to have known the Koran by heart
before he was eight years old. In 1462 he was already a teacher;
in 1464 he made the pilgrimage to Mecca; in 1472 he became a
professor, and in 1486 was promoted to a chair in the mosque of
Bibars. Here, however, he provoked a revolt among the students
and in 1501 was discharged for maladministration of trust funds.
Two years later he was offered the same post again, but declined,
and worked in seclusion at Rauda, an island of the Nile, and
there died in 1505. He was one of the most prolific writers of
the East, though many of his works are only pamphlets and
some are mere abridgments of the work of others.
We know of 561 separate titles of his works, and over 316 exist
in manuscript. A list of these is given in C. Brockelmann's Gesch.
der Arabischen Litteratur, ii. 144-158 (Berlin, 1902). They deal
with almost every branch of Moslem science and literature. Among
the best known are the Itqan fi 'Ulum ul-Qur&n ( on the exegetic
sciences of the Koran), published with an analysis by A. Sprenger
(Calcutta, 1852-1854) and often in Cairo; the commentary on the
Koran, known as the Tafstr ul-Jalalain, begun by Jalal ud-Din
uI-Maljalli (1389-1459) and finished by Suyuti, published often in
the East; and the history of the caliphs, published at Calcutta
(1858) and elsewhere. (G. W. T.)
SUZERAINTY. " Suzerain," a term of feudal law, is now used
to describe persons or states in positions of superiority to others.
Its etymology, according to Professor W. W. Skeat DetlttKloa
{Etymological Dictionary), is as follows: " A coined
word; made from French sus, Latin susum or sursum, above, in
the same way as sovereign is made from Latin super', it corre-
sponds to a Low Latin type suseranus." Another form of the
word is souseran (F. Godefroy, De I'Ancienne langue franfaise).
Suzerain has been defined as " Qui possede un fief dont d'autres
fiefs relevent " (Littre and Dictionnaire de I' academic f ran faise).
C. Loyseau, in his Traite des seigneuries (3rd ed., 1610, p. 14),
explains that there are two kinds of public seigneuries, that
is, sovereign seigneurs, possessing summum imperium, and
suzerains, " Les suzeraines sont celles qui ont puissance .
superieure mais non supreme." Elsewhere he says that
suzerainty is a form of public seigneuries which has been
" usurpee par les particuliers pour laquelle exprimer il nous a
fallu forger un mot expres, et 1'appeller suzerainete, mot qui
est aussi etrange comme celle espece de seigneuries est
absurde " (p. u). Loyseau adds, " Seigneurie suzeraine est
dignite d'un fief ayant justice" (p. 38). Bousquet (Nouveau
dictionnaire de droit) defines suzerain as " superieur, celui dont
un fief relevait "; Rogulau (Glossaire du droit f ran fois), " supe-
rieur en quelque charge ou dignite autre que le roy." "The name
does not occur in the Consuetudines feudorum, or in Hotoman's
De verbis fettdalibus commenlarius. It was rare in feudal times
in England. But it was used in France to describe a feudal
lord, the supreme suzerain being the king. Merlin, under
suzerainet^, shows that the word was not used by all feudal
writers in the same sense. (See also Chas. Butler's note to Coke
on Lift. 191 a.)
In modern times the term has come to be used as descriptive
of relations, ill-defined and vague, which exist between powerful
and dependent states; its very indefiniteness being its Modem
recommendation. According to feudal law the vassal Usage.
owefl certain duties to the lord; he promised fidelity and service;
and the lord was bound to perform reciprocal duties, not very
SUZERAINTY
clearly defined, to the vassal — Dominus vassallo conjux et amicus
dicilur. The relation between a lord and his vassals, implied in
the oath of fealty, has been extended to states of unequal power;
it has been found convenient to designate certain states as vassal
states, and their superiors as suzerains. Originally and properly
applicable to a status recognized by feudalism, the term vassal
state has been used to describe the subordinate position of certain
states once parts of the Ottoman Empire, and still loosely con-
nected therewith. Such are Egypt and Bulgaria. Rumania,
Servia and Montenegro, once vassal states, may now be regarded
as independent. The relations of these states to the Ottoman
Porte are very varied. Egypt has been variously described as a
vassal state or as a protectorate. But all of these pay tribute
to the sultan, or in some way acknowledge his supremacy
(Emanuel Ullmann, Volkerrecht, § 16); M. de Martens (Traitede
droit international, 1883, i. 333 n.) thus defines the term: " La
suzerainete est la souverainete limitee exercee par le pouvoir
supreme d'un 6tat sur un gouvernment mi-sou verain," a
definition applicable to protectorates, with which it is often
confounded. Thus Mommsen (History of Rome) indiscriminately
describes the supremacy of Rome over Armenia as " suzerainty "
or " protectorate." To illustrate the vague use of the word in
modern diplomacy may be quoted the description of suzerainty
given by Lord Kimberley, which Mr Chamberlain in the
correspondence as to South Africa mentioned with approval:
" Superiority over a state possessing independent rights of
government subject to reservations with reference to certain
specified matters " (1899 [C. 9057], p. 28).
M. Gairal (Le Protectorat international) distinguishes suzerainty
from protectorate in these respects: (a) suzerainty proceeds
Protects- from a concession on the part of the suzerain
rate ana (p. 112); (b) the vassal state is bound to perform
Suzerainty. Specjfic services; and (c) the vassal state has larger
powers of action than those belonging to a protected state;
(d) there is reciprocity of obligation. According to M. F.
Despagnet the term suzerain is applicable to a case in which a
state concedes a fief, in virtue of its sovereignty (Essai sur le
protector at international, p. 46), reserving to itself certain rights
as the author of this concession.
Another writer draws these distinctions: (a) a state connected
by protectorship with another previously enjoyed autonomy; the
vassal state did not ; (b) the protected state retains its nationality
and its internal administration; the vassal state acquires a dis-
tinct nationality; (c) the establishment of a protectorate modifies
few of the institutions of the protectorate state except as to
foreign relations; the establishment of a suzerainty changes the
institutions of the vassal state; (d) the protected state exercises
its internal sovereignty a pen pr'es pleinement; the vassal state
remains subordinate in several respects; (e) while the protected
state has the right to be assisted in case of war by the protecting
state, but is not bound to defend the latter, the vassal state is
bound to aid its suzerain (Tchomacoff, De la Souverainete, p. 53).
See also Hachenburger, De la Nature juridique du protectorat.
W. E. Hall thus defines vassal states: " States under the
suzerainty of others are portions of the latter which during a
process of gradual disruption or by the grace of the sovereign
have acquired certain of the powers of an independent com-
munity, such as that of making commercial conventions, or of
conferring- their exequatur on foreign consuls. Their position
differs from that of the foregoing varieties of states (protectorates,
&c.), in that a presumption exists against the possession by
them of any given international capacity (International Law,
4th ed., p. 31).
Another suggested distinction is this: Suzerainty is title with-
out corresponding power; protectorate is power without cor-
responding title (Professor Freund, Political Science Quarterly,
1899, p. 28).
On the whole, usage seems to favour this distinction: while a
protectorate flows from, or is a reduction of, the sovereignty
of the protected state, suzerainty is conceived as derived from,
and a reduction of, the sovereignty of the dominant state.
As to the power of making treaties, a vassal state cannot, as a
rule, conclude them; such power does not exist unless it is
specially given. On the other hand, a protected state, unless
the contrary is stipulated, retains the power of concluding
treaties (Bry, p. 294).
It is sometimes said that a protected state, unlike a vassal state,
has the right of sending representatives to foreign states. But
such distinctions are of doubtful value: the facts of each case
must be considered (Ullmann, § 26).
There is one practical difference between the two relations:
while the protecting and protected states tend to draw nearer,
the reverse is true of the suzerain and vassal states; a protectorate
is generally the preliminary to incorporation, suzerainty to
separation. Sometimes it is said that the territory of the vassal
state forms part of the territory of the suzerain; a proposition
which is true for some purposes, but not for all.
All definitions of suzerainty are of little use. Each instru-
ment in, which the word is used must be studied in order to ascer-
tain its significance. Even in feudal times suzerainty might
be merely nominal, an instance in point being the suzerainty or
over-lordship of the papacy over Naples. In some cases it may
be said that suzerainty brings no practical advantages and implies
no serious obligations. Among the instances in which the term
is actually used in treaties are these: the General
Treaty, Peace of Paris, 1856 (arts. 21 and 22), recog- '£'
nized the suzerainty of Turkey over the Danubian
principalities Moldavia and Wallachia, modifying the " sove-
reignty " of Turkey recognized by the Treaty of Adrianople.
" Les principautes de Valachie et de Moldavia continueront a
jouir, sous la suzerainete de la Porte et sous la garantie des
Puissances contractantes, des privileges et des immunites dont
elles sont en possession." The convention of the igth of August
1858 (Hertslet x. 1052) organized the then principalities " under
the suzerainty of the sultan " (art. i). The internal govern-
ment was to be exercised by a hospodar, who received his
investiture from the sultan, the sign of vassalship, it has been
said (Tchomacoff p. 45). The autonomy of these vassal states
has been fully recognized by the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 (art. i).
In the Interpretation Act, 1889, s. 18 (5), " suzerainty " is used
to describe the authority of the sovereign over native princes.
The word suzerain is used in the Pretoria convention of the 3rd
of August 1881 between the British government and the late South
African Republic. The convention (by its preamble) granted
to the inhabitants complete self-government, " subject to the
suzerainty of her Majesty," and this suzerainty was reaffirmed
in the articles. Even when the convention was being negotiated
doubts arose as to its meaning, and legal authorities were
divided as to its effect (see speech of Lord Cairns, Hansard, 269,
p. 261; Lord Selborne, 260, p. 309; answer of attorney-general
260, 1534). It was doubtful whether territory could be ceded by
the Crown of its own authority; and if the power existed the
cession could, it was said, be made only by virtue of clear words.
From the articles substituted in the London convention of the
27th of February 1884 for those of 1881, the word " suzerainty "
was omitted. Fresh doubts arose as to the effect of this omission ;
and a correspondence on the subject took place between the
British government and the government of the republic before
the outbreak of hostilities in South Africa, the former main-
taining that the preamble of 1881, by which alone any self-
government was granted, was still in force, and therefore that the
suzerainty — whatever it involved — remained; the Transvaal
government, on the other hand, contending that the suzerainty
had been abolished by the substitution of the 1884 convention for
that of 1881. Writers on international law differ greatly as to the
exact position of the South African republic under the later con-
vention. Some considered it an independent sovereign state. •
Mr Taylor (A Treatise of International Public Law, p. 174) treats
the Transvaal after the convention of 1 884 as a " neutralized state
only part sovereign." Other writers describe the relation as that
of a protectorate (see Professor J. Westlake, Revue de droit inter-
national, 1896, p. 268 seq.; International Law, pt. i, p. 27).
Professor de Louter defines it as " une servitude du droit des
gens (servitus juris gentium), et qui differe de la servitude du
SVANE— SVERDRUP
droit prive en ce qu'elle ne constitue pas un droit reel (jus in
re aliena) mais un droit entre deux personnes de droit inter-
national (subjecta juris gentium) " (Revue de droit international,
1899, p. 330). Dr F. Von Liszt (Das Volkerrecht, p. 331) treats
the South African republic as an example of a half sovereign
state. M. Gairal describes it as a vassal state. Probably the
soundest opinion is that the British Crown reserved no other
rights than those expressly stated in the convention of 1884.
See Stubbs, " Suzerainty, or the Rights and Duties of Suzerain
and Vassal States " (1882), Revue de droit international (1896), pp. 39,
278; Westlake, " L'Angleterre et la republique sud-africaine,"
Revue de droit international (1896), p. 268; Bornhak, Einseitige
AbhangigkeitsverhaltnisseunterdenmodernenStaaten (1896) ; Ullmann,
Volkerrecht (1908), p. 25; Tchomacoff, De la Sowverainete (1901);
Jellinek, Die Lehre von den Staatenverbindungen (1882) ; Correspon-
dence Relating to South African Republic (1899) [C. 9507]; Law
Magazine (1900), p. 413; Law Quarterly Review (1896), p. 122;
Journal of Comparative Legislation, new series, vol. i. p. 432;
Merignhac, Droit public international (1905), p. 204. G- M.)
SVANE [or SVANING], HANS (1606-1668), Danish statesman
and ecclesiastic, was born on the 27th of March 1606, at Horsens,
where his father, Hans Riber, was burgomaster. His mother
Anne was a daughter of the historian Hans Svaning, whose name,
subsequently altered to Svane, he adopted. At Copenhagen
Svane devoted himself to the study of Oriental languages, and
between 1628 and 1635 completed his education abroad, at
Franeker in Friesland, Wittenberg, Oxford and Paris. After
seven years' residence abroad Svane returned to occupy the
chair of Oriental languages at the university of Copenhagen. In
1646, finding promotion slow, he turned to theology and was
" created " Dr theol. by his old patron Jesper Brochmand, now
bishop of Sjaelland, whom he succeeded in the metropolitan
see of Denmark on the 26th of January 1655. As a theologian
he belonged to the severely orthodox Lutheran school. His
scholarship, despite the erudition of his commentary to the
prophet Daniel in two huge folio volumes, is questionable.
But in Latin and Danish he won distinction as a speaker, and
his funeral orations in both languages were admired by his
contemporaries. At the famous rigsdag of 1660 he displayed
debating talent of a high order and played an important political
role. It was Svane who, at the opening of the rigsdag, proposed
that only members of the council of state should be entitled to
fiefs and that all other estates should be leased to the highest
bidder whatever his social station. At a hint from the king he
laboured to get the royal charter abolished and the elective
monarchy transformed into an hereditary monarchy. The
clerical deputies followed him in a serried band, as the burgesses
followed Nansen, and the bishop's palace was one of the meeting-
places for the camarilla which was privy to the absolutist designs
of Frederick III. Throughout the session Svane was chairman
of " the Conjoined Estates " in their attacks upon the nobility,
his watchword being: Equal rights for all and a free hand for
the king. It was on his motion (Oct. 8) that the Commons
agreed " to offer his majesty the crown as an hereditary crown,"
to which proposition the nobility acceded, under severe pressure,
two days later. When, on the i3th, the three estates assembled
at the castle, it was Svane's speech, as president of the estate
of the clergy, which gave the solemnity its ultra-royalist chaiacter.
He, too, quashed the timid attempt of the more liberal minded
of the deputies to obtain a promise from the king of some sort of
a constitution. In fact, excepting the king and queen, nobody
contributed so powerfully to the introduction of absolutism into
Denmark as the bishop of Copenhagen. He was raised, to the
dignity of archbishop, a title which no other Danish prelate has
since borne, and as president of the academic consistory of the
university (an office which was invented for and died with him) he
took precedence of the rector magnificus. He was also created a
royal councillor, an assessor of the supreme court and a member
of the stats kollegiet or council of state. His elevation seems to
have turned his head. The university suffered the most from his
extravagant pretensions; and his quarrels with all the professors
at last caused such a scandal that the king had to interfere per-
sonally. A bishop who was at the same time a privy councillor,
a minister of state and a judge of the supreme court could
have but little time for spiritual duties. Yet Svane was not
altogether neglectful of them. Especially noteworthy is his plan
for the erection of a consistorial college for managing all the
temporal affairs of the church, including education and poor
relief, anticipating to some extent the modern ministries of
education and public worship, which unfortunately was not
adopted. Moreover, the privileges which he obtained for the
clergy did much to increase the welfare and independence of the
Danish Church in difficult times, while his representations to
the king that Danish theology was not likely to be promoted by
placing Germans over the heads of native professors bore good
fruit. Svane died on the 26th of July 1668, in his 62nd year.
See Detlev Gotthard Zwergius, Siellandske clerisie (Copenhagen,
1754). (R- N. B.)
SVANETIA, a mountainous district on the south slopes of the
Caucasus, immediately underneath the loftiest glaciated peaks
of the middle of the system. It extends over the upper valleys
of the Rion, Ingur and Tskhenis-tskhali, and is included in the
modern government of Kutais. The Svanetians belong to the
Georgian race. (See CAUCASIA and CAUCASUS.)
SVENDBORG, a seaport of Denmark, capital of the ami
(county) of its name, on the south shore of the island of Fiinen.
Pop. (1901), 11,543. The situation is pleasant. The narrow
Svendborg Sund separates Funen from the lesser islands of
Taasinge and Turo, of which the former rises to 245 ft. Inland
from the town there is also elevated ground, the Ovinehoi. The
harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 20 ft. There are tobacco
and earthenware manufactories, boat-building yards, and dis-
tilleries. Butter is the principal export, and petroleum, coal and
iron the .imports. Neighbouring to the town are the ruined castle
of Orkil, the watering-place Christiansminde, and the extensive
orchards of Gammel Hestehave, where wine is produced.
SVENDSEN, JOB ANN SEVERIN (1840- ), Norwegian
composer, was born in Christiania on the 3oth of September 1840.
He learnt the elements of music and violin-playing from his father,
and after serving for some time in the army, and later touring as
violinist with a troup of instrumentalists, he entered the conserva-
torium at Leipzig through the aid of the king of Sweden. After
another tour, which extended to the British Isles, Svendsen
spent a year in Paris, and in 1871-1872 was leader of the once
famous Euterpe concerts in Leipzig. In 1871 he married an
American, and from 1872 to 1877 he conducted the Christiania
Musical Society, while in 1.877-1879 he lived in Rome, London
and Paris. In 1883 Svendsen became court kapellmeister at
Copenhagen. Probably we have to go back to Schubert to find
a composer whose Opus i has attained the wide popularity of
Svendsen's A minor string quartet, while his beautiful octet,
Opus 3, added to his fame. Though Svendsen was at one time
intimate with Wagner, the latter does not seem to have influenced
his music, which includes two symphonies, a violin concerto, and
a romance for violin, as well as a number of Norwegian rhapsodies
for the orchestra.
SVERDRUP, JOHAN (1816-1892), Norwegian statesman, was
born at Jarlsberg on the 3oth of July 1816. His father, Jakob
Sverdrup, was a land steward, and the founder of the first
school of agriculture in Norway. Johan entered the Storthing
in 1850, sitting first for Laurvik, and then for the district of
Akershus, and was its president from 1871 to 1884, during the
whole of the dispute over the prerogative of the Crown. He
built up a strong political party, which, relying for support
chiefly on the Norwegian peasantry, was determined to secure
strict constitutional government and practically to destroy the
power of the king. Under his leadership the opposition, in 1872,
secured the passing of a bill for the admission of the ministers
to the Storthing, which was a step to the establishment of the
dependence of the cabinet on a majority in that assembly. King
Charles XV. refused his sanction to this bill, and on its third
passing in 1880 Oscar II. opposed his veto, at the same time
claiming his right to the absolute veto. Sverdrup then proposed
the proclamation of the law in defiance of the king's action. The
176
SWABIA— SWABIAN LEAGUE
retirement of Frederik Stang removed Sverdrup's chief political
opponent from the field. He was aided in his campaign by
Bjornstjerne Bjornson, and after a series of political crises he
became prime minister in June 1884. But when he became prime
minister he soon found himself at issue with Bjornson on church
matters. Inspired chiefly by his nephew Johan he secured the
refusal of a pension to the novelist Kielland because of his anti-
clerical views, and he further wished to give the parish councils
the right to strike off the voting list persons who had broken
away from church discipline. Therefore, although during his
term of office no fewer than eighty-nine measures, many of them
involving useful reforms, became law, he failed to satisfy the
extremists among his supporters, and was driven to rely on the
moderate Liberals. He was compelled to retire in 1889, and died
on the i;th of February 1892 at Christiania.
SWABIA, SUABIA or SUEVIA (Ger. Sclnvaben), one of the
stem-duchies of medieval Germany, taking its name from the
Suevi, a tribe who inhabited the district in the first century of
the Christian era. Dwelling in the angle formed by the Rhine
and the Danube, they were joined by other tribes, and were
called Alamanni, whilst the district was called Alamannia,
until about the nth century, when the form Swabia began to
prevail. In 496 the Alamanni were defeated by Clovis, king of
the Franks, brought under Frankish rule, and governed by dukes
who were dependent on the Frankish kings. In the yth century
the people were converted to Christianity, bishoprics were
founded at Augsburg and Constance, and in the 8th century
abbeys at Reichenau and St Gall. The Alamanni had gradually
thrown off the Frankish yoke, but in 730 Charles Martel
again reduced them to dependence, and his son Pippin the
Short abolished the tribal duke and ruled the duchy by two
counts palatine, or Kammerboten,
The duchy, which was divided into gaus or counties, took about
this time the extent which it retained throughout the middle
ages, and was bounded by the Rhine, the lake of Constance,
the Lech and Franconia. The Lech, separating Alamannia from
Bavaria, did not form, either ethnologically or geographically,
a very strong boundary, and there was a good deal of inter-
communion between the two races. During the later and
weaker years of the Carolingian rule the counts became almost
independent, and a struggle for supremacy took place between
them and the bishops of Constance. The chief family in Ala-
mannia was that of the counts of Raetia, who were sometimes
called margraves, and one of whom,. Burkhard, was called duke
of the Alaminnia. Burkhard was killed in 911, and two counts
palatine, Bertold and Erchanger, were accused of treason, and
put to death by order of the German king Conrad I. In 917,
Burkhard, count in Raetia, took the title of duke, and was
recognized as such by King Henry I., the Fowler, in 919. His
position was virtually independent, and when he died in 926 he
was succeeded by Hermann, a Franconian noble, who married
his widow. When Hermann died in 948 Otto the Great gave
the duchy to his own son Ludolf, who had married Hermann's
daughter Ida; but he reduced the ducal privileges and
appointed counts palatine to watch the royal interests. Ludolf
revolted, and was deposed, and other dukes followed in quick
succession. Burkhard II., son of Burkhard I., ruled from 954 to
973, Ludolf's son, Otto, afterwards duke of Bavaria, to 982, and
Conrad I., a relative of Duke Hermann I., until 997. Hermann II.,
possibly a son of Conrad, succeeded, and, dying in 1003, was
followed by his son Hermann III. During these years the
Swabians were loyal to the kings of the Saxon house, probably
owing to the influence of the bishops. Hermann III. had no
children, and the succession passed to Ernest, son of his eldest
sister Gisela and Ernest I., margrave of Austria. Ernest held
the duchy for his son until his own death in 1015, when Gisela
undertook the government, and was married a second time, to
Conrad, duke of Franconia, who was afterwards the German
king Conrad II. When Ernest came of age he quarrelled
with his step-father, who deposed him, and, in 1030, gave the
duchy to Gisela's second son, Hermann IV. and, on his death
in 1038, to Henry, his own son by Gisela. In 1045 Henry,
who had become German king as Henry III., granted Alamannia
to Otto, grandson of the emperor Otto II. and count palatine
of the Rhine, and, in 1048, to Otto, count of Schweinfurt.
Rudolph, count of Rheinfelden, was the next duke, and in 1077
h» was chosen German king in opposition to the emperor
Henry IV., but found little support in Swabia, which was given
by Henry to his faithful adherent, Frederick I., count of Hohen-
staufen. Frederick had to fight for his position with Bertold,
son of Duke Rudolph, and the duke's son-in-law, Bertold II.,
duke of Zahringen, to whom he ceded the Breisgau in 1096.
Frederick II. succeeded his father in 1105, and was followed
by Frederick III., afterwards the emperor Frederick I. The
earlier Hohenstaufen increased the imperial domain in Swabia,
where they received steady support, although ecclesiastical
influences were very strong. In 1152 Frederick I. gave the
duchy to his kinsman, Frederick, count of Rothenburg and duke
of Franconia, after whose death in 1167 it was held successively
by three sons of the emperor, the youngest of whom, Philip,
was chosen German king in 1198. During his struggle for the
throne Philip purchased support by large cessions of Swabian
lands, and the duchy remained in the royal hands during the
reign of Otto IV., and came to Frederick II. in 1214. Frederick
granted Swabia to his son Henry, and, after his rebellion in
1235, to his son Conrad, whose son Conradin, setting out in 1266
to take possession of Sicily, pledged his Swabian inheritance
to Ulrich II. count of Wiirttemberg. The duchy was ripe for
dissolution and, after Conradin's death, in 1268, the chief
authority in Swabia fell to the counts of Wurttemberg, the mar-
graves of Baden, the counts palatine of Tubingen, the counts
of Hohenzollern and others.
When the emperor Maximilian I. divided Germany into circles
in 1512, one, which was practically coterminous with the duchy,
was called the Swabian circle. The area, which was formerly
Swabia, is now covered by the kingdom of Wurttemberg, the
grand-duchy of Hesse and the western part of the kingdom
of Bavaria. Although the name Swabia is occasionally used
in a general way to denote the district formerly occupied by the
duchy, the exact use of the name is now confined to a Bavarian
province, with its capital at Augsburg.
See J. Leichtlen, Schwaben unter den Romern (Freiburg, 1825);
J. C. v. Pfister, Pragmatische Geschichte von Schwaben (Heilbronn,
first part, 1803, continuation to 1496, 1827).
SWABIAN LEAGUE, an association of German cities, prin-
cipally in the territory which had formed the old duchy of
Swabia. The name, though usually given to the great federa-
tion of 1488, is applicable also to several earlier leagues (e.g.
those of 1331, 1376). The Swabian cities had attained great
prosperity under the protection of the Hohenstaufen emperors,
but the extinction of that house in 1268 was followed by dis-
integration. Cities and nobles alike, now owing allegiance to
none but the emperor, who was seldom able to defend them,
were exposed to the aggression of ambitious princes.
In 1331, twenty-two Swabian cities, including Ulm, Augsburg,
Reutlingen and Heilbronn, formed a league at the instance of
the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who in return for their support
promised not to mortgage an/ of them to a vassal. The
count of Wurttemberg was induced to join in 1340. Under
Charles IV. the lesser Swabian nobles began to combine against
the cities, and formed the SMegelerbund (from Schlegel, a maul).
Civil war ensuing in 1367, the emperor, jealous of the growing
power of the cities, endeavoured to set up a league under his
own control, for the maintenance of public peace (Landfriedens-
bund, 1370). The defeat of the city league by Eberhard II. of
Wurttemberg in 1372, the murder of the captain of the league,
and the breach of his obligations by Charles IV., led to the
formation of a new league of fourteen Swabian cities led by
Ulm in 1376. This league triumphed over the count of Wurttem-
berg at Reutlingen in 1377, and the emperor having removed
his ban, it assumed a permanent character, set up an arbitration
court, and was rapidly extended over the Rhineland, Bavaria
and Franconia. In 1382 an alliance was made at Ehingen with
the archduke of Austria, and through his mediation with the
SWADLINCOTE— SWAHILI
177
three chief knightly associations of Swabia. The new king,
Wenceslaus, hoped at first, like his father Charles, to check the
federal movement by associating all estates of the realm under
his own lead in Landfriedenseinigungen, but such a compact
made at Heidelberg in 1384, although renewed at Mergentheim
three years later, was a mere makeshift. The struggle between
burghers and nobles was precipitated by the incluslbn of the
urban members of the Swiss confederation in the league in 1385
and the overthrow of Archduke Leopold of Austria by the latter
at Sempach in the following year. A quarrel between the duke
of Bavaria and the archbishop of Salzburg gave the signal for a
general war in Swabia, in which the cities, weakened by their
isolation, mutual jealousies and internal conflicts, were defeated
by Count Eberhard II. at Doffingen (Aug. 24, 1388), and
were severally taken and devastated. Most of them quietly
acquiesced when Wenceslaus proclaimed a Landfriede at
Eger in 1389 and prohibited all leagues between cities. The
professed aims of the cities which had formed this league of
1376 were the maintenance of their imperial status (Reichs-
unmiltdbarkeii) , security against sale or mortgage and against
excessive taxation, the protection of property, trade and traffic,
and the power to suppress disturbances of the peace. There is
no trace of co-operation with the Hanseatic towns. The
league necessarily opposed the pretensions of the emperors
and the electoral princes, especially as set forth in the Golden
Bull, and in accordance with the growing spirit of civil freedom
demanded a share in the government, but that there was any
widespread conscious desire for a fundamental change in the
constitution, for the abolition of aristocratic privilege or for
a republic, as certain historians maintain, is improbable
(K. Kliipfel, Der schwabische Bund).
For nearly a century there was no great effort at federation
among the Swabian cities, attention being diverted to the
ecclesiastical controversies of the time, but there were partial
and short-lived associations, e.g. the league of twelve Swabian
cities in defence of their liberties in 1392, the Marbach league in
1405 against the German king, Rupert, and in 1441 the union
of twenty-two cities (in 1446 thirty-one) headed by Ulm and
Nuremberg, for the suppression of highway robbery. This
latter union in 1449 formed a standing army and waged war on
a confederation of princes led by Albert Achilles, afterwards
elector of Brandenburg (q.v.).
The growing anarchy in Swabia, where the cities were violently
agitated by the constant infringement of their liberties (e.g.
the annexation of Regensburg by Bavaria in 1486), induced
Frederick III., who required men and money for the Hungarian
War, to conciliate the cities by propounding a scheme of pacifica-
tion and reform. His commissioner, Count Hugo of Werdenberg,
met the Swabian estates at Esslingen and laid before them a
plan probably drawn up by Bertold, elector of Mainz, and on the
i4th of February 1488 the Great Swabian League was con-
stituted. There were four constituent parties, the archduke
Sigismund of Austria, Count Eberhard V. (afterwards duke)
of Wiirttemberg, who became the first captain of the league,
the knightly league of St George, and lastly twenty-two Swabian
imperial cities. The league received a formal constitution
with a federal council consisting of three colleges of nine coun-
cillors each, a captain and a federal court with judicial and
executive powers. The armed force which was to police Swabia
consisted of 12,000 foot and 1200 horse, each party contributing
one-fourth. The league gained strength by the speedy accession
of Augsburg and other Swabian cities, the margraves of Branden-
burg-Ansbach, Baireuth and Baden, the four Rhenish electors,
&c., and in 1490 of Maximilian, king of the Romans, whom the
league had helped to rescue from the hands of the Netherlanders
in 1488. It did not render him the support he expected in his
foreign policy, but it performed its primary work of restoring
and maintaining order with energy and efficiency. In 1492 it
compelled Duke Albert of Bavaria to renounce Regensburg;
in 1519 it expelled the turbulent duke, Ulrich of Wiirttemberg,
who had seized Reutlingen, and it sold his duchy to Charles V. ;
and in 1523 it defeated the Franconian knights who had taken
up arms with Franz von Sickingen. In 1525; Truchsess, the
league captain, aided by the forces of Trier and the palatinate,
overthrew the rebel peasants of Konigshofen on the Tauber and
at Ingolstadt.
The league, which had been several times renewed, expired
on the 2nd of February 1534, its dissolution being due to
internal dissensions regarding the reformation. Futile attempts
were made to renew it, in 1535 by the Bavarian chancellor,
Eck, and in 1547 by Charles V.
See E. Osann, Zur Geschichte des schwabischen Bundes (Giessen,
1861); K. Klupfel, " Der schwabische Bund " (in Hist. Taschenbuch,
1883-1884), Urkunden zur Geschichte des schwabischen Bundes
(Stuttgart, 1846-1853). (A. B. Go.)
SWADLINCOTE, a town in the southern parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 15 m. S.S.W. of Derby, and
4 m. S.E. of Burton-upon-Trent, on the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901), urban district of Swadlincote district, 18,014.
This includes the civil parishes of Swadlincote, Church Gres-
ley and Stanton and Newhall, which together form a large
industrial township, mainly devoted to the manufacture of
earthenware and fireclay goods. There are collieries in the
neighbourhood.
SWAFFHAM, a market town in the south-western parlia-
mentary division of Norfolk, England; in m. N.N.E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 3371. The town lies high, in an open, healthy district.
The church of St Peter and St Paul is Perpendicular, a hand-
some cruciform structure with central tower, and has a fine
carved roof of wood. The town, which has a town-hall and
assembly rooms, possesses iron foundries and a considerable
agricultural trade, with cattle fairs. At Castle Acre, 4 m. N.,
are the picturesque ruins of a Cluniac priory, founded shortly
after the Conquest by William de Warren. These comprise
portions of the church, including the fine west front, arcaded,
with three Norman doors and a Perpendicular window, with the
chapter-house, cloisters and conventual buildings. The majority
of the remains are Norman or Perpendicular. The castle of the
same founder has left little but its foundations, but it was erected
within the protection of a remarkable series of earthworks,
which remain in good condition. These are apparently in part
Roman, in part earlier. The site, on which Roman coins,
pottery and other remains have been discovered, was on an
ancient trackway running north and south. It may be noted
that de Warren founded a similar castle and priory at Lewes
in Sussex. The church of St James, Castle Acre, contains good
Early English and Perpendicular work.
SWAHILI (Wa-Swahili, i.e. coast people, from the Arabic
sahil, coast), a term commonly applied to the inhabitants of
Zanzibar and of the opposite mainland between the parallels
of 2° and 9° S., who speak the Ki-Swahili language. The
Swahili are essentially a mixed people, the result of long crossing
between the negroes of the coast and the Arabs, with an ad-
mixture of slave blood from nearly all the East African tribes.
Among Swahili are found every shade of colour and every type
of physique from the full-blooded negro to the pure Semite.
Usually they are a powerfully built, handsome people, inclined
to stoutness and with Semitic features. They number about
a million. They figured largely in the history of African enter-
prise during the i9th century. The energy and intelligence
derived from their Semitic blood have enabled them to take a
leading part in the development of trade and the industries,
as shown in the wide diffusion of their language, which, like
the Hindustani in India and the Guarani in South America,
has become the principal medium of intercommunication in a
large area of Africa south of the equator. During his journey
from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic (1873-1874) Commander
V. Lovett Cameron found that a knowledge of this language
enabled him everywhere to dispense with the aid of an inter-
preter, as it was understood by one or more persons in all the
tribes along the route. Owing to this circumstance the Swahili
have been found invaluable assistants in every expedition from
the eastern seaboard to the interior after they began to be
i78
SWALLOW— SWAN, J. M.
employed by J. H. Speke and Richard Burton as porters and
escorts in 1857. The language is somewhat archaic Bantu,
much mixed with Arabic, while Indian, Persian and even
English, Portuguese and Germa.n words have contributed to the
vocabulary. Grammatical treatises on it have been published,
and into it portions of the Bible have been translated by Bishop
Steere.1 The Swahili are Mahommedans, but in disposition
are genuine negroes. Christian missions among them have met
with little success.
See Johann Ludwig Krapf, Dictionary of Swahili Language
(London, 1882) ; Bishop Steere, Handbook of the Swahili Language
(London, 1894) ; Collection of Swahili Folk-Tales (1869) ; A. C.
Madan, English-Swahili Dictionary (Oxford, 1894); Delaunay,
Grammaire Kiswahili (Paris, 1898). See also BANTU LANGUAGES.
SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluui, Ger.
Schwalbe), the bird which of all others is recognized as the
harbinger of summer in the northern hemisphere. The name
Hirundo ruslica of Linnaeus is now employed for the common
chimney-swallow of Europe, which has been divided into four
or five races. In summer it ranges all over Europe, and in
Asia extends to Manchuria and China; in winter it migrates
south, reaching India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the
whole of Africa. The common swallow of North America,
usually called the barn-swallow, is H. erythrogastra, but in
summer it also reaches Alaska and Greenland and extends across
to Lake Baikal. The winter migration extends to Burma for the
Asiatic swallows and to South Brazil for those of America.
In all some twenty-seven species of Hirundo are recognized, the
range of the genus being practically world-wide. Returning,
usually already paired, to its summer haunts, after its winter
sojourn in southern lands, and generally reaching England
about the first week in April, the English swallow at once
repairs to its old quarters, nearly always around the abodes of
men; and, about a month later, the site of the nest is chosen,
resort being had in most cases to the very spot that has
formerly served the same purpose — the old structure, if still
remaining, being restored and refurnished. So trustful is the
bird that it commonly establishes itself in any of men's works that
will supply the necessary accommodation, and a shed, a barn,
or any building with an open roof, a chimney that affords a
support for the nest, or even the room of an inhabited house—
if chance should give free access thereto — to say nothing of
extraordinary positions, may be the place of its choice. Where-
soever placed, the nest is formed of small lumps of moist earth,
which, carried to the spot in the bird's bill, are duly arranged
and modelled, with the aid of short straws or slender sticks, into
the required shape. This is generally that of a half-saucer, but
it varies according to the exigencies of the site. The materials
dry quickly into a hard crust, which is lined with soft feathers,
and therein are laid from four to six white eggs, blotched and
speckled with grey and orange-brown deepening into black.
Two broods are usually reared in the season, and the young on
leaving the nest soon make their way to some leafless bough,
whence they try their powers of flight, at first accompanying
their parents in short excursions on the wing, receiving from
them the food which they are as yet unable to capture, until able
to shift for themselves. They collect in flocks, often of many
hundreds, and finally leave the country about the end of August
or early in September, to be followed, after a few weeks, by
their progenitors. They moult their feathers in their winter
quarters, and this fact affords one of the strongest arguments
against the popular belief (which, curious to say, is still partly
if not fully entertained by many who should know better) of
their becoming torpid in winter, for a state of torpidity would
suspend all animal action.2 The chestnut forehead and throat,
1 The language was first reduced to writing by the Arabs, who
still use the Arabic character. But the European missionaries have
replaced this by the Roman system, which is more suited for the
transliteration of most African, and especially of the Bantu, tongues.
1 See John Hunter's Essays and Observattons in Natural History,
edited by Sir R. Owen in 1861 (ii. 280). An excellent bibliography
of the swallow-torpidity controversy, up to 1878, is given by Professor
Coues (Birds of the Colorado Valley, pp. 378-390), who seems still
to hanker after the ancient faith in " hibernation."
the shining steel-blue upper plumage, and the dusky white
— in some cases reddening so as almost to vie with the frontal
and gular patches — of the lower parts are well known to every
person of observation, as is the markedly forked tail, which
is become proverbial of this bird.
Taking the word swallow in a more extended sense, it is used
for all the*members of the family Hirundinidae,' excepting a few
to which the name martin (q.v.) has been applied, and this family
includes from 80 to 100 species, which have been placed in many
different genera. The true swallow has very many affines, some of
which range almost as widely as itself does, while others seem to
have curiously restricted limits, and much the same may be said
of several of its more distant relatives. But altogether the family
forms one of the most circumscribed and therefore one of the most
natural groups of Oscines, having no near allies; for, though in
outward appearance and in some habits the swallows bear a con-
siderable resemblance to swifts (q.v.), the latter belong to a different
order, and are not Passerine birds at all, as their structure, both
internal and external, proves. It has been sometimes stated
that the Hirundinidae have their nearest relations in the flycatchers
(<?.!>.) ; but the assertion is very questionable, and the supposition
that they are allied to the Ampehdae (cf . WAXWING), though possibly
better founded, has not been confirmed. An affinity to the Indian
and Australian Artamus (the species of which genus are often
known as wood-swallows or swallow-shrikes) has also been suggested
but has not been accepted. (A. N.)
SWALLOW-HOLE, in physical geography the name applied
to a cavity resulting from the solution of rock under the action
of water, and forming, or having at some period formed, the
entrance to a subterranean stream-channel. Such holes are
common in calcareous (limestone or chalky) districts, or along
the line of outcrop of a limestone belt among non-calcareous
strata. These cavities are also known as sinks, dolinas or
butter-tubs, and by other local names, and sometimes as pot-
holes; the last term, however, is also synonymous with Giant's
Kettle (q.v.). See CAVE.
SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-1680), Dutch naturalist, was
born on the I2th of February 1637 at Amsterdam, the son of
an apothecary and naturalist. He was destined for the Church;
but he preferred the profession of medicine, taking his doctor's
degree at Leiden in 1667. Having necessarily to interest
himself in human anatomy, he devoted much attention to the
preservation and better demonstration of the various structures,
and he devised the method of studying the circulatory system
by means of injections. He also spent much time in the study of
insects, investigating the subject of their metamorphosis, and
in this and other ways laying the beginnings of their natural
classification, while his researches on the anatomy of mayflies
and bees were also of great importance. His devotion to science
led to his neglect of practice; his father, resenting this, stopped
all supplies and thus Swammerdam experienced a period of
considerable privation, which had the most unfortunate con-
sequences to his health, both bodily and mental. In 1675 his
father died, leaving him an adequate fortune, but the mischief
was irreparable. He became a hypochondriac and mystic,
joined the followers of Antoinette Bourignon, and died at
Amsterdam on the isth of February 1680.
His Allgemeene Verhandeling van bloedeloose diertjens appeared
at Utrecht in 1669, and his Biblia naturae, siye Historia insectorum
in certas classes redacta was published after his death by H. Boer-
haeve in 1737-1738. He was also the author of Miraculum naturae,
seu Uteri muliebris fabrica (Leiden, 1672).
SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910), English painter
and sculptor, received his art training first in England at the
Worcester and Lambeth schools of art and the Royal Academy
schools, and subsequently in Paris, in the studios of J. L.
Gerome and E. Fremiet. He began to exhibit at the Academy
in 1878, and was elected associate in 1894 and academician in
1905. He was appointed a member of the Dutch Water-Colour
Society in 1885; and associate of the Royal Society of Painters
in Water Colours in 1896 and full member in 1899. A master
of the oil, water-colour and pastel mediums, an accomplished
8 An enormous amount of labour has been bestowed upon the
Hirundinidae by R. B. Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Mus. x. 85-210),
and in the finely-illustrated Monograph which he and C. W. Wyatt
have published (2 vols. 410, London, 1885-1894).
SWAN, SIR J. W.— SWAN
painter and a skilful draughtsman, he ranks also as a sculptor
of distinguished ability. He has treated the human figure with
notable power, but it is by his representations of the larger
wild animals, mainly the felidae, that he chiefly established his
reputation; in this branch of practice he has scarcely a rival.
His picture " The Prodigal Son," bought for the Chantrey
collection in 1889, is in the National Gallery of British Art.
He was awarded first class gold medals for painting and
sculpture in the Paris Exhibition, 1900. He died on the 14th.
of February 1910.
See SCULPTURE; " The Work of J. M. Swan," by A. L. Baldry,
in The Studio, vol. xxii. ; and Drawings of John M. Swan, R.A.
(George Newnes, Ltd.).
SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828- ), English physicist
and electrician, was born at Sunderland on the 3ist of October
1828. After serving his apprenticeship with a chemist in his
native town, he became first assistant and later partner in a
firm of manufacturing chemists in Newcastle. Among its
operations this firm included the manufacture of photographic
plates, and thus Swan was led to one of the advances in photo-
graphy with which his name is associated — the production of
extremely rapid dry plates, which were the outcome of an original
observation made by him on the effect of heat in increasing the
sensitiveness of a gelatino-bromide of silver emulsion. In 1862
he patented the first commercially practicable process for carbon
printing in photography. This depended on the fact that when
gelatine is exposed to light in the presence of bichromate salts
it is rendered insoluble and non-absorbent of water. Swan took
a surface of gelatine, dusted over with lampblack and sensitized
with bichromate of ammonium, and exposed it to light below a
photographic negative; the result was to make the gelatine
from the surface downwards insoluble to a depth depending
on the intensity, and therefore penetration, of the light which
had reached it through the negative. In this operation the
surface of the gelatine was also rendered insoluble, and it therefore
became necessary to get at its back in order to be able to wash
away the portions that still remained soluble; this was effected
by cementing the insoluble surface to a fresh sheet of paper by
means of indiarubber solution, and then detaching the original
support. It thus became possible to reach the soluble portions
with water and to obtain a representation of the picture, though
reversed as to right and left, in relief on the pigmented gelatine.
This process has been simplified and improved by subsequent
workers, but in its essential features it forms the basis of some
of the methods of photographic reproduction most widely used
at the present day. But Swan's name deserves remembrance
even more in connexion with the invention of the incandescent
electric lamp than with improvements in photographic tech-
nique. He was one of the first to undertake the production of
an electric lamp in which the light should be produced by the
passage of an electric current through a carbon filament, and
he was almost certainly far ahead, in point of time, of any other
worker in the same field in realizing the conditions to be met
and the difficulties to be overcome. So far back as 1860 he
constructed an electric lamp with a carbon filament, which was
formed by packing pieces of paper or card with charcoal powder
in a crucible and subjecting the whole to a high temperature.
The carbonized paper thus obtained he mounted in the form of a
fine strip in a vacuous glass vessel and connected it with a battery
of Grove's cells, which though not strong enough to raise it to
complete incandescence, were sufficient to make it red-hct.
This was substantially the method adopted by Edison nearly
twenty years later, after various fruitless efforts to make a
practical lamp with a filament of platinum or a platinum alloy
had convinced him of the unsuitability of that metal for the
purpose — a conclusion which Swan had reasoned out for himself
many years before. By the time Edison had hit upon the idea
of carbonizing paper or bamboo by heat to form the filament,
Swan had devised the further improvement of using cotton
thread " parchmentized " by the action of sulphuric acid, and
it was by the aid of such carbon filaments that on the 2oth of
October 1880 he gave at Newcastle the first public exhibition
179
on a large scale of electric lighting by means of glow lamps.
In another method devised by him for the manufacture of fila-
ments, collodion was squirted into a coagulating solution and
the tough threads thus obtained carbonized by heat. He also
devoted attention to apparatus for measuring electric currents,
to the improvement of accumulators and to the conditions
governing the electro-deposition of metals. He was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society in 1894, and served as president of
the Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1898-1899 and of the
Society of Chemical Industry in 1901. In the last-named
year he received the honorary degree of D.Sc. from Durham
University, and he was knighted in 1904.
SWAN (A. S. swan and swon, Icel. svanr, Du. zviaan,
*Ger. Schwan), a large swimming-bird, well known from being
kept in a half-domesticated condition throughout many parts
of Europe, whence it has been carried to other countries. In
England it was far more abundant formerly than at present, the
young, or cygnets,1 being highly esteemed for the table, and it
was under especial enactments for its preservation, and regarded
as a " bird royal " that no subject could possess without licence
from the Crown, the granting of which licence was accompanied
by the condition that every bird in a " game " (to use the old
legal term) of swans should bear a distinguishing mark of owner-
ship (cygninota) on the bill. Originally this privilege was
conferred on the larger freeholders only, but it was gradually
extended, so that in the reign of Elizabeth upwards of 900 distinct
swan-marks, being those of private persons or corporations,
were recognized by the royal swanherd, whose jurisdiction
extended over the whole kingdom. It is impossible here to
enter into further details on this subject, interesting as it is
from various points of view.2 It is enough to remark that all
the legal protection afforded to the swan points out that it was
not indigenous to the British Islands, and indeed it is stated
(though on uncertain authority) to have been introduced to
England in the reign of Richard Cceur de Lion; but it it now so
perfectly naturalized that birds having the full power of flight
remain in the country. There. is no evidence to show that its
numbers are ever increased by immigration from abroad, though
it is known to breed as a wild bird not farther from the British
shores than the extreme south of Sweden and possibly in Den-
mark, whence it may be traced, but with considerable vacuities,
in a south-easterly direction to the valley of the Danube and
the western part of Central Asia. In Europe, however, no
definite limits can be assigned for its natural range, since birds
more or less reclaimed and at liberty consort with those that are
truly wild, and either induce them to settle in localities beyond
its boundary, or of themselves occupy such localities, so that
no difference is observable between them and their untamed
brethren. From its breeding-grounds, whether they be in
Turkestan, in south-eastern Europe or Scania, the swan migrates
southward towards winter, and at that season may be found
in north-western India (though rarely), in Egypt, and on the
shores of the Mediterranean.
The swan just spoken of is by some naturalists named the
mute or tame swan, to distinguish it from one to be presently
mentioned, but it is the swan simply of the English language
1 Here, as in so many other cases, we have what may be called
the " table-name " of an animal derived from the Norman-French,
while that which it bore when alive was of Teutonic origin.
2 The king and the Companies of Dyers and Vintners still maintain
their swans on the Thames, and a yearly expedition is made in the
month of August to take up the young birds — thence called " swan-
upping " and corruptly " swan-hopping " — and mark them. The
largest swannery in England, indeed the only one worthy of the
name, is that belonging to Lord llchester, on the water called the
Fleet, lying inside the Chesil Bank on the coast of Dorset, where
from 700 to double that number of birds may be kept — a stock
doubtless too great for the area, but very small when compared
with the numbers that used to be retained on various rivers in the
country. The swanpit at Norwich seems to be the only place now
existing for fattening the cygnets for the table— an expensive pro-
cess, but one fully appreciated by those who have tasted the results.
The English swan-laws and regulations have been concisely
but admirably treated by Serjeant Manning (Penny Cyclopaedia,
xxiii. 271, 272).
i8o
SWANAGE
and literature. Scientifically it is usually known as Cygnus olor.
Its large size, its spotless white plumage, its orange-red bill,
surmounted by a black knob (technically the " berry ") larger
in the male than in the female, its black legs and stately appear-
ance on the water are familiar, either from figures innumerable or
from direct observation, to almost every one. When left to
itself its nest is a large mass of aquatic plants, often piled to the
height of a couple of feet and possibly some six feet in diameter.
In the midst of this is a hollow which contains the eggs, generally
from five to nine in number, of a greyish-olive colour. The
period of incubation is between five and six weeks, and the
young when hatched are clothed in sooty-grey down, which is
succeeded by feathers of sooty-brown. This suit is gradually
replaced by white, but the young birds are more than a twelve-
month old before they lose all trace of colouring and become
wholly white.
It was, however, noticed by Plot (N.H. Staffordshire, p. 228)
more than 200 years ago that certain swans on the Trent had
white cygnets; and it was subsequently observed of such birds
that both parents and progeny had legs of a paler colour, while
the young had not the " blue bill " of ordinary swans at the
same age that has in some parts of the country given them a
name, besides offering a few other minor differences. These,
being examined by W. Yarrell led him to announce (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1838, p. 19) the birds presenting them as forming a
distinct species, C. immutabilis, to which the English name of
" Polish " swan had already been attached by the London
poulterers,1 but which is now regarded merely as a variety, not
in any way specially associated with Poland but possibly a
dimorphic form.
The whooper, whistling or wild swan2 of modern usage, Cygnus
musicus, which was doubtless always a winter-visitant to Britain,
though nearly as bulky and quite as purely white in its adult
plumage, is at once recognizable from the species which has been
half domesticated by its wholly different but equally graceful
carriage, and its bill — which is black at the tip and lemon-yellow
for a great part of its base. This entirely distinct species is a
native of Iceland, eastern Lapland and northern Russia, whence
it wanders southward in autumn, and the musical tones it utters
(contrasting with the silence that has caused its relative to be
often called the mute swan) have been celebrated from the time
of Homer to our own. Otherwise in a general way there is little
difference between the habits of the two, and very closely allied
to the whooper is a much smaller species, with very well marked
characteristics, known as Bewick's Swan, C. bewicki. This was first
indicated as a variety of the last by P. S. Pallas, but its specific
validity is now fully established. Apart from size, it may be
externally distinguished from the whooper by the bill having only
a small patch of yellow, which inclines to an orange rather than
a lemon tint; while internally the difference of the vocal organs
is well marked, and its cry, though melodious enough, is unlike.
It has a more easterly home in the north than the whooper, but
in winter not infrequently occurs in Britain.
Both the species last mentioned have their representatives in
North America, and in each case the transatlantic bird is con-
siderably larger than that of the Old World. The first is the
trumpeter-swan, C. buccinator, which has the bill wholly black,
and the second the C. columbianus — greatly resembling Bewick's
swan, but with the coloured patches on the bill of less extent and
deepening almost into scarlet. South America produces two very
distinct birds commonly regarded as swans, Cygnus melanocoryphus,
the black-necked swan, and that which is called Coscoroba. This
last, C. Candida, which inhabits the southern extremity of the
continent to Chile and the Argentine territory and visits the
Falkland Islands, is the smallest species known — pure white in
colour except the tip of its primaries, but having a red bill, and
red feet.3 The former, if not discovered by earlier navigators, was
1 Wf. Gerbe, in his edition of Degland's Ornithologie Europeenne
(ii. 477), makes the amusing mistake of attributing this name to
the fourreurs (furriers) of London, and of reading it Cygne du pole
(polar, and not Polish, swan)!
2 In some districts it is called by wild-fowlers " elk," which per-
haps may be cognate with the Icelandic Alft and the Old German
Elbs or Elps (cf. Gesner, Ornithologia, pp. 358, 359), though by
modern Germans Elb-schwan seems to be used for the preceding
species.
1 Dr Stejneger (Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, 1882, pp. 177-179)
has been at much pains to show that this is no swan at all, but
merely a large Anatine form. Further research may prove that his
views are well founded, and that this, with another very imperfectly
known species, C. davidi, described by Swinhoe (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
observed by Narbrough on the 2nd of August 1670 in the Strait of
Magellan, as announced in 1694 in the first edition of his Voyage
(p. 52). It was subsequently found on the Falkland Islands during
the French settlement there in 1764-1765, as stated by Pernetty
(Voyage, 2nd ed., ii. 26, 99), and was first technically described in
1782 by Molina (Saggio sulla star. nat. del Chile, pp. 234, 344). Its
range seems to be much the same as that of the Coscoroba, except
that it comes farther to the northward, to the coast of southern
Brazil on the east, and perhaps into Bolivia on the west. It is a
very handsome bird, of large size, with a bright red nasal knob, a
black neck and the rest of its plumage pure white. It has been
introduced into Europe, and breeds freely in confinement.
A greater interest than attaches to the South American birds
last mentioned is that which invests the black swan of Australia,
Chenopis atrata. Considered for so many centuries to be an im-
possibility, the knowledge of its existence seems to have impressed
(more perhaps than anything else) the popular mind with the notion
of the extreme divergence — not to say the contrariety — of the
organic products of that country. By a singular stroke of fortune
we are able to name the precise day on which this unexpected dis-
covery was made. The Dutch navigator Willem de Vlaming,
visiting the west coast of Zuidland (Southland), sent two of his boats
on the 6th of January 1697 to explore an estuary he had found.
There their crews saw at first two and then more black swans, of
which they caught four, taking two of them alive to Batavia; and
Valentyn, who several years later recounted this voyage, gives in
his work 4 a plate representing the ship, boats and birds, at the
mouth of what is now known from this circumstance as Swan
river, the most important stream of the thriving colony of West
Australia, which has adopted this very bird as its armorial symbol.
Valentyn, however, was not the first to publish this interesting
discovery. News of it soon reached Amsterdam, and the burgo-
master of that city, Witsen by name, himself a fellow of the Royal
Society, lost no time in communicating the chief facts ascertained,
and among them the finding of the black swans, to Martin Lister,
by whom they were laid before that society in October 1698, and
printed in its Philosophical Transactions, xx. 361. Subsequent
voyagers, Cook and others, found that the range of the species
extended over the greater part of Australia, in many districts of
which it was abundant. It has since rapidly decreased in numbers,
but is not likely soon to cease to exist as a wild bird, while its
singular and ornamental appearance will probably preserve it as
a modified captive in most civilized countries. The species scarcely
needs description : the sooty black of its general plumage is relieved
by the snowy white of its flight-feathers and its coral-like bill
banded with ivory.
The Cygninae admittedly form a well-defined group of the family
Anatidae, and there is now no doubt as to its limits, except in the
case of the Coscoroba above mentioned. This bird would seem
to be, as is so often found in members of the South American
fauna, a more generalized form, presenting several characteristics
of the Anatinae, while the rest, even its black-necked compatriot
and the almost wholly black swan of Australia, have a higher
morphological rank. Excluding from consideration the little-
known C. davidi, of the five or six species of the northern
hemisphere four present the curious character, somewhat analogous
to that found in certain cranes (q.v.), of the penetration of the
sternum by the trachea nearly to the posterior end of the keel,
whence it returns forward and upward again to revert and enter
the lungs; but in the two larger of these species, when adult, the loop
of the trachea between the walls of the keel takes a vertical direction,
while in the two smaller the bend is horizontal, thus affording an
easy mode of recognizing the respective species of each. Fossil
remains of more than one species of swan have been found. The
most remarkable is C. falconeri, which was nearly a third larger
than the mute swan, and was described from a Maltese cave by
W. K. Parker in the Zoological Society's Transactions, vi. 119-124,
pi. 30. (A.N.)
SWANAGE, a watering-place and seaport in the eastern
parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 9 m. S.S.W.
from Bournemouth by sea, and 132 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 3408. It lies on the picturesque Swanage Bay,
on the east coast of the so-called Isle of Purbeck, the district
lying south of Poole Harbour. The coast is wild and pre-
cipitous, and numerous caves occur in the cliffs. Inland are
open, high-lying downs. Swanage Bay has a beautiful sandy
beach affording excellent bathing. In the town, the church
1870, p. 430) from a single specimen in the Museum of Peking,
should be removed from the sub-family Cygninae. Of C. coscoroba
Mr Gibson remarks (Ibis, 1880, pp. 36, 37) that its " note is a loud
trumpet-call," and that it swims with " the neck curved and the
wings raised after the true swan model."
4 Commonly quoted as Oud en nieuw Oost Indien (Amsterdam,
1726). The incidents of the voyage are related in Deel iii. Hoofdst.
iv. (which has for its title Description of Banda), pp. 68-71.
SWANSEA
181
of St Mary has a massive tower possibly of pre-Norman date;
there are a town-hall, an institute with library and lecture hall,
and memorials to a victory gained by King Alfred over the
Danes in the bay in 877, and to Albert, Prince Consort. A
large export trade is carried on in stone from the Purbeck
quarries.
SWANSEA, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
market town, and seaport of Glamorganshire, South Wales,
finely situated in an angle between lofty hills, on the river
Tawe or Tawy near its mouth in Swansea Bay, a beautiful
recess of the Bristol Channel, 201 m. W. of London by rail and
4Si m. W.N.W. of Cardiff. The Great Western main line has a
junction within the borough at Landore, whence a branch runs
into a more central part of the town. The Vale of Neath branch
of the same railway and the Rhondda & Swansea Bay railway
(now worked by the Great Western) have terminal stations near
the docks on the other (eastern) side of the river, as also has the
Midland railway from Hereford and Brecon. All these lines
approach the town from the north and east through an un-
attractive industrial district, but the central Wales branch of
the London & North-Western railway from Craven Arms in
entering it on the west passes through some beautiful wood-
lands and then skirts the bay, having parallel to it for the last
3 m. the light (passenger) railway which runs from Swansea to
Mumbles Pier. The older part of the town, being the whole
of the municipal borough previous to 1836, occupies the west
bank of the Tawe near its mouth and is now wholly given up to
business. Stretching inland to the north along the river for
some 3 m. through Landore to Morriston, and also eastwards
along the sea margin towards Neath, is the industrial quarter,
while the residential part occupies the sea front and the slopes
of the Town Hill (580 ft. high) to the west, stretching out to
the pleasant suburb of Sketty. The east side of the river (known
as St Thomas's and Port Tennant) is approached from the west
by a road carried over the North Dock Lock and the river by
two girder drawbridges, each of which has a double line of
roadway (on which tramways are laid), two footpaths and a
line of railway. All the main thoroughfares are spacious, and
in two or three instances even imposing, but most of the resi-
dential part consists of monotonous stuccoed terraces. The
climate is mild and relaxing and the rainfall averages about
40 in. annually.
Public Buildings, &c. — The old castle, first built by Henry
de Newburgh about 1099, has entirely disappeared; but of the
new castle, which was probably intended only as a fortified
house, there remain the great and lesser halls, a tower and a
so-called keep with the curtain wall connecting them, its chief
architectural feature being a fine embattled parapet with an
arcade of pointed arches in a style similar to that of the
episcopal palaces of St Davids and Lamphey built by Henry
Gower (d. 1347), bishop of St Davids, to whom the building of
the new " castle " is also ascribed. Part of it is now used as
the headquarters of fhe 4th Welsh (Howitzer) Brigade R.F.A.
Possibly some traces of St Davids Hospital, built by the same
prelate in 1331, are still to be seen at Cross Keys Inn. The parish
church of St Mary was entirely rebuilt in 1895-1898. It pre-
viously consisted of a tower and chancel (with a fine Decorated
window) built by Bishop Gower, the piers of the chancel
arch being partly built on earlier Norman work, the Herbert
Chapel (originally St Ann's) of about the same date as the
chancel and rebuilt in the early part of the i6th century, and a
nave built in 1739. Of the earlier work there remains the door
of the rood loft (built into a wall), a isth-century brass-inlaid
marble slab with a representation of the resurrection, in memory
of Sir Hugh Johnys (d. c. 1463) and his wife, and three canopied
altar tombs — one with the effigy of a priest and another with
effigies of Sir Matthew Cradock'and his wife. Within the parish
of St Mary was St John's, the church of a small parish of the
same name lying to the north of St Mary's and once owned by
the Knights Hospitallers. This church, which was entirely
rebuilt in 1820, was renamed St Matthew in 1880, when a
new St John's was built within its own parish. There are
26 other churches and 10 mission rooms belonging to the Church
of England, besides 2 Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue
and 84 Nonconformist'^chapels (31 Welsh and 53 English) and
20 mission rooms, but all are modern buildings. There are
9 ecclesiastical parishes and parts of two or three others, all in the
diocese of St Davids. The Royal Institution of South Wales,
founded in 1835, is housed in a handsome building in the Ionic
style erected in 1838-1839 and possesses a museum in which the
geology, mineralogy, botany and antiquities of the district
are well represented, there being a fine collection of neolithic
remains from the Gower Caves and from Merthyr Mawr. Its
library is rich in historical and scientific works relating to
Wales and Welsh industries and contains the collection of
historical MSS. made by Colonel Grant-Francis, some time its
honorary librarian, but one of its most valued possessions is
the original contract of affiance between Edward II. (when
prince of Wales) and Isabella. Its art gallery has many prints
and drawings of great local interest and here the Swansea Art
Society holds its annual exhibition. The Swansea Scientific
Society also meets here. In its early days the institution was
the chief centre of scientific activity in South Wales, those asso-
ciated with its work including L. W. Dillwyn, James Motley,
Dr Gutch and J. E. Bicheno, all botanists, J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
conchologist, Sir W. R. Grove and the ist Lord Swansea,
the last three being natives of the town.
The free library and art gallery of the corporation, a four-
storeyed building in Italian style erected in 1887, contains the
library of the Rev. Rowland Williams (one of the authors of
Essays and Reviews), the rich Welsh collection of the Rev. Robert
Jones of Rotherhithe, a small Devonian section (presented by
the Swansea Devonian Society), and about 8000 volumes and
2500 prints and engravings, intended to be mutually illustra-
tive, given by the Swansea portrait-painter and art critic,
John Deffett Francis, from 1876 to 1881, to receive whose first
gift the library was established in 1876. It also contains a
complete set of the patent office publications.
The grammar school founded in 1682 by Hugh Gore (1613-
1691), bishop of Waterford, is now carried on by the town council
under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889, and
there is a similar school for girls. The technical college is also
carried on by the town council, the chief features of its
curriculum being chemistry, metallurgy and engineering. A
training college for school-mistresses, established by the British
and Foreign School Society in 1872, was transferred to the
town council in 1908.
The other public buildings of the town include the gildhall
and law courts, in the Italian style with Corinthian pillars and
pilasters, built in 1847 and internally remodelled in 1901 ; a prison
(1829); a fine market hall (1830), rebuilt in 1897; a cattle market
and abattoirs (1869) ; the Albert Hall for concerts and public meet-
ings (1864); the! Royal Metal Exchange (1897); harbour trust
offices (1904); a central post office (1901) and two theatres. The
benevolent institutions include the general hospital, founded in
1817, removed to the present site in 1867, extended by the addition
of two wings in 1878 and of an eye department in 1890; a con-
valescent home for twenty patients from the hospital only (1903) ;
the Royal Cambrian Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, estab-
lished in 1847 at Aberystwyth, removed to Swansea in 1850, and
several times enlarged, so as to have at present accommodation
for ninety-eight pupils; the Swansea and South Wales Institution
• for the Blind, established in 1865 and now under the Board of
I Education; the Swansea and South Wales Nursing Institute (1873),
providing a home for nurses in the intervals of their employment ;
a nursing institution (1902) for nursing the sick poor in their own
I homes, affiliated with the Queen's Jubilee Institute of London;
I the Sailors' Home (1864); a Sailors' Rest (1885); and a Mission to
| Seamen's Institute (1904).
The town possesses 103 acres of parks and open spaces, the chief
being Llewelyn Park of 42 acres in the north of the town near Morris-
ton, Victoria Park (16 acres) and recreation ground (8 acres) abutting
on the sands in the west, with the privately owned football field
between them, Cwmdonkin (13 acres) commanding a fine panoramic
view of the bay, and Brynmill (9 acres) with a disused reservoir
constructed in 1837 and now converted into an ornamental lake.
Other features of these parks are a small botanical garden in
Cwmdonkin, a good collection of waterfowl in Brynmill, and a small
aviary of the rarer British birds in Victoria Park, which also has a
meteorological station in connexion with the meteorological office,
182
SWANSEA
and a statue of Mr William Thomas of Lan erected in 1905 in appre-
ciation of the work done by him in preserving and obtaining " open
spaces " for Swansea. In the town itself there are statues of
L Henry Vivian and of his son Sir Henry Hussey Vivian (created
rd Swansea in 1893) each in his turn the " copper king." The
corporation owns about 645 acres of land within the limits of the
ancient borough. This consists mainly of land acquired under an
Inclosure Act of 1761, but a small part is surplus land acquired
in 1876-^1879 in connexion with an improvement scheme for clearing
a large insanitary area in the centre of the town.
The town is lighted with gas supplied by a gas company first
incorporated in 1830 and by electricity supplied by the corporation.
There is a good system of electrically worked tramways, 5$ m.
being owned by a company and nearly 6 m. by the corporation,
but the whole worked by the company. The town obtains its chief
supply of water from moorlands situated on the Old Red Sandstone
formation in the valley of the Cray, a tributary of the Usk in Brecon-
shire where a reservoir of 1,000,000,000 gallons capacity has been
constructed at a cost of £547,759, under parliamentary powers
obtained in 1892, 1902 and 1905. The water is brought to the town
in a conduit consisting of 235 m. of iron pipes and 3 m. of tunnel
into a service reservoir of 3,000,000 gallons capacity made on
the Town Hill at an elevation of 580 it. above sea-level. There
is a further supply obtained from three reservoirs of a combined
capacity of 513,000,000, constructed in 1866, 1874 and 1889 respec-
tively in the Lliw and adjoining valleys, in the drainage area of the
Loughor, about 10 m. to the north of Swansea.
Harbour and Commerce. — Swansea owes its commercial prosperity
to its great natural advantages as a harbour and its situation
within the South Wales coal basin, for the anthracite portion of
which it is the natural port of shipment. It is the most westerly
port of the Bristol Channel and the nearest to the open sea, only
35 m. from the natural harbour of refuge at Lundy, and there is
sheltered anchorage under the Mumbles Head at all states of the
tide.
The modern development of the port dates from about the middle
of the 1 8th century when coal began to be extensively worked at
Llansamlet and copper smelting (begun at Swansea in 1717, though
at Neath it dated from 1584) assumed large proportions. The coal
was conveyed to the works and for shipment to a wharf on the east
bank, on the backs of mules and somewhat later by means of a
private canal. The common quay was on the west bank; all ships
coming in had to lie in the nver bed or in a natural tidal basin
known as Fabian's Bay, on the east. Under an act of 1791 harbour
trustees were appointed who cleared and deepened the river bed
and built a long pier on either side of it; in 1796 the approach to
the port was made safer by means of an improved light on Mumbles
Head. A canal connecting the tidal part of the river Neath with
the mouth of the Tawe, made in 1789, was in 1824 connected with
the Vale of Neath canal by means of an aqueduct across the Neath
river, when also a small dock, Port Tennant (so named after its owner)
or Salthouse Dock, was made near the east pier, and this continued
to be used till 1880. Meanwhile in 1798 the whole coalfield of the
Swansea Valley was connected with the port by a canal l6J m.
long (acquired by the Great Western railway in 1872). In 1851
the river was diverted eastward into a new channel (called the New
Cut) and its old channel was locked and floated, thereby forming
the North Dock with an area of II J acres and a half-tide basin
500 yards long covering 2j acres. The Swansea Valley canal has
a connecting lock with this dock, and on the island between the
dock and the New Cut are patent fuel works, copper ore yards and
other mineral sheds and large grain stores and flour mills. The
South Dock, begun in 1847 under powers obtained that year by
a private company, transferred in 1857 to the harbour trustees
and opened in 1859, is mainly used for shipping coal and for dis-
charging timber and fish. Lying parallel to the sea front and to the
west of the entrance channel from which it runs at right angles,
it has an area of 13 acres with a half -tide basin of 4 acres and a lock
300 ft. long by 60 ft. wide. The next development was on the
east side of the river where the natural inlet of Fabian's Bay, inside
the harbour mouth, was utilized for the construction of the Prince
of Wales's Dock (authorized 1874, opened October 1881, extension
opened March 1898). Its total area is 27 acres, its quays are nearly
7000 ft. long, and it is connected with the Tennant canal. The very
rapid increase in the demand for anthracite coal (for the shipment
of which Swansea has practically a monopoly) soon necessitated
still further accommodation and in July 1904 was begun the King's
Dock, which lies farther east and has an entrance direct from the
bay. By means of the embankment made in connexion with it,
400 acres were reclaimed from the sea. It has an area of 68 acres,
its lock measures 875 ft. by 90 ft. and its quays 10,550 ft. long,
and it has a depth of 32 ft. of water, or inner cill. The total dock
area of Swansea has thus been increased to about 147 acres with
a total length of quays exceeding 3 m. The harbour docks and
adjacent railways (which exceed 20 m.) are owned and administered
by a harbour trust of 26 members, of whom one is the owner of the
Briton Ferry estate (Earl Jersey), 4 represent the lord of the seigniory
of Gower (the duke of Beaufort), 12 are proprietary members and
9 are elected annually by the corporation of Swansea. The trustees
are conservators of the river Tawe and parts of Swansea Bay,
and the pilotage and lighthouse authority of the district. They
were incorporated by the Harbour Act of 1854. There are 9 private
graving docks.
The total exports (foreign and coastwise) from Swansea during
1907 amounted to 4,825,898 tons, of which coal and coke made up
3,655,050 tons; patent fuel, 679,002 tons; tin, terne and black
plates, 348,240 tons; iron and steel and their manufactures, 38,438
tons; various chemicals (mostly the by-products of the metal
industries), 37,100 tons; copper, zinc and silver, 22,633 tons. Its
imports during the same year amounted to 899,201 tons, including
172,319 tons of grain and other agricultural produce, 156,620 tons
of firewood, 145,255 tons of pig-iron and manufactured iron and
steel, 47,201 tons of iron ore, 121,168 tons of copper, silver, lead,
tin and nickel with their ores and alloys, 63,009 tons of zinc, its
ores and alloys, 41,029 tons of sulphur ore, phosphates and other
raw material for the chemical trade. The town (which is often
called " the metallurgical capital of Wales ") is the chief seat of
the copper, spelter, tin-plate and patent fuel industries, and has
within a compass of 4 in. over 100 different works of 36 varieties
(exclusive of collieries) for the treatment or manufacture of copper,
gold, silver, lead, sulphate of copper, spelter, tinplates, steel and
iron, nickel and cobalt, yellow metal, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, creosote, alkali, galvanized sheets, patent fuel as well as engin-
eering works, iron foundries, large flour and provender mills, fuse
works and brick works. Copper smelting, which during most of
the igth century was the chief industry, has not maintained its
relative importance, though Swansea is still the chief seat of the
trade, but three-fourths of the tinplates' manufactured in Great
Britain and nineteen-twentieths of the spelter or zinc are made in
the Swansea district, and its tube works are also the largest in the
kingdom. While the bulk of the coal is sent to France and the
Mediterranean ports, an increasing quantity of anthracite is shipped
to Germany, and, in sailing vessels to the Pacific ports of America,
patent fuel is largely sent to South America, whence return cargoes
of mineral ores and grain are obtained, while Germany, France,
Italy, Rumania, the United States and the Far East are the chief
customers for tinplates. Over one hundred fishing-smacks and
trawlers usually land their catches at the south dock, where there
is a flourishing fish-market. There is also a large ice factory.
From 1535 to 1832 (with the exception of 1658-1659) Swansea
was associated with the other boroughs of Glamorgan in sending
one representative to Parliament. In 1658 Cromwell gave the
town the right of separately returning a member of its own,
but this right lapsed with the Restoration. In 1832 St John's,
St Thomas and parts of the parishes of Llansamlet and Llangy-
felach were added to the parliamentary borough of Swansea,
to which along with the boroughs of Neath, Aberavon, Kenfig
and Loughor a separate representative was given. In 1836
the municipal borough was made coextensive with the par-
liamentary borough and continued so till 1868, when some
further small additions were made to the latter, with which the
municipal borough was once more made co-extensive in 1889.
Meanwhile in 1885 the parliamentary constituency was made
into two divisions with a member each, namely Swansea Town
consisting of the original borough with St Thomas's, and Swan-
sea District consisting of the remainder of the borough with the
four contributory boroughs. In 1888 Swansea was made a
county borough and in 1900 the various parishes constituting
it were consolidated into the civil parish of Swansea. Its
total area is 5194 acres. The corporation consists of 10 aldermen
and 30 councillors. The assizes and quarter sessions for Gla-
morgan are held at Swansea alternately with Cardiff. The
borough has a separate commission of the peace, and, since
1891, a court of quarter sessions.
The population of the old borough was 6099 in 1801 and
13,256 in 1831; after the first extension it amounted to 24,604
in 1841, The population in 1901 was 94,537. Of those who were
three years of age and upwards, nearly 67% were returned as
speaking English only, 29% as speaking both English and Welsh,
and 35 % as speaking Welsh only.
History. — No traces of any Roman settlement have been
discovered at Swansea, though there seems to have been a
small one at Oystermouth, 5 m. to the south, and the Via
Julia from Nidum (Neath) to Loughor probably passed through
the northern part of the present borough where a large quantity
of Roman coins was found in 1835. The name Swansea stands
for Sweyn's " ey " or inlet, and may have been derived from King
Sweyn Forkbeard, who certainly visited the Bristol Channel
SWANWICK— SWARTZ
183
and may have established a small settlement at the estuary
of the Tawe. The earliest known form of the name is Swey-
nesse, which occurs in a charter granted by William earl of
Warwick some time previous to 1184; in King John's charter
(1215) it appears as Sweyneshe, and in the town seal, the origin
of which is supposed to date from about the same period, it
is given as " Sweyse." An attempt has been made to derive
the name from Sein Henydd, the Welsh name of a Gower castle
which has been plausibly identified with the first castle built
at Swansea, but that derivation is etymologically impossible.
The Welsh name, Aber Tawy, first appears in Welsh poems of
the beginning of the I3th century. The town grew up round
the castle which Henry de Beauchamp (or Beaumont) on his
conquest of Gower about 1009, built on the west bank of the
river. The castle passed with the lordship or seigniory of
Gower, of which it was the caput, into the hands of the De
Braose family in 1203 (by grant from King John) and eventually
it came by marriage to the Somersets and is still held by the
dukes of Beaufort, whose title of barons de Gower dates from
1506. The castle was frequently attacked and on several
occasions more or less demolished, in the izth and I3th cen-
turies by the Welsh under the princes of Dynevor. It was
visited by King John in 1210 and probably by Edward II. in
1326, for, after his capture, the chancery rolls were found de-
posited in the castle and were thence removed to Hereford.
It was finally destroyed by Glendower, was a " ruinous build-
ing " when seen by Leland (1536) and has since wholly disap-
peared. In the Civil War the town was royalist till the autumn
of 1645 when Colonel Philip Jones, a native of the adjoining
parish of Llangyfelach and subsequently a member of Crom-
well's upper house, was made its governor. Cromwell stayed
in the town in May 1648, and July 1649, on his way to Pembroke
and Ireland respectively, and later showed it exceptional favour
by giving it a liberal charter and parliamentary representation.
The town claimed to be a borough by prescription, for its
only known charters of incorporation are those of Cromwell
and James II., which were never acted upon. It probably
received its first grant of municipal privileges from William
3rd earl of Warwick some time before 1184. By a charter of
1215 (confirmed by Henry II. in 1234, by Edward II. in 1312
and Edward III. in 1332), John himself granted the burgesses
the right of trading, free of all customs due, throughout the
whole kingdom (except in London), a right which was pre-
viously limited to the seigniory. By 1305 the burgesses had
become so powerful as to wring a most liberal grant of privileges
from their then seigneur William de Braose (fourth in descent
from his namesake to whom Gower was granted by King John
in 1203), and he bound himself to pay £500 to the king and 500
marks to any burgess in the event of his infringing any of the
rights contained in it. By this charter the burgesses acquired
the right of nominating annually two of their number for the
office of portreeve so that the lord's steward might select one
of them to exercise the office, an arrangement which continued
till 1835; the bailiff's functions were defined and curtailed, and
the lord's chancery was to be continually kept open for all
requiring writs, and in Gower — not wherever the lord might
happen to be. A patent of murage and pavage — from which
it may probably be inferred that Swansea was a walled town —
was granted by Edward II. in 1317 and another by Edward
III. in 1338. Cromwell's charter of '1653, though reciting that
" time out of mind " Swansea had been " a town corporate,"
incorporated it anew, and changed the title of portreeve into
mayor, in whom, with twelve aldermen and twelve capital
burgesses, it vested the government of the town. The mayor,
ex-mayor and one selected alderman were to be justices of the
peace with exclusive jurisdiction and the mayor was the coroner.
Four annual fairs were appointed, namely on the 8th of May,
2nd of July, 1 5th of August and 8th of October — the first, how-
ever, being the only new one. In 1658 the protector by another
charter granted the town independent representation in par-
liament. At the Restoration, Cromwell's charters lapsed, but
in 1685 James II. granted another charter which contained the
arbitrary proviso that the king by order in council might
remove any orficer or members of the corporation. This charter
was not adopted by the burgesses.
De Braose's charter of 1305 bears some evidence to the im-
portance of the shipping of Swansea even at that date, for
by it there was granted or confirmed to the burgesses the right
to take from the lord's woods sufficient timber to make four
great ships at a time and as many small vessels as they wished.
Coal was even then worked in the district. Cromwell in his
charter of 1655 recognized Swansea as " an ancient port town
and populous, situate on the sea coast towards France conve-
nient for shipping and resisting foreign invasions." Its status
was only that of a "creek" in the port of Cardiff till 1685,
when it was made an independent port with jurisdiction over
Newton (now Porthcawl), Neath or Briton Ferry and South
Burry, its limits being denned in 1847 as extending from Nash
Point on the east to Whitford Point on the west, but in 1004
Port Talbot, which was included in this area, was made into a
separate port.
From about 1768 to 1850 Swansea had a somewhat famous
pottery. Beginning with earthenware which twenty years
later was improved into " opaque china," it produced from
1814 to 1823 superior porcelain which was beautifully decorated
with landscapes, birds, butterflies and flowers and is much prized
by connoisseurs. During a short period (1845-1850)' an imita-
tion of Etruscan ware was also produced with figures of rich
red colour over a body of black.
See Lewis W. Dillwyn, Contributions towards a History of Swansea
(1840); Colonel G. Grant-Francis, Chatters Granted to Swansea
(1867), and The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District (2nd ed.,
1881); S. C. Gamwell, A Guide to Swansea and District (1880);
Lieut.-Colonel W. LI. Morgan, R.E., An Antiquarian Survey of
East Gower. (D. LL. T.)
SWANWICK, ANNA (1813-1899), English writer and philan-
thropist, was the youngest daughter of John Swanwick of
Liverpool, and was born on the 22nd of June 1813. She was
educated partly at home and partly at one of the fashionable
boarding-schools of the day, where she received the usual edu-
cation of accomplishments. Dissatisfied with her own intel-
lectual attainments she went in 1839 to Berlin, where she took
lessons in German, Greek and Hebrew. On her return to
London she continued these pursuits, aloug with the study of
mathematics. In 1843 appeared her first volume of translations,
Selections from the Dramas of Goethe and Schiller. In 1847 she
published a translation of Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans;
this was followed in 1850 by Faust, Tasso, Iphigenie and Egmont.
In 1878 she published a complete translation of both parts of
Faust, which appeared with Retsch's illustrations. It passed
through several editions, was included in Bohn's series of trans-
lations, and ranks as a standard work. It was at the sug-
gestion of Baron Bunsen that she first tried her hand at trans-
lation from the Greek. In 1865 she published a blank verse
translation of Aeschylus's Trilogy, and in 1873, a complete
edition of Aeschylus, which appeared with Flaxman's illus-
trations. Miss Swanwick is chiefly known by her translations,
but she also published some original work. In 1886 appeared
Books, our Best Friends and Deadliest Foes; in 1888, An Utopian
Dream and How it may be Realized; in 1892, Poets, the Inter-
preters of thei" Age; and in 1894, Evolution and the Religion
of the Future. Miss Sv/anwick was interested in many of the
social and philanthropic movements of her day. In 1861 she
signed John Stuart Mill's petition to parliament for the political
enfranchisement of women. She helped in the higher education
movement, took part in the foundation of Queen's and Bedford
Colleges, and continued to take a sympathetic interest in the
movement which led to the opening of the universities to women.
Her work was acknowledged by the university of Aberdeen,
which bestowed on her the degree of LL.D. She died in
November 1899.
See Memoir, by Miss Bruce (1904).
SWARTZ, OLOF (1760-1818), Swedish botanist, was born
in 1760. He commenced his botanical studies in Upsala, under
184
SWAT— SWAZILAND
Linnaeus and Thunberg, and began early to make excursions.
He made a voyage to America in 1783, visited England in 1788,
returned to Sweden in 1789, and was made professor of natural
history in Stockholm. He was the author of many systematic
works, and largely extended our knowledge of both flowering
plants and^cryptogams. He died in 1818.
SWAT, a tract on the Peshawar border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India, consisting of the valley of the Swat
river above its confluence with the Panjkora. This valley is
some 70 m. long, varying from 10 m. to a few hundred yards
in breadth; it is intersected by ravines and glens, which
bring down the drainage of the ranges on either side. Only
that portion of the valley which lies beyond the Peshawar
frontier hills, and which is reached by the Malakand, the
Shahkot and other passes from the south, is Swat. To the east
are the independent hill tracts of Kohistan and Buner, all
bordering the Indus, and to the west are Dir and Bajour.
The Swat river rises among snow mountains in the Kohistan,
not far from the source of the Gilgit river. After flowing due
south for nearly 70 m., it turns to the west and is joined by the
Panjkora. It then passes through the Mohmand country,
and on entering Peshawar district spreads out to the south-
east in many channels which ultimately fall into the Kabul
river. Total length about 400 m. In British territory its
waters have been utilised by a series of canals to irrigate an
area of about 160,000 acres; and the system is now being extended
by means of a tunnel through the Malakand range, which will
tap the river much higher up.
Swat was better known to the ancients, and to the warriors of
Baber's time, than it was to us until the frontier risings of
1895-97 gave British surveyors the opportunity of visiting the
country. The ancient name of the river was Suastos, and that of
the Panjkora was Ghoura, under which names they figure in the
history of Alexander's campaign. The site of the city Massaga,
the capital of the Assakeni, is supposed to be near the modern
Manglaur. But since the adoption of the Khyber as the main
high road from Kabul to India the Swat routes had passed
into oblivion. Only the lower portion of the Swat valley,
where the river intervenes between Malakand and the passes
leading to Dir from the Panjkora, is of military significance.
The upper valley is closely gripped between mountain spurs
stretching southwards from the Hindu Koh, rising to 15,000 ft.
on one side and 19,000 ft. on the other, leaving but a narrow
space between their rugged summits and the banks of the river.
The valley, narrow though it is, and traversed by the worst
conceivable type of hill tracks, contains many villages or hamlets,
and is pretty thickly populated. The district has come into
prominence of recent years, on account of its lying on the direct
road to Chitral.
The Swatis are a clan of Yusafzai Pathans numbering
40,000 fighting men but are of weakly and thin physique, due to
the malaria with which the valley is saturated. They are
divided into three main clans, the Baizais, Ranizais and Khwaz-
ozais. They had not much name for valour, but they opposed a
stout resistance to Sir Robert Low's advance over the Malakand
Pass in 1895 to the relief of Chitral; and again in 1897, under the
influence of fanaticism, they showed desperate bravery in the
attack on the Malakand Fort and Chakdara. They are all Suni
Mahommedans, and have earned the reputation of being the
most bigoted of all the Afghan tribes. For many years they
were under the religious dominance of the Akhund of Swat,
Abdul Ghafur,who, born in 1794, obtained ascendancy by means
of his ascetic practices, ruled practically undisputed in Swat
for the last 30 years of his life, and died in 1877. The Akhund,
after his experience of the British strength in the Umbeyla
Campaign of 1863, always exerted his influence in favour of
peace with the British government, though in his earlier days
he was sometimes troublesome. He was succeeded by his
son Mian Gul, who never possessed the same influence as his
father.
SWATOW (also Shan tow), a port of China, in the province
of Kwang-tung, opened to foreign trade in 1869. The population
is upwards of 60,000. The town is situated at the mouth of
the main branch of the river Han, which 30 miles inland flows
past the great city of Ch'aochow Fu or Tai-chu (Tie-chu),
while the surrounding country is more populous and full of
towns and villages than any other part of the province. The
climate is good, but being situated at the southern end of the
Formosa Strait the town is exposed to the full force of the
typhoons, and much destruction is occasionally wrought.
English merchants settled on Double Island in the river as early
as 1856; but the city, which is built on ground but recently
recovered from the sea, was formerly a mere fishing village.
The trade of the port has rapidly increased. In 1869 the total
value of the trade was £4,800,000, in 1884 £5,519,772, and in
1904 £7,063,579. The surrounding country is a great sugar-
cane district producing annually about 2,400,000 cwt. of sugar,
and there is an extensive refinery in the town employing up-
wards of 600 workmen and possessing a reservoir for 7,000,000
gallons of water. Next in value comes the manufacture of
bean-cake, which is also imported in large quantities from Niu-
chwang, Chifu, Shanghai, Amoy and Hong-Kong. Among
the leading exports are tea (since about 1872); grass-cloth,
manufactured at Swatow from so-called Taiwan hemp (the
fibre of the Boehmeria nivca from Formosa); pine-apple cloth,
manufactured in the villages about Chieh-Yang (a town 22 m.
distant) ; oranges, for which the district is famous; cheap fans;
and pewter, iron and tin wares. Swatow is also a great emi-
gration port and was the scene of many kidnapping adventures
on the part of foreigners in the early days. Their outrages
gave rise to much hostile feeling towards foreigners who were
not allowed to enter the city of Ch'aochow Fu until the year
1 86 1. Of the whole foreign trade of the port upwards of 83%
is in British bottoms, the trade with Hong-Kong being of
especial importance.
About 1865 the whole Swatow district was still divided into a
number of " independent townships, each ruled by its own head-
men," and the population was described in the official gazetteer,
as " generally rebellious and wicked in the highest degree."
Mr Forrest, British consular agent, relates that in that year he
was witness to the preparations for a fight between the people
living on the opposite sides of the estuary, which was only pre-
vented by a British war-vessel. The T'aip'ings swept over the
country, and by their ravages and plundering did much to
tame the independence of the clans. The punishment inflicted
in 1869 by Commander Jones on the inhabitants of Otingpui
(Ou-ting-pei), about 8 m. from Swatow, for the attack they
had made on the boats of H.M.S. " Cockchafer," showed the
Chinese authorities that such piratical villages were not so
strong as had been supposed. General Fang (a native of
Ch'aochow Fu) was sent to reduce the district to order, and he
carried out his instructions with remorseless rigour.
SWAZILAND (native name Pungwane), a country of British
South Africa bounded S., W. and N. by the Transvaal, E. by
the Portuguese possessions at Delagoa Bay and the Ingwavuma
division of Zululand. It lies between the Drakensberg and
Lebombo Mountains and is separated from the Indian Ocean
by low land varying in width from 30 to 50 m. It has an
area of 6536 sq. m. (being somewhat larger than Yorkshire)
and a population (1904), of 85,484, of whom 898 were whites.
The natives are nearly all Ama-Swazi Bantus, commonly called
Swazis, and are closely allied to the Zulus.
Spurs from the Drakensberg occupy a large part of the country,
which may be divided into three parallel belts running north and
south. The western belt has an average altitude of about 4500 ft.,
and is known as the high veld. It is succeeded by the middle veld
— not more than 2500 ft. above the sea, and that by the low veld —
1000 ft. high, which reaches to the foot of the Lebombo Mountains.
These are flat-topped, nowhere higher than 2000 ft. The country
is well watered by numerous rivers, all of which discharge into
Delagoa Bay. The central and southern parts are drained by the
Usutu and other tributaries of the Maputa; the northern region
by the Komati (q.v.) and the Umbelozi. The Umbelozi has two
chief headstreams, the Black and the White Umbelozi, the White
branch being the more southerly. Theclimate is warm but healthy
save in some of the river valleys. The flora and fauna differ in no
SWAZILAND
185
essential respects from the corresponding regions of the TRANSVAAL
and ZULULAND (see those articles).
Towns and Communications. — The seat of the administration
is Embabaan (Mbabane), a town on a northern tributary of the
Usutu 4300 ft. above the sea, 40 m. south of Barberton and 180 m.
east of Johannesburg. It replaced (1904) the former capital of
Bremersdorp situated in the middle veld 23 m. south-east of
Embabaan, and destroyed by Boer forces during the war of 1899-
1902. Pigg's Peak and Forbes Reef are mining settlements in
northern Swaziland. Hlatikulu, the chief place in southern Swazi-
land, is built on a plateau about 3000 ft. above the sea. Zombodi,
the principal native kraal, lies about 18 m. east of Embabaan.
A railway from Lourenco Marques, 47 m. long, runs through
Portuguese territory to the Swaziland border at Umbelozi Poort.
This line is the eastern link in the direct railway connexion de-
signed between Johannesburg and Uelagoa Bay. From Johannes-
burg the line runs eastward past Springs and had reached Breyten
(143 m.) in 1907. A number of good roads have been constructed.
There is telegraphic connexion with the Transvaal.
Industries and Trade. — The soil is generally fertile. On the high
veld, where green herbage is found all the year round, large numbers
of sheep and cattle are pastured. This region serves as a winter
grazing ground for sheep from the Transvaal. The middle veld
is suitable for grain crops as well as bananas, sugar, coffee, tea and
other semi-tropical produce. Millet, maize, pumpkins and ground-
nuts are extensively cultivated. On the low veld cotton is grown.
Some species of the cotton plant are indigenous.
Besides agriculture the only considerable industries are gold,
tin and coal mining. The goldfields, situated in the north-western
part of the country, are a continuation of the De Kaap (Barberton)
fields. The auriferous region is stated to be about 25 sq. m. in
extent. Up to the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer War in 1899 the value
of the gold exported from Swaziland was about £350,000. Gold
mining re-started on a small scale in 1904. The output for 1906-
1908 was valued at £40,000. Alluvial tin mining is carried on
successfully in the neighbourhood of Embadaan, cassiterite to the
value of £46,000 being exported in 1905-1907. The output for
1908-1909 was valued at £36,000. Anthracite coal of a good
quality is found over a large area of the low veld. Copper is also
found. All mining is carried on under concessions. Imports are
chiefly food-stuffs and cotton goods; they were valued in 1906 at
£38,000 and in 1909 at £47,000. Up to 1906 no statistics of the
trade of the country were kept. Trade is with the Transvaal and
Delagoa Bay. The abolition of monopolies in 1904 (see below
History) gave an impetus to trade. Up to that date some £4,000,000
of foreign capital had been sunk in the country with very little
return. A large number of Swazis find employment in the Rand
gold mines.
Administration, &c. — Swaziland forms a crown colony under the
government of the High Commissioner for South Africa. It is
administered by a resident commissioner. Legislation is by ordin-
ance. Roman-Dutch common law prevails except when modified by
statute, the laws of the Transvaal being in force as far as applicable
to the country. Native laws and customs are generally respected
and the chiefs exercise civil jurisdiction over their tribesmen,
subject to appeal to the resident commissioner's court. There
is a special court to deal with serious civil and criminal cases in
which Europeans are concerned. Order is maintained by a special
police force. Education is mainly dependent on the efforts of
missionary societies, but the administration has a few schools.
Revenue is derived chiefly from a poll-tax on natives of £l per
annum, concession rents, royalties and customs. For the period
1904-1909 the revenue^— apart from loans — was about £40,000 a
year, the normal expenditure being approximately the same amount.
Since 1904 considerable sums (e.g. £49,000 in 1909) have been spent
by the administration on the expropriation of monopolies. Swazi-
land is a member of the South African Customs Union (see SOUTH
AFRICA).
History. — Ama-Swazi tribes are believed to have occupied
the country now known as Swaziland from the period of the
invasion of South East Africa by the Bantu peoples. They
were formerly called Ba-Rapuza or Barabuza after a chief
under whom in the i8th century they acquired homogeneity.
In the early part of the ipth century they fell under the dominion
of the newly constituted Zulu nation. In 1843, the year in
which the British annexed Natal and with it a part of the country
hitherto ruled by the Zulus, the Barabuza, under a chief named
Swazi, took advantage of the comparative weakness of the
Zulu power, achieved independence and founded the present
state. According to Kaffir custom they adopted the name of
their deliverer. The Boers of the Transvaal were then begin-
ning to occupy the regions adjacent to Swaziland and in 1855
the Swazis in order to get a strip of territory between themselves
and the Zulus, whose power they still dreaded, ceded to the
Boers the narrow strip of land north of the Pongola river now
known as the Piet Relief district. The Zulus under Cetywayo
claimed the ceded district as theirs and the Swazis as their
subjects and for over ten years no white farmers were able to
settle in the district. With the Boers the Swazis remained on
friendly terms and this friendship was extended to the British
on the occupation of the Transvaal in 1877. In 1879 they
joined the British in the attack on the Bapedi chief Sikukuni,
whom they looked upon as an ally of the Zulus.
They captured from Sikukuni certain " rain medicine,"
the possession of which has since greatly increased the prestige
of the paramount chief of the Swazis among the Kaffirs of South
Africa. On the retrocession of the Transvaal in 1881 the in-
dependence of the Swazis was recognized by the Boers and the
Pretoria convention of that year defined the boundaries of the
country. By the London convention of 1884 the Transvaal
again recognized the independence of Swaziland. Immediately
afterwards, however, the Boers began a series of efforts to obtain
control of the country. In 1886 the governor of Natal received
a paper from Umbandine (Mbandini), the paramount chief
of the Swazis, stating that Piet Joubert had called on him and
requested him to sign a paper saying that " he and all the
Swazis agreed to go over and recognize the authority of the
Boer government, and have nothing more to do with the Eng-
lish." On his refusal the Boers replied to him, "Why do you
refuse to sign the paper? You know we defeated the English
at Majuba." The Boers further added that if the Swazis were
relying on the British, they were leaning on a broken reed,
and would find themselves left in the lurch. Umbandine
followed up this communication with a request for British
protection, but without result. Later on, in 1887, both Boers
and gold prospectors of all nationalities were overrunning his
country, and Umbandine asked for a British resident. This
request was also refused. The Boers now determined to adopt
towards Swaziland the policy which had proved so successful
in Zululand. A colony of Boers settled within the Swazi
territories and proclaimed " The Little Free State." Umban-
dine was then at length induced to ask the Transvaal for annex-
ation. The Transvaal applied in 1889 to Great Britain for
permission to accede to this request, but the British government
replied that the only intervention to which they would consent
must be a dual one. Consequently a joint commission was
appointed to visit Swaziland and report on the condition of
things there. Sir Francis de Winton, the British commissioner,
who was accompanied by Generals Joubert and Smit on behalf
of the Transvaal, reported that Umbandine had already granted
concessions, such as " postal, telegraphic, banking, customs,"&c.,
to the Transvaal, and concessions of land mining and grazing
rights to various adventurers. Umbandine had in short granted
concessions of every conceivable character, including exemption
from taxation. A charter of self-government had also been
granted (1888) to the whites in the country. In the circum-
stances de Winton considered a British protectorate inadvisable
and impracticable. A dual control was arranged in 1890, but the
convention then signed proved abortive owing to the objection
of the Transvaal to join the South African Customs Union.
In 1893 a further conference on the Swazi question took place
between Sir Henry Loch, high commissioner for South Africa,
and President Kruger, the result of which was that the admin-
istration of Swaziland, with certain reservations as to the rights
of the natives, was made over to the South African Republic.
In the following year six Swazi envoys visited England for the
purpose of asking Queen Victoria to take Swaziland under her
protection. In view, however, of the arrangement come to,
this petition had to be refused. In 1894 a convention was
signed between Great Britain and the Transvaal, and the Boers,
in spite of the Swazi opposition, assumed administration of
the country. The Boers' object in intriguing to acquire Swazi-
land was not merely that of obtaining that country. They
desired also to annex the coast lands to its east and thus obtain —
at Kosi Bay — a seaport of their own. This object they might
have attained if they had agreed to de Winton's proposals,
but Great Britain in view of the increasingly hostile attitude
i86
SWEARING— SWEATING-SICKNESS
assumed by the Transvaal government now intervened and by
annexing in 1895 Amatongaland, the region in question, blocked
the Boers' further progress towards the sea (see SOUTH APRICA:
History).
Swaziland suffered during the struggle between the Transvaal
and Great Britain as to its destiny. Umbandine died in 1889
and had various successors. Ubanu, installed by the Boers
as paramount chief in 1894, was a sanguinary despot and was
compelled to flee in 1898. The principal personage in the
country after Umbandine's death was, however, his widow Naba
Tsibeni, known to Europeans as the queen regent. Sue more
than once appealed to the British to cause the Boers to respect
the terms of the conventions, and before the outbreak of the
Anglo-Boer war in 1899 she took the side of the British. On
the annexation of the Transvaal in 1901 the queen regent asked
that Swaziland might be annexed also. On the cessation of
hostilities a British special commissioner was sent into the
country — then in a condition bordering on anarchy — and a pro-
visional administration established. In June 1903 an order in
council formally conferred the government of the country on the
governor of the Transvaal (then Lord Milner). Lord Milner
visited Swaziland in July 1904 and denounced " the abominable
network of concessions ;> in which the country was entangled.
On the 3rd of October following the governor issued a pro-
clamation providing further for the administration, and for the
expropriation of the concessions other than those relating to
land and minerals. In September 1906 Lord Selborne, who had
succeeded Lord Milner, conferred with the queen regent and
her councillors on questions specially affecting the natives.
A lad named Sobhuza, born about 1898, was selected as para-
mount chief, Naba Tsibeni, his grandmother, being confirmed
as regent during his minority. In December 1906 the control
of Swaziland was severed from the governorship of the Transvaal
and transferred to the High Commissioner for South Africa,
and in March 1907 a resident commissioner was appointed.
When the Union of South Africa was established in 1910,
Swaziland, with other native territories, remained under direct
Imperial control.
See A. M. Miller, " Swaziland," in Journ. Roy. Col. Inst. (1900),
vol. xxxi., and "Swaziland: its agricultural and pastoral future,"
in Transvaal Agricultural Journ., vol. iv. (1906); T. R. Jones,
"Notes on the Geology of West Swaziland" in Geol. Mag. (1899),
vol. vi. Colonial office reports on the country have been issued
annually since 1908. Consult also the Colonial Office List issued
yearly. In it are cited the Blue Books dealing with Swaziland.
For history see also TRANSVAAL: Bibliography.
(A. P. H. ; F. R. C.)
SWEARING (O. Eng. swerian, to swear, originally to speak
aloud, cf. andswerian, to answer, Ger. schwiiren, Dan. svaerge,
&c., all from root swer-, to make a sound, cf. " swarm," pro-
perly the buzzing of bees, Lat. susurrus), the affirmation or utter-
ing of a solemn declaration with an appeal to the Deity, some
holy personage or sacred object as confirmation, hence the act
of declaring the truth of a statement upon oath (see OATH and
EVIDENCE). The common use of the word is for the uttering
of profane oaths or curses. In English law, while blasphemy
(q.v.) was at common law an indictable offence, cursing or
swearing was left to the ecclesiastical courts. The Profane
Oaths Act 1745 inflicted a sliding scale of fines for the use of
profane oaths according to the rank of the offender, 13. for a
common labourer, soldier or seaman, 25. for everyone below
the rank of gentleman and 55. for those of or above that rank;
procedure under this act is regulated by the Summary Juris-
diction Acts. By s. 8 of the Town Police Clauses Act 1847
the use of profane or obscene language is an offence punishable
on summary conviction by a fine not exceeding 405. or im-
prisonment not exceeding 14 days. The offence must be com-
mitted in a street and the act is confined .to urban sanitary
districts or to such rural districts to which s. 276 of the Public
Health Act 1875 has extended it. By s. 12 of the Metropolitan
Police Court Acts 1839 a similar offence is punishable in the
metropolitan police area, and various districts have put in force
by-laws for punishing swearing, cursing, or causing annoyance
in public places. The restriction as to the place where the
offence must be committed to be liable to punishment has led
to the enforcement on occasions of the Profane Oaths Act,
which applies to the whole of England and Wales and is not
limited to cursing in the streets. It should not, however,
apply to obscene language.
SWEATING-SICKNESS. A remarkable form of disease,
not known in England before, attracted attention at the very
beginning of the reign of Henry VII. It was known indeed a
few days after the landing of Henry at Milford Haven on the
7th of August 1485, as there is clear evidence of its being
spoken of before the battle of Bosworth on the 22nd of
August. Soon after the arrival of Henry in London on the
28th of August it broke out in the capital, and caused
great mortality. This alarming malady soon became known
as the sweating-sickness. It was regarded as being quite
distinct from the plague, the pestilential fever or other
epidemics previously known, not only by the special symptom
which gave it its name, but also by its extremely rapid and fatal
course.
From 1485 nothing more was heard of it till 1507, when the
second outbreak occurred, which was much less fatal than the
first. In 1517 was a third and much more severe epidemic.
In Oxford and Cambridge it was very fatal, as well as in other
towns, where in some cases half the population are said to have
perished. There is evidence of the disease having spread to
Calais and Antwerp, but with these exceptions it was confined
to England.
In 1528 the disease recurred for the fourth time, and with
great severity. It first showed itself in London at the end of
May, and speedily spread over the whole of England, though
not into Scotland or Ireland. In London the mortality was
very great; the court was broken up, and Henry VIII. left
London, frequently changing his residence. The most remark-
able fact about this epidemic is that it spread over the
Continent, suddenly appearing at Hamburg, and spreading
so rapidly that in a few weeks more than a thousand persons
died. Thus was the terrible sweating-sickness started on a
destructive course, during which it caused fearful mortality
throughout eastern Europe. France, Italy and the southern
countries were spared. It spread much in the same way as
cholera, passing, in one direction, from north to south, arriving
al Switzerland in December, in another northwards to Denmark,
Sweden and Norway, also eastwards to Lithuania, Poland and
Russia, and westwards to Flanders and Holland, unless indeed
the epidemic, which declared itself simultaneously at Antwerp
and Amsterdam on the morning of the 27th of September,
came from England direct. In each place which it affected it
prevailed for a short time only — generally not more than a
fortnight. By the end of the year it had entirely disappeared,
except in eastern Switzerland, where it lingered into the next
year;1 and the terrible " English sweat " has never appeared
again, at least in the same form, on the Continent.
England was, however, destined to suffer from one more out-
break of the disease, which occurred in 1551, and with regard
to this we have the great advantage of an account by an eye-
witness, John Kaye or Caius. the eminent physician.
Symptoms. — The symptoms as described by Caius and others
were as follows. The disease began very suddenly with a sense of
apprehension, followed by cold shivers (sometimes very violent),
giddiness, headache and severe pains in the neck, shoulders and
limbs, with great prostration. After the cold stage, which might
last from half-an-hour to three hours, followed the stage of heat
and sweating. The characteristic sweat broke out suddenly, and,
as it seemed to those accustomed to the disease, without any
obvious cause. With the sweat, or after that was poured out,
came a sense of heat, and with this headache and delirium, rapid
pulse and intense thirst. Palpitation and pain in the heart were
frequent symptoms. No eruption of any kind on the skin was
generally observed; Caius makes no allusion to such a symptom.
In the later stages there was either general prostration and collapse,
or an irresistible tendency to sleep, which was thought to be fatal
if the patient were permitted to give way to it. The malady was
1 Guggenbiihl, Der englische Schweiss in der Schweiz (Lichtensteig,
1838).
SWEATING SYSTEM
187
remarkably rapid in its course, being sometimes fatal even in two
or three hours, and some patients died in less than that time. More
commonly it was protracted to a period of twelve to twenty-four
hours, beyond which it rarely lasted. Those who survived for
twenty-four hours were considered safe.
The disease, unlike the plague, was not especially fatal to the
poor, but rather, as Caius affirms, attacked the richer sort and
those who were free livers according to the custom of England in
those days. " They which had this sweat sore with peril of death
were either men of wealth, ease or welfare, or of the poorer sort,
such as were idle persons, good ale drinkers and taverne haunters.
Causes. — Some attributed the disease to the English climate, its
moisture and its fogs, or to the intemperate habits of the English
people, and to the frightful want of cleanliness in their houses and
surroundings which is noticed by Erasmus in a well-known passage,
and about which Caius is equally explicit. But we must conclude
that climate, season, and manner of life were not adequate, either
separately or collectively, to produce the disease, though each may
have acted sometimes as a predisposing cause. The sweating-
sickness was in fact, to use modern language, a specific infective
disease, in the same sense as plague, typhus, scarlatina or malaria.
The only disease of modern times which bears any resemblance
to the sweating-sickness is that known as miliary fever (" Schweiss-
friesel," " suette miliaire " or the " Picardy sweat "), a malady which
has been repeatedly observed in France, Italy and southern
Germany, but not in the United Kingdom. _ It is characterized by
intense sweating, and occurs in limited epidemics, not lasting in
each place more than a week or two (at least in an intense form).
On the other hand, the attack lasts longer than the sweating-sickness
did, is always accompanied by eruption of vesicles, and is not
usually fatal. The first clearly described epidemic was in 1718
(though probably it existed before), and the last in 1861. Between
these dates some one hundred and seventy-five epidemics have been
counted in France alone.
AUTHORITIES. — For history see Bacon's Life of Henry VII.,
and the chronicles of Grafton, Holinshed, Baker, Fabyan, &c.
The only English medical account is that of John Caius, who wrote
in English A Bake or Counseill Against the Disease commonly called
the Sweate, or Sweating Sicknesse (London, 1552); and in Latin
De ephemera britannica (Louvain, 1556; reprinted London, 1721).
The English tract is reprinted in Babington's translation of Hecker's
Epidemics of the Middle Ages (Syd. Soc., 1844). This also contains
Hecker's valuable treatise on the English sweat, published in
German (1834), and also printed in his Volkskrankheiten des Mittel-
alters, edited by Hirsch (Berlin, 1865). Griiner's Scriptores de sudore
anglico (Jena, 1847), contains nearly all the original documents,
including the two treatises of Caius. See also Hirsch, Handbook
of Geographical and Historical Pathology, trans, by Creighton (New
Syd. Soc., 1885).
SWEATING SYSTEM, a term loosely used in connexion with
oppressive industrial conditions in certain trades. This ' ' system ' '
originated early in the igth century, when it was known
as " the contract system." Contractors supplying the govern-
ment with clothing for the army and navy got the work done by
giving it out to sub-contractors, who in some cases made the
garments or boots themselves, with the assistance of other work-
men, and in others sublet their sub-contracts to men who carried
them out with similar help. Afterwards this plan was adopted
in the manufacture of ready-made clothing for civilian use, and
of " bespoke " garments (made to the order of the customer).
Previously the practice had been for coats, &c., to be made up
by workmen employed on the premises of the master tailor or
working together in common workshops, but in either case directly
employed by the master tailor. The new plan brought a large
number of workpeople possessing little skill and belonging to a
very needy class into competition with the regular craftsmen;
and in consequence a fall in wages took place, which affected, to a
greater or less extent, the whole body of workmen in the tailoring
trade. The work was done in overcrowded and insanitary rooms,
and the earnings of the workers were extremely low. In 1850
a vigorous agitation against " the sweating system " was com-
menced, based mainly upon a series of articles in the Morning
Chronicle, which were followed by a pamphlet, Cheap Clothes and
Nasty, written by Charles Kingsley under the name of " Parson
Lot," and by his novel Alton Locke. Kingsley and his friends,
the Christian Socialists, proposed to combat the evils of the
sweating system by promoting the formation of co-operative
workshops; and several experiments of this nature were made,
which, however, met with little success. Except that in 1876-
1877 the outcry against the sweating system was renewed
(principally on the ground of the risk of infection from garments
made up in insanitary surroundings), the matter attracted little
public notice until 1887, when the system again came into
arominence in connexion with the immigration of poor foreigners
into East London, where large numbers of these people were
employed in various trades, especially in the tailoring, boot-
making, and cabinet-making industries, under conditions
generally similar to those complained of in the earlier agitations,
tn 1888 a select committee of the House of Lords was appointed to
inquire into the subject; and after a lengthy investigation — in the
course of which evidence was given by 291 witnesses in relation
:o tailoring, boot-making, furriery, shirt-making, mantle-making,
cabinet-making and upholstery, cutlery and hardware manu-
lacture, chain and nail-making, military accoutrements, saddlery
and harness-making, and dock labour — this committee presented
ts final report in April 1890. The committee found themselves
unable to assign an exact meaning to the term " sweating," but
enumerated the following conditions as those to which that name
was applied: " (i) A rate of wages inadequate to the necessities
of the workers or disproportionate to the work done; (2) excessive
hours of labour; (3) the insanitary state of the houses in which
the work is carried on." They stated that, " as a rule, the
observations made with respect to sweating apply, in the main,
to unskilled or only partially skilled workers, as the thoroughly
skilled workers can almost always obtain adequate wages."
With regard to the sweating system, the committee declared that
this cannot be regarded as responsible for the industrial conditions
described; for " the middleman is the consequence, not the cause
of the evil; the instrument, not the hand which gives motion to
the instrument, which does the mischief. Moreover, the middle-
man is found to be absent in many cases in which the evils
complained of abound." While, on the one hand, we find, as
pointed out by this committee, that " sweating " exists without
the presence of the " middleman " (the fact being that many
grossly underpaid workpeople are in the direct employment of
large firms) , it is, on the other hand, no less true that the " middle-
man " (i.e. subordinate employer) is common in numerous trades
in which there is no trace of any such oppression of the work-
people employed by the sub-contractors as is denoted by the
term " sweating." Thus, for example, in shipbuilding in many
cases men work in squads, the leading workmen employing their
own helpers; in the cotton trade the mule-minders engage and
pay their own piecers, and the weavers their own tenters; in the
manufactured-iron trade, in mining, &c., a good deal of work is
done under sub-employers employing their own assistants, none
of these sub-contractors being alleged to " sweat " their helpers.
There is, in short, no system of employment which can properly
be called " the sweating system." At the same time, wherever
workers possessing a small degree of skill and deficient in
organization are employed under a number of small masters,
there " sweating " is likely to obtain.
The common idea that the " sweater " is an unscrupulous
tyrant, who fulfils no useful function, and who makes enormous
profits, has no counterpart in fact. Whatever may have been
the case in earlier days, before the internecine competition of the
" middlemen " had time to produce its inevitable effects upon the
position of these sub-employers, it may now be considered to be
beyond dispute that the small master (" sub-contractor," " garret
master," " fogger," &c.) usually works at least as hard as his
employes, and that his gains are, as a rule, no more than a fair
return for the work which he performs — work which in many
instances consists in doing some difficult part of the job, and in all
cases in organizing the labour engaged. So far as concerns the
" manufacturer," by whom the " sweater " is employed, and who
is clearly the causa causans of " the sweating system," for him
the practice of getting his work done in outside workshops is
undoubtedly convenient, especially in localities where rent is
high, because he is saved the expense of providing accommoda-
tion for those who do his work. He is also free from restrictions
as to the subdivision of labour and the employment of a certain
class of workpeople which the sentiment of the regular factory
workers would impose upon him. The regular tailor, for example,
thinks that no one who has not, by a lengthy period of tuition,
i88
SWEDEN
acquired the capacity to make a coat " right out " ought to be
allowed to enter the tailoring trade. But in the workshop of
the sub-contractor the work is split up into fractions, each of
which is soon learned, so that it becomes possible to introduce
into the trade persons possessing no previous training, and gener-
ally willing to work for wages far lower than those to which the
regular tailors consider themselves entitled, and which, so long
as they are not exposed to the competition of these outsiders,
they are usually able to secure. On the other hand, while it
may suit the manufacturer, anxious to keep down the cost of
production, to give his work out to middlemen, it is beyond
question that any form of the " small master " system is neces-
sarily liable to abuse in many directions. Among these small
masters the eagerness to secure employment is usually so keen
that the work is often taken at a price too low for it to be possible
for these sub-employers to pay to their workpeople wages
adequate to provide the reasonable requirements of working-
class life. The workshops of the middlemen are scattered over
large districts, and these little masters frequently move their
business from one house to another. Both of these are circum-
stances which tend strongly to make efficient regulation by the
factory and the sanitary inspectors very difficult. Not seldom,
especially when trade is brisk, these work-places are overcrowded
in a manner injurious to health, and in not a few cases their
sanitary condition is defective. It will readily be under-
stood that combination among the people employed in these
numerous small isolated work-places is much less easy than among
the compact bodies of workers employed in large factories, so
that any attempt to resist oppressive conditions of employment
by trade-union organization meets with serious obstacles. But
perhaps the worst of all the features which this method of manu-
facture presents is the absence of motor power and machinery.
The fact that a manufacturer has laid out a large sum in plant,
thus entailing a heavy expenditure in " standing charges,"
necessarily induces him to do his best to make employment
regular. In the little outside workshop, on the other hand,
lengthy spells of enforced idleness are followed by short periods
of most severe toil, during which the hours of daily labour are
prolonged to an inhuman extent. At the same time, the work-
people employed in the ill-equipped workshop of the little master
are competing with the much more efficient production of the
factory provided with labour-saving machinery driven by steam
or other mechanical power; and in many cases their only chance of
retaining the work under these circumstances is to take it at
starvation prices. But the progress of invention moves fast,
and antiquated methods of production are gradually being
abandoned. Already, in many of the trades in which the
sweating system has hitherto largely prevailed, especially
in the tailoring, the boot-making, the cabinet-making and
the nail-making industries, the factory system is coming so
far to the front in the race for cheapness of production that,
although in certain industrial centres, in which the rents of
factories are high and a specially abundant supply of needy
and unskilled workpeople is available, a good deal of work
is still given out to small outside masters, the proportion of
the total output manufactured in this manner is day by day
diminishing. (D. Sen.)
An endeavour has been made in the United Kingdom to combat
legislatively the evils of sweating. The Trade Boards Act 1909
established trade boards for trades to which the act applied.
The trades specified were ready-made and wholesale tailoring,
the making of paper or chip boxes, machine-lace making and
chain-making, but the board of trade was given power to apply
the act under a provisional order to any other trade in which
exceptionally low wages prevailed. The duties of the trade boards
are to fix, subject to certain restrictions, minimum rates of wages
for time-work for their trades, while they may also fix general
minimum rates of wages for piece-work, and these rates may apply
either universally to the trade, or to any special process in the
work of the trade or to any special class of workers, or to any
special area. The rates so fixed become obligatory by order of
the board of trade upon the expiration of six months from the
date when made by a trade board, but they may, in the meantime,
have a limited operation (l) in the absence of a written agreement;
(2) where an employer has given written notice to the board of
trade that he is willing to pay them; and (3) in the case of contracts
vith government departments and local authorities. If the mini-
mum rate of wages has been made obligatory and an employer has
been summarily convicted of not paying same, he is liable to a
penalty of not exceeding £20 in respect of each offence and to a
penalty of not exceeding £5 for each day on which the offence is
continued after conviction. He may also be ordered to pay, in
addition, a sum equal to the wages due. The trade boards consist
of an equal number of representative members of employers and
workers, together with appointed members whose number must
be less than half the total of representative members. Trade
boards may also establish district trade committees with a con-
stitution similar to their own and may delegate to them their powers
and duties under the act. Women are eligible for membership of
trade boards or district committees indeed, in case of a trade board
for a trade in which women are largely employed, at least one of the
appointed members must be a woman.
SWEDEN [Sverige], a kingdom of northern Europe, occupying
the eastern and larger part of the Scandinavian peninsula.
It is bounded N.E. by Finland (Russian Empire), E. by the
Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, S.W. by the Cattegat and
Skagerrack, and W. by Norway. It extends from 69° 3' 21'
to 55° 20' 18* N., and from 11° 6' 19* E. on the south-west
coast to 24° 9' n" E. on the Finnish frontier, the extreme
length being about 990 m., the extreme breadth (mainland)
about 250 m., and the total area estimated at 173,547 sq. m.
Out of a detailed total estimate of the boundary line at
6100 m., 4737 m. are coastal, the Norwegian frontier is 1030 m.,
and the Finnish 333 m.
Physical Features. — The backbone of the Scandinavian peninsula
is a range, or series of masses, of mountains (in Swedish Kolen,1 the
keel) extending through nearly the whole length of the peninsula
towards the western side. The eastern or Swedish flank has, there-
fore, the slighter slope. This range forms, in a measure, a natural
boundary between Sweden and Norway from the extreme north to
the north of Svealand, the central of the three main territorial
divisions of Sweden (Norrland, Svealand and Gotaland) ; though this
boundary is not so well markd that the political frontier may follow
it throughout. Sweden itself may be considered in four main physical
divisions — the mountains and highland district, covering all Norr-
land and the western part of Svealand; the lowlands of central
Sweden ; the so-called Smaland highlands, in the south and south-
east; and the plains of Skane, occupying the extreme southward
projection of the peninsula.
The first district, thus defined, is much the largest, and includes
the greatest elevations in the country and the finest scenery. The
highest mountains are found in the north, the bold
peak of Kebnekaise reaching 7005 ft., Sarjektjacko, H^.er"
6972 ft., being the loftiest point of a magnificent group n«'»an<ls-
including the Sarjeksfjall, Alkasfjall and Partefjall, which range
from 6500 ft. upwards; and, farther south, Sulitelma, 6158 ft.,
long considered the highest point in Scandinavia. Elevation then
decreases slightly, through Stuorevarre (5787 ft.) and Areskutan
(4656 ft.), to the south of which the railway from Trondhjem in
Norway into Sweden crosses the fine pass at Storlien. South of
this again, before the main chain passes into Norway, are such
heights as Helagsfjall (5896 ft.) and Storsylen (5781 ft.) ; and a group
of mountains in the northern part of the province of Dalecarlia
(Dalarne) ranges from 3600 to 4500 ft. in height. The neighbour-
hood of Areskutan and the Dalarne highlands, owing to the railway
and the development of communications by steamer on the numer-
ous lakes, are visited by considerable numbers of travellers, both
Swedish and foreign, in summer; but the northern heights, crossed
only by a few unfrequented tracks, are known to few, and to a con-
siderable extent, indeed, have not been closely explored. From the
scenic standpoint the relatively small elevation of these mountains
finds compensation in the low snow-line, which ranges from about
3000 ft. in the north to 5500 ft. in the south of the region. All
the higher parts are thus snow-clad ; and glaciers, numerous in the
north, occur as far south as the Helagsfjall. The outline of the
mountains is generally rounded, the rocks having been subjected
to erosion from a very early geological age, but hard formations
cause bold peaks at several points, as in Kebnekaise and the
Sarjeksfjall.
1 In Swedish the definite article (masc. and fern, en, neut, et) is
added as a suffix to the substantive (when there is no epithet).
Geographical terms are similarly suffixed to names, thus Dalelfven,
the river Dal. The commonest geographical terms are : elf, Strom,
river; sjo, lake; 6, island; holm, small island; fjdll, mountain, group
or range; dal, valley; vik, bay. In Norrland the following terms
are common : a, Driver, often attached to the names of the large
rivers, as Tornea, Lulea (although properly it means a smaller
river than elf) ; the names of towns at their mouths always following
this form; trask (local, properly meaning marsh), jaur (Lapp),
ifva, lake (provincial Swedish, properly a kind of creek opening
rom a river). A is pronounced o.
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
SWEDEN
189
From the spinal mountain range a series of large rivers run in
a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Bothnia. In their upper
. parts they drain great lakes which have resulted from
Nrth tne f°rmation of morainic dams, and in some cases
' perhaps from the incidence of erratic upheaval of the
land. All He at elevations between 900 and 1300 ft. All are narrow
in comparison with their length, which is not infrequently magnified
to view when two lakes are connected by a very short stretch of
running water with a navigable fall of a few feet, such as those
between Hornafvan, Uddjaur and Storafvan on the Skellefte river.
The following are the principal rivers from north to south : The
Tprne, which with its tributary the Muonio, forms the boundary
with Finland, has a length of 227 m., and drains lake Tome (Torne-
trask), the area of which is 126 sq. m. The Kalix is 208 m. in
length. The Lule is formed of two branches, Stora and Lilla
(Great and Little) Lule; the length of the main stream is 193 m.
The Stora Lule branch drains the Langas and Stora Lule lakes
(Langasjaur, Luletrask), which have a length together exceeding
50 m., a fall between them of some 16 ft. and a total area of only
87 sq. m., as they are very narrow. Below Stora Lule lake the river
forms the Harsprang (hare's leap; Njuommelsaska of the Lapps),
the largest and one of the finest cataracts in Europe. The sheer fall
is about 100 ft., and there is a further fall of 150 ft. in a series of
tremendous rapids extending for ii m. Farther up, at the head
of Langasjaur, is the Stora Sjofall (great lake fall; Lapp, Atna
Muorki Kartje),a fall of 130 ft. only less grand than the Harsprang.
Both are situated in an almost uninhabited country and are rarely
visited. Following the Pite river (191 m.), the Skellefte (205 m.)
drains Hornafvan and Storafvan, with a fall of 20 ft., and an area
together of 275 sq. m. Hornafvan is a straight and sombre trough,
flanked by high hills of unbroken slope, but Storafvan and the inter-
vening Uddjaur are broad, throwing off deep irregular inlets, and
picturesquely studded with numerous islets. The Ume (237 m.)
receives a tributary, the Vindel, of almost equal length, on the
north bank some 20 m. from its mouth, and among several lakes
drains Stor Uman (64 sq. m.). The further principal rivers of this
region are the Angerman (242 m.), Indal (196 m.), draining the
large lakes Kallsjo and Storsjo, Ljusnan (230 m.), Dal and Klar. Of
these the two last rise in the southernmost part of the mountain region
described, but do not as a whole belong to the region under considera-
tion. The Angerman receives the waters of a wider system of
streams and lakes than the rivers north of it, and has thus a drain-
age area of 12,591 sq. m., which is exceeded only by that of the
Torne (16,690 sq. m.), the average of the remaining rivers named
being about 7700 sq. m.
Beyond the Harsprang and the Stora Sjofall the northern rivers
do not generally form great falls, though many of the rapids are
grand. The Indal, by changing its course in 1796 near Bispgarden
on the northern railway, has left bare the remarkable bed of a fall
called Doda (dead) Fall, in which many " giant's caldrons " are
exposed. In the uplands above the chain of lakes called Stroms-
vattudal, which are within the drainage area on the Angerman,
the Hailing stream forms the magnificent Hallingsa Fall. In the
southern mountain valleys of the region there are several beautiful
falls, such as the Tannfors, not far from Areskutan, the Storbo,
Handol and Rista.
Eastward from the main mountain range the highland region
is divided into two belts: a middle belt of morainic deposits and
marshes, and a coastal belt. The middle belt is gently undulating ;
viewed from rare eminences the landscape over the boundless
forests resembles a dark green sea, through which the great rivers
flow straight between steep, flat-topped banks, with long quiet
reaches broken by occasional rapids. The few lakes they form
in this belt are rather mere widenings in their courses; but the tribu-
tary streams drain numerous small lakes and peat-mosses. In
the extreme north this belt is almost flat, a few low hills standing
isolated and conspicuous ; and the rivers have serpentine courses,
while steep banks are absent. The middle belt merges into the
coastal belt, covered by geologically recent marine deposits, reaching
an extreme height of 700 to 800 ft., and extending inland some 60
to 80 m. in the north and 40 m. in the south. Small fertile plains
are characteristic, and the rivers have cut deep into the soft deposits
of sand and clay, leaving lofty and picturesque bluffs (nipor).
The orographical division of the central lowlands bears com-
parison in formation with the coastal belt of marine deposits to
_ the north. Here are flat fertile plains of clay, well
. wooded, with innumerable lakes, including the four
'• great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Malar and Hjelmar. These,
except the last, far exceed in area any of the northern lakes, and even
Hjelmar (185 sq. m.) is only exceeded by Hornafvan-Storafvan.
The areas of the other three lakes are respectively 2149, 733 and
449 sq. m. Vener, Vetter and Hjelmar are broad and open; Malar is
very irregular in form, and of great length. Malar, Vener and Hjel-
mar contain many islands; in Vetter there are comparatively few.
None of the lakes is of very great depth, the deepest sounding
occurring in Vetter, 390 ft. In Hjelmar, which measures 38 m.
from east to west, and is 12 m. in extreme width, the greatest
depth is only 59 ft., but as its flat shores were formerly subject
to inundation its level was sunk 6 ft. by deepening the navig-
able channel through it and clearing out various waterways (the
Eskilstuna river, Hjelmar canal, &c.) in 1878-1887. The scenery of
these lakes, though never grand, is always quietly beautiful, especi-
ally in the case of Malar, the wooded shores and islands of which
form a notable feature in the pleasant environs of the city of Stock-
holm. The elevation of the central lowlands seldom exceeds
300 ft., but a few isolated heights of Silurian rock appear, such as
Kinnekulle, rising 988 ft. above sea-level on the south-eastern shore
of Vener, Billingen (978 ft.) between that lake and Vetter, and
Omberg (863 ft.) on the eastern shore of Vetter. Noteworthy
local features in the landscape of the central lowlands are the eskers
or gravel-ridges (&sar), traversing the land in a direction from
N.N.VV. to S.S.E., from 100 to 200 ft. in height above the surround-
ing surface. Typical instances occur in the cities of Stockholm
(Brunkebergsasen) and Upsala (Upsala-asen).
South of the central lowlands the so-called Smaland highlands
extend over the old province of Smaland in the south-east, and lie
roughly south of Lake Vetter and of Gothenburg, s », rf
where they reach the south-west coast. The general ... . .
elevation of this region exceeds 300 ft., and in the eastern
part 600 ft.; the principal heights are Tomtabacken (1237 ft.) and
Ekbacken (1175 ft.), about 25 m. respectively south-east and west
of the town of Jonkoping at the southern extremity of Lake Vetter.
Gentle forest-clad undulations, many small lakes and peat-mosses,
are characteristic of the region; which, in fact, closely resembles
the middle belt of the northern highland region. The Smaland
highlands abut southward upon the plains of Skane, the last of
the main orographical divisions, which coincides roughly with the
old province of Skane (Scania). Level plains, with rich open
meadows and cultivated lands, the monotony of which is in some
parts relieved by beech woods, are separated by slight ridges with
'a general direction from N.W. to S.E., such as Hallandsasen in the
north-west, with an extreme elevation of 741 ft.
The hydrographical survey may now be completed. The Dal
river, which enters the Gulf of Bothnia near Gefle, is formed of the
union of eastern and western branches (Oster Dal, _.
Vester Dal) not far from the town of Falun. The eastern J
branch drains various small lakes on the Norwegian
frontier, and in its lower course passes through the beautiful Lake
Siljan. The length of the whole river including the eastern as the
main branch is 283 m. The Klar river (228 m.) rises as the Faemund
river in Faemundsjo, a large lake in Norway close west of the sources
of the Dal. The Klar flows south into Lake Vener, which is drained
to the Cattegat by the short Gota river, on which, not far below
the lake, are the celebrated falls of Trollhattan. Lake Vetter
drains eastward by the Motala to the Baltic, Lake Malar drains
in the same direction by a short channel at Stockholm, the normal
fall of which is so slight that the stream is sometimes reversed.
The Smaland highlands are drained to the Baltic and Cattegat
by numerous rivers of less importance. Excepting Finland no
country is so full of lakes as Sweden. About 14,000 sq. m., nearly
one-twelfth of the total area, are under water.
The coast of Sweden is not indented with so many or so deep
fjords as that of Norway, nor do the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia,
the Baltic and the Cattegat share in the peculiar Coast.
grandeur of the North Sea coast. All, however, have
a common feature in the fringe of islands which, throughout nearly
the entire length, shelters the coast of the mainland from the open
sea. This "skerry-fence" (in Swedish, sk&rg&rd) is only interrupted
for any considerable distance (in the case of Sweden) round the
southern shore off the flat coast of Skane, between the towns of
Varberg on the west and Ahus on the east. Between it and the
mainland lies a connected series of navigable sounds of the greatest
advantage to coastwise traffic, and also of no little importance as
a natural defence. The skargard of the Cattegat, north of Varberg,
is bald and rugged. The two largest islands are Orust and Tjorn,
north of Gothenburg. Off the south-east coast the place of the
skargard is in a measure taken by the long narrow island of Oland,
but north of this the skargard begins to widen, and the most con-
siderable fjords are found, such as Bravik, which penetrates the
land for 35 m. nearly up to the town of Norrkoping. The island
belt is widest (some 45 m.) off the city of Stockholm, the approach
to which from the sea is famous for its beauty. Farther north,
a narrow sound (Alands Haf) intervening on the Swedish side, the
vast Aland archipelago, belonging to Russia, extends across to the
Finnish coast. The skargard of the Gulf of Bothnia is less fully
developed than that of either the Baltic or the Cattegat. The
islands of the skargard as a whole are rugged and picturesque,
though never lofty like many of those off the ^lorwegian coast. In
the Baltic many are well wooded, but the majority are bare or heath-
clad, as are those of the Gulf of Bothnia. Of the large islands
in the Baltic and Cattegat, besides Oland, only Gotland is Swedish.
Geology. — The fundamental rocks of Sweden belong to the Azoic
or pre-Cambrian formation, and consist of crystalline rocks. Three
divisions are distinguished by some authors--the grey gneiss, the
red iron gneiss and the granuhte.
The grey gneiss predominates in the northern and eastern parts
of the country, from Vesternorrland down to the province of Kalmar.
The rock has a prevalent grey colour, and contains as characteristic
minerals garnet and in some parts graphite.
The red iron gneiss prevails in western Sweden in the provinces
SWEDEN
ICLIMATE
of Vermland, Skaraborg, Elfsborg, and down to the province of
Kristianstad. The formation is very uniform in its character, the
gneiss having a red colour and containing small granules of magnetite,
but, nevertheless, not a single iron mine belongs to this region. The
red gneiss contains in many places beds or masses of hyperite.
The granulite, also called eurite and halleflinta, is the most
important of the Pre-Cambrian formation, as it contains all the
metalliferous deposits of Sweden. It prevails in the middle part
of the country, in Kopparberg, Vestmanland, Upsala and parts
of Vermland. It occurs also in Ostergotland, Kalmar and Krono-
berg. The rock is a very compact and fine-grained mixture of
felspar, quartz and mica, often graduating to mica schist, quartzite
and gneiss. With these are often associated limestones, dolomites
and marbles containing serpentine (Kolmarden). The metalliferous
deposits have generally the form of beds or layers between the
strata of granulite and limestone. They are often highly con-
torted and dislocated.
The iron deposits occur in more or less fine-grained gneiss or
granulite (Gellivara, Grangesberg, Norberg, Striberg), or separated
from the granulite by masses of augitic and amphibolous minerals
(gronskarn), as in Persberg and Nordmark. Sometimes they are
surrounded by halleflinta and limestone, as at Dannemora, Langban,
Pajsberg, and then carry manganiferous minerals. Argentiferous
galena occurs at Sala in limestone, surrounded by granulite, and at
Guldsmedshytta (province of Orebro) in dark halleflinta. Copper
pyrites occur at Falun in mica-schists, surrounded by halleflinta.
Zinc-blende occurs in large masses at Ammeberg, near the northern
end of Lake Vetter. The cobalt ore consists of cobalt-glance
(Tunaberg in the province of Sodermanland) and of linneite (at
Gladhammar, near Vestervik). The nickel ore of Sweden is magnetic
pyrites, containing only a very small percentage of nickel, and gener-
ally occurs in diorite and greenstones. Besides the crystalline
gneiss and halleflinta there are also sedimentary deposits which are
believed to be of pre-Cambrian age. The most important of these
are the Dala Sandstone (chiefly developed in Dalarne), the Almas-
akra and Visingso series (around Lake Vetter) and the Dalsland
formation (near Lake Verier).
Large masses of granite are found in many parts of Sweden, in
Kronoberg, Orebro, Goteborg, Stockholm, &c. Sometimes the
granite graduates into gneiss; sometimes (as north of Stockholm) it
encloses large angular pieces of gneiss. Intrusions of hyperite,
gabbro (anorthite-gabbro at Radmanso in the province of Stock-
holm) and diorite are also abundant.
The Cambrian formation generally occurs along with the Ordovi-
cian, and consists of many divisions. The oldest is a sandstone,
in which are found traces of worms, impressions of Medusae, and
shells of Mickwitzia. The upper divisions consist of bituminous
limestones, clay-slates, alum-slate, and contain numerous species
of trilobites of the genera Paradoxides, Conocoryphe, Agnosias,
Sphaerophthalmus, Peltura, &c. The Ordovician formation occurs
in two distinct facies — the one shaley and containing graptolites;
the other calcareous, with brachiopods, trilobites, &c. The most
constant of the calcareous divisions is the Orthoceras limestone, a
red or grey limestone with Megalaspis and Orthoceras. The sub-
divisions of the system may be grouped as follows: (i) Ceratopyge
Limestone; (2) Lower Graptolite Shales and Orthoceras Limestone;
(3) Middle Graptolite Shales, Chasmops and other Limestones,
Trinucleus beds. The Cambrian and Ordovician strata occur in
isolated patches in Vesterbotten, Jemtland (around Storsjo), Skara-
borg, Elfsborg, Orebro, Ostergotland and Kristianstad. The whole
of the island of Oland consists of these strata. The deposits are in
most places very little disturbed and form horizontal or slightly
inclined layers. South of Lake Vener they are capped by thick
beds of eruptive diabase (called trapp). North of Lake Siljan (pro-
vince of Kopparberg), however, they have been very much dislocated.
The Silurian has in Sweden almost the same character as the Wenlock
and Ludlow formation of England and consists partly of graptolite
shales, partly of limestones and sandstones. The island of Gotland
consists entirely of this formation, which occurs also in some parts
of the province of Kristianstad. In the western and northern
alpine part of Sweden, near the boundaries of Norway, the Silurian
strata are covered by crystalline rocks, mica schists, quartzites, &c.,
of an enormous thickness, which have been brought into their present
positions upon a thrust-plane. These rocks form the mass of the
high mountain of Areskutan, &c.
The Triassic formation (Rhaetic division) occurs in the northern
part of Malmohus. It consists partly of sandstones with impressions
of plants (cycads, ferns, &c.), and partly of clay-beds with coal.
The Cretaceous formation occurs in the provinces of Malmohus
and Kristianstad and a few small patches are found in the province
of Blekinge. Only the higher divisions (Senonian and Danian) of
the system are represented. The deposits are marls, sandstones
and limestones, and were evidently formed near the shore-line.
The most recent deposits of Sweden date from the Glacial and
Post-Glacial periods. At the beginning of the Glacial period the
height of Scandinavia above the level of the sea was greater than at
present, Sweden being then connected with Denmark and Germany
and also across the middle of the Baltic with Russia. On the west
the North Sea and Cattegat were also dry land. On the elevated
parts of this large continent glaciers were formed, which, proceeding
downwards to the lower levels, gave origin to large streams and
rivers, the abundant deposits of which formed the diluvial sand
and the diluvial clay. In most parts of Sweden these deposits
were swept away when the ice advanced, but in Skane they often
form still, as in northern Germany, very thick beds. At its maximum
the inland ice not only covered Scandinavia but also passed over the
present boundaries of Russia and Germany. When the climate
became less severe the ice slowly receded, leaving its moraines,
called in Sweden krosslenslera and krosstensgrus. Swedish geologists
distinguish between bottengrus (bottom gravel, bottom moraine)
and ordinary krossgrus (terminal and side moraine). The former
generally consists of a hard and compact mass of rounded, scratched
and sometimes polished stones firmly embedded in a powder of
crushed rock. The latter is less compact and contains angular
boulders, often of a considerable size, but no powder. Of later origin
than the krosstensgrus is the rullstensgrus (gravel of rolled stones),
which often forms narrow ranges of hills, many miles in length,
called dsar. During the disappearance of the great inland ice
large masses of mud and sand were carried by the rivers and
deposited in the sea. These deposits, known as glacial sand and
glacial clay, cover most parts of Sweden south of the provinces of
Kopparberg and Vermland, the more elevated portions of the pro-
vinces of Elfsborg and Kronoberg excepted. In the glacial clay
shells of Yoldia arctica have been met with in many places (e.g. near
Stockholm). At this epoch the North Sea and the Baltic were
connected along the line of Vener, Vetter, Hjelrr.ar and Malar.
On the other side the White Sea was connected by Lakes Onega and
Ladoga with the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic. In the depths of
the Baltic and of Lakes Vener and Vetter there actually exist
animals which belong to the arctic fauna and are remnants of the
ancient ice-sea. The glacial clay consists generally of alternate
darker and lighter coloured layers, which give it a striped appearance,
for which reason it has often been called hvarfoig lera (striped clay).
The glacial clay of the Silurian regions is generally rich in lime and
is thus a marl of great fertility. The deposits of glacial sand and
clay are found in the southern part of Sweden at a height ranging
from 70 to 150 ft. above the level of the sea, but in the interior of
the country at a height of 400 ft. above the sea.
On the coasts of the ancient ice-sea, in which the glacial clay
was deposited, there were 'heaped-up masses of shells which belong
to species still extant around Spitzbergen and Greenland. Most
renowned among these shell-deposits are the Kapellbackarne near
Uddevalla. With the melting of the great ice-sheet the climate
became milder, and the southern part of Sweden was covered with
shrubs and plants now found only in the northern and alpine parts
of the country (Salix polaris, Dryas octopetala, Betula nana, &c.).
The sea fauna also gradually changed, the arctic species migrating
northward and being succeeded by the species existing on the coasts
of Sweden. The Post-Glacial period now began. Sands (mosand)
and clays (akerlera and fucuslera) continued to be deposited on the
lower parts of the country. They are generally of insignificant
thickness. In the shallow lakes and enclosed bays of the sea there
began to be formed and still is in course of formation a deposit
known by the name gyttja, characterized by the diatomaceous
shells it contains. Sometimes the gyttja consists mainly of diatoms,
and is then called bergmjol. The gyttja of the lakes is generally
covered over by peat of a later date. In many of the lakes of Sweden
there is still in progress the formation of an iron ore, called sjomalm,
ferric hydroxide, deposited in forms resembling peas, coins, &c.,
and used for the manufacture of iron. (P. LA.)
Climate. — The climate of the Scandinavian peninsula as a whole
is so far tempered by the warm Atlantic drift from the south-west
as to be unique in comparison with other countries of so high a
latitude. The mountains of the Keel are not so high as wholly
to destroy this effect over Sweden, and the maritime influence of
the Baltic system has also to be considered. Sweden thus occupies
a climatic position between the purely coastal conditions of Norway
and the purely continental conditions of Russia; and in some years
the climate inclines to the one character, in others to the other.
As a result of the wide latitudinal extent of the country there are
also marked local variations to be contrasted. About one-seventh
of the whole country is north of the Arctic Circle. The mean annual
temperature ranges from 26-6° F. at Karesuando on the northern
frontier to 44-8° at Gothenburg and 44-6° at Lund in the south
(or 29;5° to 45° reduced to sea-level). Between these extremes the
following actual average temperatures have been observed at certain
stations from north' to south which are appropriately grouped for
the purpose of comparison (heights above sea-level following each
name) : —
Jockmock (850 ft.), at the foot of the lake-chain on the Little Lule
River — 29-7°; and Haparanda (30 ft.), at the head of the Gulf of
Bothnia — 32-4".
Stensele (1076 ft.), at the foot of the lake-chain on the Ume —
31 -.8°; and Umea (39 ft.) at its mouth on the Gulf of Bothnia — 34-9°.
Ostersund (1056 ft.) on Storsjo — 35-2°; and Hernosand (49 ft.)
on the Gulf of Bothnia— 37-8°.
Karlstad (180 ft.) at the head of Lake Vener — 42-3°; Orebro
(102 ft.) at the west of Lake Hjelmar — 41 -4°; and Stockholm (144 ft.)
—42-1°.
Gothenburg (26 ft.) on the Cattegat— 44-8°; Jonkoping (312 ft.}
SOUTHERN SWEDEN
(For General Map see Norway)
Boundaries of Provinces • St. = Stora, great;
County fian) boundaries .• Skt.= Sankt, Saint;
Capitals of Counties • C. = Canal;
Railways *-•-•*. 0. = Gamla, old;
Canals _ /— • Ytt. = Ytter, outer;
Longitude East 14 of Greenwich
FLORA AND FAUNA]
SWEDEN
191
at the south of lake Vetter — 42-4°; and V'estervik (.43 ft.) on the
Baltic— 43-2°.
But the local variations thus indicated are brought out more fully
by a consideration of seasonal, and especially winter, temperatures.
In Sweden July is generally the hottest month, the average tempera-
ture ranging from about 51° to 62°. In January, however, it ranges
from 4° to 32" (February is generally a little colder). Moreover,
there are two well-marked centres of very low winter temperature
in the inland parts. The one is in the mountainous region of the
south of Jemtland and the north of Dalarne, extending into Norway
and thus lying in the middle of the peninsula about 62° N. Here
the average temperature in January is 8-5°, whereas at Ostersund
it is over 15°. The other and more strongly marked centre is in
the far north, extending into Norway and Finland, where the
average is 3-8°. The effect of the spinal mountain range in modifying
oceanic conditions is thus illustrated. The same effect is well
shown by the linguiform isotherms. In January, for example, the
isotherm of 14°, after skirting the north coast of the Scandinavian
peninsula, turns southward along the Keel, crossing the upper part
of the district of the great northern lakes. It continues in this
direction as far as the northern end of Lake Mjosen in Norway
(61° N.), then turns sharply north-north-eastward, runs west of
Lake Siljan and tends north-east to strike the Bothnian coast near
Skelleftea. In July, on the other hand, the isotherms show an
almost constant temperature all over the country, and the linguiform
curves are wanting.
The relative length of the seasons shows contrasts similar to those
of temperature. In the north spring begins in May, summer in the
middle of June and autumn in the middle of August. In the south
and south-west spring begins in March, summer in the middle of
May and autumn in October. At Karesuando the last frost of
spring occurs on an average on the 1 5th of June, and the first of
autumn on the 27th of August, though night frosts may occur
earlier; while at Stockholm 4j months are free of frost. Ice forms
about October in the north, in November or December in the
midlands and south, and breaks up in May or June and in April
respectively. Ice covers the lakes for 100 to 115 days annually
in the south, 150 in the midlands and 200 to 220 in the north. A local
increase of the ice period naturally takes place in the upper parts of
the Smaland highlands ; and in the case of the great lakes of Norrland,
the western have a rather shorter ice period than the eastern. As
to the seas, the formation of ice on the west and south coasts is rare,
but in the central and northern parts of the Baltic drift-ice and a
fringe of solid ice along the coast arrests navigation from the end
of December to the beginning of April. Navigation in the southern
part of the Gulf of Bothnia is impeded from the end of November to
the beginning of May, and in the north the gulf is covered with ice
from November to the last half of May. Snow lies 47 days on an
average on the plains of Skane, while in the north it lies from 140
to 190 days.
The northern summers find compensation for brevity in duration
of sunshine and light. At Karesuando in 68° 26' N. and 1093 ft.
above sea-level the sun is seen continuously above the horizon from
the 26th of May to the l8th of July; at Haparanda for 23 hours,
at Stockholm for 183 hours and atLund for 175 hoursat the summer
solstice. Atmospheric refraction causes the sun to be visible for
periods varying from south to north for a quarter to half an hour
after it has actually sunk below the horizon. With the long twilight,
perhaps the most exquisite period of a season which provides a
succession of beautiful atmospheric effects, daylight lasts without
interruption from the l6th to the 27th of June as far south as Herno-
sand(62°38'N.).
The average annual rainfall for Sweden is 19-72 in., locally in-
creasing on the whole from north to south, and reaching a maximum
towards the south-west, precipitation on this coast greatly exceeding
that on the south-east. Thus the average in the north of Norrland
is 16-53 in-, in the south of Norrland 22-6 in. At Boras, midway
between the south end of Lake Vetter and the Cattegat, the average
is 35-08 in., and 45-82 in. were registered in 1898. At Kalmar,
however, on the Baltic opposite Oland, the average is 14-6 in. This
is an extreme instance for the locality, but the minimum for all
Sweden is found at Karesuando, with 12-32 in. The period of
maximum is generally the latter half of summer, and the minimum
in February and March; but the maximum occurs in October at
coast stations in Skane and in the island of Gotland. The propor-
tion of total precipitation which falls as snow ranges from 36% in
the north to 9 % in the south.
Flora. — In the preceding physical description indications are given
of the vast extent of forest in Sweden. The alpine treeless region
occupies only the upper flanks of the spinal mountain-range above
an elevation varying from 1800 ft. in the north to 3000 ft. in the
south. It is belted by a zone of birch woods, with occasional
mountain-ash and aspen, varying in width from about 20 m. in the
north to a fraction of a mile in the south. Below this extends a
great region of firwood covering the whole country north-east of
Lake yener and north of the Dal River. The fir (Pinus sylvestris)
and pine (Pinus abies) are the predominating trees Spruce is
common, and even predominates in the higher parts (between the
great valleys and immediately below the birch-belt) in the north
of Norrland. South of the southern limit indicated, in the midland
district of the great lakes, the oak (Quercus pedunculate) appears
as well as pine and fir; and, as much of this area is under cultivation,
many other trees have been introduced, as the ash, maple, elm and
lime. South of a line running, roughly, from the foot of Lake Vener
to Kalmar on the Baltic coast the beech begins to appear, and in
Skane and the southern part of the Cattegat seaboard becomes
predominant in the woods which break the wide cultivated places.
Of wild flowering plants only a very few are endemic species (though
more are endemic varieties) ; the bulk are immigrants after the last
glacial epoch. Of these most are common to arctic lands, or occur
as alpine plants in lower latitudes. The number of species decreases
according to geographical distribution from south to north; thus
while upwardsof 1000 are found in Skane, there are only about 700
in the midlands, 500 in the lower parts of southern Norrland and
less than 200 in the extreme north.
Fauna. — The effects of the great latitudinal range of Sweden
on its climate and flora has its parallel to a modified extent in the
case of fauna. Only a few animals are common to the entire
country, such as the hare (Lepus timidus) and the weasel ; although
certain others may be addea if the high mountain region be left
out of consideration, such as the squirrel, fox and various shrews.
Among large animals, the common bear and the wolf have been
greatly reduced in numbers even within later historic times. These
and the lynx are now restricted to the solitary depths of the northern
forests. Characteristic of the high mountainous region are the arctic
fox, the glutton and the lemming, whose singular intermittent
migrations to the lowlands have a considerable temporary influence
on the distribution of beasts and birds of prey. There may also be
mentioned the wild reindeer, which is rare, though large domesticated
herds are kept by the Lapps. The elk, carefully preserved, haunts
the lonely forests from the Arctic Circle even to the Smaland high-
lands. The roe-deer and red-deer are confined to the southern parts ;
though the first is found in the south of the midland plains. In
these plains the fox is most abundant, and the badger and hedgehog
are found. Martens and otters are to some extent hunted for their
skins. A white winter fur is characteristic of several of the smaller
animals, such as the hare, fox and weasel. The common and grey
seals are met with in the neighbouring seas, and Phoca foetida is
confined to the Baltic. Among birds by far the greater proportion
is migrant. Characteristic types common to the whole country are
the teal, snipe, golden plover and wagtail. In the northern moun-
tains the ptarmigan is common, and like other creatures assumes a
white winter dress; ducks and other water-fowl frequent the lakes;
the golden eagle, certain buzzards and owls are found, and among
smaller birds the Lappland bunting (Plectrophanes laponicus)
may be mentioned. In the coniferous forests the black grouse,
hazel grouse and willow grouse, capercailzie and woodcock are the
principal game birds; the crane is found in marshy clearings, birds
of prey are numerous, and the Siberian jay in the north and the
common jay in the south are often heard. But in the northern
forests small birds are few, and even in summer these wilds give a
strong general impression of lifelessness. In the midlands the par-
tridge is fairly common, though not readily enduring the harder
winters; and ring-doves and stock-doves occur. The lakes are the
homes of a variety of aquatic birds. On the coasts a number of
gulls and terns are found, also the eider-duck and the sea-eagle,
which, however, is also distributed far over the land. The species
of reptiles and amphibians are few and chiefly confined to the
southern parts. There are three species of snake, including the
viper; three of lizard; and eleven of batrachians. The rivers and
lakes are generally well stocked with fish, such as salmon, trout
of various species, gwyniad and vendace (especially in the north),
pike, eels, perch of various species, turbot, bream and roach. The
few sportsmen who have visited the higher parts of the great northern
rivers have found excellent trout-fishing, with pike, perch, char and
grayling, the char occurring in the uppermost parts of the rivers,
and the grayling below them. The fisheries, both fresh-water and
sea, are important, and fall for consideration as an industry. The
herring, cod, flatfish, mackerel and sprat are taken in the seas,
and also great numbers of a small herring called stromming. In
the brackish waters of the east coast sea fish are found, together with
pike, perch and other fresh-water forms. The crayfish is common
in many places in central and southern Sweden. Pearls are some-
times found in the fresh-water mussel (Margaritana margaritifera);
thus a tributary of the Lilla Lule River takes its name, Perle River,
from the pearls found in it. Among the lower marine animals a
few types of arctic origin are found, not only in the Baltic but even
in Lakes Vener and Vetter, having remained, and in the case of the
lakes survived the change to fresh water, after the disappearance
of the connexion with the Arctic seas across the region of the great
lakes, the Baltic, and north-east thereof. The molluscan fauna
is fairly rich, and insect fauna much more so, even in the north.
In summer in the uplands and the north the mosquito is sufficiently
common to cause some little annoyance.
People. — The population of Swedep in 1900 was 5,136,441.
The census is taken in an unusual manner, being drawn up from
the registries of the clergy according to parishes every ten years.
Approximate returns are made by the clergy annually. The
192
SWEDEN
[PEOPLE
following table shows the distribution of population in that year
through the Ian or administrative districts. The first column
shows the older divisions of the county into provinces, the names
and boundaries of which differ in many cases from the Idn.
These names, as appears elsewhere in this article, remain in
common use. The distribution of provinces and Ian between
the three main territorial divisions, Norrland (northern),
Svealand (central) and Gotaland (southern) is also indicated.
Old Provinces.
Lan.
Area
sq. m.
Pop.
1900.
Norrland —
Lappland, Norrbotten
Lappland, Vesterbotten .
Angermanland, Medel-
pad ....
Norrbotten
Vesterbotten
Vesternorrland
40,867
22,771
9,855
134-769
143-735
232,311
Jemtland, Herjedal .
Helsingland, Gestrik-
land
Jemtland
Gefleborg
19,675
7,6l5
111,391
238,048
Svealand —
Dalarne (Dalecarlia) .
Vermland
Vestmanland "1
Nerike
Sodermanland f • • 1
Uppland J
Gotaland — r
Ostergotland "1
Vestergotland 1 • • J
Dal
Bohuslan
Halland . . .
Kopparberg
Vermland
Orebro .
Vestmanland
Sodermanland .
Upsala
Stockholm dist.
Stockholm, city
Ostergotland
Skaraborg .
Elfsborg
Goteborg och
Bohus
Halland
",524
7,459
3,5n
2,612
2,631
2,051
3,oi5
13
4,264
3-273
4,912
1,948
217,708
254,284
194,924
148,271
167,428
123,863
172,852
300,624
279.449
241,069
279,514
337,175
141 688
Smaland ....-!
Blekinge
Skane J
Jonkoping
Kronoberg .
Kalmar
Blekinge
Kristianstad
4,447
3,825
4,456
1,164
2,488
203,036
159-124
227,625
146,302
219,166
Gotland
Gland5
Malmohus .
Gotland1 . .
1,864
1,219
409,304
52,78i
Total . .
172,875'
5,136,441
The population in 1908 was about 5,429,600. In 1751 it was
1,802,373, and in 1865, 4,114,141. The average annual increase
was 7-86 per thousand in the igth century, reaching a maximum
of 10-39 in 1841-1860, before the period of extensive emigration
set in. Emigrants numbered 584,259 men and 424,566 women
between 1851 and 1900, these figures helping to account for the
considerable excess of women over men in the resident popula-
tion, which in 1900 was as 1049 to 1000. The periods of greatest
emigration were 1868-1873 and 1879-1893; the decline in later
years is regarded as a favourable sign. The United States of
America receive a large majority of the emigrants, and only a
very small percentage returns. The Swedish people belong
to the Scandinavian branch, but the population includes in
the north about 20,000 Finns and 7000 Lapps. Other foreigners,
however, are few, and the population is as a whole homogeneous.
Immigrants in the period 1851-1900 numbered only 165,357.
Population is naturally denser in the south than in the north,
and densest of all in the districts along the southern coasts; thus
Malmohus Lan has about 220 persons per sq. m., Goteborg och
Bohus Lan 174 and Blekinge 127. In Norrland as a whole, however,
there are less than 9 persons per sq. m., in Norrbottens Lan less
than 4, and in the uplands of this division and Vesterbottens Lan
much less than this. However, the annual increase per thousand
has been greater in Norrland than elsewhere. The annual excess
of births over deaths is high, the proportion being as 1-68 to I.
The birth-rate between 1876 and 1900 averaged 28-51 per thousand ;
the death-rate between 1891 and 1900 was 16-36 per thousand, the
lowest ever recorded over such a period for any European country.
The lowest mortality is found in the districts about Lakes Vener and
Vetter; the highest in Norbotten, the east midland districts, Skanc,
and Goteborg och Bohus Lan.
The percentage of illegitimacy is rather high (though it decreased
1 The island and adjacent islets.
2 Island included in Kalmar Lan.
3 Including the four great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Malar Hjelmar,
3516 sq. m.
during the second half of the nineteenth century) ; one cause of this
may be found in the fact that the percentage of married persons
is lower than in most European countries. As regards social
evils generally, however, the low, though undoubtedly improving,
standard of Sweden has had one of its chief reasons in the national
intemperance.. In 1775 Gustavus III. made the sale of spirits
(brdnnvin) a government monopoly, and the drinking habit was
actually fostered. About 1830 this evil reached its highest develop-
ment, and it is estimated that nine gallons of spirits were then
consumed annually per head of the population. Mainly through
the efforts of Peter Wieselgren, dean of Gothenburg (1800-1877),
a strong temperance reform movement set in, and in 1855 important
liquor Taws were passed to restrict both production and sale of
intoxicating liquors. The so-called Gothenburg System, providing
for municipal control of the sale of intoxicants (see LIQUOR LAWS),
came into full operation in Gothenburg in 1865. The temperance
movement has had its reward ; the average of consumption of beer
and spirits in Sweden is considerably lower than in Europe as
a whole, though the effect of intoxicants is sometimes very apparent.
A marked difference of temperament is noticeable between
the Swedes and Norwegians, the Swedes being the more light-
hearted and vivacious. In some of the more remote parts of
the country old customs are maintained and picturesque local
costumes still worn, as in Dalecarlia (<?.».). The Lapps moreover
retain their distinctive dress. In other cases early costumes
are preserved only as a historical reminiscence at festivities.
Although the characteristic celebrations at weddings or periodical
festivals are, as elsewhere, decreasing in favour, there are certain
occasions which are observed as holidays with much ceremony.
Such are Christmas Day, and, not unnaturally in this northern
land, Midsummer (June 23 and 24). The food of the people
in the midlands and south is plentiful and good; in the remoter
parts of the north an unfavourable summer is followed by a
winter of scarcity or even famine; and in these parts meat is
little used. Rye is extensively employed in the rural districts
for the making of a hard bread in flat cakes (knackebrod). A
prevalent custom among the better classes is that of beginning
meals with a selection of such viands as anchovies, smoked
salmon or slices of meat, of which a number of small dishes are
provided (smorgasbord). These are taken with bread and butter
and a glass of spirits. The more characteristic Swedish sports
are naturally those of the winter. These include ski-running
(skidlopning), skating and skate-sailing, tobogganing and
sledging. The numerous inland waters and sheltered channels
within the skargard have caused the high development of sailing
as a summer sport, the Royal Swedish Yacht Club having its
headquarters in Stockholm. Athletic sports are in high favour,
especially such winter sports as snow-shoeing (ski}, and, among
ball games, lawn-tennis, and to some extent football, together
with the game of park, peculiar to Gotland, are played.
Towns. — In the first half of the igth century the percentage of
urban population remained nearly stationary at a little less than 10.
In 1880 it was 15-12, and in 1900 21-49. The towns with a popula-
tion exceeding 15,000 in 1900 are Stockholm (300,624), Gothenburg
(130,609), Malmo (60,857), Norrkoping (41,008), Gefle (29,522).
Helsingborg (24,670), Karlskrona (23,955), Jonkoping (23,143),
Upsala (22,855), Orebro (22,013), Lund (16,621), Boras (15,837),
Halmstad (15,362).
Swedish towns, though rarely of quite modern foundation,
generally appear so, for the use of brick in building is mainly of
modern introduction, and is still by no means general, . .,
so that the partial or total destruction of a town by
fire is now only less common than formerly. The
rectangular method of laying out streets is general, and legislation
has been directed against narrow streets and buildings of excessive
height. The common material of the characteristic domestic
architecture in rural districts fe wood, except in Skane, where stone
is available and has been used from early times. Some of the old
wooden farm-buildings, especially in Dalarne, such as are pre-
served in Skansen Museum at Stockholm, are extremely picturesque.
Another notable form in old wooden building is the belfry (klok-
stapel) of some village churches, examples of which are seen at Habo
near Jonkoping and Hasjo in Jemtland on the northern railway.
In the midlands and south fine castles and manor houses of the
1 6th and I7th centuries are fairly numerous, and there are a few
remains of previous date. The fortified dwelling-house at Glim-
mingehus in the extreme south near Simrishamn is a good early
example. Several of the southern ports have old citadels. That of
Kajmar, on its island, is specially fine, while those at Vestervik
(Stakeholm), Malmo, Falkenberg and Varberg may also be men-
tioned. Among country palaces or mansions that of Gripsholm
is notable, overlooking Lake Malar, the shores of which are specially
COMMUNICATIONS]
SWEDEN
193
rich in historic sites and remains In ecclesiastical architecture
Sweden possesses the noble cathedrals of Lund, Upsala and Linko-
ping; while that of Skara, near the southern shore of Lake Vener,
dates originally from 1150, and that of Strengniis on Lake Malar
was consecrated in 1291. There is a remarkably perfect Roman-
esque church, with aisles, eastern apse and ambulatory, at Varnhem
in Skaraborg Liin, and there are a few village churches of the same
period in this district and in Skane. The monastic church at
Vadstena on Lake Vetter is a beautiful example of Gothic of the
1 4th and I5th centuries. But the richest locality as regards ancient
ecclesiastical architecture is the island of Gotland (q.v,).
Travel and Communications. — As a resort for foreign travellers
and tourists Sweden lacks the remarkable popularity of Norway.
The Gota canal route, however, is used by many; the uplands of
Dalecarlia (Dalarne) are frequented; and the railway through the
Jemtland highlands to Trondhjem gives access to a beautiful region,
where numerous sanatoria are in favour with the Swedes themselves.
The northern railway offers a land route to the Arctic coast of Nor-
way. Along the southern coasts there are many watering-places.
Marstrand near Gothenburg is one of the most fashionable ; Strom-
stad, Lysekil and Varbergon the same coast, Ronneby on the Baltic,
with its chalybeate springs, Visby the capital of Gotland, and several
villages in the neighbourhood of Stockholm may also be noted.
The headquarters of the Swedish Touring Club (Svenska Turist-
foreningen) are in Stockholm, but its organization extends through-
out the country, and is of special value to travellers in the far north.
The first railway in Sweden was opened for traffic in 1856, and the
system has developed extensively; more so, in fact, in proportion
to population, than in any other European country.
Railways. About 8000 m. of railway are open, but extensions are
constantly in progress. About two-thirds are private lines and one-
third government lines. The central administration of the govern-
ment lines is in the hands of a board of railway directors, and there
are local administrative bodies for each of five districts. A railway
council, created in 1902, acts as an advisory body on large economical
questions and the like. Private railways are controlled by the regu-
lations of the board, while a joint traffic union has as its object
the provision of uniformity of administration, tariff, &c. The
government has made grants towards the construction of some of
the private lines, and has in a few cases taken over such lines.
The railways form a network over the country as far north as Gefle
and the district about Lake Siljan. The government works the trunk
lines from Stockholm to Malmo, to Gothenburg and to Christiania
as far as the Norwegian frontier, and other important through
routes in the south. The great northern line is also worked by the
government. It runs north from Stockholm roughly parallel with
the east coast, throwing off branches to the chief seaports, and also
a branch from Bracke to Ostersund and Storlien, where it joins a
line from Trondhjem in Norway. At Boden the main line joins a
line originally built to connect the iron-mines of Gellivara with the
port of Lulea; the system is continued past Gellivara to Narvik
on the Ofoten Fjord in Norway, this being far north of the Arctic
Circle, and the line the most northerly in the world. The gauge
of all the government lines and about 66% of the private lines is
1-435 metres (4 ft. 85 in.). Nearly all the lines are single. Passen-
ger travelling is slow, but extremely comfortable. The principal
connexions with the south are made across the sound from Malmo
to Copenhagen, and from Trelleborg to Sassnitz in Germany.
The extensive system of natural waterways, especially in central
Sweden, has been utilized to the full in the development of internal
navigation, just as the calm waters within the skargard
n a^ort^ opportunity for safe and economical coastwise
' traffic. The earliest construction of canals dates from
the 1 5th century, the patriot Engelbrekt and King Gustavus
Vasa both foreseeing its importance. The theories of construction
remained rudimentary until early in the igth century, when the
Gota (q.v.) canal was opened. The total length of the canalized
water-system of Sweden is a little over 700 m., though wholly
artificial waterways amount only to 1 15 m. out of this total. A large
local traffic is carried on by steam launches on the lakes during
the season of open navigation ; and vessels have even been introduced
on some of the lakes and rivers of the far north, principally in con-
nexion with the timber trade. Posting, which is of importance
only in the highland districts and the valley roads of Norrland, is
carried on by posting-stations (skjutsstatiori) under government
regulations; similar regulations apply when, as in the upper valleys
of the great northern rivers, rowing boats on the lakes form the only
means of travel. The condition of the high roads is fair as a whole,
and has been much improved by increased state grants towards
their upkeep; but in Norrland they are naturally not of the best
class. The postal and telegraph system is efficacious, and the
telephone service, maintained partly by the state and partly by
companies, is very fully developed. About twenty telephones are
in use per thousand of population, and a system of trunk-lines
between the important towns has been established since 1889.
Agriculture. — Of the total land area of Sweden only about 12% is
arable or meadow land, but the percentage varies greatly in different
parts, as will be understood from a recollection of the main physical
divisions. Thus in Skane nearly 60% of the land is under cultiva-
tion; in the midlands about 30%; in the north from 4-5% in
XXVI. 7
southern Norrland to 3% in northern Norrland. Almost
exactly half the total area is under forest, its proportion ranging
from 25 °/? in Skane to upwards of 70 % in the inland parts of Svea-
land and in the south of Norrland. Land which is neither cultivable
nor under forest (marsh land or, in the northern mountainous
districts, land above the upper limit of the forests) amounts to 61 %
in the far north and 36 % in the Smaland highlands, but only to 15%
in the central plains and in Skane. In the more highly cultivated
districts^of the south reclamation of such lands is constantly pro-
ceeding. Agriculture and cattle-breeding employ over one-half
the whole population. The average size of farms is 25 acres of
cultivated land ; only I % exceeds 250 acres, whereas 23 % are of
5 acres or less. The greater part of the land has always been held
by small independent farmers (only about 15% of the farms are
worked by tenants), but until late in the l8th century a curious
method of parcelling the land resulted in each man s property
consisting of a number of detached plots or strips, the divisions
often becoming so minute that dissension was inevitable. Early
in the igth century various enactments made it possible for
each property to become a coherent whole. A legal parcelling
(laga skifle) was introduced in 1827 and slowly carried out in the face
of considerable local opposition; indeed, in the island of Gotland
the system could not be enforced until 1870-1880. Roughly
about 48-5 % of the total cultivated area is under cereals, 33-8 under
fodder plants, 5-8 under root-crops, and 1 1 -8 fallow, this last showing
a steady decrease. Oats, rye, barley, mixed grain and wheat are the
grain-crops in order of importance. During the igth century the
percentage under wheat showed a general tendency to increase;
that under oats increased much in the later decades as livestock
farming became common, rye maintained a steady proportion, but
barley, formerly the principal grain-crop, decreased greatly. This
last is the staple crop in Norrland, becoming the only grain-crop in
the extreme north ; in the richer agricultural lands of the midlands
and south rye is predominant in th'e east, oats in the west. The
high agricultural development of the plains of Skane appears from
the fact that although that province occupies only one-fortieth of
the total area of Sweden, it produces 30% of the entire wheat
cr°P. 33% of the barley, 18% of the rye and 13% of the oats.
A system of rotation (cereal, roots, grass) is commonly followed,
each division of land lying fallow one year as a rule; not more than
two ripe grain-crops are commonly taken consecutively. Potatoes
occupy 4-4% of the total area, and other root-crops J'4%-
These include the sugar-beet, the profitable growing of which is
confined to Skane and the islands of Oland and Gotland. The sugar
industry, however, is very important. Orchards and gardens occupy
about I % of the cultivated area. Fruit-trees are grown, mainly
in the south and midlands; northward (as far as Hernosand) they
flourish only in sheltered spots on the coast. Between 1850 and 1900
the total head of livestock increased from 4,500,000 to 5,263,000,
and the great advance of cattle-farming is evident from the follow-
ing proportions. Whereas in 1870—1875 imported cattle and cattle-
farming produce exceeded exports as 12 to 7, in 1900 the value of
exports was nearly double that of imports ; and it may be added that
whereas as late as 1870-1880 the exports of agricultural produce
exceeded imports in value, in 1896-1900 they were less than one-
tenth. The principal breeds of cattle are the alpine in Norrland,
and Ayrshire, short-horn, and red-and-white Swedish in the midlands
and south. The Gotland, an old native light yellow breed, survives
in the island of Gotland. Oxen, formerly the principal draught
animals, have been replaced by horses. Cattle, especially cows,
and pigs form the bulk of the livestock, but sheep and goats have
greatly decreased in numbers. The Lapps own upwards of 230.000
head of reindeer. Dairy-farming is profitable, England and Den-
mark being the principal foreign consumers of produce, and the
industry is carefully fostered by the government. A board of
agriculture had been in operation for many years when in 1900 a
separate department of agriculture was formed. There are one or
more agricultural societies in each Ian, and there are various state
educational establishments in agriculture, such as the agricultural
high schools at Ultuna near Upsala, and at Alnarp near Lund in
Skane, an important agricultural centre, with dairy schools and other
branch establishments. Filially, there are numerous horticultural
societies, large nurseries and gardening schools at Stockholm, Alnarp
and elsewhere, and botanical gardens attached to the universities
of Lund and Upsala.
Forests and Forestry. — Of the forests about one-third are public;
the majority of these belong to the Crown, while a small proportion
belongs to hundreds and parishes. The remainder is in private
hands. The public forests are administered by the office of Crown
lands through a forest service, which employs a large staff of forest-
masters and rangers. The private forests are protected from abuse
chiefly by the important legislation of 1903, which prescribes
penalties for excessive lumbering and any action liable to endanger
the regrowth of wood. The administration of the law devolves
upon local forest conservancy boards. In the great fir forests of
the north the limit set in respect of cutting down living trees for
sawing and export is a diameter of the trunk, without bark, of
8J in. at 155 ft. from the base. Members of the forest service
undergo a preliminary course of instruction at a school of forestry,
and a further course at the Institute of Forestry, Stockholm, which
194
SWEDEN
[INDUSTRIES; COMMERCE
dates from 1828. There are very numerous sawmills, using water-
power, steam and electricity; they are situated chiefly in the coast
districts of the Gulf of Bothnia, from Gefle northwards, especially
in the neighbourhood of Sundsvall and along the Angerman River,
and in the neighbourhood of all the ports as far north aa Lulea and
Haparanda. There are also upland mills in Dalarne and Vermland,
and a considerable number in the neighbourhood of Gothenburg.
The wood-pulp industry centres in the districts west and north of
Lake Vener and south of Lake Vetter. In the north vast quantities
of timber are floated down the great rivers, and the lesser streams are
used as floating-ways by the provision of flumes and dams. The
millowners either own forests, or lease the right of cutting, or buy
the timber when cut, in the Crown or private forests. Among the
special articles exported may be mentioned railway-sleepers, pit-
props, and wood-pulp.
Fisheries. — The sea-fisheries, which are prosecuted principally in
the calm waters within the skargard, are a variable source of wealth.
For example, in 1894 nearly 2,000,000 cwt. of fresh fish (principally
herring) were exported, but in subsequent years the fisheries were
much less prolific; in 1900 only 80,000 cwt. were exported, and in
1903 less than 150,000 cwt. As a rule each crew jointly owns its
boat and tackle. The fishery is of ancient importance; at the old
towns of Falsterbo and Skanor, south of Malmo, thousands of fisher-
men were employed until the harbours became choked in 1631, and
the fish were a valuable item in the Hanseatic commerce. There are
rich salmon-fisheries in the lower parts of the great northern rivers,
especially the Torne, Kalix, Lule, Angerman and Indal; in the Dal,
the Klar and Gota, and several of the lesser rivers of the south. In
the majority of rivers no special necessity has been found to protect
the fishing. As a general rule the owner of the shore owns the river-
fishing. The chief inspector of fisheries is a member of the board
of agriculture.
Mining. — The iron-mining industry is of high importance, the
output of iron ore forming by far the largest item in the total output
of ores and minerals. Thus in 1902 the total output was nearly
35 million tons, of which 2,850,000 tons were iron ore. The output
of iron ore has greatly increased; in 1870-1880 it averaged annually
little more than one-quarter of the amount in 1902. The deposits
of iron ore are confined almost wholly to the extreme north of Norr-
land, and to a midland zone extending from the south of the Gulf
of Bothnia to a point north of Lake Vener, which includes the
Dannemora ore fields in the eastern part. In Norrland the deposits
at Gellivara have long been worked, with the assistance of a railway
to the Bothnian port of Lulea, but in 1903 the northern railway was
completed across the Norwegian frontier to Narvik on Ofoten Fjord,
and the vast deposits at the hills of Kirunavara and Luossavara
began to be worked. These deposits alone are estimated to have
an extent exceeding one-quarter of the total ore fields worked in the
country. The deposits are generally in pockets, and the thickness
of the beds ranges from loo to nearly 500 ft. at Kirunavara, up to
230 ft. at Gellivara, and in the midland fields generally from 40 to
100 ft., although at the great field of Grangesberg, in Kopparberg
and Orebro Lan, a thickness of nearly 300 ft. is found. Nearly all
the ore is magnetite, and in the midlands it is almost wholly free of
phosphorus. The percentage of iron in the ore is high, as much as
66% in the Kirunavara-Luossavara ore; and little less in that of
Grangesberg; this far exceeds other European ores, though it is
equalled by some in America. Sweden possesses little coal, and
pig-iron is produced with charcoal only; its quality is excellent,
but Sweden's proportion to the world's produce is hardly more than
I %, whereas in the I7th and l8tk centuries, before the use of coal
elsewhere, it was much greater. As an industry, however, the pro-
duction both of pig-iron and of wrought iron and steel is increasingly
prosperous. The ironworks and blast-furnaces are almost wholly
in the midland districts. Copper has been mined at Falun since the
1 4th century; it is also produced at Atvidaberg in Ostergotland.
The production, however, has greatly decreased. A little gold and
silver are extracted at Falun, and the silver mines at Sala in Vest-
manlands Lan have been worked at least since the l6th century,
but here again the output has decreased. Lead is produced at Sala
and Kafveltorp, and zinc ore at Ammeberg. Coal is found in small
beds in Skane, east and north of Helsingborg, at Billesholm, Bjuf
andHoganas; but the amount raised, although increasing, is only
some 300,000 tons annually. Mining administration is in the charge
of a special bureau of the board of trade. The Iron Institute
(Jarnkontoret) was established in 1748 as a financial institution, in
which the chief iron-mining companies have shares, for the advance-
ment of advantageous loans and the promotion of the industry
generally. It maintains a special education and investigation fund.
There are schools of mining at Stockholm (the higher school), Falun
and Filipstad in Vermland.
Manufactures.— If the total value of the output of the manufac-
turing industries in Sweden be taken as I op, the following are the
most important of those industries, according to the approximate
percentage of each to the whole : iron industries 18-3, and mechanical
works 4; saw-milling 12-5 and wood-pulp works 2-5; cloth-factories
and spinning-mills 8; flour-mills 6-4; sugar-refining and beet-sugar
works 6; spirit distilling and manufacture 4-7, and brewing 2-6;
dairy products 4-4; papermaking 1-6; leaving a remainder of 29%
for other industries. The total annual value of the output is about
£72,000,000. The great mechanical works are found at or near
Malmo, Stockholm, Jonkoping, Trollhattan, Motala on Lake Vetter,
Lund, Gothenburg, Karlstad, Falun and Eskilstuna, which is
especially noted for its cutlery. A few other establishments includ-
ing both mechanical workshops and ore-extraction works may be
mentioned: Domnarfvet, on the Dal River, near Falun; Sandviken,
near Gefle ; and Bofors in Orebro Lan. The principal centres of the
textile industry are Norrkoping in Ostergotland and Boras in Elfs-
borg Lan, where there are weaving schools ; and the industry is
spread over Elfsborg Lan and the vicinity of Gothenburg. There
is a linen industry in Smiland and in the south of Norrland. One
of the most notable special industries of Sweden is match-making,
for which there are large works at Jonkoping, Tidaholm in Skaraborg
Lan and in the neighbourhood of Kalmar. The centre of the beet-
sugar industry is Skane, but it is also carried on in the island of
Gotland ; its great access of prosperity is chiefly owing to the existence
of a protective duty on imported sugar. Spirit distillation centres
in Kristianstad Lan. Among other industries may be mentioned
the earthenware works at Hoganas at the north end of the Sound,
the cement works of Lpmma in this vicinity, and the pottery works
of Rorstrand in, and Gustafsberg near, Stockholm ; where beautiful
ware is produced. Stone is worked chiefly in Goteborg och Bohus
and Blekinge Lan.
Commerce. — Exports approach £30,000,000 and imports £40,000,000
in average annual value.
Of the total exports that of timber, wrought and unwrought,
represents 50%; the other principal exports with approximate
percentage are: iron and steel 13-5, iron ore 3-6, machinery and
implements 3-2, and other iron ana steel goods. 2-7; butter 10; paper
3-4; carpentry work 3; matches 2-3. The principal imports with
percentage to the whole are: coal and coke 15, grain 8, coffee 4-6,
machinery 4, wool, yarn, thread, cotton and woollen goods 9-4;
hides and skins 2-5. Oil and fish are also important. The principal
countries trading with Sweden are the United Kingdom (exports
from Sweden 38-2%, imports to Sweden 25-7), Germany (exports
1 6%, imports 39) and Denmark (exports 14%, imports 12-5).
Other countries with which Sweden has mainly an export trade are
France, the Netherlands and Norway. With Russia on the other
hand the trade is principally import. In the case of the United
Kingdom, Germany, Denmark and Norway, the transit trade forms
an important proportion of the whole. The coal importecj (which
forms over 90 % of the whole consumed) comes mainly from Great
Britain; while most of the colonial produce, such as coffee and
tobacco, comes through Germany. The match and paper export
trade is principally with the United Kingdom. Between 1865 and
1888 Sweden employed a modified system of free trade, but various
enactments in 1888 and 1892 reintroduced methods of protection.
Shipping. — The total number of vessels in the Swedish commercial
fleet is about 3000 of 650,000 tons register; of which steamers
represent about 380,000 tons. On an average about 73,000 vessels,
of an aggregate tonnage of 17,500,000, enter and clear the ports.
The principal ports of register are Gothenburg, Stockholm, Helsing-
borg and Gefle, in order; though the principal commercial ports are
Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmo. Owing to the natural configura-
tion of the coast and the skargard excellent natural harbours are
almost without number. Artificial harbours are consequently few,
but those at Helsingborg, Malmo, Halmstad, Ystad and Kalmar
may be mentioned. The principal docks are at Gothenburg, Stock-
holm, Malmo, Oskarshamn and Norrkoping, besides the naval docks
at Karlskrona; and the principal ports where large vessels can be
accommodated on slips are Malmo, Gothenburg, Stockholm, Karls-
krona and Gefle. A list of the chief ports may be conveniently
classified. On the west coast north of Gothenburg are Stromstad,
near the Norwegian frontier, and Uddevalla, on a .deep inlet behind
the island of Orust, 35 m. from the open Cattegat. South of Gothen-
burg on the open coast are Varberg and Halmstad ; and on the Sound
are the three large ports of Helsingborg, Landskrona and Malmo.
Passing to the Baltic, Trelleborg and Ystad lie on the southernmost
coast of the country, and Simrishamn, Ahus the outport of Kristian-
stad, Karlshamn, Ronneby and Karlskrona on the wide Hanp Bay. <
On Kalmar Sound are Kalmar and Oskarshamn ; and continuing
northward, Vestervik, Soderkpping at the head of the inlet Slat-
baken, Norrkoping, similarly situated on Braviken, and Stockholm,
far within the skargard. On the Bothnian coast there is a port at
or near the mouth of each great river, where the timber floated down
from the interior is both worked and exported. The chief ports
here, from south to north, are: Gefle, Soderhamn, Hudiksvall,
Sundsvall, Hernosand, Ornskoldsvik, Umea, Skelleftea, Pitea and
Lulea, the last exporting the ore from the northern iron-mines.
Banks. — The first Swedish bank, called the Palmstruch bank
after its founder, Johan Palmstruch, was incorporated in 1656.
It began to issue notes in 1661. It was shortly afterwards bankrupt,
and in 1668 the Bank of Sweden (Sveriges Riksbank) succeeded it.
This is managed by a board of seven delegates, the chairman being
elected by the government, while the Riksdag (parliament) elects
the remainder. It began to issue notes in 1701. This ability was
shared by private banks with solidary responsibility until 1903,
but under a reform of 1897 the riksbank took over, from 1904,
the whole right of issuing paper currency, which is in wide use. The
capital of the riksbank is 50,000,000 kronor (£2,250,000). The
CONSTITUTION]
SWEDEN
other banks are joint-stock banks and savings-banks, of which
the first was opened at Gothenburg in 1820. The post office savings
bank was opened in 1884.
Coinage. — The counting unit in the Swedish coinage is the krona.
equal to I • I shilling. The monetary unit is 10 kronor gold, and gok
pieces, not widely met with in circulation, are struck of 20, 10 ant
5 kronor. The krona equals 100 ore. Silver pieces of 2 and I krona
50, 25 and 10 ore are struck, and bronze pieces of 5, 2, and I ore
Sweden, Norway and Denmark have the same monetary system
Finance. — In the budget for 1910 revenue and expenditure were
estimated at £12,674,300. The principal sources of income in the
ordinary revenue are railways, forests, telegraphs and rent from Crown
lands; and those in the revenue voted (bevillningar) , which is about
seven-eighths of the whole, customs, the taxes on spirits and beet-
sugar, and income from the post office The departments to which
the bulk of expenditure is devoted are those of the army, the interior,
the navy and education. A large proportion of the army expendi-
ture was formerly defrayed by a system of military tenure on certain
lands. Land-taxes, however, were finally abolished in 1904, and
their place was taken by an increased taxation on real estate, revised
triennially, and by an income tax arranged on a sliding scale, up to
4 % of the income (9-6 pence in the £), settled according to individual
declaration. The national debt was practically nil until c. 1855,
and the debt contracted thereafter owes its existence almost wholly
to railway construction. It increased from about £2,300,000 in
i860 to £6,400,060 in 1870 and £18,600,000 in 1900. In 1904 it
exceeded £19,000,000. The greater proportion of communal revenue
comes from income and property tax. the sale of spirits under the
Gothenburg System, and contributions from the treasury. Primary
education, poor relief, and Church purposes form the principal items
of expenditure.
Constitution and Government. — Sweden is a limited monarchy,
the constitution resting primarily on a law (regerings-formen)
of the 6th of June 1809. The king is irresponsible, and executive
power is vested in him alone. All his resolutions, however,
must be taken in the presence of the cabinet (slatsrM). The
cabinet councillors are appointed by the king and are responsible
to the parliament (Riksdag). They are eleven in number, one
being prime minister, two others consultative ministers, and
the remaining eight heads of the departments of administration,
which are justice, foreign affairs, land defence, naval defence,
home affairs, finance, public works, agriculture. The councillors
must be of Swedish birth and adherents of the Lutheran
confession. The appointment of the majority of public officials
is vested in the king, who can himself dismiss cabinet ministers
and certain others, whereas in most cases a judicial inquiry is
necessary before dismissal. The king shares legislative powers
with the Riksdag, (parliament or diet), possessing the rights of
initiation and absolute veto. He has also, in certain adminis-
trative and economic matters, a special legislative right.
The Riksdag consists of two chambers. The members of the
first chamber are elected by the landsthing, or representative
bodies of the Ian, and by the municipal councils of some of the
larger towns. They number 150, and are distributed among
the constituencies in proportion to population; the distribution
being revised every tenth year. Eligibility necessitates Swedish
birth, an age of at least 35 years, and the possession, at the time
of election and for three years previously, either of real property
to the value of 80,000 kronor (£4400), or an annual income on
which taxes have been paid of 4000 kronor (£220). Members
are unpaid. The members of the second chamber number 230,
of whom 150 are elected from rural constituencies and 80 from
towns. The members receive a salary of 1200 kronor (£66),
and are elected for a period of three years by electors, or directly,
according to the resolution of the electoral district. If a member
retires during that period, or if the chamber is dissolved, suc-
ceeding members are elected for the remainder of the three
years, and thus the house is wholly renewed at regular intervals,
which is not the case with the first house. The franchise was
for long extremely limited in comparison with other countries,
but in 1907 universal manhood suffrage was introduced, after
protracted dissension and negotiation between the two houses.
Eligibility to the lower house necessitates possession of the
elective franchise, an age of at least 25 years, and residence
within the constituency. Both chambers have in theory equal
power. Before bills are discussed they may be prepared by
committees, which play an important part in the work of the
house. The agreement of both chambers is necessary before
a bill becomes law, but when they differ on budget questions
the matter is settled by a common vote of both, which arrange-
ment gives the second chamber a certain advantage from the
greater number of its members. By revisers elected annually
the Riksdag controls the finances of the kingdom, and by an
official (justitieombudsman) elected in the same way the adminis-
tration of justice is controlled; he can indict any functionary
of the state who has abused his power. The bank of the kingdom
is superintended by trustees elected by the Riksdag, and in the
same way the public debt is administered through an office
(riksgaldskonloret), whose head is appointed by the Riksdag.
Local Government. — For the purposes of local government Sweden
is divided into 25 administrative districts called Ian, a list of which
is given in the paragraph dealing with population. The elected
representative body in each is the landsthine, which deliberates on
the affairs of the Ian and has a right to levy taxes. The chief
official of the Ian is the landshofding, under whom are secretarial
and fiscal departments. Privileged towns, receiving their privileges
from the government (not necessarily on the basis of population),
are under a mayor (borgmdstare) and aldermen (radntan), the alder-
men being elected by the citizens, while the mayor is appointed
by the government from the first three aldermen on the poll, is paid,
and holds office for life. Gothenburg has two mayors, and the city
of Stockholm (q.v.), a Ian in itself, has a special form of govern-
ment. The major rural divisions are the fogderier, under bailiffs,
a subdivision of which is the lansmansdistrikt under a lansman.
Justice. — Justice is administered by tribunals of three instances.
(1) There are 119 rural judicial districts (domsagor), which may be
subdivided into judicial divisions (tingslag). Each tingslag has a
court (hdradsrdtt), consisting of a judge and twelve unpaid assessors
(namndeman),pl whom seven form a quorum, elected by the people.
These, if unanimously of a different opinion to the judge, can out-
vote him. The town-courts in the privileged towns are called
rddstufvuratter, and consist of the mayor and at least two aldermen.
(2) There are three higher courts (hofrdtter), in Stockholm, Jonkop-
ing and Kristianstad. (3) The Supreme Court (Hogsta Domstolen)
passes sentences in the name of the king, who is nominally the
highest judicial authority. The court has a membership of 18
justices (justitier&d) , two of whom are present in the council of state
when law questions are to be settled; while the body also gives
opinion upon all proposed changes of law.
Army and Afoi/y.—General military service is enforced. Every
Swedish man belongs to the conscripts (vdrnpligtige) between
the age of 21 and 40, during which time he serves eight years in the
first levy, four in the second, and eight in the reserves. The con-
scripts were formerly trained for 90 days, but according to the law
of 1901, the conscript is bound to serve in time of peace — in the
infantry, position artillery, fortress artillery, fortress engineers, and
the army service corps a total of 240 days ; and in the cavalry, field
artillery, field engineers, and field telegraph corps a total of 365 days.
The permanent cadres number about 22,000, and about 85,000 men
are annually trained as recruits or recalled for further training. The
organization of the army in time of peace is as follows : 82 battalions
of infantry (28 regiments), 50 squadrons of cavalry, 71 field artillery
and 7 position artillery batteries, 10 fortress artillery, 16 engineer,
and 1 8 army service corps companies. There are six divisions,
quartered at Helsingborg, Linkoping, Skofde, Stockholm (two),
and Hernosand; in addition to the Gotland troops quartered at
Visby. A division in time of war would probably consist of 2 batta-
lions of infantry (4 regiments, 12 battalions), with 4 squadrons of
ravalry, I artillery regiment, I company of engineers, &c. A
:avalry division would consist of 2 brigades of 8 squadrons each,
and I brigade of horse artillery. It is estimated that 500,000 men
are available for service in the various capacities in case of war.
There are fortresses at Stockholm (Vaxholm and Oscar-Fredriks-
Dorg), Boden on the northern railway near the Russian frontier,
Karlsborg on Lake Vetter, and Karlskrona ; and there are forts at
Gothenburg and on Gotland. The reforms of 1901 abolished the
indelta, a body including both infantry and cavajry who lived in
various parts of the country, in some cases having their houses
jrovided for them. This peculiar system of military tenure (indel-
ningsverket) originated in the i?th century, when certain landowners
were exempt from other military obligations if they provided and
maintained armed men. The navy is small, including II ironclads
of 3100 to 3650 tons. The personnel consists of a cadre, referve and
about 17,000 conscripts. It also includes two coast-artillery regi-
ments, with headquarters at Vaxholm and Karlskrona. The prin-
cipal naval station is Karlskrona, and there is another at Stockholm.
Religion. — More than 99 % of the total population belong to the
Swedish Lutheran Church, of which the king is the supreme head.
Sweden is divided into 12 dioceses and 186 deaneries, the head
of the diocese of Upsala being archbishop. The parish is an
mportant unit in secular as well as ecclesiastical connexions.
The rector presides over the local school board, which is appointed
>y the church assembly (kyrkostamman), and thus an intimate
relation between the church and education has long been maintained.
A peculiar duty of the clergy is found in the husforhor or meetings
196
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
designed to enable the priest to test and develop the religious
knowledge of his parishioners by methods of catechism. It was
formerly enjoined upon the clergy to visit parishioners for this
purpose, and the system is still maintained in the form of meetings,
which have in some cases, however, acquired a character mainly
devotional. The parishes number 2556, but one living may include
more than one parish. In the sparsely inhabited districts of the
north the parish is sometimes of enormous extent, thus that of
Gellivara has an area of about 6500 sq. m. In such cases the priest
often makes protracted journeys from farm to farm through his
parish, and on certain occasions the congregation at his church will
include many, both Swedes and Lapps, who have travelled perhaps
for several days in order to be present. Dissenters are bound to
contribute to the maintenance of the Swedish Church, in considera-
tion of the secular duties of the priests.
Education. — The connexion between the church and education
is so close that the control of both is vested in a single department
of the government. Primary education is carried on in common
schools of different grades, under both local and state inspec-
tion, the parish being the school district. Seminaries are
maintained for common school teachers, with a four years' course.
At Haparanda and Mattisudden in Norbotten there are special
institutions for teachers for the Finnish and Lapp population
respectively. Wide attention was attracted to Swedish educational
methods principally by the introduction of the system of Sloyd
(slojd), initiated at the Naas seminary near Gothenburg, and con-
cerned with the teaching of manual occupations, both for boys and
for girls. The higher education of the people is provided by people's
high schools in the rural districts, especially for the peasantry,
maintained by the county councils, agricultural societies and the
state, and providing a two years' course both in general education
and in special practical subjects according to local needs. The
men's course is held in winter; and a women's course, in some in-
stances, in summer. The workmen's institutes in the towns have
a similar object. A system of university extension has been de-
veloped on the English pattern, summer courses being held at Upsala
and Lund. In connexion with the army reform of 1901 a system
of army high schools was proposed for conscripts while serving.
Technical education is provided in higher schools at Stockholm,
Gothenburg and certain other large industrial centres; and in lower
schools distributed throughput the country, in which special atten-
tion is given to the prevailing local industries. The agricultural
and forestry schools have been mentioned in the paragraphs on these
subjects. Public schools for boys are provided by the state, each
bishop being superintendent (eforus) of those in his diocese. In the
three lowest classes (out of a total of nine) a single system of instruc-
tion is practised; thereafter there are classical and scientific sides.
Greek is taught only in a section of the upper classical classes. Of
modern languages, German is taught throughout; English in all
classes of the scientific side, and the upper classical classes. Much
attention is paid to singing, drill and gymnastics. The school
terms together occupy 34^ weeks in the year. At the schools
examinations are held for entrance to the universities and certain
higher special schools. Owing to the high development of state
public schools, private schools for boys are few; but higher schools
for girls are all private, excepting the higher seminary for teachers
and the state normal school at Stockholm. The state universities
are at Upsala and Lund, and with these ranks the Caroline Medical
Institution at Stockholm. There are universities (founded by
private individual benefactions, but under state control) at Stock-
holm and Gothenburg. The faculties at Upsala and Lund are
theology, law, medicine and philosophy (including both art and
science). The courses are long, ranging from six to nine years; and
the degrees are those of candidate, licentiate and doctor. The
students, who are distinguished by their white caps, are divided for
social purposes into " nations " (landskap) of ancient origin, based
upon the distinctions between natives of different parts.
Scientific Institutions. — Among the scientific and literary societies
are to be noted the Swedish Academy, consisting of 18 members,
which was instituted in 1786 by Gustavus III., after the
pattern of the Academic Franchise, for the cultivation of the
Swedish language and literature; and the Academy of Science,
founded in 1739 by Linnaeus and others for the promotion
of the natural sciences. The first distributes one and the second
two of the prizes of the Nobel Foundation. A fourth prize is distri-
buted by the Caroline Institution at Stockholm. There may be
mentioned further the Royal Academies of Literature, History and
Antiquities (1786), of Agriculture (1811), of Arts (1735) and of Music
(1771). The principal museums and art and other collections are
in Stockholm, Upsala and Lund, and Gothenburg. The Royal
Library in the Humlegard Park at Stockholm, and the university
libraries at Upsala and Lund are entitled to receive a copy of every
publication printed in the kingdom. Certain of the large towns have
excellent public libraries, and parish libraries are widely distributed.
See Sweden, its People and its Industry, a government publication
(ed. G. Sundbarg) dealing with the land and people in every aspect
(Eng. vers., Stockholm, 1904); Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik
(Stockholm, 1857 seq.); Statistisk Tidskrift, periodically from 1862;
Publications (year-book, guides, &c.) of the Svenska Turistforeningen
(Swedish Touring Club) Stockholm; periodical Bulletin of the
Geological Institute of Upsala University, in which may be noted
K. Ahlenius, Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Seenkettenregion in Schwedisch-
Lappland, No. v. (1000); Also Dahlman, Inledning til Sveriges
physikalska geogra.fi (Stockholm, 1857); Stalistiskt Lexicon ofrer
Sverige (Stockholm, 1859-1870); M. Hojer, Konungariket Sverige
(Stockholm, 1875-1883) ; C. Almqvist, La SuUe, ses progres sociaux
(Stockholm, 1879) ; P. B. Du Chaillu, The Land of the Midnight Sun
(London, 1881); C. M. Rosenberg, Geografiskt-stalistiskt handlexicon
ofrer Sverige (Stockholm, 1882-1883) ; W. W. Thomas, Sweden and the
Swedes (Chicago and New York, 1891); Healey, Educational Systems
of Sweden, Norway and Denmark (London, 1893); Nystrom, Handbok
i Sveriges geografi (Stockholm, 1895), and Sveriges rike (Stockholm,
1902) ; G. Andersson, Geschichte der Vegetation Schwedens (Leipzig,
1896); K. Ahlenius, Sverige, geografisk, topografisk, Statistisk beskrtf-
ning (Stockholm) ; and for geology, A. G. Nathorst, Sveriges geologi
(Stockholm). For more detailed accounts of the various districts
see the publications of the Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning,
and also the volumes of the Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm
Forhandlingar. (O. J. R. H.)
HISTORY
Remains dating from the Stone Age are found scattered over
the southern half of Sweden, but it is only along the south coast
and in the districts bordering on the Cattegat that they occur
in any considerable quantity. The antiquities of the Bronze
Age are much more widely distributed and reach as far as the
north of Helsingland. It is evident that the country must at
this time have been fairly populous. So far as can be judged
from the human remains found the population in general in
both the Stone and Bronze Ages seems to have been similar
in type to that of the present day, and there is no clear evidence
for the advent of a new race. The Iron Age probably began
in the south of Sweden at any rate some three or four centuries
before the beginning of the Christian era. (See further SCANDI-
NAVIAN CIVILIZATION.)
The first historical notice relating to Sweden is contained in
Tacitus, Germania, cap. 44. This book was probably published
in A.D. 98 or 99 and in the passage mentioned we find the
name of the chief people of the peninsula, the Early
Swedes proper, Suiones (O. N. Smar, Swed. Races and
Svear, A. S. Siveon), who eventually gave their Dlvlsl°n^
name to the whole country. According to Tacitus they were
governed by a king whose power was absolute and comprehen-
sive, and possessed a strong fleet which secured them from the
fear of hostile incursions. Hence arms were not borne in times
of peace but stored away under charge of a slave, and Tacitus
suggests in explanation that the royal policy did not commit this
trust to noble, freeman or freedman. Their original territories
lay on both sides of the Malar, in the provinces later known as
Upland, Sodermanland and Westmanland. Tacitus mentions
another tribe, the Sitones, which he places next to the Suiones,
but they have not been identified, and it is not clear from his
description whether they lived within the peninsula or not.
The only information he gives about them is that they were
ruled over by a woman. Other early Roman writers, Mela and
Pliny, mention the country under the name Scandinavia
(Skane), a name which in native records seems always to have
been confined to the southernmost district in the peninsula.
Little information, however, is given by these authorities
with regard to the inhabitants.
The people next in importance to the Suiones in the
peninsula (Swed. Gotar, O. N. Gautar, A. S. Geatas) are first
mentioned by Ptolemy (under the form Goutai for Gautoi),
together with a number of other tribal names, most of which
unfortunately cannot be identified, owing to the corrupt state
of the text. Ptolemy puts the Gotar in the southern part of
the country, and from the earliest historical times their name has
been given to the whole region between the Cattegat and the
Baltic, exclusive of the provinces of Halland and Skane which
down to the i7th century always belonged to Denmark. The
coast of the Cattegat north of the Gota Elv was reckoned in
Norway. Gotaland consisted of the provinces of Vestergotland
and Ostergotland divided from one another by Lake Vetter,
together with Smaland. In early times Vestergotland seems
to have been by far the most important.
Vermland, the district to the north of Lake Vener and the
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
197
whole of the country to the north of Svealand seem to have
been of small importance. Jamtland was always considered
a part of Norway. After the time of Ptolemy we
hear no more of Sweden until the 6th century, when
a surprisingly full account of its peoples is given
by the Gothic historian Jordanes. He mentions both the Svear
(Swethans) and the Gotar together with other peoples, the
names of several of which can be recognized in the district —
names of later times, in spite of the numerous corruptions of the
text. He praises the horses of the Svear and speaks of their
great trade in furs of arctic animals which were transferred
from merchant to merchant until they reached Rome. About
the other peoples of Sweden he gives a few details, chiefly of
physical or moral characteristics, commenting upon the warlike
nature of the Visigauti, the mildness of the Finns, the lofty
stature of the Vinovii and the meat and egg diet of the Rere-
fennae. Jordanes's statement regarding the prevalence of trade
with Sweden is corroborated by the fact that many coins and
bracteates of the period have been found in the country. Of
these the coins are chiefly Roman and Byzantine gold pieces
of the $th century, the bracteates copies of Roman coins of
the same period.
Procopius, the contemporary of Jordanes (Gothica, ii. 15)
likewise gives an account of Sweden, which he calls Thule,but
the only tribes which he names are the Skrithephinnoi
(A. S. ScriSefinnas), a wild people of Finnish stock,
and the Gotar (Gautoi) whom he describes as a " nation
abounding in men." For the same period we derive a consider-
able amount of information with regard to Swedish affairs from
the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf. The hero himself belonged
to the Greatas (i.e. in all probability Gotar, though the identifica-
tion is disputed by some scholars), his mother being the daughter
of their king Hrethel. Haethcyn, the son and successor of this
Hrethel, is said to have perished in a disastrous battle against
the Svear, but his fall was avenged by his brother Hygelac in
a subsequent engagement in which the Swedish king Ongentheow
was killed. This Hygelac is clearly identical with that Chochi-
laicus wrongly described as a Danish king by Gregory of Tours
(iii. 3) who made a piratical expedition to the lower Rhine which
ended in his defeat and death in a battle with the Franks under
Theodberht about A.D. 520. The poem contains several allusions
to this disaster. We learn further that about the time of
Hygelac 's death strife broke out in the royal family of the
Svear, between Onela, the son and successor of Ongentheow, and
Eanmund and Eadgils, the sons of his brother Ohthere. The
latter fled for protection to the Gotar and the war which ensued
cost the lives of Eanmund and of Heardred the son and successor
of Hygelac. According to the poem Beowulf himself now be-
came king of the Gotar and assisted Eadgils in a campaign which
resulted in the death of Onela and the acquisition of the throne
by his nephew. What is said in the poem with regard to the
end of Beowulf belongs to the realm of myth, and for three
centuries after this time we have no reference to Swedish affairs
in English or other foreign authorities. Moreover after the time
of Beowulf and Jordanes there are very few references to the
kingdom of the Gotar and in Olaf Skottkonung's time it was
merely an earldom. The kingdom must have come to an end
between the 6th and loth centuries A.D., and probably quite
early in that period.
The Ynglingatal, a poem said to have been composed by
Thio3olfr of Hvfn, court-poet of Harold Fairhair, king of Norway,
The gives a genealogy of Harold's family, which it carries
Yagiingatais back to the early kings of the Svear. Snorri Stur-
andYng- luson (1178-1241) the Icelandic author using this
aga' poem as a basis and amplifying it from other
sources, wrote the Ynglinga Saga, which traces back the
history of the family, generation by generation, to its beginning.
In this saga A8ils (the Eadgils of Beowulf), son of Ottarr is one
of the most prominent figures. The account given of him agrees
in general with the statements in Beowulf, though the nature
of his relations with Ali (Onela) has been misunderstood. The
decisive battle between the two kings is said to have taken place
on the frozen surface of Lake Wener. Ongentheow appears
to have been entirely forgotten in Norse tradition and his place
is taken by a certain Egill. The saga further states that A3ils
was an enthusiastic horse-breeder and that he met with his death
through a fall from his horse. This point is of interest in con-
nexion with the notice of Jordanes, mentioned above, with
regard to the horses of the Svear. Other northern authorities
such as Saxo and the Hrolfs Saga Kraka represent AOils in a
very unfavourable light as niggardly and addicted to sorcery.
The Ynglingatal and Ynglinga Saga enumerate Agil's ancestors
to no less than seventeen generations, with short accounts of
each. We have no means of checking the genealogy from other
sources, and the majority of the characters are probably to be
regarded as mythical. The origin of the family is traced to
the god Frey, son of Niordr, who is said to have founded Upsala,
the ancient capital of Sweden. His reign is represented as a
golden age of peace and prosperity and the great wealth of the
sanctuary is said to have taken its beginning from the offerings
at his tomb. His full name appears to have been Yngvifreyr
or Ingunar Freyr and his descendants are collectively termed
Ynglingar, though we also occasionally meet with the name
Skilfingar, which corresponds with the name Scilfingar borne
by the Swedish royal family in Beowulf.
After the time of A5ils the Ynglingar remained in possession
of Upsala for four generations according to the saga. Ultimately
the treachery and the murderous disposition of the king named
Ingialdr led to his overthrow by a prince from Skane, called
Ivarr Vi5fa8mi. His son Olafr Tretelgia withdrew to Vermland,
which he brought into a state of cultivation, though he was
subsequently sacrificed by his subjects in a time of famine. It
is stated in the saga that the Swedish kings were believed to
have control over the seasons like their ancestor, the god Frey,
and traces of this belief seem to have lingered in the country
down to the times of Gustavus Vasa. The sons of Olafr Tretelgia
moved westward into Norway, and if we may trust the saga,
the Swedish kingdom never again came into the possession of
their family.
The subsequent kings of Sweden are said to have been descended
from Ivarr Viafaflmi. The most prominent figures in this family
are Haraldr Hilditonn Ivarr's grandson and his introduc-
nephew SigurSr Hringr. The story of the battle tloo of
between these two at Bravik, in which Haraldr lost Christianity.
his life, is one of the most famous in northern literature. But
the position of these kings with regard to Sweden is far from
clear. Their home is probably to be placed on the Cattegat
rather than on the Baltic. The same is true also of Ragnarr
LoSbrok, who is said to have been the son of Sigur5r Hringr.
About the year 830 the missionary bishop Ansgar made his
first expedition to Sweden. He made his way to Birca on the
Malar. The king whom he found reigning there is called Bjorn
(Bern) and is generally identified with the king Bjorn for whom
Bragi the Old composed the poem called Ragnarsdr&pa. On
his subsequent journeys to Sweden Ansgar encountered kings
called Olafr and Onundr. He appears to have met with consider-
able immediate success in his missionary enterprises, although
there is no evidence to show that the churches he founded long
survived his death, and no serious mission seems to have been
attempted for more than a century afterwards.
During the gth century extensive Scandinavian settlements
were made on the east side of the Baltic, and even as early
as the reign of Louis I. we hear of piratical expedi- scaaai-
tions on the Black Sea and on the Caspian. The aaviaa
famous expeditions of Rurik and Askold which Settlements
resulted in the origin of the Russian monarchy
appear to have taken place towards the middle of the gth
century, but it has not been found possible to connect these
names with any families known to us from Swedish tradition.
Proofs of extensive Scandinavian settlement in Russia are to
be found partly in the Russian names assigned to the Dnieper
rapids by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, partly in references
to this people made by foreign representatives at the court of
Byzantium. The fact that many of the names which occur
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
in Russian chronicles seem to be peculiarly Swedish suggests
that Sweden was the home of the settlers, and the best authorities
consider that the original Scandinavian conquerors were Swedes
who had settled on the east coast of the Baltic.
In the time of Harold Fairhair, probably about the beginning
of the icth century, we hear of a king named Eric the son of
Kings la Emund at Upsala, whose authority seems to have
theioth reached as far as Norway. Later in the century
Century, there is record of a king named Bjorn a Haugi
who is said to have been the son of Eric and to have reigned
fifty years. Bjorn's sons and successors were Olaf and Eric
the Victorious. Styrbiorn Starki, the son of Olaf, being refused
his share of the government by Eric after his father's death,
made himself a stronghold at Jomsborg in Pomerania and spent
some years in piratical expeditions. Eventually he betook him-
self to Harold Bluetooth, then king of Denmark, and endea-
voured to secure his assistance in gaining the Swedish throne
by force of arms. Although he failed in this attempt he was
not deterred from attacking Eric, and a battle took place between
the two at the Fyrisa (close to Upsala) in which Styrbiorn was
defeated and killed. Eric himself died ten years after this battle,
apparently about 993. According to the story he had obtained
victory from Odin in return for a promise to give himself up at
the end of ten years. Under his son and successor Olaf, surnamed
Establish- Skottkonung, Christianity was fully established in
meat of Sweden. Olaf Tryggvason, the king of Norway,
Chrtsti- had married his sister Ingibiorg to Ragnvald, earl
talty' of Vestergotland, on condition that he should receive
baptism, and the Swedish king's wife was also a Christian, though
he himself was not baptized until 1008 by Sigfrid at Husaby.
A quarrel arose in the last years of the loth century between
Olaf Skottkonung and Olaf Tryggvason. The latter had applied
for the hand of SigriQ, the widow of Eric the Victorious, but had
insulted her on her refusal to become a Christian. In the year
1000, when the Norwegian king was in Pomerania, a coalition
was formed between the king of Sweden, Sweyn Forkbeard,
king of Denmark, and earl Eric of Lade, and the allies waylaid
their enemy off the coast near Riigen and overthrew him in
Reign of the great sea-battle of Svolder. Under Olaf Skott-
oiafskdtt- konung Sweden became the mightiest of the king-
konung. dOms of the north, in spite of the king's own
inactivity. She lost her lands east of the Baltic, but received as
compensation in Norway part of Trondhjem and the district
now called Bohiislan. These lands Olaf handed over to Earl
Sweyn, brother of Earl Eric (whose father Haakon had governed
Norway), as a marriage portion for his daughter Holmfri8.
Some years later we hear of hostilities between Olaf Skottkonung
and another Norwegian prince, Olaf Haraldsson (the Fat), who
raided Sweden and was besieged in the Malar by the Swedish
king. In 1014, the year of Earl Eric's departure to England
with Canute, Olaf Haraldsson, returning to Norway as king, put
an end to the Swedish and Danish supremacy, and in 1015 he
forced Earl Sweyn to leave the country. Trifling border-quarrels
followed, but in 1017 a truce was arranged between Norway
and Vestergotland, where Earl Ragnvald was still in power.
Olaf of Norway now sent his marshal Bjorn to Ragnvald to
arrange a peace. Ragnvald brought him to a great assembly
at Upsala in February 1018. At this meeting Bjorn, supported
by the earl, asked for peace, and Olaf was compelled by the
pressure of the lawman Thorgny to agree to this and also to
promise his daughter IngegerS in marriage ,to the Norse king.
The marriage, however, never got beyond the betrothal stage,
and at Earl Ragnvald's suggestion Astrid, her half-sister, was
substituted, contrary to the will of Olaf Skottkonung. Such was
the anger of the king that Ragnvald was forced to accompany
Ingegera to Russia, where she was married to the grand-duke
Jaroslav at Novgorod. In Sweden, however, both the Vestgotar
and the Upland Sviar were discontented, the former on account
of the breaking of the king's promise to Olaf of Norway and the
latter on account of the introduction of the new religion, and
their passions were further inflamed by the lawman Anund of
Skara. A rising in Upland compelled Olaf to share his power
with his son Jacob, whose name was changed to Anund by the
leaders of the revolt. A meeting was then arranged between
the kings of Norway and Sweden at Kongelf in 1019, and this
resulted in a treaty. The death of Olaf Skottkonung is assigned
by Snorri Sturluson to the winter of 1021-1022. His grave is
still shown at Husaby in Vestergbtland.
Anund, now sole king, early in his reign allied himself with
Olaf Haraldsson against Canute of Denmark, who had demanded
the restitution of the rights possessed by his father KingAauna,
Sweyn in Norway. The allies took advantage of <~I022-
the Danish king's absence to harry his land. On ft
his return an indecisive battle was fought at Helgi A,
and Anund returned to Sweden. Olaf was driven from
Norway by the Danes, but returning in 1030 he raised a
small army in Sweden and marched through Jamtland to Trond-
hjem only to meet his death at the battle of Stiklestad. After
death he was worshipped in Sweden, especially in Gotland. We
hear from Adam of Bremen that Anund was young in years but
old in wisdom and cunning; he was called Kolbrannea because
he had the houses of evildoers burnt. Like Olaf Skottkonung
he caused coins to be struck at Sigtuna, of which a few remain.
The moneyers' names are English. The coins of Anund surpass
all that were struck during the next two centuries. He appears
to have died about 1050, according to Adam of Bremen. He
was succeeded by his brother Emund the Old, who Bmuod the
had been previously passed over because his mother Old, ioso
was unfree, the daughter of a Slav prince and I06°-
captured in war. This king had become a Christian, but
soon quarrelled with Adalhard, archbishop of Bremen, and
endeavoured to secure the independence of the Swedish church,
which was not obtained for another century. Emund, who was
given the name Slemme, had territorial disputes with Denmark in
the early part of his reign. These disputes were settled by a
rectification of boundaries which assigned Blekinge to Denmark.
With the death of Emund, which took place in 1060, the old
family of Swedish kings dies out. The successor of Emund the
Old was a king named Steinkel who had married
the daughter of his predecessor. He was the son io6o-i066.
of a certain Ragnvald, perhaps connected with the
Vestergotland Ragnvald, of the reign of Olaf Skottkonung.
Steinkel was born in Vestergotland and was warmly attached
to the Christian religion. The Adalhard who had quarrelled
with Emund the Old now sent a bishop, Adalhard the younger,
to Scara. Christianity was by this time firmly established
throughout most of Sweden, its chief strength being in Vestergot-
land. The Uplanders, however, still held out against it, and
Adalhard, though he succeeded in destroying the idols in his
own district Vestergotland, was unable to persuade Steinkel
to destroy the old sanctuary at Upsala. During his reign grants
of land in Vermland made by the king to the Norse earl Haakon
Ivarsson led to a successful invasion of Gotaland by Harold
Hardrada of Norway. Steinkel also had disputes with Denmark.
On his death in 1066 a civil war broke out in which the leaders
were two obscure princes named Eric. Probably the division
of feeling between Vestergotland and Upland in the matter of
religion was the real cause of this war, but nothing is known of
the details, though we hear that both kings as well as the chief
men of the land fell in it.
A prince called Haakon the Red now appears as king of
Sweden and is said to have occupied the throne for thirteen
years. In the Vestergotland regnal lists he appears Haakon the
before Steinkel and it is possible that the authority Red, 1066-
of that king was not regularly acknowledged in I079f
the province. In 1081 we find the sons of Steinkel, Inge
and Halstan, reigning in Sweden. Inge's attachment to
Christianity caused him to be expelled after a short time by
his brother-in-law Sweyn or Blotsweyn, so called Halstan,
from his revival of the old sacrifices. Sweyn retained '"«« «"<*
the kingship only for three years. After that '
interval Inge returned and slew him, and his fall marks the
final overthrow of the old religion.
The interesting account of Upsala preserved by Adam of
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
199
Bremen in his History (iv. 26) apparently dates from the perioc
immediately preceding these events. He describes the temple
as one of great splendour and covered with gilding
Jpsaia." *n '*• sto°d the statues of the three chief deities
Thor, Odin and Fricco (by whom he probably means
Frey). Every nine years a great festival was held there to which
embassies were sent by all the peoples of Sweden. A large number
of animals and even men were sacrificed on such occasions. In
the neighbourhood of the temple was a grove of peculiar sanctity
in which the bodies of the victims were hung up. After the
introduction of Christianity the importance of Upsala began
steadily to decline, and owing to its intimate associations with
the old religion the kings no longer made it their residence.
AUTHORITIES FOR EARLY HISTORY. — Tacitus, Germania, cap. 44
Claudius Ptolemaeus, Geographica ii. n ad fin.; Jordanes, De
origins actibusque Getarum, cap. 3; Procopius, De bello gothico, ii.
15; Beowulf, Rimbertus, Vita S. Ansgarii in monumenta Germaniae
historica, ii. 683-725 (Hanover, 1829); King Alfred's transla-
tion of Orosius i. I ; Adam of Bremen, Gesta hammaburgensis
ecclesiae pontificum iii. and iv. ; Ynglinga Saga, with the poem
Ynglingatal contained in the Heimskringla; Olafs Sagan Tryggvasonar
and Olafs Saga hins Helga, both contained in Heimskringla and in
Fornmanna sogur; Saxo grammaticus, gesta Danorum; a collection
of later Swedish Chronicles contained in Rerum suecicarum scrip-
tores, vol. iii. (ed. Annerstedt, Upsala, 1871 and 1876); Sveriges
historic., vol. i. (Montelius & Hildebrancl, Stockholm, 1875-1877) ;
Thomsen, The Relations between A ncient Russia and Scandinavia and
the Origin of the Russian State (Oxford and London, 1877).
(F. G. M. B.)
Under Blotsweyn's grandson, King Sverker (1134-1155),
who permanently amalgamated the Swedes and Goths (each
Orgaaiza- of the two nations supplying the common king
tiono/the alternately for the next hundred years), Sweden
Kingdom. began to feel the advantage of a centralized mon-
archical government. Eric IX. (1150-1160) organized the
Swedish Church on the model prevalent elsewhere, and under-
took a crusade against the heathen Finlanders, which marks the
beginning of Sweden's overseas dominion. Under Charles VII.,1
the archbishopric of Upsala was founded (1164). But the
greatest medieval statesman of Sweden was Earl Birger,
who practically ruled the land from 1248 to 1266. To him
is attributed ithe foundation of Stockholm; but he is best
known as a legislator, and his wise reforms prepared the way
for the abolition of serfdom. The increased dignity which the
royal power owed to Earl Birger was still further extended by
King Magnus Ladulas (1275-1290). Both these rulers, by
the institution of separate and almost independent duchies,
attempted to introduce into Sweden a feudal system similar
to that already established elsewhere in Europe; but the danger
of thus weakening the realm by partition was averted, though
not without violent and tragic complications. Finally, in 1319,
the severed portions of Sweden were once more reunited. Mean-
Separation while the political development of the state was
ofthe steadily proceeding. The formation of separate
Estates. orders, or estates, was promoted by Magnus Ladulas,
who extended the privileges of the clergy and founded an here-'
ditary nobility (Ordinance of Alsno, 1280). In connexion with
this institution we now hear of a heavily armed cavalry as the
kernel of the national army. The knights too now
Burghers, became distinguishable from the higher nobility.
To this period belongs the rise of a prominent
burgess class, as the towns now began to acquire charters. At
the end of the i3th century, and the beginning of the i4th too,
provincial codes of laws appear and the king and his council
execute legislative functions.
The first union between Sweden and Norway occurred in 1319,
when the three-year-old Magnus, son of the Swedish royal duke
First Union Eric and of the Norwegian princess Ingeborg,
with who had inherited the throne of Norway from his
Norway. grandfather Haakon V., was in the same year elected
king of Sweden (Convention of Oslo). A long minority weakened
the royal influence in both countries, and Magnus lost both his
1 A legendary list of kings gives to this Charles six predecessors
of the same name. Subsequent kings of Sweden have always given
this Charles the title of Charles VII.
kingdoms before his death. The Swedes, irritated by his misrule,
superseded him by his nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg (1365)!
In Sweden, Magnus's partialities! and necessities led directly
to the rise of a powerful landed aristocracy, and, indirectly,
to the growth of popular liberties. Forced by the unruliness
of the magnates to lean upon the middle classes, the king sum-
moned (1359) the first Swedish Riksdag, on which occasion
representatives from the towns were invited to appear along
with the nobles and clergy. His successor, Albert, was forced
to go a step farther and, in 1371, to take the first coronation
oath. In 1388, at the request of the Swedes themselves, Albert
was driven out by Margaret, regent of Denmark union of
and Norway; and, at a convention of the repre- Kaimar,
sentatives of the three Scandinavian kingdoms held l397-
at Kaimar (1397), Margaret's great-nephew, Eric of Pome-
rania, was elected the common king, but the liberties of each
of the three realms were expressly reserved and confirmed.
The union was to be a personal, not a political union.
Neither Margaret herself nor her successors observed the
stipulation that in each of the three kingdoms only natives
should hold land and high office, and the efforts Plrst
of Denmark (at that time by far the strongest Breach of
member of the union) to impose her will on the toe Union,
weaker kingdoms soon produced a rupture, or, 1436'
rather, a series of semi-ruptures. The Swedes first broke away
from it in 1434 under the popular leader Engelbrecht, and
after his murder they elected Karl Knutsson Bonde their
king under the title of Charles VIII. (1436). In 1441
Charles VIII had to retire in favour of Christopher of
Bavaria, who was already king of Denmark and Norway; but,
on the death of Christopher (1448), a state of confusion ensued
in the course of which Charles VIII. was twice expelled and
twice reinstated. Finally, on his death in 1470, the three
kingdoms were reunited under Christian I. of Denmark, the
prelates and higher nobility of Sweden being favourable
to the union, though the great majority of the Swedish
people always detested it as a foreign usurpation. The
national party was represented by the three great Riks-
farest&ndare, or presidents of the realm, of the Sture family (see
STURE), who, with brief intervals, from 1470 to 1520 successively
defended the independence of Sweden against the Danish kings
and kept the national spirit alive. But the presidentship
was too casual and anomalous an institution to Election of
rally the nations round it permanently, and when Gustavus
the tyranny of Christian II. (q.v.) became intoler- Vasa> ^23.
able the Swedish people elected Gustavus Eriksson Vasa, who
as president had already driven out the Danes (see DENMARK:
History), king of Sweden at Strengnas (June 6, 1523).
The extraordinary difficulties of Gustavus (see GUSTAVDS I.)
were directly responsible for the eccentric development, both
political and religious, of the new kingdom which
his genius created. So precarious was the position '
of the young king, that he was glad to make allies
wherever he could find them. Hence his desire to stand well
with the Holy See. Only three months after his accession,
tie addressed letters to the pope begging him to appoint new
bishops " who would defend the rights of the Church without
detriment to the Crown." He was especially urgent for the
confirmation of his nominee Johannes Magni as primate, in
the place of the rebellious archbishop Gustavus Trolle, who as
a convicted traitor had been formally deposed by the Riksdag
and was actually an outlawed exile. If the pope would confirm
the elections of his bishops, Gustavus-promised to be an obedient
son of the Church. Scarcely had these letters been despatched
when the king received a papal bull ordering the immediate
reinstatement of Gustavus Trolle. The action of the Curia on
this occasion was due to its conviction of the imminent triumph
of Christian II. and the instability of Gustavus's position. It
was a conviction shared by the rest of Europe; but, none the
ess, it was another of the many blunders of the Curia at this
difficult period. Its immediate effect was the loss of the Swedish
Church. Gustavus could not accept as primate an open and
200
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
determined traitor like Trolle. He publicly protested, in the
sharpest language, that unless Johannes Magni were recognized
at Rome as archbishop of Upsala, he was determined,
°^ n's own r°yal authority, henceforward to order
the affairs of the Church in his realm to the glory
of God and the satisfaction of all Christian men. But the Holy
See was immovable, and Gustavus broke definitely with Rome.
He began by protecting and promoting the Swedish reformers
Olavus and Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andreae. The
new teaching was allowed to spread, though at first unostenta-
tiously and gradually. A fresh step in the direction of Lutheran-
Progress at ism was the translation of the New Testament into
theRefor- Swedish, which was published in 1526. Simul-
ate/on, taneously, a systematic attack was made upon the
religious houses, beginning with the sequestration of the
monastery of Gripsholm in January 1526. But the affair
caused such general indignation that Gustavus felt obliged,
in May, to offer some justification of his conduct. A few months
later there was an open rupture between the king and his own
primate, who ultimately was frightened into exile by a sudden
accusation of treason. But the other bishops were also against
Gustavus, and, irritated by their conscientious opposition, the
king abandoned the no longer tenable position of a mode-
rator and came openly forward as an antagonist. In 1526 the
Catholic printing-presses were suppressed, and two-thirds of
the Church's tithes were appropriated to the payment of the
national debt. On the i8th of February 1527 two bishops,
the first martyrs of Catholicism in Sweden, were gibbeted at
Stockholm after a trial which was a parody of justice. This
act of violence, evidently designed to terrorize the Church into
submission, was effectual enough, for at the subsequent Riksdag
of Vesteras (June, 1527), the bishops durst not even present
a protest which they had privately prepared, and the assembly
Recess and itse^ was bullied into an absolute submission to the
Ordinance royal will. The result was the Vesteras Recess
of Vesteras, which transferred all ecclesiastical property to the
1527. Crown. By the subsequent Vesteras Ordinance
the Swedish Church was absolutely severed from Rome. Never-
theless, the changes so made were mainly administrative.
There was no modification of doctrine, for the general resolution
that God's Word should be preached plainly and purely was not
contrary to the teaching of the ante-Tridentine Church. Even
at the synod of Orebro, summoned in February 1529, "for the
better regulation of church ceremonies and discipline according
to God's Word," there was no formal protest against Rome;
and the old ritual was retained for two years longer, though it
was to be explained as symbolical. Henceforth the work of the
Reformation continued uninterruptedly. In 1531 Laurentius
Petri was elected the first Protestant primate of Sweden. Subse-
quently matters were much complicated by the absolutist
tendencies of Gustavus. From 1539 onwards there was a breach
between him and his own prelates in consequence of his arbitrary
appropriation of the Church's share of the tithes, in direct
violation of the Vesteras Recess. Then Gustavus so curtailed
the power of the bishops (ordinances of 1539 and 1540) that they
had little of the dignity left but the name, and even that he was
disposed to abolish, for after 1543 the prelates appointed by
him, without any pretence of previous election by the cathedral
chapters, were called ordinaries, or superintendents. Finally,
at the Riksdag of Vesteras, in 1544. though no definite con-
fession of faith was formulated, a final breach was made with
the traditions of the old religion.
Thus the Reformation in Sweden was practically the work
of one strong man, acting (first from purely political and latterly
from purely economical reasons) for the good of the state as
he understood it. In this Gustavus acted contrary to the
religious instincts of the vast majority of the Swedish nation;
for there can be no doubt at all that the Swedes at the beginning
of the 1 6th century were not only still devoted to the old Church,
but violently anti-Protestant. This popular Romanism was
the greatest of all Gustavus's difficulties, because it tended to
alienate the Swedish peasants.
For the last hundred years the peasants had been a leading
factor in the political life of the land; and perhaps in no other
contemporary European state could so self-reliant The
a class of yeomen have been found. Again and Peasants.
again they had defended their own and the national liberties
against foreign foes. In the national assemblies, too, their voice
had always been powerful, and not infrequently predominant.
In a word, they were the sound kernel of the still but partially
developed Swedish constitution, the democratic safeguard
against the monarchical tendency which was enveloping the
rest of Europe. Gustavus's necessities had compelled him to
break with the ecclesiastical traditions of Sweden; and they
also compelled him, contrary to his masterful disposition, to
accept constitutionalism, because without it his footing in his
own kingdom would have been insecure. The peasants there-
fore were his natural allies, but, from the nature of the case,
they tended to become his most formidable rivals. They prided
themselves on having " set King Gus in the high seat," but they
were quite ready to unseat him if his rule was not to their liking,
and there were many things with which they were by no means
contented. This anomalous state of things was responsible
for the half-dozen peasant risings with which Gustavus had to
contend from 1525 to 1543. In all these rebellions the religious
difficulty figured largely, though the increasing fiscal burdens
were undoubtedly grievous and the peasants had their particu-
lar grievances besides. The wholesale seizure and degradation
of Church property outraged them, and they formally protested
against the introduction of " Luthery." They threatened,
more than once, to march upon and destroy Stockholm, because
the Reformers had made of it " a spiritual Sodom." They
insisted on the restoration of the ancient Catholic customs, and
would have made neglect of fasting and other sins of omission
penal offences. Though he prevailed in the end, Gustavus was
obliged to humour the people throughout. And thus, though
he was strong enough to maintain what he had established and
finish what he had begun, he was not strong enough to tamper
seriously with the national liberties or to crush altogether
Catholic aspirations. At the time of his death the Riksdag
was already a power in the state, and a Catholic reaction in
Sweden was by no means an impossibility, if only the Catholics
had been able to find capable leaders.
Gustavus's foreign policy at first aimed at little more than
self-preservation. Only with the pecuniary assistance of the
wealthy merchants of Liibeck had he been able to Foreign
establish himself originally; and Liibeck, in return, Policy of
had exploited Sweden, as Spain at a later day Oustavus-
was to exploit her American colonies. When, with the aid
of Denmark, Gustavus at last freed himself from this greedy
incubus (see DENMARK; GUSTAVUS I.; CHRISTIAN III.) by
the truce of the 28th of August 1537, Sweden for the first time
in her history became the mistress of her own waters. But
even so she was but of subordinate importance in Scandi-
navian politics. The hegemony of Denmark was indisputable,
and Gustavus regarded that power with an ever-increasing
suspicion which augured ill for peace in the future. The chief
cause of dispute was the quartering by the Danish king of the
three crowns of Sweden on the Dano-Norwegian shield, which
was supposed to indicate a claim of sovereignty. Still more
offensive was the attitude of Sweden's eastern neighbour Muscovy,
with whom the Swedish king was nervously anxious to stand
on good terms. Gustavus attributed to Ivan IV., whose resources
he unduly magnified, the design of establishing a universal
monarchy round the Baltic.
Nevertheless events were already occurring which ultimately
compelled Sweden to depart from her neutrality and lay the
foundations of an overseas empire. In the last
year of Gustavus's life (1560), the ancient military ofg^/a
order of the Sword, amalgamated, since 1237, with the
more powerful order of the Teutonic Knights, had by the seculari-
zation of the latter order into the dukedom of Prussia (1525)
become suddenly isolated in the midst of hostile Slavonians.
It needed but a jolt to bring down the crazy anachronism, and
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
201
the jolt came when, in 1558-60, floods of Muscovites poured
over the land, threatening the whole province with destruction.
In his despair the last master of the order, Gotthard von Kettler,
appealed to all his more civilized neighbours to save him, and
his dominions were quickly partitioned between Poland,
Denmark and Sweden. Sweden's original share of the spoil
was Reval, which, driven to extremities, placed itself beneath
the protection of the Swedish crown in March 1561. From the
moment that Sweden got a firm footing in Esthonia by the
acquisition of Reval she was committed to a policy of combat
and aggrandisement. To have retreated would have meant
the ruin of her Baltic trade, upon which the national prosperity
so much depended. Her next-door neighbours, Poland and
Russia, were necessarily her competitors; fortunately they
were also each other's rivals; obviously her best policy was to
counterpoise them. To accomplish this effectually she required
to have her hands free, and the composition of her long-
outstanding differences with Denmark by the Treaty of Stettin
on the i3th of December 1570 (see DENMARK: History), which
put an end to the Dano-Swedish war of 1563-1570, the chief
political event of the reign of Eric XIV. (1560-1568), the eldest
son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, was therefore a judicious
act on the part of the new king of Sweden, John III. (1568-1592).
Equally judicious was the anti-Russian league with Stephen
Bathory, king of Poland, concluded in 1578. The war between
Russia and Sweden for the possession of Esthonia and Livonia
(1571-77) had been uninterruptedly disastrous to the latter,
and, in the beginning of 1577, a countless Russian host sat down
before Reval, Sweden's last stronghold in those parts. The
energetic intervention of Bathory, however, speedily turned
the scales in the opposite direction. Six months after his
humiliating peace with the Polish monarch, Ivan IV. was glad
to conclude a truce with Sweden also on a uti possidetis basis
at Pliusa (Aug. 5, 1582),
The amicable relations between Sweden and Poland promised,
at first, to be permanent. Sixteen years before his accession
to the throne, John III., then duke of Finland, had
Poland "" wedded Catherine Jagiellonica, the sister of Sigis-
mund II., king of Poland (Oct. 4, 1562). Duke
Sigismund, the fruit of this union, was brought up by his mother
in the Catholic religion, and, on the igth of August 1587, he
was elected king of Poland. Sixteen days later the Articles
of Kalmar, signed by John and Sigismund, regulated the future
relations between the two countries when, in process of time,
Sigismund should succeed his father as king of Sweden. The
Ankles ot two kingdoms were to be in perpetual alliance, but
Kalmar, each of them was to retain its own laws and customs.
1587. Sweden was also to enjoy her religion, subject to
such changes as a general council might make; but neither
pope nor council was to claim or exercise the right of releas-
ing Sigismund from his obligations to his Swedish subjects.
During Sigismund's absence from Sweden that realm was to
be ruled by seven Swedes, six elected by the king and one by
his uncle Duke Charles of Sudermania, the leader of the Swedish
Protestants. No new tax was to be levied in Sweden during
the king's absence, but Sweden was never to be administered
from Poland. Any necessary alterations in these articles were
only to be made with the common consent of the king, Duke
Charles, the senate and the gentry of Sweden.
The endeavours of Swedish statesmen to bind the hands of
their future king were due to their fear of the rising flood of
Sweden and the Catholic reaction in Europe. Under Eric XIV.
the Catholic the Reformation in Sweden had proceeded on much
Reaction. tne same jmes ag durmg tne rejgn of m's f^foer,
retaining all the old Catholic customs not considered con-
trary to Scripture. Naturally, after 1544, when the Council
of Trent had formally declared the Bible and tradition to be
equally authoritative sources of all Christian doctrine, the
contrast between the old and the new teaching became more
obvious; and in many countries a middle party arose which
aimed at a compromise by going back to the Church of the
Fathers. King John III., the most learned of the Vasas, and
somewhat of a theological expert, was largely influenced by
these " middle " views. As soon as he had mounted the throne
he took measures to bring the Swedish Church j0ha in. ana
back to "the primitive Apostolic Church and the the SwedUb
Catholic faith"; and, in 1574, persuaded a synod cllurca-
assembled at Stockholm to adopt certain articles framed by
himself on what we should call a High Church basis. In February
1575 a new Church ordinance, approximating still more closely
to the patristic Church, was presented to another synod, and
accepted thereat, but very unwillingly. In 1576 a new liturgy
was issued on the model of the Roman missal, but with consider-
able modifications. To a modern High Anglican these innova-
tions seem innocent enough, and, despite the opposition of
Duke Charles and the ultra-Protestants, they were adopted
by the Riksdag of 1577. These measures greatly encouraged
the Catholic party in Europe, and John III. was ultimately
persuaded to send an embassy to Rome to open negotiations
for the reunion of the Swedish Church with the Holy See. But
though the Jesuit Antonio Possevino was sent to Stockholm
to complete John's " conversion," John would only consent
to embrace Catholicism under certain conditions which were
never kept, and the only result of all these subterraneous negotia-
tions was to incense the Protestants still more against the new
liturgy, the use of which by every congregation in the realm
without exception was, nevertheless, decreed by the Riksdag
of 1582. At this period Duke Charles and his Protestant friends
were clearly outnumbered by the promoters of the via media.
Nevertheless, immediately after King John's death, a synod
summoned to Upsala by Duke Charles rejected the new liturgy
and drew up an anti-Catholic confession of faith (March 5, 1 593).
Holy Scripture and the three primitive creeds were declared
to be the true foundations of Christian faith, and the Augsburg
Confession was adopted. That Sigismund, now the lawful
king of Sweden, should regard the summoning of civil War.
the synod of Upsala without his previous knowledge Expuisienof
and consent as a direct infringement of his pre- Siglsmund.
rogative was only natural. On his arrival in Sweden, how-
ever, he tried to gain time by provisionally confirming what
had been done; but the aggressiveness of the Protestant
faction and the persistent usurpations of Duke Charles (the
Riksdag of 1595 proclaimed him regent though the king had
previously refused him that office) made a civil war inevitable.
The battle of Stangabro (Sept. 25, 1598) decided the struggle
in favour of Charles — and Protestantism. Sigismund fled
from Sweden, never to return, and on the igth of March 1600
the Riksdag of Linkoping proclaimed the duke king proda,,,^
under the title of Charles IX. Sigismund and his ttoa of
posterity were declared to have forfeited the Swedish Charles IX.,
crown which was to pass to the heirs male of Charles. '°°°'
Not till the 6th of March 1604, however, after Duke John, son
of John III., had formally renounced his hereditary right to
the throne, did Charles IX. begin to style himself king. At
the Riksdag of the same year, the estates committed
themselves irrevocably to Protestantism by excluding
Catholics from the succession to the throne, and
prohibiting them from holding any office or dignity in Sweden.
Henceforth, too, every recusant was to be deprived of his estates
and banished the realm.
It was in the reign of Charles IX. that Sweden became not
only a predominantly Protestant, but also a predominantly
military monarchy. This momentous change, which Esiabiish-
was to give a martial colouring to the whole policy meat of a
of Sweden for the next hundred and twenty years, Regular
dates from a decree of the Riksdag of Linkoping Army-
establishing, at the urgent suggestion of Charles, a regular army;
each district in the country being henceforward liable to provide
and maintain a fixed number of infantry and cavalry for the
service of the state. Th*e immediate enemy was warwith
Poland, now dynastically as well as territorially Poland and
opposed to Sweden. The struggle took the shape of a Russia.
contest for the possession of the northern Baltic provinces.
Esthonia was recovered by the Swedes in 1600, but their
202
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
War of
Kalmar.
determined efforts (1601-9) to gain a foothold in Livonia
were frustrated by the military ability of the grand hetman
of Lithuania, Jon Karol Chodkiewicz. In 1608 hostilities were
transferred to Russian territory. At the beginning of that year
Charles had concluded an alliance with Tsar Basil IV. (g.v.)
against their common foe, the Polish king; but when, in 1611,
Basil was deposed by his own subjects and the whole tsardom
seemed to be on the verge of dissolution, Sweden's policy towards
Russia changed its character. Hitherto Charles had aimed
at supporting the weaker Slavonic power against the stronger;
but now that Muscovy seemed about to disappear from among
the nations of Europe, Swedish statesmen naturally sought some
compensation for the expenses of the war before Poland had had
time to absorb everything. A beginning was made by the siege
and capture of Kexholm in Russian Finland (March 2, 1611);
and, on the i6th of July, Great Novgorod was occupied and
a convention concluded with the magistrates of that wealthy
city whereby Charles IX. 's second son Philip was to be recognized
as tsar, unless, in the meantime, relief came to Great Novgorod
from Moscow. But now, when everything depended on a
concentration of forces, Charles's imprudent assumption of
the title of " King of the Lapps of Nordland," which people
properly belonged to the Danish Crown, involved him in another
war with Denmark, a war known in Scandinavian history
as the war of Kalmar because the Swedish fortress
of Kalmar was the chief theatre of hostilities. Thus
the Swedish forces were diverted from their real
objective and transferred to another field where even victory
would have been comparatively unprofitable. But it was
disaster, not victory, which Charles IX. reaped from this fool-
hardy enterprise. Still worse, the war of Kalmar, prudently
Peace of concluded by Charles's son, Gustavus Adolphus,
Knared, in the second year of his reign, by the peace of Knared
1613. (Jan. 20, 1613) imposed such onerous pecuniary
obligations and such intense suffering upon Sweden as to en-
kindle into a fire of hatred, which was to burn fiercely for the
next two centuries, the long smouldering antagonism between
the two sister nations of Scandinavia which dated back to the
bloody days of Christian II.
The Russian difficulty was more easily and more honourably
adjusted. When Great Novgorod submitted provisionally to
Peace of tne suzerainty of Sweden, Swedish statesmen had
stoibova, believed, for a moment, in the creation of a Trans-
l617' baltic dominion extending from Lake Ilmen north-
wards to Archangel and eastwards to Vologda. The rallying
of the Russian nation round the throne of the new tsar, Michael
Romanov, dissipated, once for all, this ambitious dream. By
the beginning of 1616, Gustavus had become convinced of the
impossibility of partitioning reunited Muscovy, while Muscovy
recognized the necessity of buying off the invincible Swedes
by some cession of territory. By the Peace of Stoibova
(Feb. 27, 1617), the tsar surrendered to the Swedish king the
provinces of Kexholm and Ingria, including the fortress of
Noteborg (the modern Schliisselburg), the key of Finland.
Russia, furthermore, renounced all claims upon Esthonia and
Livonia, and paid a war indemnity of 20,000 roubles. In return
for these concessions, Gustavus restored Great Novgorod and
acknowledged Michael Romanov as tsar of Muscovy.
The same period which saw the extension of the Swedish
Empire abroad, saw also the peaceful development of the Swedish
Kale of constitution at home. In this, as in every other
austavus matter, Gustavus himself took the initiative.
Adolphus. Nominally the Senate still remained the dominant
power in the state; but gradually all real authority had
been transferred to the crown. The Riksrid speedily lost its
ancient character of a grand council representing the semi-
Constiiu- feudal landed aristocracy, and became a bureau-
tioaai cracy holding the chief offices of state at the good
Changes, pleasure of the king. The Riksdag also changed
its character at the same time. Whilst in every other European
country except England, the ancient popular representation
by estates was about to disappear altogether, in Sweden
under Gustavus Adolphus it grew into an integral portion
of the constitution. The Riksdag ordinance of 1617 first
converted a turbulent and haphazard mob of " riksdagmen,"
huddling together like a flock of sheep " or drunken boors,"
into a dignified national assembly, meeting and deliberat-
ing according to rule and order. One of the nobility (first
called the Landtmarskolk), or marshal of the Diet, in the Riksdag
ordinance of 1526) was now regularly appointed by the king
as the spokesman of the Riddarhus, or House of Nobles, while
the primate generally acted as the talman or president of the
three lower estates, the clergy, burgesses and peasants, though
at a later day each of the three lower estates elected its own
talman. At the opening of every session, the king submitted
to the estates " royal propositions," or bills, upon which each
estate proceeded to deliberate in its own separate chamber.
The replies of the estates were delivered to the king at a subse-
quent session in congress. Whenever the estates differed
amongst themselves, the king chose whatever opinion seemed
best to him. The rights of the Riksdag were secured by the
Konungaforsiikran, or assurance given by every Swedish king
on his accession, guaranteeing the collaboration of the estates
in the work of legislation, and they were also to be consulted
on all questions of foreign policy. The king possessed the
initiative; but the estates had the right of objecting to the
measures of the government at the close of each session. It is
in Gustavus's reign, too, that we first hear of the Hemliga
Utskott, or " secret committee " for the transaction of extra-
ordinary affairs, which was elected by the estates themselves.
The eleven Riksdags held by Gustavus Adolphus were almost
exclusively occupied in finding ways and means for supporting
the ever-increasing burdens of the Polish and German wars.
And to the honour of the Swedish people be it said that, from
first to last, they showed a religious and patriotic zeal which
shrank from no sacrifice. It was to this national devotion
quite as much as to his own qualities that Gustavus owed his
success as an empire-builder.
The wars with Denmark and Russia had been almost exclu-
sively Scandinavian wars; the Polish war was of world- wide
significance. It was, in the first place, a struggle
for the Baltic littoral, and the struggle was intensified
by the knowledge that the Polish Vasas denied the
right of Gustavus to the Swedish throne. In the eyes
of the Swedish king, moreover, the Polish War was a war
of religion. Gustavus regarded the Scandinavian kingdoms
as the two chief pillars on which the Evangelical religion reposed.
Their disunion, he argued, would open a door in the north to
the Catholic league and so bring about the destruction of Den-
mark and Sweden alike. Hence his alliance with Denmark to
defend Stralsund in 1628. There is much of unconscious
exaggeration in all this. As a matter of fact the Polish republic
was no danger whatever to Protestantism. Sigismund's obsti-
nate insistence upon his right to the Swedish crown was the
one impediment to the conclusion of a war which the Polish
Diet heartily detested and very successfully impeded. Apart
from the semi-impotent Polish court, no 'responsible Pole
dreamed of aggrandisement in Sweden. In fact, during the
subsequent reign of Wladislaus IV. (1632-1648), the Poles pre-
vented that martial monarch from interfering in the Thirty
Years' War on the Catholic side. Gustavus, whose lively
imagination was easily excited by religious ardour, enormously
magnified clerical influence in Poland and frequently scented
dangers where only difficulties existed.
For eight years (1621-29) the exhausting and expensive
Polish war dragged on. By the beginning of 1626 Livonia was
conquered and the theatre of hostilities was transferred to the
Prussian provinces of Poland (see GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS;
KONIECPOLSKI [STANISLAUS]). The fertile and easily defensible
delta of the Vistula was now occupied and Gustavus treated it
as a permanent conquest, making his great minister Axel Oxen-
stjerna its first governor-general. But this was the limit of the
Swedish advance. All Gustavus's further efforts were frustrated
by the superior strategy of the Polish grandhetman Koniecpolski,
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
203
and, in June 1629, the king gladly accepted the lucrative
truce of Altmark. By this truce Sweden was, for six years, to
retain possession of her Livonian conquests, besides holding
Elbing, the Vistula delta, Braunsberg in West, and Pillau and
Memel in East Prussia, with the right to levy tolls at Pillau,
Memel, Danzig, Labiau and Windau. From these tolls Gustavus
derived, in 1629 alone, 500,000 rix-dollars, a sum equivalent to
the whole of the extraordinary subsidies granted to him by the
Riksdag. Thus Sweden held, for a time, the control of the
principal trade routes of the Baltic up to the very confines of
the empire; and the increment of revenue resulting from this
commanding position was of material assistance to her during
the earlier stages of the war in Germany, whither Gustavus
transferred his forces in June 1630.
The motives of Gustavus in plunging into the Thirty Years'
War and the details of the struggle as regards Sweden are else-
Sweden and where set forth (see GUSTAVUS II.; OXENSTJERNA
the Thirty [AXEL]; BANER [JOHAN]; TORSTENSSON [LEN-
Years" War. NART])_ Here the only point to be insisted upon
is the extreme precariousness of the Swedish position from
first to last — a precariousness due entirely to inadequacy
of material resources. In 1632 all Germany lay at the
feet of Sweden; two years later a single disaster (Nord-
lingen) brought her empire to the verge of ruin. For the
next seven years the German War as regards Sweden was
a struggle for existence. She triumphed in the end, it is true,
but it was a triumph due entirely to a lucky accident — the
possession, during the crisis, of the greatest statesman and the
greatest captain of the age. It was the exploits of Oxenstjerna
and Baner which alone enabled Sweden to obtain even what she
did obtain at the great Westphalian peace congress in 1648.
Her original demands were Silesia (she held most of the fortresses
there) , Pomerania (which had been in her possession for nearly
twenty years), and a war indemnity of 20,000,000 rix-
dollars. What she actually got was (i) Upper Pomerania,
with the islands of Riigen and Usedom, and a strip of Lower
Pomerania on the right side of the Oder, including the towns of
Stettin, Garz, Damm and Gollnow, and the isle of Wollin, with
the right of succession to the rest of Lower Pomerania in the
case of the extinction of the Brandenburg Hohenzollerns; (2)
the town of Wismar with the districts of Poel and Neukloster;
(3) the secularized bishoprics of Bremen and Verden; and (4)
5,000,000 rix-dollars. These German possessions were to be
held as fiefs of the empire; and in respect thereof Sweden was
to have a vote in the imperial Diet and to " direct " the Lower
Saxon Circle alternately with Brandenburg. France and Sweden,
moreover, became joint guarantors of the treaty with the
emperor, and were entrusted with the carrying out of its pro-
visions, which was practically effected by the executive congress
of Nuremberg in 1650.
Sweden's reward for the exertions and sacrifices of eighteen
years was meagre, almost paltry. Her newly won possessions
later- were both small and scattered, though, on the other
national hand, she had secured the practical control of the
Position of three principal rivers of north Germany — the Oder,
Sweden. the £lbe and the Weser_and reaped the full
advantage of the tolls levied on those great commercial
arteries. The jealousy of France and the impatience of Queen
Christina were the chief causes of the inadequacy of her final
recompense. Yet, though the immediate gain was small, she
had not dissipated her blood and treasure altogether in vain.
Her vigorous intervention had saved the cause of religious liberty
in Europe; and this remains, for all time, her greatest political
achievement. Henceforth till her collapse, seventy years later,
she was the recognized leader of Continental Protestantism.
A more questionable benefit was her rapid elevation to the rank
of an imperial power, an elevation which imposed the duty of
remaining a military monarchy, armed cap-d-pie for every
possible emergency. Every one recognizes now that the poverty
and sparse population of Sweden unfitted her for such a
tremendous destiny. But in the middle of the tyth century
the incompatibility between her powers and her pretensions was
not so obvious. All her neighbours were either decadent or
exhausted states; and France, the most powerful of the Western
powers, was her firm ally.
For the moment, however, Sweden held the field. Everything
depended upon the policy of the next few years. Very careful
statesmanship might mean permanent dominion Queea
on the Baltic shore, but there was not much margin Christina,
for blundering. Unfortunately the extravagance 1644-16S4.
of Gustavus Adolphus's two immediate successors, Christina1
and Charles X., shook the flimsy fabric of his empire
to its very base. Christina's extravagance was financial.
At the time of her abdication the state was on the verge of bank-
ruptcy, and the financial difficulty had superinduced a serious
political agitation. The mass of the Swedish people was penetrated
by a justifiable fear that the external, artificial greatness of their
country might, in the long run, be purchased with the loss of
their civil and political liberties. In a word, the natural equili-
brium of Swedish society was seriously threatened by the pre-
ponderance of the nobility; and the people at large looked to
the new king to redress the balance. A better
arbiter between the various estates than Charles X.
it would have been difficult to find. It is true that,
primarily a soldier, his whole ambition was directed towards
military glory; but he was also an unusually sharp-sighted
politician. He affected to believe that only by force of
arms could Sweden retain the dominion which by force
of arms she had won; but he also grasped the fact that
there must be no disunion at home if she ,were to continue
powerful abroad. The most pressing question of the day,
the so-called Reduktion, or restitution of the alienated crown
lands, was adjusted provisionally at the Riksdag of 1655. The
king proposed that the actual noble holders of crown property
should either pay an annual sum of 200,000 rix-dollars, to be
allowed for out of any further crown lands subsequently falling
in to them, or should surrender a fourth of the expectant property
itself to the estimated amount of 600,000 rix-dollars. The
nobility attempted to escape taxation as cheaply as possible by
stipulating that the 6th of November 1632, the day of Gustavus
Adolphus's death, should be the extreme limit of any restrospec-
tive action on the part of the crown in regard to alienated crown
property, and that the present subsidy should be regarded as
"a perpetual ordinance" unalterably to be observed by all
future sovereigns — in other words, that there should be no
further restitution of alienated crown property. Against this
interpretation of the subsidy bill the already over-taxed lower
estates protested so energetically that the Diet had to be sus-
pended. Then the king intervened personally; not to quell the
commons, as the senate insisted, but to compel the nobility to
give way. He proposed that the whole matter should be
thoroughly investigated by a special committee before the
meeting of the next Riksdag, and that in the meantime a con-
tribution should be levied on all classes proportionately. This
equitable arrangement was accepted by the estates forthwith.
Charles X. had done his best to obviate the effects of the
financial extravagance of Christina. It may well be doubted,
however, whether his own extravagant desire for
military glory was not equally injurious to his
country. In three days he had succeeded in per-
suading the Swedish estates of the lucrative expediency of his
unnecessary and immoral attack on Poland (see POLAND:
History); but when he quitted Stockholm for Warsaw, on the
loth of July 1654, he little imagined that he had embaiked on
an adventure which was to contribute far more to his glory than
to the advantage of his country. How the Polish War expanded
into a general European war; how Charles's miraculous audacity
again and again ravished favours from Fortune and Nature
(e.g. the passage of the Belts) when both those great powers
combined against him; how, finally, he emerged from all his
difficulties triumphant, indeed, but only to die of sheer exhaustion
1 Christina's reign dates, properly, from 1644 when she attained
her majority. From 1632 to 1644 Axel Oxenstjerna was virtually
the ruler of Sweden.
f
' *
204
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
in his thirty-eighth year — all this has elsewhere been described
(see CHARLES X., king of Sweden; CZARNIECKI [STEPHEN] ;
FREDERICK III., king of Denmark). Suffice it to say that,
immediately after his death, the regency appointed to govern
Charles XI Sweden during the minority of his only son and
successor, Charles XI., a child four years old,
hastened to come to terms with Sweden's numerous enemies,
which now included Russia, Poland, Brandenburg and Denmark.
The Peace of Oliva (May 3, 1660), made under
'onva °660 Frencn mediation, put an end to the long feud with
Poland and, at the same time, ended the quarrel
between Sweden on the one side, and the emperor and the
elector of Brandenburg on the other. By this peace, Sweden's
possession of Livonia, and the elector of Brandenburg's
sovereignty over east Prussia, were alike confirmed; and the
king of Poland renounced all claim to the Swedish crown. As
regards Denmark, the Peace of Oliva signified the desertion of
her three principal allies, Poland, Brandenburg and the emperor,
and thus compelled her to reopen negotiations with Sweden
direct. The differences between the two states were finally
adjusted by the peace of Copenhagen (May 27, 1660), Denmark
ceding the three Scanian provinces to Sweden but receiving
back the Norwegian province of Trondhjem and the isle of
Bornholm which she had surrendered by the peace of Roskilde
two years previously. Denmark was also compelled to recog-
nize, practically, the independence of the dukes of Holstein-
Gottorp. The Russian War was terminated by the Peace of
Kardis (July 2, 1661), confirmatory of the Peace of Stolbova,
whereby the tsar surrendered to Sweden all his Baltic provinces
— Ingria, Esthonia and Kexholm.
Thus Sweden emerged from the war not only a military power
of tWlfirst magnitude, but also one of the largest states of
Swede7as Europe, possessing about twice as much territory
a Great as modern Sweden. Her area embraced 16,800
Power. geographical square miles, a mass of land 7000
sq. m. larger than the modern German Empire. Yet the
Swedish Empire was rather a geographical expression than a
state with natural and national boundaries. Modern Sweden
is bounded by the Baltic; during the I7th century the Baltic
was merely the bond between her various widely dispersed
dominions. All the islands in the Baltic, except the Danish
group, belonged to Sweden. The estuaries of all the great
German rivers (for the Niemen and Vistula are properly Polish
rivers) debouched in Swedish territory, within which also lay
two-thirds of Lake Ladoga and one-half of Lake Peipus. Stock-
holm, the capital, lay in the very centre of the empire, whose
second greatest city was Riga, on the other side of the sea. Yet
this vast empire contained but half the population of modern
Sweden — being only 2,500,000, or about 140 souls to the square
mile. Further, Sweden's new boundaries were of the most
insecure description, inasmuch as they were anti-ethnographical,
parting asunder races which naturally went together, and behind
which stood powerful neighbours of the same stock ready, at
the first opportunity, to reunite them.
Moreover, the commanding political influence which Sweden
had now won was considerably neutralized by her loss of moral
prestige. On Charles X.'s accession in 1655, Sweden's neigh-
bours, though suspicious and uneasy, were at least not adver-
saries, and might have been converted into allies of the new
great power who, if she had mulcted them of territory, had, any-
how, compensated them for the loss with the by no means con-
temptible douceur of religious liberty. At Charles X.'s death,
five years later, we find Sweden, herself bled to exhaustion point,
surrounded by a broad belt of desolated territory and regarded
with ineradicable hatred by every adjacent state. To sink in
five years from the position of the champion of Protestantism
to that of the common enemy of every Protestant power was a
degradation not to be compensated by any amount of military
glory. Charles's subsequent endeavour, in stress of circum-
stances, to gain a friend by dividing his Polish conquests with
the aspiring elector of Brandenburg was a reversal of his original
policy and only resulted in the establishment on the southern
confines of Sweden of a new rival almost as dangerous as
Denmark, her ancient rival in the west.
In 1660, after five years of incessant warfare, Sweden had at
length obtained peace and with it the opportunity of organizing
and developing her newly won empire. Unfor- Hiooftt f
tunately, the regency which was to govern her during charleiXi.
the next fifteen years was unequal to the difficulties
of a situation which might have taxed the resources of the
wisest statesmen. Unity and vigour were scarcely to be ex-
pected from a many-headed administration composed of men
of mediocre talent whose contrary opinions speedily gave rise
to contending factions. There was the high-aristocratic party
with a leaning towards martial adventure headed by Magnus de
la Gardie (<?.t>.), and the party of peace and economy whose
ablest representative was the liberal and energetic Johan
Gyllenstjerna (q.ii.). After a severe struggle, de la Gardie's
party prevailed; and its triumph was marked by that general
decline of personal and political morality which has given to
this regency its unenviable notoriety. Sloth and carelessness
speedily invaded every branch of the administration, destroying
all discipline and leading to a general neglect of business.
Another characteristic of the de la Gardie government was its
gross corruption, which made Sweden the obsequious hireling
of that foreign power which had the longest purse. This shame-
ful "subsidy policy" dates from the Treaty of Fontainebleau,
1661, by a secret paragraph of which Sweden, in exchange for a
considerable sum of money, undertook to support the French
candidate on the first vacancy of the Polish throne. The com-
plications ensuing from Louis XIV.'s designs on the Spanish
Netherlands led to a bid for the Swedish alliance, both from the
French king and his adversaries. After much hesitation on the
part of the Swedish government, the anti-French faction pre-
vailed; and in April 1668 Sweden acceded to the Triple Alliance,
which finally checkmated the French king by bringing about the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. For the next four years Sweden
remained true to the principles of the Triple Alliance; but,
in 1672, Louis XIV. succeeded in isolating the Dutch republic
and regaining his ancient ally, Sweden. By the Treaty of
Stockholm (April 14, 1672), Sweden became, for
the next ten years, a "mercenarius Galliae," pledging wtt
herself, in return for 400,000 crowns per annum in
peace and 600,000 in war-time, to attack, with 16,000 men, any
German princes who might be disposed to assist Holland. In
1674 Louis XIV. peremptorily called upon Sweden to fulfil
her obligations by invading Brandenburg. In the course of
May 1675 a Swedish army advanced into the Mark, but on the
1 8th of June was defeated at Fehrbellin, and hastily retreated
to Demmin. The Fehrbellin affair was a mere skirmish, the actual
casualties amounting to less than 600 men, but it rudely divested
Sweden of her nimbus of invincibility and was the signal for a
general attack upon her, known as the Scanian War.
In the course of the next three years her 'empire War
seemed to be crumbling away everywhere. In
1675 Pomerania and the bishopric of Bremen were overrun
by the Brandenburgers, Austrians and Danes. In December
1677 the elector of Brandenburg captured Stettin. Stralsund
fell on the isth of October 1678. Greifswald, Sweden's
last possession on the Continent, was lost on the sth of
November. A defensive alliance with Sobieski (August 4,
1677) was rendered inoperative by the annihilation of Sweden's
sea-power (battle of Oland, June 17, 1676; battle of Fehmarn,
June 1677) and the difficulties of the Polish king.
Two accidents at this crisis alone saved Sweden from ruin — the
splendid courage of the young king who, resolutely and success-
fully, kept the Danish invaders at bay (see CHARLES XL, king
of Sweden), and the diplomatic activity of Louis XIV. In
March 1677 a peace congress began its sessions at Nijmwegen;
and in the beginning of April 1678 the French king dictated
the terms of a general pacification. One of his chief conditions
was the complete restitution of Sweden. A strong Sweden
was necessary to the accomplishment of his plans. He suggested,
however, that Sweden should rid herself of her enemies by
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
205
making some " small cession " to them. This Charles XI.
refused to do, whereupon Louis took it upon himself to conclude
peace on Sweden's account without consulting the wishes of
Treaty of the Swedish king. By this Treaty of Nijmwegen
Nijmwegea, (Feb. 7) and of St Germain (June 29, 1679)
1679. Sweden virtually received full restitution of her
German territory. On the and of September by the Peace
of Fontainebleau (confirmed by the subsequent Peace of Lund,
Oct. 4, 1679), Denmark was also forced to retrocede her
conquests. It is certain that Sweden herself could never have
extorted such favourable terms, yet " the insufferable tutelage "
of France on this occasion inspired Charles XI. with a per-
sonal dislike of the mighty ruler of France and contributed
to reverse the traditional diplomacy of Sweden by giving it a
strong anti-French bias (see CHARLES XL; OXENSTJERNA,
BENEDICT).
The remainder of the reign of Charles XI. is remarkable for
a revolution which converted the government of Sweden into
Charles XI a semi-absolute monarchy. The king emerged from
and the ' the war convinced that if Sweden were to retain her
Swedish position as a great power she must radically reform
CoastHu- ner whole economical system, and, above all, cir-
cumscribe the predominant and mischievous in-
fluence of an aristocracy which thought far more of its
privileges than of its public duties. He felt that he could
now draw upon the confidence and liberality of the lower
orders to an unlimited extent, and he proceeded to do so. The
Riksdag which assembled in Stockholm in October 1680
begins a new era of Swedish history. On the motion of the
Estate of Peasants, which had a long memory for aristocratic
abuses, the question of the recovery of the alienated crown
lands was brought before the Riksdag, and, despite the stubborn
opposition of the magnates, a resolution of the Diet directed
that all countships, baronies, domains, manors and other estates
producing an annual rent of more than £70 per annum should
revert to the Crown. The same Riksdag decided that the king
was not bound by any particular constitution, but only by law
and the statutes. Nay, they added that he was not even
obliged to consult the council of state, but was to be regarded
as a sovereign lord, responsible to God alone for his actions,
and requiring no intermediary between himself and his people.
The council thereupon acquiesced in its own humiliation by
meekly accepting a royal brief changing its official title from
Riksrad (council of state) to Kungligarad (royal council) — a
visible sign that the senators were no longer the king's colleagues
but his servants.
Thus Sweden, as well as Denmark, had become an absolute
monarchy, but with this important difference, that the right
of the Swedish people, in parliament assembled, to be consulted
on all important matters was recognized and acted upon. The
Riksdag, completely overshadowed by the throne, was during
the reign of Charles XL to do little more than register the royal
decrees; but nevertheless it continued to exist as an essential
part of the machinery of government. Moreover, this transfer
of authority was a voluntary act. The people, knowing the
king to be their best friend, trusted him implicity and co-
operated with him cheerfully. The Riksdag of 1682 proposed a
fresh Reduktion, and declared that the whole question of how
far the king was empowered by the law of the land to bestow
fiefs, or, in case of urgent national distress, take them back
again, was exclusively his majesty's affair. In other words,
it made the king the disposer of his subjects' temporal property.
Presently this new principle of autocracy was extended to the
king's legislative authority also, for, on the gth of December
1682, all four estates, by virtue of a common declaration, not
only confirmed him in the possession of the legislative powers
enjoyed by his predecessors, but even conceded to him the right
of interpreting and amending the common law.
The recovery of the alienated crown lands occupied Charles XL
for the rest of his life. It was conducted by a commission
which was ultimately converted into a permanent department
of state. It acted on the principle that the titles of all private
landed estate might be called in question, inasmuch as at some
time or other it must have belonged to the Crown; and the
burden of proof of ownership was held not to lie with the Crown
which made the claim, but with the actual owner of the property.
The amount of revenue accruing to the Crown from the whole
Reduktion it is impossible to estimate even approximately;
but by these means, combined with the most careful manage-
ment and the most rigid economy, Charles XI. contrived to
reduce the national debt from £2,567,000 to £700,000.
These operations represent only a part of Charles XL's
gigantic activity. Here we have only space sufficient to glance
at his reorganization of the national armaments. Reorganize-
Charles XL re-established on a broader basis the tion of
indelningsverk introduced by Charles IX. — a system Armament*.
of military tenure whereby the national forces were bound
to the soil. Thus there was the rusth&ll tenure, under
which the tenants, instead of paying rent, were obliged
to equip and maintain a cavalry soldier and horse, while
the knekthallarer supplied duly equipped foot soldiers. These
indelning soldiers were provided with holdings on which they
lived in times of peace. Formerly, ordinary conscription had
existed alongside this indelning, or distribution system; but it
had proved inadequate as well as highly unpopular; and, in
1682, Charles XL came to an agreement with the peasantry
whereby an extended indelning system was to be susbstituted
for general conscription. The navy, of even more importance
to Sweden if she were to maintain the dominion of the Baltic,
was entirely remodelled; and, the recent war having demon-
strated the unsuitability of Stockholm as a naval station, the
construction of a new arsenal on a gigantic scale was simul-
taneously begun at Karlskrona. After a seventeen years' struggle
against all manner of financial difficulties, the twofolApnter-
prise was completed. At the death of Charles Xl.^^reden
could boast of a fleet of forty-three three-deckers (manned by
11,000 men and armed with 2648 guns) and one of the finest
arsenals in the world.
Charles XL had carefully provided against the contingency
of his successor's minority; and the five regents appointed by
him, if not great statesmen, were at least practical
politicans who had not been trained in his austere /gp/.//^
school in vain. At home the Reduktion was
cautiously pursued, while abroad the successful conclusion of
the great peace congress at Ryswick was justly regarded as a
signal triumph of Sweden's pacific diplomacy (see OXENSTJERNA
FAMILY). The young king was full of promise, and had he
been permitted gradually to gain experience and develop his
naturally great talents beneath the guidance of his guardians,
as his father had intended, all might have been well for Sweden.
Unfortunately, the sudden, noiseless revolution of the 6th of
November 1697, which made Charles XII. absolute master of
his country's fate in his fifteenth year (see CHARLES XII.) ,
and the league of Denmark, Saxony and Russia, formed two
years later to partition Sweden (see PATKUL, JOHANN REINHOLD;
PETER THE GREAT; CHARLES XII.), precipitated Sweden into a
sea of troubles in which she was finally submerged.
From the very beginning of the Great Northern War Sweden
suffered from the inability of Charles XII. to view the situation
from anything but a purely personal point of view. anat
His determination to avenge himself on enemies Northern
overpowered every other consideration. Again and War.
again during these eighteen years of warfare it was in his power
to dictate an advantageous peace. After the dissipation of
the first coalition against him by the peace of Travendal
(Aug. 18, 1700) and the victory of Narva (Nov. 20, 1700),
the Swedish chancellor, Benedict Oxenstjerna, rightly regarded
the universal bidding for the favour of Sweden by France
and the maritime powers, then on the eve of the War of
the Spanish Succession, as a golden opportunity of " ending
this present lean war and making his majesty the arbiter of
Europe." But Charles, intent on dethroning Augustus of
Poland, held haughtily aloof. Subsequently in 1701 he rejected
a personal appeal from William III. to conclude peace on his
206
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
own terms. Five years later (Sept. 24, 1706) he did, indeed,
conclude the Polish War by the peace of Altranstadt, but as
this treaty brought no advantage to Sweden, not even com-
pensation for the expenses of six years of warfare, it was
politically condemnable. Moreover, two of Sweden's Baltic
provinces, Esthonia and Ingria, had been seized by the tsar,
and a third, Livonia, had been well-nigh ruined. Yet even now
Charles, by a stroke of the pen, could have recovered nearly
everything he had lost. In 1707 Peter was ready to retrocede
everything except St Petersburg and the line of the Neva, and
again Charles preferred risking the whole to saving the greater
part of his Baltic possessions (for details see CHARLES XII.;
PETER THE GREAT). When at last, after the catastrophe of
Poltava (June 1709) and the flight into Turkey, he condescended
to use diplomatic methods, it was solely to prolong, not to
terminate, the war. Even now he could have made honourable
terms with his numerous enemies. The resources of Sweden
were still very far from being exhausted, and, during 1710 and
1711, the gallant Magnus Stenbock (q.v.) upheld her military
supremacy in the north. But all the efforts of the Swedish
government were wrecked on the determination of Charles XII.
to surrender nothing. Thus he rejected advantageous offers of
mediation and alliance made to him, during 1712, by the mari-
time powers and by Prussia; and, in 1714, he scouted the friendly
overtures of Louis XIV. and the emperor, so that when peace
was finally concluded between France and the Empire, at the
congress of Baden, Swedish affairs were, by common consent,
left out of consideration. When, on the i4th of September 1714,
he suddenly returned to his dominions, Stralsund and Wismar
were all that remained to him of his continental possessions;
while by the end of 1715 Sweden, now fast approaching the last
stage of exhaustion, was at open war with England, Hanover,
Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Denmark, who had formed a
coalition to partition her continental territory between them.
Nevertheless, at this the eleventh hour of her opportunities,
Sweden might still have saved something from the wreck of her
empire if Charles had behaved like a reasonable being (see
CHARLES XII.; PETER THE GREAT; GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH
VON; OSTERMAN, ANDREI); but he would only consent to
play off Russia against England, and his sudden death before
Fredrikshald (Dec. n, 1718) left Sweden practically at the end
of her resources and at the mercy of her enemies. At the
beginning of 1719 pacific overtures were made to England,
Hanover, Prussia and Denmark. By the treaties of
Stockholm Stockholm (Feb. 20, 1719, and Feb. i, 1720) Hanover
and obtained the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden for
s- herself and Stettin for her confederate Prussia.
BV tne treatv °f Frederiksborg or Copenhagen
(July 3, 1720) peace was also signed between Den-
mark and Sweden, Denmark retroceding Riigen, Further
Pomerania as far as the Peene, and Wismar to Sweden,
in exchange for an indemnity of 600,000 rix-dollars, while
Sweden relinquished her exemption from the Sound tolls and
her protectorate over Holstein-Gottorp. The prospect of
coercing Russia by means of the British fleet had alone induced
Sweden to consent to such sacrifices; but when the last demands
of England and her allies had been complied with, Sweden
Peace of was ^e^ *-° come to terms as best she could with
Nystad, the tsar. Negotiations were reopened with Russia at
1721. LOSS Nystad, in May 1720, but peace was not concluded
p£5££S!*till the 3oth of August 1721, and then only under
the direst pressure. By the peace of Nystad Sweden
ceded to Russia Ingria and Esthonia, Livonia, the Finnish
province of Kexholm and the fortress of Viborg. Finland
west of Viborg and north of Kexholm was restored to
Sweden. She also received an indemnity of two millions of
thalers and a solemn undertaking of non-interference in her
domestic affairs.
It was not the least of Sweden's misfortunes after the
Great Northern War that the new constitution, which was
• to compensate her for all her past sacrifices, should contain
within it the elements of many of her future calamities.
Early in 1720 Charles XII. 's sister, Ulrica Leonora, who had
•been elected queen of Sweden immediately after his death,
was permitted to abdicate in favour of her hus- pnaeHck /.,
band the prince of Hesse, who was elected king 1720-1751.
under the title of Frederick I.; and Sweden was, The Limited
at the same time, converted into the most limited •/MoMre/v-
of monarchies. All power was vested in the people as
represented by the Riksdag, 'consisting, as before, of four
distinct estates, nobles, priests, burgesses and peasants, sitting
and deliberating apart. The conflicting interests and mutual
jealousies of these four independent assemblies made the work
of legislation exceptionally difficult. No measure could now
become law till it had obtained the assent of three at least of
the four estates; but this provision, which seems to have been
designed to protect the lower orders against the nobility, pro-
duced evils far greater than those which it professed to cure.
Thus, measures might be passed by a bare majority in three
estates, when a real and substantial majority of all four estates
in congress might be actually against it. Or, again, a dominant
action in any three of the estates might enact laws highly detri-
mental to the interests of the remaining estate — a danger the
more to be apprehended as in no other country in Europe were
class distinctions so sharply defined as in Sweden.
Each estate was ruled by its talman, or speaker, who was now
elected at the beginning of each Diet, but the archbishop was,
ex officio, the talman of the clergy. The landt- coastitu-
marskalk, or speaker of the House of Nobles, presided tioa of the
when the estates met in congress, and also, by Estate*.
virtue of his office, in the hemliga utskott, or secret committee.
This famous body, which consisted of 50 nobles, 25 priests,
25 burgesses, and, very exceptionally, 25 peasants, possessed
during the session of the Riksdag not only the supreme executive
but also the surpeme judicial and legislative functions. It pre-
pared all bills for the Riksdag, created and deposed all ministries,
controlled the foreign policy of the nation, and claimed and
often exercised the right of superseding the ordinary courts
of justice. During the parliamentary recess, however, the
executive remained in the hands of the rod, or senate, which
was responsible to the Riksdag alone.
It will be obvious that there was no room in this republican
constitution for a constitutional monarch in the modern sense
of the word. The crowned puppet who possessed a casting vote
in the rod, of which he was the nominal president, and who was
allowed to create peers once in his life (at his coronation), was
rather a state decoration than a sovereignty.
At first this cumbrous and complicated instrument of govern-
ment worked tolerably well under the firm but cautious control
of the chancellor, Count Arvid Beernhard Horn pomtcai
(q.ii.). In his anxiety to avoid embroiling his country Parties.
abroad, Horn reversed the traditional policy of Hais *"a
Sweden by keeping France at a distance and draw- CaPs-
ing near to Great Britain, for whose liberal institutions he
professed the highest admiration. Thus a twenty years'
war was succeeded by a twenty years' peace, during which
the nation recovered so rapidly from its wounds that it began
to forget them. A new race of politicians was springing up.
Since 1719, when the influence of the few great territorial
families had been merged in a multitude of needy gentle-
men, the first estate had become the nursery and afterwards
the stronghold of an opposition at once noble and democratic
which found its natural leaders in such men as Count Carl
Gyllenborg and Count Carl Gustaf Tessin (q.v.). These men and
their followers were never weary of ridiculing the timid caution
of the aged statesman who sacrificed everything to perpetuate
an inglorious peace and derisively nicknamed his adherents
" Night-caps " (a term subsequently softened into " Caps "),
themselves adopting the sobriquet " Hats," from the three-
cornered hat worn by officers and gentlemen, which was con-
sidered happily to hit off the manly self-assertion of the opposi-
tion. These epithets instantly caught the public fancy and had
already become party badges when the estates met in 1738.
This Riksdag was to mark another turning-point in Swedish
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
207
I74lf
history. The Hats carried everything before them; and the
aged Horn was finally compelled to retire from a scene where,
for three and thirty years, he had played a leading part.
The policy of the Hats was a return to the traditional alliance
between France and Sweden. When Sweden descended to
her natural position as a second-rate power the
AMiaace. French alliance became too costly a luxury.
Horn had clearly perceived this; and his cautious
neutrality was therefore the soundest statesmanship. But
the politicians who had ousted Horn thought differently. To
them prosperity without glory was a worthless possession.
They aimed at restoring Sweden to her former position as
a great power. France, naturally, hailed with satisfaction
the rise of a faction which was content to be her armour-
bearer in the north; and the golden streams which flowed
from Versailles to Stockholm during the next two generations
were the political life-blood of the Hat party.
The first blunder of the Hats was the hasty and ill-advised
war with Russia. The European complications consequent
War with upon the almost simultaneous deaths of the emperor
Charles VI. and Anne, empress of Russia, seemed
to favour their adventurous schemes; and, despite
the frantic protests of the Caps, a project for the invasion of
Russian Finland was rushed through the premature Riksdag
of 1740. On the 2oth of July 1741 war was formally declared
against Russia; a month later the Diet was dissolved and the
Hat landtmarskalk set off to Finland to take command of the
army. • The first blow was not struck till six months after the
declaration of war; and it was struck by the enemy, who routed
the Swedes at Villmanstrand and captured that frontier fortress.
Nothing else was done on either side for six months more; and
then the Swedish generals made a " tacit truce " with the
Russians through the mediation of the French ambassador at
St Petersburg. By the time that the " tacit truce " had come
to an end the Swedish forces were so demoralized that the mere
rumour of a hostile attack made them retire panic-stricken to
Heisingfors; and before the end of the year all Finland was in
the hands of the Russians. The fleet, disabled by an epidemic,
was, throughout the war, little more than a floating hospital.
To face the Riksdag with such a war as this upon their
consciences was a trial from which the Hats naturally shrank;
but, to do them justice, they showed themselves better parlia-
mentary than military strategists. A motion for an inquiry
into the conduct of the war was skilfully evaded by obtaining
precedence for the succession question (Queen Ulrica Leonora
had lately died childless and King Frederick was old) ; and nego-
tiations were thus opened with the new Russian empress,
Elizabeth, who agreed to restore the greater part of Finland
if her cousin, Adolphus Frederick of Holstein, were elected
successor to the Swedish crown. The Hats eagerly caught at
the opportunity of recovering the grand duchy and their own
prestige along with it. By the peace of Abo (May
Abo?t°43. 7> *743) tne terms °f the empress were accepted;
and only that small part of Finland which lay
beyond the Kymmene was retained by Russia.
In March 1751 old King Frederick died. His slender pre-
rogatives had gradually dwindled down to vanishing point.
Adolphus Adolphus Frederick (g.v.) would have given even less
Frederick trouble than his predecessor but for the ambitious
//., 1751- promptings of his masterful consort Louisa Ulrica,
1771. Frederick the Great's sister, and the tyranny of the
estates, who seemed bent upon driving the meekest of princes
into rebellion. An attempted monarchical revolution, planned
by the queen and a few devoted young nobles in 1756, was
easily and remorselessly crushed; and, though the unhappy king
did not, as he anticipated, share the fate of Charles Stuart, he
was humiliated as never monarch was humiliated before.
The same years which beheld this great domestic triumph
of the Hats saw also the utter collapse of their foreign "system."
At the instigation of France they plunged recklessly into the
Seven Years' War; and the result was ruinous. The French sub-
sidies, which might have sufficed for a six weeks' demonstration
(it was generally assumed that the king of Prussia would
give little trouble to a European coalition), proved quite in-
adequate; and, after five unsuccessful campaigns, the
unhappy Hats were glad to make peace and ignomini-
ously withdraw from a little war which had cost the
country 40,000 men and £2,500,000. When the Riksdag met
in 1760, the indignation against the Hat leaders was so violent
that an impeachment seemed inevitable; but once more the
superiority of their parliamentary tactics prevailed, and when,
after a session of twenty months, the Riksdag was brought to a
close by the mutual consent of both the exhausted factions,
the Hat government was bolstered up for another four years.
But the day of reckoning could not be postponed for ever;
and when the estates met in 1765 it brought the Caps into power
at last. Their leader, Ture Rudbeck, was elected marshal of
the Diet over Frederick Axel von Fersen (q.v.), the Hat candi-
date, by a large majority; and, out of the hundred seats in the
secret committee, the Hats succeeded in getting only ten.
The Caps struck at once at the weak point of their opponents
by ordering a budget report to be made; and it was speedily
found that the whole financial system of the Hats
had been based upon reckless improvidence and
wilful misrepresentation, and that the only fruit
of their long rule was an enormous addition to the national
debt and a depreciation of the note circulation to one-
third of its face value. This revelation led to an all-round
retrenchment, carried into effect with a drastic thoroughness
which has earned for this parliament the name of the " Reduk-
tion Riksdag." The Caps succeeded in transferring £250,000
from the pockets of the rich to the empty exchequer, reducing
the national debt by £575,179, and establishing some sort of
equilibrium between revenue and expenditure. They also
introduced a few useful reforms, the most remarkable of which
was the liberty of the press. But their most important political
act was to throw their lot definitely in with Russia, so
as to counterpoise the influence of France. Sweden was
not then as now quite outside the European Concert.
Alghough no longer a great power, she still had many of the
responsibilities of a great power; and if the Swedish alliance
had considerably depreciated in value, it was still a marketable
commodity. Sweden's peculiar geographical position made her
virtually invulnerable for six months out of the twelve, her
Pomeranian possessions afforded her an easy ingress into the
very heart of the moribund empire, while her Finnish frontier
was not many leagues from the Russian capital.
A watchful neutrality, not venturing much beyond defensive
alliances and commercial treaties with the maritime powers,
was therefore Sweden's safest policy, and this the older Caps had
always followed out. But when the Hats became the armour-
bearers of France in the north, a protector strong enough to
counteract French influence became the cardinal exigency of
their opponents, the younger Caps, who now flung themselves
into the arms of Russia, overlooking the fact that even a pacific
union with Russia was more to be feared than a martial alliance
with France. For France was too distant to be dangerous.
She sought an ally in Sweden and it was her endeavour to make
that ally as strong as possible. But it was as a future prey,
not as a possible ally, that Russia regarded her ancient rival in
the north. In the treaty which partitioned Poland there was a
secret clause which engaged the contracting powers to uphold
the existing Swedish constitution as the swiftest means of sub-
verting Swedish independence; and an alliance with the credu-
lous Caps, " the Patriots " as they were called at St Petersburg,
guaranteeing their constitution, was the corollary to this secret
understanding. Thus, while the French alliance of the warlike
Hats had destroyed the prestige of Sweden, the Russian alliance
of the peaceful Caps threatened to destroy her very existence.
Fortunately, the domination of the Caps was not for long.
The general distress occasioned by their drastic reforms had
found expression in swarms of pamphlets which bit and stung
the Cap government, under the protection of the new press
laws. The senate retaliated by an order in council (which the
208
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
king refused to sign) declaring that all complaints against the
measures of the last Riksdag should be punished with fine and
imprisonment. The king, at the suggestion of the crown prince
(see GUSTAVUS III.), thereupon urged the senate to summon
an extraordinary Riksdag as the speediest method of relieving
the national distress, and, on their refusing to comply with his
wishes, abdicated. From the isth of December to the zist of
December 1768 Sweden was without a regular government.
Then the Cap senate gave way and the estates were convoked
for the ipth of April 1769.
On the eve of the contest there was a general assembly of
the Hats at the French embassy, where the Comte de Modene
furnished them with 6,000,000 livres, but not till they had
signed in his presence an undertaking to reform the constitution
in a monarchical sense. Still more energetic on the other side,
the Russian minister, Ivan Osterman, became the treasurer as
well as the counsellor of the Caps, and scattered the largesse
of the Russian empress with a lavish hand; and so lost to all
feeling of patriotism were the Caps that they openly threatened
all who ventured to vote against them with the Muscovite
vengeance, and fixed Norrkoping, instead of Stockholm, as the
place of meeting for the Riksdag as being more accessible to the
Russian fleet. But it soon became evident that the Caps were
playing a losing game; and, when the Riksdag met
at Norrkoping on the loth of April, they found them-
selves in a minority in all four estates. In the
contest for the marshalate of the Diet the leaders of the two
parties were again pitted against each other, when the verdict
of the last Riksdag was exactly reversed, Fersen defeating
Rudbeck by 234, though Russia spent no less a sum than
£11,500 to secure the election of the latter.
The Caps had short shrift, and the joint note which the
Russian, Prussian and Danish ministers presented to the estates
protesting, in menacing terms, against any " reprisals " on the
part of the triumphant faction, only hastened the fall of the
government. The Cap senate resigned en masse to escape
impeachment, and an exclusively Hat ministry took its place.
The On the ist of June the Reaction Riksdag, as it
React/on was generally called, removed to the capital; and
Riksdag. jt was now that the French ambassador and the
crown prince Gustavus called upon the new senators to redeem
their promise as to a reform of the constitution which they had
made before the elections. But when, at the fag-end of the
session, they half-heartedly brought the matter forward, the
Riksdag suddenly seemed to be stricken with paralysis. Im-
pediments multiplied at every step; the cry was raised: " The
constitution is in danger "; and on the 3oth of January 1770
the Reaction Riksdag, after a barren ten months' session, rose
amidst chaotic confusion without accomplishing anything.
Adolphus Frederick died on the i2th of February 1771.
The elections held on the demise of the Crown resulted in a
Qustavua partial victory for the Caps, especially among the
///., I771- lower orders; but in the estate of the peasants
1792, their majority was merely nominal, while the mass
of the nobility was dead against them. Nothing could
be done, however, till the arrival of the new king (then at
Paris), and every one felt that with Gustavus III. an entirely
incalculable factor had entered into Swedish politics. Unknown
to the party leaders, he had already renewed the Swedish
alliance with France and had received solemn assurances of
assistance from Louis XV. in case he succeeded in re-establishing
monarchical rule in Sweden. France undertook, moreover,
to pay the outstanding subsidies to Sweden, amounting to one
and a half millions of livres annually, beginning from January
1772; and Vergennes, one of the great names of French diplo-
macy, was to be sent to circumvent the designs of Russia at
Stockholm as he had previously circumvented them at Con-
stantinople. Immediately after his return to Stockholm,
Gustavus endeavoured to reconcile the jarring factions by in-
ducing the leaders to form a composition committee to adjust
their differences. In thus mediating he was sincere enough,
but all his pacific efforts were frustrated by their jealousy of
him and of each other. Still worse, the factions now intrenched
still further on the prerogative. The new coronation oath con-
tained three revolutionary clauses. The first aimed at making
abdications in the future impossible by binding the king to
reign uninterruptedly. The second obliged him to abide, not
by the decision of all the estates together, as heretofore, but
by that of the majority only, with the view of enabling the
actually dominant lower estates (in which was a large Cap
majority) to rule without, and even in spite of, the nobility.
The third clause required him, in all cases of preferment, to be
guided not " principally," as heretofore, but " solely " by merit,
thus striking at the very root of aristocratic privilege. It was
clear that the ancient strife of Hats and Caps had become
merged in a conflict of classes; the situation was still further
complicated by the ominous fact that the non-noble majority
was also the Russian faction.
All through 1771 the estates were wrangling over the clauses
of the coronation oath. A second attempt of the king to mediate
between them foundered on the suspicions of the estate of
burgesses; and, on the 24th of February 1772, the nobility
yielded from sheer weariness. The non-noble Cap majority
now proceeded to attack the senate, the last stronghold of the
Hats, and, on the 25th of April, succeeded in ousting their
opponents. It was now, for the first time, that Gustavus,
reduced to the condition of a roi faineant, began seriously to
consider the possibility of a revolution; of its necessity there
could be no doubt. Under the sway of the now dominant
faction, Sweden, already the vassal, could not fail speedily to
become the victim of Russia. She was on the point of being
absorbed in that Northern System, the invention of the Russian
minister of foreign affairs, Nikita Panin (q.v.), which that patient
statesman had made it the ambition of his life to realize. Only
a swift and sudden coup d'elai could save the inde- Monarchist
pendence of a country isolated from the rest of Coup d'etat
Europe by a hostile league. The details of the °"772-
famous revolution of the igth of August 1772 are elsewhere
set forth (see GUSTAVUS III.; TOLL, JOHAN KRISTOFFER;
SPRENGTPORTEN, JAKOB MAGNUS). Here we can only dwell
upon its political importance and consequences. The new
constitution of the 2oth of August 1772, which Gustavus
imposed upon the terrified estates at the bayonet's point,
converted a weak and disunited republic into a strong but
limited monarchy, in which the balance of power inclined,
on the whole, to the side of the monarch. The estates could
only assemble when summoned by him; he could dismiss
them whenever he thought fit ; and their deliberations were to
be confined exclusively to the propositions which he might
think fit to lay before them. But these very extensive powers
were subjected to many important checks. Thus, without the
previous consent of the estates, no new law could be imposed,
no old law abolished, no offensive war undertaken, no extraordi-
nary war subsidy levied. The estates alone could tax them-
selves; they had the absolute control of the Bank of Sweden,
and the inalienable right of controlling the national expendi-
ture. Thus the parliament held the purse; and this seemed
a sufficient guarantee both of its independence and its frequent
convention. The senate, not the Riksdag, was the chief loser
by the change; and, inasmuch as henceforth the senators were
appointed by the king, and were to be responsible to him alone,
a senate in opposition to the Crown was barely conceivable.
Abroad the Swedish revolution made a great sensation.
Catherine II. of Russia saw in it the triumph of her arch-enemy
France, with the prolongation of the costly Turkish War as its
immediate result. But the absence of troops on the Finnish
border, and the bad condition of the frontier fortresses, con-
strained the empress to listen to Gustavus's pacific assurances,
and stay her hand. She took the precaution, however, of
concluding a fresh secret alliance with Denmark, in which
the Swedish revolution was significantly described as " an
act of violence " constituting a casus foederis, and justifying
both powers in seizing the first favourable opportunity for
intervention to restore the Swedish constitution of 1720.
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
209
In Sweden itself the change was, at first, most popular.
But Gustavus's first Riksdag, that of 1778, opened the eyes of
the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had
departed. The king was now their sovereign lord; and, for all
his courtesy and gentleness, the jealousy with which he guarded
and the vigour with which he enforced the prerogative plainly
showed that he meant to remain so. But it was not till after
eight years more had elapsed that actual trouble began. The
Riksdag of 1778 had been obsequious; the Riksdag of 1786 was
mutinous. It rejected nearly all the royal measures outright,
or so modified them that Gustavus himself withdrew them.
When he dismissed the estates, the speech from the throne held
out no prospect of their speedy revocation.
Nevertheless, within three years, the king was obliged to
summon another Riksdag, which met at Stockholm on the 26th
of January 1789. His attempt in the interval to rule without a
parliament had been disastrous. It was only by a breach of
his own constitution that he had been able to declare war against
Russia (April 1788); the conspiracy of Anjala (July) had para-
lysed all military operations at the very opening of the cam-
paign; and the sudden invasion of his western provinces by the
Danes, almost simultaneously (September), seemed to bring
him to the verge of ruin. But the contrast, at this crisis,
between his self-sacrificing patriotism and the treachery of the
Russophil aristocracy was so striking that, when the Riksdag
assembled, Gustavus found that the three lower estates were
ultra-royalist, and with their aid he succeeded, not without
running great risks (see GUSTAVUS III.; NORDIN, GUSTAF;
WALLQVIST, OLAF), in crushing the opposition of the nobility
by a second coup d'etat (Feb. 16, 1789), and passing the
The Act of famous Act of Union and Security which gave the
Uaioaand king an absolutely free hand as regards foreign
Security, affairs and the command of the army, and made
1789. further treason impossible. For this the nobility
never forgave him. It was impossible, indeed, to resist openly
so highly gifted and so popular a sovereign; it was only by
the despicable expedient of assassination that the last great
monarch of Sweden was finally removed, to the infinite
detriment of his country.
The ensuing period was a melancholy one. The aristocratic
classes loudly complained that the young king, Gustavus IV.,
Cwstavus still a minor, was being brought up among crypto-
iv., 1792- Jacobins; while the middle classes, deprived of
1809. tne stimulating leadership of the anti-aristocratic
" Prince Charming," and becoming more and more inoculated
with French political ideas, drifted into an antagonism
not merely to hereditary nobility, but to hereditary monarchy
likewise. Everything was vacillating and uncertain; and
the general instability was reflected even in foreign affairs,
now that the master-hand of Gustavus III. was withdrawn.
Sweden and The renewed efforts of Catherine II. to interfere
Kcvoiu- in Sweden's domestic affairs were, indeed, vigorously
tionary repulsed, but without tact or discretion, so that the
France. good understanding between the two countries
was seriously impaired, especially when the proclivities of
Gustaf Reuterholm (q.v.}, who then virtually ruled Sweden,
induced him to adopt what was generally considered an
indecently friendly attitude towards the government at Paris.
Despite the execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21, 1793), Sweden,
in the hope of obtaining considerable subsidies, recognized
the new French republic; and secret negotiations for con-
tracting an alliance were actually begun in May of the same
year, till the menacing protests of Catherine, supported as
they were by all the other European powers, finally induced
Sweden to suspend them.
The negotiations with the French Jacobins exacerbated the
hatred which the Gustavians already felt for the Jacobin
councillors of the duke-regent (see CHARLES XIII., king of
Sweden). Smarting beneath their grievances and seriously
believing that not only the young king's crown but his very life
was in danger, they formed a conspiracy, the soul of which was
Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt (<?.».), to overthrow the government,
with the aid of a Russian fleet, supported by a rising of the
Dalecarlians. The conspiracy was discovered and vigorously
suppressed.
The one bright side of this gloomy and sordid period was the
rapprochement between the Scandinavian kingdoms during the
revolutionary wars. Thus, on the 27th of March Alliance
1794, a neutrality compact was formed between with
Denmark and Sweden; and their united squadrons Denmark.
patrolled the North Sea to protect their merchantmen from the
British cruisers. This approximation between the two govern-
ments was happily followed by friendly feelings between the
two nations, under the pressure of a common danger. Presently
Reuterholm renewed his coquetry with the French republic,
which was officially recognized by the Swedish government on
the 23rd of April 1795. In return, Sweden received a subsidy
of £56,000; and a treaty between the two powers was signed on
the I4th of September 1795. On the other hand, an attempt
to regain the friendship of Russia, which had broken off diplo-
matic relations with Sweden, was frustrated by the refusal of
the king to accept the bride, the grand duchess Alexandra,
Catherine II. 's granddaughter, whom Reuterholm had provided
for him. This was Reuterholm's last official act. On the ist
of November 1796, in accordance with the will of his father,
Gustavus IV., now in his eighteenth year, took the government
into his own hands.
The government of Gustavus IV. (q.v.) was almost a pure
autocracy. At his very first Riksdag, held at Norrkoping in
March 1800, the nobility were compelled, at last, to ratify
Gustavus III.'s detested Act of Union and Security, which
hitherto they had steadily refused to do. Shortly after this
Riksdag rose, a notable change took place in Sweden's foreign
policy. In December 1800 Denmark Sweden and Russia
acceded to a second Armed Neutrality of the North, directed
against Great Britain; and the arsenal of Karlskrona, in all
probability, was only saved from the fate of Copenhagen by the
assassination of the emperor Paul, which was followed by another
change of system in the north. Hitherto Sweden had kept
aloof from continental complications; but the arrest gustavas ry
and execution of the due d'Enghien in 1804 inspired j0/ns toe
Gustavus IV. with such a hatred of Napoleon that European
when a general coalition was formed against the Coalition,
French emperor he was one of the first to join it IS04'
(Dec. 3, 1804), pledging himself to send an army corps to co-
operate with the English and Russians in driving the enemy out
of Holland and Hanover. But his senseless quarrel with Frederick
William III. of Prussia detained him in Pomerania; and when
at last (December 1805) he led his 6000 men towards the Elbe
district the third coalition had already been dissipated by the
victories of Ulm and Austerlitz. In 1806 a rupture between
Sweden and Prussia was only prevented by Napoleon's assault
upon the latter power. After Jena Napoleon attempted to win
over Sweden, but Gustavus rejected every overture. The result
was the total loss of Pomerania, and the Swedish army itself was
only saved from destruction by the ingenuity of J. K. Toll (g.v.).
At Tilsit the emperor Alexander I. had undertaken to compel
" Russia's geographical enemy," as Napoleon designated Sweden,
to accede to the newly established Continental Russian
System. Gustavus IV. naturally rejected all the Conquest ol
proposals of Alexander to close the Baltic against Finland,
the English; but took no measures to defend Finland l808'
against Russia, though, during the autumn of 1807, it was
notorious that the tsar was preparing to attack the grand
duchy. On the 2ist of February 1808 a Russian army crossed
the Finnish border without any previous declaration of war.
On the 2nd of April the king ordered a general levy of 30,000
men; but while two army corps, under Armfelt and Toll,
together with a British contingent of 10,000 men under
Moore, were stationed in Scania and on the Norwegian
border in anticipation of an attack from Denmark, which,
at the instigation of Napoleon, had simultaneously de-
clared war against Sweden, the little Finnish army was left
altogether unsupported. The conquest of Finland, after
2IO
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
an heroic struggle against overwhelming odds, is elsewhere
recorded (see FINLAND: History). Its immediate consequence
Deposition in Sweden proper was the deposition of Gustavus
ofOustavui IV. (March 13, 1809), who was clearly incapable of
TV., 1809. governing. The nobility took advantage of this
opportunity to pay off old scores against Gustavus III. by
excluding not only his unhappy son but also that son's whole
family from the succession — an act of injustice which has never
been adequately defended. But indeed the whole of this inter-
mediate period is full of dark subterranean plots and counter-
plots, still inexplicable, as, for instance, the hideous Fersen
murder (June 20, 1810) (see FERSEN, HANS AXEL VON)
evidently intended to terrorize the Gustavians, whose loyalty
to the ancient dynasty was notorious. As early as the sth of
Charles June 1809 the duke regent was proclaimed king,
xiii., 1809- under the title of Charles XIII. (q.v.), after accepting
1819. ^jje new liberal constitution, which was ratified by
the Riksdag the same day.
The new king was, at best, a useful stopgap, in no way likely
to interfere with the liberal revolution which had placed him on
the throne. Peace was what the exhausted nation now required;
and negotiations had already been opened at. Fredrikshamn.
But the Russian demands were too humiliating, and the war
was resumed. But the defeats of Savarsbruk and Ratan
(Aug. 19, 1809) broke the spiritof the Swedish army; and peace
was obtained by the sacrifice of Finland, the Aland islands,
" the fore-posts of Stockholm," as Napoleon rightly described
them, and Vesterbotten as far as the rivers Tornea and Muonio
(treaty of Fredrikshamn, Sept. 17, 1809).
The succession to the throne, for Charles XIII. was both
infirm and childless, was settled, after the mysterious death
Bernadotte (May 28, 1810) of the first elected ' candidate,
chosen as Prince Charles Augustus of Augustenburg, by the
Crown selection of the French marshal, Bernadotte (see
prtace- CHARLES XIV., king of Sweden), who was adopted
by Charles XIII. and received the homage of the estates on
the sth of November 1810.
The new crown prince was very soon the most popular and
the most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity of the old
influence king, and the dissensions in the council of state,
aadPoikyof placed the government and especially the control of
Bernadotte. forejgn affajrs almost entirely in his hands; and he
boldly adopted a policy which was antagonistic indeed to the
wishes and hopes of the old school of Swedish statesmen, but,
perhaps, the best adapted to the circumstances. Finland he
at once gave up for lost. He knew that Russia would never
voluntarily relinquish the grand duchy, while Sweden could not
hope to retain it permanently, even if she reconquered it. But
the acquisition of Norway might make up for the loss of Finland;
and Bernadotte, now known as the crown prince Charles John,
argued that it might be an easy matter to persuade the anti-
Napoleonic powers to punish Denmark for her loyalty to France
by wresting Norway from her. Napoleon he rightly distrusted,
though at first he was obliged to submit to the emperor's dicta-
tion. Thus on the i3th of November 1810, the Swedish govern-
ment was forced to declare war against Great Britain, though the
British government was privately informed at the same time that
Sweden was not a free agent and that the war would be a mere
demonstration. But the pressure of Napoleon became more
and more intolerable, culminating in the occupation of Pomerania
by French troops in 1812. The Swedish government thereupon
concluded a secret convention with Russia (treaty of Petersburg,
April 5, 1812), undertaking to send 30,000 men to operate
against Napoleon in Germany in return for a promise from
Alexander guaranteeing to Sweden the possession of Norway.
Too late Napoleon endeavoured to outbid Alexander by offering
to Sweden Finland, all Pomerania and Mecklenburg, in return for
Sweden's active co-operation against Russia.
The Orebro Riksdag (April- August 1812), remarkable besides
for its partial repudiation of Sweden's national debt and its
reactionary press laws, introduced general conscription into
Sweden, and thereby enabled the crown prince to carry out his
ambitious policy. In May 1812 he mediated a peace between
Russia and Turkey, so as to enable Russia to use all her forces
against France (peace of Bucharest); and on the i8th of July, at
Orebro, peace was also concluded between Great Britain on one
side and Russia and Sweden on the other. These two treaties
were, in effect, the corner-stones of a fresh coalition against
Napoleon, and were confirmed on the outbreak of the Franco-
Russian War by a conference between Alexander and Charles
John at Abo on the 3oth of August 1812, when the tsar undertook
to place an army corps of 35,000 men at the disposal of the
Swedish crown prince for the conquest of Norway.
The treaty of Abo, and indeed the whole of Charles John's
foreign policy in 1812, provoked violent and justifiable criticism
among the better class of politicians in Sweden. The immorality
of indemnifying Sweden at the expense of a weaker friendly
power was obvious; and, while Finland was now definitively
sacrificed, Norway had still to be won. Moreover, Great Britain
and Russia very properly insisted that Charles John's first duty
was to the anti-Napoleonic coalition, the former power vigorously
objecting to the expenditure of her subsidies on the nefarious
Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been
crushed. Only on his very ungracious compliance did Great
Britian also promise to countenance the union of Norway and
Sweden (treaty of Stockholm, March 3, 1813); and, on the
23rd of April, Russia gave her guarantee to the same effect. The
Swedish crown prince rendered several important services to the
allies during the campaign of 1813 (see CHARLES XIV., king of
Sweden); but, after Leipzig, he went his own way, determined
at all hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway.
How this " job " was managed contrary to the dearest wishes
of the Norwegians themselves, and how, finally (Nov. 14,
1814), Norway as a free and independent kingdom
was united to Sweden under a common king, is Norway.
elsewhere described (see DENMARK; NORWAY;
CHARLES XIV., king of Sweden; CHRISTIAN VIII., king of
Denmark).
Charles XIII. died on the sth of February 1818, and was
succeeded by Bernadotte under the title of Charles XIV. John.
The new king devoted himself to the promotion of Charles
the material development of the country, the Gota Xiv.,1818-
canal absorbing the greater portion of the twenty- '***•
four millions of dalers voted for the purpose. The external debt
of Sweden was gradually extinguished, the internal debt consider-
ably reduced, and the budget showed an average annual surplus
of 700,000 dalers. With returning prosperity the necessity for
internal reform became urgent in Sweden. The antiquated
Riksdag, where the privileged estates predominated, while the
cultivated middle class was practically unrepresented, had
become an insuperable obstacle to all free development; but,
though the Riksdag of 1840 itself raised the question, the king
and the aristocracy refused to entertain it. Yet the reign of
Charles XIV. was, on the whole, most beneficial to Sweden;
and, if there was much just cause for complaint, his great
services to his adopted country were generally acknowledged.
Abroad he maintained a policy of peace based mainly on a good
understanding with Russia. Charles XIV.'s son
and successor King Oscar I. was much more liberally
inclined. Shortly after his accession (March 4, 1844)
he laid several projects of reform before the Riksdag? but the
estates would do little more than abolish the obsolete marriage
and inheritance laws and a few commercial monopolies. As the
financial situation necessitated a large increase of taxation, there
was much popular discontent, which culminated in riots in the
streets of Stockholm (March 1848). Yet, when fresh proposals
for parliamentary reform were laid before the Riksdag in 1849,
they were again rejected by three out of the four estates. As
regards foreign politics, Oscar I. was strongly anti-German.
On the outbreak of the Dane-Prussian War of 1848-49, Sweden
sympathized warmly with Denmark. Hundreds of Swedish
volunteers hastened to Schleswig-Holstein. The Riksdag voted
2,000,000 dalers for additional armaments. It was Sweden, too,
who mediated the truce of Malmo (Aug. 26, 1848), which
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
211
helped Denmark out of her difficulties. During the Crimean War
Sweden remained neutral, although public opinion was decidedly
anti-Russian, and sundry politicians regarded the conjuncture
as favourable for regaining Finland.
Oscar I. was succeeded (July 8, 1859) by his son, Charles XV.
(q.v.), who had already acted as regent during his father's ill-
nesses. He succeeded, with the invaluable assistance
" of the minister of justice, Baron Louis Gerhard de
Geer (q.v.), in at last accomplishing the much-needed
reform of the constitution. The way had been prepared in 1860
by a sweeping measure of municipal reform; and, in January
1863, the government brought in a reform bill by the terms of
Coastitu- which the Riksdag was henceforth to consist of two
ttonai chambers, the Upper House being a sort of aristo-
Reform, cratic senate, while the members of the Lower
1866. House were to be elected triennially by popular
suffrage. The new constitution was accepted by all four
estates in 1865 and promulgated on the 22nd of January
1866. On the ist of September 1866, the first elections under
the new system were held; and on the ipth of January 1867,
the new Riksdag met for the first time. With this one
great reform Charles XV. had to be content; in all other
directions he was hampered, more or less, by his own creation.
The Riksdag refused to sanction his favourite project of a reform
of the Swedish army on the Prussian model, for which he laboured
all his life, partly from motives of economy, partly from an appre-
hension of the king's martial tendencies. In 1864 Charles XV.
had endeavoured to form an anti-Prussian league with Denmark;
and after the defeat of Denmark he projected a Scandinavian
union, in order, with the help of France, to oppose Prussian
predominance in the north — a policy which naturally collapsed
with the overthrow of the French Empire in 1870. He died on
the i8th of September 1872, and was succeeded by his brother,
the duke of Gothland, who reigned as Oscar II. (R. N. B.)
The economic condition of Sweden, owing to the progress in
material prosperity which had taken place in the country as the
result of the Franco-German War, was at the accession
/S72-/907 °f Oscar II. to the throne on the i8th of September
1872 fairly satisfactory. Politically, however, the out-
look was not so favourable. In their results, the reforms
inaugurated during the preceding reign did not answer expecta-
tions. Within three years of the introduction of the new
electoral laws De Geer's ministry had forfeited much of its former
popularity, and had been forced to resign. In the vital matter of
national defence no common understanding had been arrived at,
and during the conflicts which had raged round this question, the
two chambers had come into frequent collision and paralysed the
action of the government. The peasant proprietors, who, under
the name of the " Landtmanna" party,1 formed a compact
majority in the Second Chamber, pursued a consistent policy of
class interests in the matter of the taxes and burdens that had, as
they urged, so long oppressed the Swedish peasantry; and conse-
quently when a bill was introduced for superseding the old system
of army organization by general compulsory service, they de-
manded as a condition of its acceptance that the military burdens
should be more evenly distributed in the country, and that the
taxes, which they regarded as a burden under which they had
wrongfully groaned for centuries, should be abolished. In
these circumstances, the " Landtmanna " party in the Riksdag,
who desired the lightening of the military burden, joined those
who desired the abolition of landlordism, and formed a compact
and predominant majority in the Second Chamber, while the
burgher and Liberal parties were reduced to an impotent
" intelligence " minority. This majority in the Lower Chamber
1 The Swedish " Landtmanna " party was formed in 1867. It
consisted mostly of the larger and smaller peasant proprietors, who
at the time of the old " Slanders Riksdag ' were always opposed to
the nobility and the clergy. The object of the party was to bring
about a fusion between the representatives of the large landed
proprietors and the regular peasant proprietors, to support the
interests of landed proprietors in general against those of the town
representatives, and to resist Crown interference in the administration
of local affairs.
was at once attacked by another compact majority in the Upper,
who on their side maintained that the hated land taxes were only
a kind of rent-diarge on land, were incidental to it and in no way
weighed upon the owners, and, moreover, that its abolition would
be quite unwarrantable, as it was one of the surest sources of
revenue to the state. On the other hand, the First Chamber
refused to listen to any abolition of the old military system, so
long as the defence of the country had not been placed upon a
secure basis by the adoption of general compulsory military
service. The government stood midway between these con-
flicting majorities in the chambers, without support in either.
Such was the state of affairs when Oscar II., surrounded by his
late brother's advisers, began his reign. One of his first cares
was to increase the strength of his navy, but in The Party
consequence of the continued antagonism of the Compromke
political parties, he was unable to effect much.0"87*'
In the first Riksdag, however, the so-called " compromise,"
which afterwards played such an important part in Swedish
political life, came into existence. It originated in the small
" Scania " party in the Upper House, and was devised to establish
a modus vivendi between the conflicting parties, i.e. the champions
of national defence and those who demanded a lightening of
the burdens of taxation. The king himself perceived in the com-
promise a means of solving the conflicting questions, and warmly
approved it. He persuaded his ministers to constitute a special
inquiry into the proposed abolition of land taxes, and in the
address with which he opened the Riksdag of 1875 laid particular
stress upon the necessity of giving attention to the settlement of
these two burning questions, and in 1880 again came forward
with a new proposal for increasing the number of years of service
with the militia. This motion having been rejected, De Geer
resigned, and was succeeded by Count Arvid Posse. The new
prime minister endeavoured to solve the question of defence in
accordance with the views of the " Landtmanna " party. Three
parliamentary committees had prepared schemes for a remission
of the land taxes, for a new system of taxation, for a reorganiza-
tion of the army based on a stammtrupp (regular army), by the
enlistment of hired soldiers, and for naval reforms. In this last
connexion the most suitable types of vessels for coast defence as
for offence were determined upon. But Count Posse, deserted
by his own party over the army bill, resigned, and was succeeded
on the i6th of May 1884 by Oscar Themptauder, who had been
minister of finance in the previous cabinet. The new premier
succeeded in persuading the Riksdag to pass a bill increasing
the period of service with the colours in the army to six years and
that in the militia to forty-two days, and as a set-off a remission
of 30% on the land taxes.
Influenced by the economic reaction which took place in 1879
in consequence of the state of affairs in Germany, where Prince
Bismarck had introduced the protectionist system, a Protec-
protectionist party had been formed, which tried to Maoist
gain adherents in the Riksdag. It is true that in Movelaeat-
the Riksdag of 1882 the commercial treaty with France was
renewed, but since 1885 the protectionist party was prepared to
begin the combat, and a duty on corn, which had been proposed
in the Riksdag of the same year, was rejected by only a slight
majority. During the period of the unusually low price of corn
of 1886, which greatly affected the Swedish farmers, protection
gained ground to such an extent that its final triumph was
considered as certain within a short time. During the Riksdag
of the same year, however, the premier, Themptauder, emphati-
cally declared himself against the protectionist party, and while
the parties in the Second Chamber were equal in number, the
proposed tax on corn was rejected in the First Chamber. In the
Riksdag of 1887 there was a majority for protection in the Second
Chamber, and in the first the majority against the tax was so
small that the tax on corn would have triumphed in a combined
meeting of the two chambers. The government, availing itself
of its formal right not to dissolve the chamber in which it had
the support of a majority, therefore dissolved only the Second
Chamber (March 1887).
The new Riksdag assembled in May with a free trade majority
212
SWEDEN
[HISTORY
in the Second Chamber, but nothing in connexion with the great
question of customs was settled. In the meantime, the powerful
majority in the Second Chamber split into two groups — the
new " Landtmanna " party, which approved protection in the
interests of agricultural classes; and a somewhat smaller group,
the old " Landtmanna " party, which favoured free trade.
The victory of the free traders was not, however, destined to
be of long duration, as the protectionists obtained a majority in
both chambers in the next Riksdag ( 1 888) . To the First Chamber
protectionists were almost exclusively elected, and in the Second
all the twenty-two members for Stockholm were disqualified,
owing to one of their number not having paid his taxes a few
years previously, which prevented his being eligible. Instead,
then, of twenty-two free traders representing the majority of the
Stockholm electors, twenty-two protectionists, representing the
minority, were elected, and Stockholm was thus represented in
the Riksdag by the choice of a minority in the capital. This
singular way of electing members for the principal city in the
kingdom could not fail further to irritate the parties. One
result of the Stockholm election came at a convenient time for
the Themptauder ministry. The financial affairs of the country
were found to be in a most unsatisfactory state. In spite of
reduced expenses, a highly estimated revenue, and the contem-
plated raising of taxes, there was a deficit, for the payment or
discharge of which the government would be obliged to demand
supplementary supplies. The Themptauder ministry resigned.
The king retained, however, for a time several members of the
ministry, but it was difficult to find a premier who would be
able, during the transition from one system to another, to com-
mand sufficient authority to control the parties. At last Baron
Gillis Bildt, who, while Swedish ambassador in Berlin, had wit-
nessed the introduction by Prince Bismarck of the agrarian
protectionist system in Germany, accepted the premiership, and
it was under his auspices that the two chambers imposed a series
of duties on necessaries of life. The new taxes, together with an
increase of the excise duty on spirits, soon brought a surplus into
the state coffers. At a council of state (Oct. 12, 1888) the
king declared his wishes as to the way in which this surplus
should be used. He desired that it should be applied to a fund
for insurance and old age pensions for workmen and old people,
to the lightening of the municipal taxes by state contributions
to the schools and workhouses, to the abolition of the land taxes
and of the obligation of keeping a horse and man for military
service, and, lastly, to the improvement of the shipping trade;
but the Riksdag decided to devote it to other objects, such as
the payment of the deficit in the budget, the building of railways
and augmentation of their material, as weh1 as to improvements in
the defences of the country.
Baron Bildt resigned as soon as the new system seemed settled,
making room for Baron Gustav Akerhjelm. The latter, however,
also soon resigned, and was succeeded on the lothof July 1891 by
Erik Gustav Bostrom, a landed proprietor. The protectionist
system gained in favour on the expiry of the commercial treaty
with France in 1892, as it could now be extended to articles of
industry. The elections of 1890, when the metropolis returned
free traders and Liberals to the Second Chamber, certainly
effected a change in the latter, as the representatives of the towns
and the old " Landtmanna " party joined issue and established a
free-trade majority in the chamber, but in the combined meetings
of the two chambers the compact protectionist majority in the
First Chamber turned the scale. The customs duties were,
however, altered several times in accordance with market prices
and ruling circumstances. Thus in 1892, when the import duty
on unground corn was reduced from 25. lod. to is. sd., and that
on ground corn from 43. gd. to 2S. lod. for 100 kilogrammes, the
same duties were also retained for the following year. They were
also retained for 1894 at the request of the government, which
desired to keep faith with their promise that while the new
organization of the army was going on no increase of duties on
the necessaries of life should take place. This measure caused
much dissatisfaction, and gave rise to a strong agrarian move-
ment, in consequence of which the government, in the beginning
of 1895, before the assembling of the Riksdag, made use of its
right of raising the two duties on corn just referred to, 35. ?d.
and 73. 2d., which were afterwards somewhat reduced as far as
seed corn for sowing purposes was concerned.
The question of customs duties now settled, that of national
defence was taken up afresh, and in the following year the
government produced a complete scheme for the
abolition of the land tax in the course of ten years, Deteace.
in exchange for a compensation of ninety days' drill
for those liable to military service, proposed to retain the old
military system of the country and to strengthen the defences
of Norrland, and the government bill for a reorganization of the
army was accepted by the Riksdag in an extraordinary session.
But it was soon perceived that the new plan was unsatisfactory
and required recasting, upon which the minister of war, Baron
Rappe, resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel von Crustebjorn,
who immediately set to work to prepare a complete reorganiza-
tion of the. army, with an increase of the time of active service
on the lines of general compulsory service. The Riksdag of 1900,
in addition to grants for the fortifications at Boden, in the pro-
vince of Norrbotten, on the Russian border, and other military
objects, voted a considerable grant for an experimental mobiliza-
tion, which fully exposed the defects and faults of the old system.
In the Riksdag of 1901 E. G. Bostrom resigned, and was succeeded
by Admiral F. W. von Otter, who introduced a new bill for the
army reorganization, the most important item of which was the
increase of the period of training to 365 days. The cost in con-
nexion with the new scheme was expected to amount to 22 millions
of kroner. The Riksdag, however, did not accept the new plan
in its full extent. The time of drilling was reduced to 240 days
for the infantry, to 300 days for the navy, while for the cavalry
and artillery the time fixed was 365 days. The plan, thus
modified, was then accepted by the government.
After the elections in 1890, the alliance already mentioned
between the old " Landtmanna " party and the representatives
of the towns had the result that the Liberals in the
Second Chamber, to whom the representatives of the
towns mostly belonged, were now in a position to
decide the policy which the two united parties should follow. In
order to prevent this, it was proposed to readjust the number of
the members of the Riksdag. The question was only settled in
1894, when a bill was passed fixing the number of the members of
the Riksdag in the First Chamber at 150, and in the Second at
230,' of which 150 should represent the country districts and 80
the towns. The question of protection being now considered
settled, there was no longer any reason for the continued separa-
tion of the two " Landtmanna" parties, who at the beginning of
the Riksdag of 1895 joined issue and became once more a compact
majority in the Second Chamber, as they had been up to the
Riksdag of May 1887. The influence of the country represen-
tatives was thus re-established in the Second Chamber, but now
the demands for the extension of the franchise came more and
more to the front, and the premier, Bostrom, at last felt bound
to do something to meet these demands. He accordingly intro-
duced in the Riksdag of 1896 a very moderate bill for the exten-
sion of the franchise, which was, nevertheless, rejected by both
chambers, all similar proposals by private members ireeting the
same fate. When at last the bill for the reorganization of the
army, together with a considerably increased taxation, was
accepted by the Riksdag of 1901, it was generally acknowledged
that, in return for the increased taxation, it would only be just
to extend the right of taking part in the political life and the
legislative work of the country to those of the population who
hitherto had been excluded from it. The government eventually
laid a proposal for the extension of the franchise before the
Riksdag of 1902, the chief feature of which was that the elector
should be twenty-five years of age, and that married men over
forty years should be entitled to two votes. The Riksdag, how-
ever, finally agreed to a proposal by Bishop Billing, a member of
the First Chamber, that an address should be presented to the
king asking for a full inquiry into the question of extending the
franchise for the election of members to the Second Chamber.
HISTORY]
SWEDEN
213
In 1897 the Riksdag had received among its members the
first socialistic representative in the person of R. H. Brauting,
the leader of the Swedish Social Democrats. The
Movement. Socialists, who had formerly confined their activity
to questions affecting the working classes and their
wages, took, however, in 1902 an active part in the agitation for
the extension of the franchise. Processions of many thousands
of workmen were organized, in Stockholm and in other towns
of the kingdom, just before the Riksdag began the discussion
on the above-mentioned bill of the government, and when
the bill was introduced in the chambers a general and well-
organized strike took place and continued during the three days
the debate on the bill lasted. As this strike was of an exclu-
sively political kind, and was intended to put pressure on the
chambers, it was generally disapproved, and failed in its object.
The prime minister, Admiral von Otter, resigned shortly after the
end of the session, and was succeeded by Bostrom, the ex-
premier, who at the request of the king again assumed office.
The relations with Norway during King Oscar's reign had
great influence on political life in Sweden, and more than once it
Relations seemed as if the union between the two countries was
with on the point of being wrecked. The dissensions
Norway, chiefly had their origin in the demand by Norway
for separate consuls and foreign ministers, to which reference
is made under NORWAY. At last, after vain negotiations and
discussions, the Swedish government in 1895 gave notice to
Norway that the commercial treaty which till then had existed
between the two countries and would lapse in July 1897 would,
according to a decision in the Riksdag, cease, and as Norway at
the time had raised the customs duties, a considerable diminution
in the exports of Sweden to Norway took place. The Swedish
minister of foreign affairs, Count Lewenhaupt, who was
considered as too friendly disposed towards the Norwegians,
resigned, and was replaced by Count Ludvig Douglas, who
represented the opinion of the majority in the First Chamber.
When, however, the Norwegian Storthing, for the third
time, passed a bill for a national or " pure " flag, which
King Oscar eventually sanctioned, Count Douglas resigned
in his turn and was succeeded by the Swedish minister at
Berlin, Lagerheim, who managed to pilot the questions of the
union into more quiet waters. He succeeded all the better
as the new elections to the Riksdag of 1900 showed clearly
that the Swedish people was not inclined to follow the ultra-
conservative or so-called " patriotic " party, which resulted in
the resignation of the two leaders of that party, Professor Oscar
Alin and Count Marschal Patrick Reutersvard as members of the
First Chamber. On the other hand, ex-Professor E. Carlson,
of the High School of Gothenburg, succeeded in forming a
party of Liberals and Radicals to the number of about 90
members, who, besides being in favour of the extension of the
franchise, advocated the full equality of Norway with Sweden
in the management of foreign affairs. (O. H. D.)
The state of quietude which for some time prevailed with
regard to the relations with Norway was not, however, to be of
The D/sso/u-'ong duration. The question of separate consuls
lion oi the for Norway soon came up again. In 1902 the
Union with Swedish government proposed that negotiations in
way' this matter should be opened with the Norwegian
government, and that a joint committee, consisting of repre-
sentatives from both countries, should be appointed to consider
the question of a separate consular service without in any way
interfering with the existing administration of the diplomatic
affairs 'of the two countries. The result of the negotiations was
published in a so-called " communique," dated the 24th of March
1903, in which, among other things, it was proposed that the
relations of the separate consuls to the joint ministry of foreign
affairs and the embassies should be arranged by identical laws,
which could not be altered or repealed without the consent of
the governments of the two countries. The proposal for these
identical laws, which the Norwegian government in May 1904
submitted, did not meet with the approval of the Swedish
government. The latter in their reply proposed that the
Swedish foreign minister should have such control over the
Norwegian consuls as to prevent the latter from exceeding their
authority.1 This proposal, however, the Norwegian government
found unacceptable, and explained that, if such control were
insisted upon, all further negotiations would be purposeless.
They maintained that the Swedish demands were incompatible
with the sovereignty of Norway, as the foreign minister was a
Swede and the proposed Norwegian consular service, as a Nor-
wegian institution, could not be placed under a foreign authority.
A new proposal by the Swedish government was likewise rejected,
and in February 1905 the Norwegians broke off the negotiations.
Notwithstanding this an agreement did not appear to be out of
the question. All efforts to solve the consular question by itself
had failed, but it was considered that an attempt might be made
to establish separate consuls in combination with a joint admini-
stration of diplomatic affairs on a full unionistic basis. Crown
Prince Gustaf , who during the illness of King Oscar was appointed
regent, took the initiative of renewing the negotiations between
the two countries, and on the 5th of April in a combined Swedish
and Norwegian council of state made a proposal for a reform both
of the administration of diplomatic affairs and of the consular
service on the basis of full equality between the two kingdoms,
with the express reservation, however, of a joint foreign minister
— Swedish or Norwegian — as a condition for the existence cf the
union. This proposal was approved of by the Swedish Riksdag
on the 3rd of May 1905. In order that no obstacles should be
placed in the way for renewed negotiations, Mr Bostrom, the
prime minister, resigned and was succeeded by Mr Ramstedt.
The proposed negotiations were not, however, renewed.
On the 23rd of May the Norwegian Storthing passed the
government's proposal for the establishment of separate Nor-
wegian consuls, and as King Oscar, who again had resumed the
reins of government, made use of his constitutional right to veto
the bill, the Norwegian ministry tendered their resignation. The
king, however, declared he could not now accept their resignation,
whereupon the ministry at a sitting of the Norwegian Storthing
on the 7th of June placed their resignation in its hands. The
Storthing thereupon unanimously adopted a resolution stating
that, as the king had declared himself unable to form a govern-
ment, the constitutional royal power " ceased to be operative,"
whereupon the ministers were requested, until further instruc-
tions, to exercise the power vested in the king, and as King Oscar
thus had ceased to act as " the king of Norway," the union with
Sweden was in consequence dissolved.
In Sweden, where they were least of all prepared for the turn
things had taken, the action of the Storthing created the greatest
surprise and resentment. The king solemnly pro- _.
tested against what had taken place and summoned Bxtn-
an extraordinary session of the Riksdag for the 2oth ordinary
of June to consider what measures should be taken Kiksdag,
with regard to the question of the union, which had
arisen suddenly through the revolt of the Norwegians on the
7th of June. The Riksdag declared that it was not opposed to
negotiations being entered upon regarding the conditions for
the dissolution of the union if the Norwegian Storthing, after
a new election, made a proposal for the repeal of the Act
of Union between the two countries, or, if a proposal to this
effect was made by Norway after the Norwegian people,
through a plebiscite, had declared in favour of the dissolution
of the union. The Riksdag further resolved that 100 million
kroner (about £555,000) should be held in readiness and be avail-
able as the Riksdag might decide. On the resignation of the
Ramstedt ministry Mr Lundeberg formed a coalition ministry
consisting of members of the various parties in the Riksdag,
after which the Riksdag was prorogued on the 3rd of August.
After the plebiscite in Norway on the I3th of August had
decided in favour of the dissolution of the union and after the
Storthing had requested the Swedish government to The
co-operate with it for the repeal of the Act of Union, Karlstad
a conference of delegates from both countries was ConvenUon.
convened at Karlstad on the 3ist of August. On the 23rd
1 For further details see NORWAY : History.
2I4
SWEDEN
[LITERATURE
of September the delegates came to an agreement, the
principal points of which were: that such disputes between
the two countries which could not be settled by direct
diplomatic negotiations, and which did not affect the vital
interests of either country, should be referred to the per-
manent court of arbitration at the Hague, that on either side
of the southern frontier a neutral zone of about fifteen kilometres
width should be established, and that within eight months the
fortifications within the Norwegian part of the zone should be
destroyed. Other clauses dealt with the rights of the Laplanders
to graze their reindeer alternatively in either country, and
with the question of transport of goods across the frontier by
rail or other means of communication, so that the traffic should
not be hampered by any import or export prohibitions or
otherwise.
From the 2nd to the igth of October the extraordinary
Riksdag was again assembled, and eventually approved of the
neSec9IJfl arrangement come to by the delegates at Karlstad
Extra- with regard to the dissolution of the union as well
ordinary as the government proposal for the repeal of
Riksdag. t]je Act Of Union and the recognition of Norway
as an independent state. An alteration in the Swedish flag
was also decided upon, by which the mark of union was
to be replaced by an azure-blue square. An offer from
the Norwegian Storthing to elect a prince of the Swedish
royal house as king in Norway was declined by King Oscar,
who now on, behalf of himself and his successors renounced
the right to the Norwegian crown. Mr Lundeberg, who had
accepted office only to settle the question of the dissolution of the
union, now resigned and was succeeded by a Liberal government
with Mr Karl Staaff as prime minister.
The question of the extension of the franchise, which was a
burning one, was to be the principal measure of the Staaff
The government. It brought in a bill for manhood
Frcochise suffrage at elections for the Second Chamber,
Que tun. together wjth single member constituencies and
election on the absolute majority principle. The bill was
passed by the Second Chamber on the isth of May 1906,
by 134 to 94 votes, but it was rejected by the First
Chamber by 126 to 18. The latter chamber instead
passed a bill for manhood suffrage at elections for the Second
Chamber, on the condition that the elections for both chambers
should take place on the basis of proportional representation.
Both chambers thereupon decided to ask the opinion of the king
with regard to the simultaneous extension of the franchise to
women at elections for the Second Chamber. The government
bill having, however, been passed by the Second Chamber, the
prime minister proposed to the king that the Riksdag should
be dissolved and new elections for the Second Chamber take
place in order to hear the opinion of the country, but as the king
did not approve of this Mr Staaff and his government resigned.
A Conservative government was then formed on the 2pth of
May by Mr Lindman, whose principal task was to find a solution
of the suffrage question which both chambers could accept. A
government bill was introduced, proposing the settlement of the
question on the basis of the bill carried by the First Chamber in
the Riksdag of the preceding year. A compromise, approved of
by the government, was adopted by the First Chamber on the
I4th of May 1907 by no votes against 29 and in the Second
Chamber by 1 28 against 98. By this act proportional representa-
tion was established for both chambers, together with universal
manhood suffrage at elections for the Second Chamber, a reduc-
tion of the qualifications for eligibility for the First Chamber
and a reduction of the electoral term of this chamber from nine
to six years, and finally payment of members of the First
Chamber, who hitherto had not received any such emolument.
King Oscar II. died on the gth of December 1907, sincerely
regretted by his people, and was succeeded as king of Sweden by
his eldest son, Prince Gustaf. During King Oscar's reign many
important social reforms were carried out by the legislature, and
the country developed in all directions. In the Riksdag of 1884
a new patent law was adopted, the age at which women should
be held to attain their majority was fixed at twenty-one years
and the barbarous prison punishment of " bread and water "
abolished. In order to meet the cost of the new army organiza-
tion the Riksdag of 1902 increased the revenue by progressive
taxation, but only for one year. Bills for the improvement of the
social conditions of the people and in the interests of the working
classes were also passed. During the five years 1884-1889 a
committee was occupied with the question of workmen's insur-
ance, and thrice the government made proposals for its settle-
ment, on the last occasion adopting the principle of invalidity
as a common basis for insurance against accidents, illness or
old age. The Riksdag, however, delayed coming to a decision,
and contented itself by earmarking money for an insurance
fund. At last the Riksdag of 1901 accepted a Bill for insurance
against accidents which also extended to agricultural labourers,
in connexion with the establishment of a state institution for
insurance. The bill for protection against accidents, as well as
for the limitation of working hours for women and children, was
passed, together with one for the appointment of special factory
inspectors. When in 1897 King Oscar celebrated his jubilee
of twenty-five years as king, the exhibition which had been
organized in Stockholm offered a convincing proof of the
progress the country had made in every direction.
AUTHORITIES. — Historiska handlingar rorande Skandinaviens his-
toria (Stockholm, 1816-1897, &c.) ; Svenska Riksdagsakter , 1521-1718
(ibid., 1887); Sveriges historia (ibid., 1883-1887); P. Backstrom,
Svenska flottans historia (ibid., 1884); R. N. Bain, Scandinavia,
1513—1900 (Cambridge, 1905) ; Bidrag til den store nordiske krigs
historic (Copenhagen, 1900); F. F. Carlson, Sveriges historie under
konungarne af Pfalziska Huset (Stockholm, 1883-1885); A. Fryxell,
Berattelser ur svenska historien (ibid., 1831, &c.); C. G. Grandinson,
Sludier i hanseatisk svensk historia (ibid., 1884) ; C. G. Malm-
strom, Sveriges politiska historia (ibid., 1893-1901); A. Nystrorn,
Striderna i ostra Europa mellan Ryssland, Polen och Sverige
(ibid., 1903) ; E. Seraphim, Geschichte Liv- Est- und Kurlands
bis zur Einverleibung in das russische Reich ( Reval, 1895);
C. Silfverstolpe, Historiskt bibliothek (Stockholm, 1875); R. Teng-
berg, Sverige under partihvalvet (ibid., 1879;) K. G. Westman,
Svenska Radets historia (Upsala, 1904) ; Bidrag till Sveriges
medeltids historia (Upsala, 1902); A. Szelagowski, The Fight
for the Baltic (Pol.; Warsaw, 1904); K. Setterwall, Forteckning ofver
Acta Svecica (Stockholm, 1889); j. Mankell, Ofversigt af svenska
krigens historia (ibid., 1890) ; A. Strindberg, Les Relations de la
France avec la Suede (Paris, 1891) ; Pontus E. Fahlbeck, La Constitu-
tion suedoise et le parlementarisme moderne (1905) ; E. Flandin, Institu-
tions politiques de I'Europe contemporaine (1909), tome iv. See also
the bibliographies attached to the articles DENMARK: History;
NORWAY: History; FINLAND: History; as well as the special biblio-
graphies attached to the various biographies of Swedish sovereigns
and statesmen.
SWEDISH LITERATURE
Swedish literature, as distinguished from compositions in the
common norraena tunga of old Scandinavia, cannot be said to
exist earlier than the i3th century. Nor until the period of the
Reformation was its development in any degree rapid or copious.
The oldest form in which Swedish exists as a written language
(see SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGE) is the series of manuscripts
known as Landskapslagarne, or " The Common Laws." These
are supposed to be the relics of a still earlier age, and it is hardly
believed that we even possess the first that was put down in
writing. The most important and the most ancient of these codes
is the " Elder West Gota Law," reduced to its present form by
the law-man Eskil about 1230. Another of great interest is
Magnus Eriksson's " General Common Law," which was written
in 1347. These ancient codes have been collected and edited by
the learned jurist, K. J. Schlyter (1795-1888) as Corpus juris
Sveo-Gotorum antiqui (4 vols., 1827-1869). The chief ornament
of medieval Swedish literature is Um slyrilse kununga ok
hofdinga (" On the Conduct of Kings and Princes "), first printed
by command of Gustavus II. Adolphus, in 1634. The writer
is not known; it has been conjecturally dated 1325. It is a hand-
book of moral and political teaching, expressed in terse and vigor-
ous language. St Bridget, or Birgitta (1303-1373), an historical
figure of extraordinary interest, has left her name attached to
several important religious works, in particular to a collection of
U ppenbarelser (" Revelations ") , in which her visions and ecstatic
LITERATURE]
SWEDEN
215
meditations are recorded, and a version, the first into Swedish,
of the five books of Moses. This latter was undertaken, at her
desire, by her father-confessor Mattias (d. 1350), a priest at Lin-
koping. The translation of the Bible was continued a century
later by a monk named Johannes Budde (d. 1484).
In verse the earliest Swedish productions were probably the
folk-song.1 The age of these, however, has been commonly
exaggerated. It is doubtful whether any still exist which are
as old, in their present form, as the i3th century. The bulk are
now attributed to the isth, and many are doubtless much later
still. The last, such as " Axel och Valborg," " Liten Karin,"
" Kampen Grimborg," and " Habor och Signild," deal with the
adventures of romantic medieval romance. Almost the only
positive clue we hold to the date of these poems is the fact that
one of the most characteristic of them, " Engelbrekt," was
written by Thomas, bishop of Strengnas, who died in 1443.
Thomas, who left other poetical pieces, is usually called the
first Swedish poet. There are three rhyming chronicles in
medieval Swedish, all anonymous. The earliest, Erikskronikan,2
is attributed to 1320; the romance of Karl Magnus, Nya Karls-
kronikan, describing the period between 1387 and 1452, which is
sometimes added to the earlier work, dates from the middle of
the 1 5th century; and the third, Sturekronikorna, was probably
written about 1500. The collection of rhymed romances which
bears the name of Queen Euphemia's Songs must have been
written before the death of the Norwegian queen in 1312. They
are versions of three medieval stories taken from French and
German sources, and dealt with the Chevalier au lion, of Chrestien
de Troyes, with Duke Frederick of Normandy, and with Flores
and Blancheflor. They possess very slight poetic merit in their
Swedish form. A little later the romance of King Alexander3
was translated by, or at the command of, Bo Jonsson Grip; this
is more meritorious. Bishop Thomas, who died in 1443, wrote
many political songs; and a number of narrative poems date
from the close of the century. A brilliant and pathetic relic
of the close of the medieval period exists in the Love Letters
addressed in 1498 by Ingrid Persdotter, a nun of Vadstena, to
the young knight Axel Nilsson. The first book printed in the
Swedish language appeared in 1495.
The 1 6th century added but little to Swedish literature, and
that little is mostly connected with the newly-founded university
of Upsala. The Renaissance scarcely made itself felt in Scandi-
navia, and even the Reformation failed to waken the genius of the
country. Psalms and didactic spiritual poems were the main
products of Swedish letters in the i6th century. Two writers,
the brothers Petri, sons of a smith at Orebro, take an easy
prominence in so barren a period. Olaus Petri (1493-1552) and
The Petri Laurentius Petri (1499-1573) were Carmelite monks
who adopted the Lutheran doctrine while studying
at Wittenberg, and came back to Sweden in 1518 as the apostles
of the new faith. Olaus, who is one of the noblest figures in
Swedish annals, was of the executive rather than the meditative
class. He became chancellor to Gustavus Vasa, but his reform-
ing zeal soon brought him into disgrace, and in 1540 he was
condemned to death. Two years later he was pardoned, and
allowed to resume his preaching in Stockholm. He found time,
however, to write a Swedish Chronicle, which is the earliest prose
history of Sweden, a mystery-play, Tobiae comedia, which is the
first Swedish drama, and three psalm-books, the best known
being published in 1530 under the title of Nagre gudhelige
vijsor (" Certain Divine Songs "). His Chronicle was based on
a number of sources, in the treatment of which he showed a
discrimination which makes the work still useful. Laurentius
Petri, who was a man of calmer temperament, was archbishop of
all Sweden, and edited or superintended the translation of the
1 Skanska folkvisor, edited by E. G. Geijer and A. A. Afzelius
(3 vols., Stockholm, 1879).
2 See Cederschiold, Om Erikskronikan (1899).
3 Editions of these chronicles and romances have been issued by
the " Svenska Fornskrift Sallskapet " (Stockholm): Ivan Lejon-
riddaren (ed. Stephens), Hertig Fredrik of Normandie (ed. Ahlstrand)
Flores och Blancheflor (ed. G. E. Klemming), Alexander (ed. Klem-
ming), Carl Magnus (ed. Klemming, in Prosadikter fran medeltiden).
Baraeus.
Bible published at Upsala in 1 540. He also wrote many psalms.
Laurentius Andreae, 1552, had previously prepared a translation
of the New Testament, which appeared in 1526. He was a
polemical writer of prominence on the side of the Reformers.
Finally, Petrus Niger (Peder Svart), bishop of Vesteris (d. 1562),
wrote a chronicle of the life of Gustavus I. up to 1533, in excel-
lent prose. The same writer left unpublished a history of the
bishops of Vesteris,' his predecessors. The latter half of the
1 6th century is a blank in Swedish literature.
With the accession of Charles IX., and the consequent develop-
ment of Swedish greatness, literature began to assert itself in
more vigorous forms. The long life of the royal
librarian, Johannes Bure or Buraeus (1568-1652),
formed a link between the age of the Petri and that of Stjern-
hjelm. Buraeus studied all the sciences then known to mankind,
and confounded them all in a sort of Rabbinical cultus of his
own invention, a universal philosophy in a multitude of unread-
able volumes.4 But he was a patient antiquary, and advanced
the knowledge of ancient Scandinavian mythology and language
very considerably. He awakened curiosity and roused a public
sympathy with letters; nor was it without significance that two
of the greatest Swedes of the century, Gustavus Adolphus and
the poet Stjernhjelm, were his pupils. The reign of Charles IX.
saw the rise of secular drama in Sweden. The first comedy was
the Tisbe of Magnus Olai Asteropherus (d. 1647), a coarse but
witty piece on the story of Pyramus and Thisbe, acted by the
schoolboys of the college of Arboga in 1610. This play is the
Ralph Roister Doister of Swedish literature. A greater dramatist
was Johannes Messenius (1579-1636), who was the son of a
miller near Vadstena and had been carefully educated abroad by
the Jesuits. Being discovered plotting against the government
during the absence of Gustavus in Russia, he was condemned to
imprisonment for life — that is, for twenty years. Before this
disaster he had been professor of jurisprudence in Upsala, where
his first historical comedy Disa was performed in 1611 and the
tragedy of Signill in 1612. The design of Messenius was to write
the history of his country in fifty plays; he completed and pro-
duced six. These dramas6 are not particularly well arranged,
but they form a little body of theatrical literature of singular
interest and value. Messenius was a genuine poet; the lyrics
he introduces have something of the charm of the old ballads.
He wrote abundantly in prison ; his magnum opus was a history of
Sweden in Latin, but he has also left, in Swedish, two important
rhyme-chronicles. Messenius was imitated by a little crowd
of playwrights. Nikolaus Holgeri Catonius (d. 1655) wrote a fine
tragedy on the Trojan War, Troijenborgh, in which he excelled
Messenius as a dramatist. Andreas Prytz, who died in 1655 as
bishop of Linkoping, produced several religious chronicle plays
from Swedish history. Jacobus Rondeletius (d. 1662) wrote a
curious " Christian tragi-comedy " of Judas redivivus, which
contains some amusing scenes from daily Swedish life. Another
good play was an anonymous Holofernes and Judith (edited at
Upsala, 1895, by O. Sylwan). These plays were all acted by
schoolboys and university youths, and when they went out of
fashion among these classes the drama in Sweden almost entirely
ceased to exist. Two historians of the reign of Charles IX., Erik
Goransson Tegel (d. 1636) and Aegidius Girs (d. 1639), deserve
mention. The chancellor Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie (1622-
1686) did much to promote the study of Swedish antiquities.
He founded the College of Antiquities at Upsala in 1667, and
bought back the Gothic Codex argenteus which he presented to the
university library.
The reign of Gustavus Adolphus was adorned by one great
writer, the most considerable in all the early history of Sweden.
The title of " the Father of Swedish poetry " hass</ero/ye/;o)
been universally! awarded to Goran Lilja, better
known by his adopted name of Georg Stjernhjelm (q.v.; 1598-
1672). Stjernhjelm was a man of almost universal attain-
ment, but it is mainly in verse that he has left his stamp upon
4 Selections from his writings were edited by G. E. Klemming,
(Upsala, 1883-1885).
5 Edited for a learned society (Upsala, 1886, &c.) by H. Schiick.
2l6
SWEDEN
[LITERATURE
the literature of his country. He found the language rough
and halting, and he moulded it into perfect smoothness and
elasticity. His master, Buraeus, had written a few Swedish
hexameters by way of experiment. Stjernhjelm took the form
and made it national.
The claim of Stjernhjelm to be the first Swedish poet may
be contested by a younger man, but a slightly earlier writer,
Gustaf Rosenhane (1610-1684), who was a reformer
B*'on quite other lines. If Stjernhjelm studied
Opitz, Rosenhane took the French poets of the Renaissance
for his models, and in 1650 wrote a cycle of one hundred
sonnets, the earliest in the language; these were published under
the title Venerid in 1680. Rosenhane printed in 1658 a " Com-
plaint of the Swedish Language " in thirteen hundred rattling
rhyming lines, and in 1682 a collection of eighty songs. He
was a metrist of the artistic order, skilful, learned and unim-
passioned. His zeal for the improvement of the literature
of his country was beyond question. Most of the young poets,
however, followed Stjernhjelm rather than Rosenhane. As
personal friends and pupils of the former, the brothers Colum-
bus deserve special attention. They were sons of a musician
and poet, Jonas Columbus (1586-1663). Each wrote copiously
in verse, but Johan (1640-1684), who was professor of poetry
at Upsala, almost entirely m Latin, while Samuel (1642-1679),
especially in his Odae sveticae, showed himself an apt and
fervid imitator of the Swedish hexameters of Stjernhjelm, to
whom he was at one time secretary, and whose Hercules he
dramatized. His works were included by P. Hanselli in vol. ii.
of Samlade vitterhets arbeten, &c.
Of a rhyming family of Hjarne, it is enough to mention one
member, Urban Hjarne (1641-1724), who introduced the new
form of classical tragedy from France, in a species of transition
from the masques of Stjernhjelm to the later regular rhymed
dramas. His best play was a Rosimunda. Lars Johansson
(1642-1674), who called himself " Lucidor the Unfortunate,"
has been the subject of a whole tissue of romance, most of which
is fabulous. It is true, however, that he was stabbed, like
Marlowe, in a midnight brawl at a tavern. His poems were
posthumously collected as Flowers of Helicon, Plucked and
Distributed on various occasions by Lucidor the Unfortunate.
Stripped of the myth which had attracted so much attention
to his name, Lucidor proves to be an occasional rhymester of
a very low order. Haquin Spegel (1645-1714), the famous arch-
bishop of Upsala, wrote a long didactic epic in alexandrines,
God's Labour and Rest, with an introductory ode to the Deity
in rhymed hexameters. He was also a good writer of hymns.
Another ecclesiastic, the bishop of Skara, Jesper Svedberg
(1653-1735), wrote sacred verses, but is better remembered as
the father of Swedenborg. Peter Lagerlof (1648-1699) cultivated
a pastoral vein in his ingenious lyrics Elisandra and LycUlis;
he was professor of poetry, that is to say, of the art of writing
Latin verses, at Upsala. Olof Wexionius (1656-1690?) pub-
lished his Sinne-Afvel, a collection of graceful miscellaneous
pieces, in 1684, in an edition of only 100 copies. Its existence
was presently forgotten, and the name of Wexionius had dropped
out of the history of literature, when Hanselli recovered a copy
and reprinted its contents in 1863.
We have hitherto considered only the followers of Stjernhjelm;
we have now to speak of an important writer who followed in
DaWs<.erea the footsteps of Rosenhane. Gunno Eurelius,
'afterwards ennobled with the name of Dahlstjerna
(q.v.; 1661-1709), early showed an interest in the poetry
of Italy. In 1690 he translated Guarini's Pastor Fido, and
in or just after 1697 published, in a folio volume without
a date, his Kunga-Skald, the first original poem in ottava rima
produced in Swedish. This is a bombastic and vainglorious
epic in honour of Charles XL, whom Eurelius adored; it
is not, however, without great merits, richness of language,
flowing metre, and the breadth of a genuine poetic enthusiasm.
He published a little collection of lamentable sonnets when his
great master died. Johan Paulinus Liljenstedt (1655-1732),
a Finn, was a graceful imitator of Ronsard and Guarini. Johan
Runius (1670-1713), called the " Prince of Poets," published a
collection entitled Dudaim, in which there is nothing to praise,
and with him the generation of the i7th century closes. Talent
had been shown by certain individuals, but no healthy school
of Swedish poetry had been founded, and the latest imitators
of Stjernhjelm had lost every vestige of taste and independence.
In prose the I7th century produced but little of importance
in Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632) was the most
polished writer of its earlier half, and his speeches
take an important place in the development of the
language. The most original mind of the next age was Olof
Rudbeck (1630-1702), the famous author of Atland eller
Manhem. He spent nearly all his life in Upsala, building
anatomical laboratories, conducting musical concerts, laying
out botanical gardens, arranging medical lecture rooms —
in a word, expending ceaseless energy on the practical
improvement of the university. He was a genius in all the
known branches of learning; at twenty-three his physiological
discoveries had made him famous throughout Europe. His
Atland (or Atlantika) appeared in four folio volumes, in Latin and
Swedish, in 1675-1698; it was an attempt to summon all the
authority of the past, all the sages of Greece and the bards of
Iceland, to prove the inherent and indisputable greatness of the
Swedish nation, in which the fabulous Atlantis had been at last
discovered. It was the literary expression of the majesty of
Charles XL, and of his autocratical dreams for the destiny of
Sweden. From another point of view it is a monstrous hoard
or cairn of rough-hewn antiquarian learning, now often praised,
sometimes quoted from, and never read. Olof Verelius (1618-
1682) had led the way for Rudbeck, by his translations of
Icelandic sagas, a work which was carried on with greater
intelligence by Johan Peringskjold (1654-1720), the editor
of the Heimskringla (1697), and J. Hadorph (1630-1693). The
French philosopher Descartes, who died at Christina's court
at Stockholm in 1650, found his chief, though posthumous,
disciple in Andreas Rydelius (1671-1738), bishop of Lund, who
was the master of Dah'n, and thus connects us with the next
epoch. His chief work, Nodiga fornuftsb'fningar ... (5 vols.)
appeared in 1718. Charles XII., under whose special patronage
Rydelius wrote, was himself a metaphysician and physiologist
of merit.
A much more brilliant period followed the death of Charles
XII. The influence of France and England took the place of
that of Germany and Italy. The taste of Louis XIV., tempered
by the study of Addison and Pope, gave its tone to the
academical court of Queen Louise Ulrica, who founded in
1758 the academy of literature, which developed later into the
academy of literature, history and antiquities.
Sweden became completely a slave to the periwigs of literature,
to the unities and graces of classical France. Nevertheless
this was a period of great intellectual stimulus and activity, and
Swedish literature took a solid shape for the first time. This
Augustan period in Sweden closed somewhat abruptly about
1765. Two writers in verse connect it with the school of the
preceding century. Jacob Frese (1692 7-1728 ?), a Finn,
whose poems were published in 1726, was an elegiacal writer
of much grace, who foreshadowed the idyllic manner of Creutz.
Atterbom pronounces Frese the best Swedish poet between
Stjernhjelm and Dalin. Samuel von Triewald (1688-1743)
played a very imperfect Dry den to Dalin 's Pope. He was the
first Swedish satirist, and introduced Boileau to his country-
men. His Satire upon our Stupid Poets may still be read with
entertainment.1 Both in verse and prose Olof von Dah'n
(q.v.; 1708-1763) takes a higher place than any
writer since Stjernhjelm. He was inspired by the
study of his great English contemporaries. His Swedish
Argus (1733-1734) was modelled on Addison's Spectator, his
Thoughts about Critics (1736) on Pope's Essay on Criticism,
his Tale of a Horse on Swift's Tale of a Tub. Dalin's style,
1 The works of the chief writers between Sternhjelm and Dalin
were edited by P. Hanselli (Upsala, 1856, &c.) as Samlade vitterhets-
arbeten-af svenska forfattare.
LITERATURE]
SWEDEN
217
whether in prose or verse, was of a finished elegance. As a
prose writer Dalin is chiefly memorable for his History of the
Swedish Kingdom (4vols., 1746-1762). His great epic, Swedish
Freedom (1742) was written in alexandrines of far greater
smoothness and vigour than had previously been attempted.
When in 1737 the new Royal Swedish Theatre was opened,
Dalin led the way to a new school of dramatists with his Bryn-
hilda, a regular tragedy in the style of Crebillon pere. In his
comedy of The Envious Man he introduced the manner of
Moliere, or more properly that of Holberg. His songs, his satires,
his occasional pieces, without displaying any real originality,
show Dalin's tact and skill as a workman with the pen. He
stole from England and France, but with the plagiarism of a
man of genius; and his multifarious labours raised Sweden to a
level with the other literary countries of Europe. They formed
a basis upon which more national and more scrupulous writers
could build their various structures. A foreign critic, especially
an English one, will never be able to give Dalin so much credit
as the Swedes do; but he was certainly an unsurpassable master
of pastiche. His works were collected in 6 vols., 1767.
The only poet of importance who contested the laurels of
Dalin was a woman. Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht (1718-
1763) was the centre of a society which took the
tiych°n '""name of Tankebyggare Orden and ventured to rival
that which Queen Louise Ulrica created and Dalin
adorned. Both groups were classical in taste, both worshipped
the new lights in England and France. Fru Nordenflycht
wrote with facility and grace; her collection of lyrics, The
Sorrowing Turtledove (1743), in spite of its affectation,
enjoyed and merited a great success; it was the expression of a
deep and genuine sorrow — the death of her husband after a
very brief and happy married life. It was in 1744 that she
settled in Stockholm and opened her famous literary salon.
She was called " The Swedish Sappho," and scandal has been
needlessly busy in giving point to the allusion. It was to Fru
Nordenflycht's credit that she discovered and encouraged the
talent of two very distinguished poets younger than herself,
Creutz and Gyllenbcrg, who published volumes of poetry in
collaboration. Count Gustaf Philip Creutz (q.v.;
1731-1785) was a Finlander who achieved an ex-
traordinary success with his idyllic poems, and in particular
with the beautiful pastoral of Atis och Camilla, long the most
popular of all Swedish poems. His friend Count Gustaf Fredrik
Gyllenborg (1731-1808) was a less accomplished
* poet, less delicate and touching, more rhetorical
and artificial. His epic Taget o'fver Bait (" The Expedition
across the Belt ") (1785) is an imitation, in twelve books, of
Voltaire's Henriade, and deals with the prowess of Charles X.
He wrote fables, allegories, satires, and a successful comedy of
manners, The Swedish Fop. He outlived his chief contemporaries
so long that the new generation addressed him as " Father
Gyllenborg." Anders Odel (1718-1773) wrote in 1739 the famous
" Song of Malcolm Sinclair," the Sinclair svisa. The writers of
verse in this period were also exceedingly numerous.
In prose, as was to be expected, the first half of the i8th
century was rich in Sweden as elsewhere. The first Swedish
novelist was Jakob Henrik Mork (1714-1763). His
Writers. romances have some likeness to those of Richard-
son; they are moral, long-winded, and slow in
evolution, but written in an exquisite style, and with much
knowledge of human nature. Adalrik och Gothilda, which
went on appearing from 1742 to 1745, is the best known;
it was followed, between 1748 and 1758, by Thecla. Jakob
Wallenberg (1746-1778) described a voyage he took to the
East Indies and China under the very odd title of M in son
pa galejan (" My Son at the Galleys "), a work full of humour
and originality.
Johan Ihre (1707-1780), a professor at Upsala, edited the
Codex argenteus of Ulfilas, and produced the valuable Siienskt
Dialect Lexicon (1766) based on an earlier learned work, the
Dialectologia of Archbishop Erik Benzelius (d. 1743). He
settled for some time at Oxford. Ihre's masterpiece is the
Creutz.
Glossarium sueogothicum (1769), a historical dictionary with
many valuable examples from the ancient monuments of the
language. In doing this he was assisted by the labours of
two other grammarians, Sven Hof (d. 1786) and Abraham
Sahlstedt (d. 1776). The chief historians were Sven Lagerbring
(1707-1787), author of a still valuable history of Sweden down
to 1457 (Svea Rikes historia, 4 vols., 1769-1783); Olof Celsius
(1716-1794), bishop of Lund, who wrote histories of Gustavus I.
(1746-1753) and of Eric XIV. (1774); and Karl Gustaf Tessin
(1695-1770) who wrote on politics and on aesthetics. Tessin's
Old Man's Letters to a young Prince were addressed to his pupil,
afterwards Gustavus III. Count Anders Johan von Hopken
(1712-1789), the friend of Louise Ulrica, was a master of
rhetorical compliment in addresses and funeral orations.
In spite of all the encouragement of the court, drama did
not flourish in Sweden. Among the tragic writers of the age
we may mention Dalin, Gyllenborg, and Erik Wrangel (1686-
1765). In comedy Reinhold Gustaf Modee (d. 1752) wrote
three good plays in rivalry of Holberg.
In science Linnaeus, or Karl von Linne (1707-1778), was
the name of greatest genius in the whole century; but he wrote
almost entirely in Latin. The two great Swedish chemists,
Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784) and Karl Vilhelm Scheele
(1742-1786), flourished at this time. In pathology a great
name was left by Nils Rosen von Rosenstein (1706-1773),
in navigation by Admiral Fredrik Henrik af Chapman (d.
1808), in philology by Karl Aurivillius (d. 1786). But these
and other distinguished savants whose names might be enume-
rated scarcely belong to the history of Swedish literature.
The same may be said about that marvellous and many-sided
genius, Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), who, though the
son of a Swedish poet, preferred to prophesy to the world in
Latin.
What is called the Gustavian period is supposed to com-
mence with the reign of Gustavus III. in 1771 and to close
with the abdication of Gustavus IV. in 1809. This The
period of less than forty years was particularly Guntavian
rich in literary talent, and the taste of the people P*1**
in literary matters widened to a remarkable extent. Jour-
nalism began to develop; the Swedish Academy was founded;
the drama first learned to flourish in Stockholm; and literature
began to take a characteristically national shape. This fruitful
period naturally divides itself into two divisions, equivalent
to the reigns of the two kings. The royal personages of Sweden
have commonly been protectors of literature; they have strangely
often been able men of letters themselves. Gustavus III.
(1746-1792), the founder of the Swedish Academy and of the
Swedish theatre, was himself a playwright of no mean ability.
One of his prose dramas, Siri Brake och Johan Gyllenstjerna,
held the stage for many years. But his best work was his
national drama of Gustaf Vasa (1783), written by the king in
prose, and afterwards versified by Kellgren. In 1773 the
king opened the national theatre in Stockholm, and on that
occasion an opera of Thetis och Pelee was performed, written by
himself. In 1786 Gustavus created the Swedish Academy, on
the lines of the French Academy, but with eighteen members
instead of forty. The first list of immortals, which included
the survivors of a previous age and such young celebrities
as Kellgren and Leopold, embraced all that was most bril-
liant in the best society of Stockholm; the king himself pre-
sided, and won the first prize for an oration. The works of
Gustavus III. in six volumes were printed at Stockholm in
1802-1806.
The principal writers of the reign of Gustavus III. bear the
name of the academical school. But Karl Mikael Bellman
(q.v.; 1740-1795), the most original and one of the
most able of all Swedish writers, an improvisatore
of the first order, had nothing academical in his composition.
The riot of his dithyrambic hymns sounded a strange note of
nature amid the conventional music of the Gustavians. Of
the academical poets Johan Gabriel Oxenstjerna (1750-1818),
the nephew of Gyllenborg, was a descriptive idyllist of grace.
Bellman.
218
SWEDEN
[LITERATURE
Leopold,
LUaer.
He translated Paradise Lost. A writer of far more power and
versatility was Johan Henrik Kellgren (q.v.; 1751-1795), the
leader of taste in his time. He was the first writer
of the end of the century in Sweden, and the
second undoubtedly was Karl Gustaf af Leopold1 (1756-1829),
" the blind seer Tiresias-Leopold," who lived on to
represent the old school in the midst of romantic
times. Leopold attracted the notice of Gustavus III. by a
volume of Erotic Odes (1785). The king gave him a pension
and rooms in the palace, admitting him on intimate terms.
He was not equal to Kellgren in general poetical ability, but he
is great in didactic and satiric writing. He wrote a satire, the
Enebomiad, against a certain luckless Per Enebom, and a
classic tragedy of Virginia. Gudmund Goran Adlerbeth (1751-
1818) made translations from the classics and from the Norse,
and was the author of a successful tragic opera, Cora och Alonzo
(1782). Anna Maria Lenngren (1754-1817) was a very popular
sentimental writer of graceful domestic verse, chiefly between
1792 and 1798. She was less French and more national than
most of her contemporaries; she is a Swedish Mrs Hemans.
Much of her work appeared anonymously, and was generally
attributed to her contemporaries Kellgren and Leopold.
Two writers of the academic period, besides Bellman, and a
generation later than he, kept apart, and served to lead up to
the romantic revival. Bengt Lidner (1759-1793),
a melancholy and professedly elegiacal writer, had
analogies with Novalis. He interrupted his studies at the
university by a voyage to the East Indies, and only returned to
Stockholm after many adventures. In spite of the patronage
of Gustavus III. he continued to lead a disordered, wandering
life, and died in poverty. A short narrative poem, The Death
of the Countess Spastara (1783), has retained its popularity.
Lidner was a genuine poet, and his lack of durable success must
be set down to faults of character, not to lack of inspiration.
His poems appeared in 1788. Thomas Thorild (1750-1808)
was a much stronger nature, and led the revolt against prevailing
taste with far more vigour. But he is an irregular
and inartistic versifier, and it is mainly as a prose
writer, and especially as a very original and courageous critic,
that he is now mainly remembered. He settled in Germany
and died as a professor in Greifswald. Karl August Ehrensvard
(1745-1800) may be mentioned here as a critic whose aims
somewhat resembled those of Thorild. The creation of the
Academy led to a great production of aesthetic and philosophical
writing. Among critics of taste may be mentioned Nils Rosen
von Rosenstein (1752-1824); the rhetorical bishop of Linkoping,
Magnus Lehnberg (1758-1808); and Count Georg Adlersparre
(1760-1809). Rosen von Rosenstein embraced the principles
of the encyclopaedists while he was attached to the Swedish
embassy in Paris. On his return to Sweden he became tutor
to the crown prince, and held in succession a number of im-
portant offices. As the first secretary of the Swedish Academy
he exercised great influence over Swedish literature and thought.
His prose writings, which include prefaces to , the works of
Kellgren and Lidner, and an eloquent argument against
Rousseau's theory of the injurious influence of art and letters,
rank with the best of the period. Kellgren and Leopold were
both of them important prose writers.
The excellent lyrical poet Frans Mikael Franzen (q.v.; 1772-
1847) and a belated academician Johan David Valerius (1776-
1852), fill up the space between the Gustavian period and the
domination of romantic ideas from Germany. It
was Lorenzo Hammarskold (1785-1827) who in
1803 introduced the views of Tieck and Schelling
by founding the society in Upsala called " Vitterhetens Vanner,"
and by numerous critical essays. His chief work was Svenska
•uiUerheten (1818, &c.) a history of Swedish literature. Hammar-
skold's society was succeeded in 1807 by the famous " Aurora
Atterbom f°rbundet," founded by two youths of genius, Per
Daniel Amadeus Atterbom (1790-1855) and Vilhelm
Fredrik Palmblad (1788-1852). These young men had at
1 His works were edited by C. R. Nyblom (2 vols., 1873).
ThorllJ.
first to endure bitter opposition and ridicule from the academic
writers then in power, but they supported this with cheerfulness,
and answered back in their magazines Polyfem and Fosforos
(1810-1813). They were named " Fosforisterna " (" Phos-
phorists ") from the latter. Another principal member of the
school was Karl Frederik Dahlgren (q.v.; 1791-1844), a
humorist who owed much to the example of Bellman. Fru Julia
Nyberg (1785-1854), under the title of Euphrosyne, was their
tenth Muse, and wrote agreeable lyrics. Among the Phos-
phorists Atterbom was the man of most genius. On the side
of the Academy they were vigorously attacked by Per Adam
Wallmark (1777-1858), to whom they replied in a satire which
was the joint work of several of the romanticists, MarkaWs
Sleepless Nights. One of the innovators, Atterbom, eventually
forced the doors of the Academy itself.
In 1811 certain young men in Stockholm founded a society
for the elevation of society by means of the study of Scandi-
navian antiquity. This was the Gothic Society, which
began to issue the magazine called Iduna as its
organ. Of its patriotic editors the most prominent
was Erik Gustaf Geijer (q.v.; 1783-1847), but he was presently
joined by a young man slightly older than himself,
Esaias Tegner (q.v.; 1782-1846), afterwards bishop of
Vexio, the greatest of Swedish writers. Even more enthusi-
astic than either in pushing to its last extreme the '
worship of ancient myths and manners was Per
Henrik Ling (1776-1839), now better remembered as the
father of gymnastic science than as a poet. The Gothic
Society eventually included certain younger men than
these — Arvid August Afzelius (1785-1871), the first editor of
the Swedish folk-songs; Gustaf Vilhelm Gumaelius (1789-
1877), who has been somewhat pretentiously styled " The
Swedish Walter Scott," author of the historical novel of Tord
Bonde; Baron Bernhard von Beskow (q.v.; 1796-1868), lyrist
and dramatist; and Karl August Nicander (1799-1839), a lyric
poet who approached the Phosphorists in manner. The two
great lights of the Gothic school are Geijer, mainly in prose, and
Tegner, in his splendid and copious verse. Johan Olof Wallin
(1779-1839) may be mentioned in the same category,
although he is really distinct from all the schools.
He was archbishop of Upsala, and in 1819 he published the
national hymn-book of Sweden ; of the hymns in this collection,
1 26 are written by Wallin himself.
From 1810 to 1840 was the blossoming-time in Swedish poetry,
and there were several writers of distinguished merit who could
not be included in either of the groups enumerated
above. Second only to Tegner in genius, the brief *"'
life and mysterious death of Erik Johan Stagnelius (1793-
1823) have given a romantic interest to all that is con-
nected with his name. His first publication was the epic of
Vladimir the Great (1817); to this succeeded the romantic poem
Blanda. His singular dramas, The Bacchantes (1822), Sigurd
Ring, which was posthumous, and The Martyrs (1821), are
esteemed by many critics to be his most original productions.
His mystical lyrics, entitled Liljor i Saron (" Lilies in Sharon ";
1820), and his sonnets, which are the best in Swedish, may be
recommended as among the most delicate products of the
Scandinavian mind. Stagnelius has been compared, and not
improperly, to Shelley.2 Erik Sjoberg, who called himself
" Vitalis " (1794-1828), was another gifted poet
whose career was short and wretched. A volume
of his poems appeared in 1820; they are few in number and
all brief. His work divides itself into two classes — the one
profoundly melancholy, the other witty or boisterous. Two
humorous poets of the same period who deserve mention are
Johan Anders Wadman (1777-1837), an improvisatore of the
same class as Bellman, and Christian Erik Fahlcrantz (q.v.;
1790-1866).
Among the poets who have been mentioned above, the
! His collected works were edited by C. Eichhorn (2 vols.,
Stockholm, 1867-1868). Several of Stagnelius' poems were trans-
lated into English by Edmund Gosse 1886).
LITERATURE]
SWEDEN
219
majority distinguished themselves also in prose. But the
period was not one in which Swedish prose shone with any
special lustre. The first prosaist of the time was, without
question, the novelist, Karl Jonas Ludvig Almqvist,
(q.v.; 1793-1866), around whose extraordinary
personal character and career a mythical romance has already
collected (see ALMQVIST). He was encyclopaedic in his range,
although his stories preserve most charm; on whatever subject
he wrote his style was always exquisite. Fredrik Cederborgh
(1784-1835) revived the comic novel in his Una von Trasenberg
and Ottar Trailing. The historical novels of Gumaelius have
already been alluded to. Swedish history supplied themes
for the romances of Count Per Georg Sparre (1790-1871) and
of Gustaf Henrik Mellin (1803-1876). But all these writers
sink before the sustained popularity of the Finnish
poet Fredrika Bremer (q.v.; 1801-1865), whose
stories reached farther into the distant provinces
of the world of letters than the writings of any other Swede
except Tegner. She was preceded by Sofia Margareta Zelow,
afterwards Baroness von Knorring (1797-1848), who wrote a
long series of aristocratic novels.
A polemical writer of great talent was Magnus Jakob Crusen-
stople (1795-1865), of whose work it has been said that " it is
not history and it is not fiction, but something brilliant between
the one and the other." As an historian of Swedish literature
Per Wieselgren (1800-1877) composed a valuable work, and
made other valuable contributions to history and bibliography.
In history we meet again with the great name of Geijer, with
that of Jonas Hallenberg (1748-1834), and with that of Anders
Magnus Strinnholm (1786-1862), whose labours in the field of
Swedish history were extremely valuable. Geijer and Strinn-
holm prepared the way for the most popular of all Swedish
historians, Anders Fryxell (1795-1881), whose famous Berat-
telser ur svenska historien appeared in parts during a space of
nearly sixty years, and awakened a great interest in Swedish
history and legend.
In 1850 the first poet of Sweden, without a rival, was Johan
Ludvig Runeberg (q.v.; 1804-1877), whose reputation rivals
that of Tegner. Bernhard Elis Malmstrom (1816-
1865), who was a professor of aesthetics at the uni-
versity of Upsala, was the author of many important books on
artistic and literary history, notably a monograph on Franzen.
His poetry, although small in volume, gives him a place beside
Runeberg. A volume of elegies, Angelika (1840), established
his fame, and two volumes of poems published in 1845 and
1847 contain a number of ballads, romances and lyrics which
keep their hold on Swedish literature. He was an exact and
discriminating critic, and inclined to severity in his strictures on
the romanticists. The other leading verse-writers were Karl
Vilhelm Bottiger (1807-1878), the son-in-law and biographer
of Tegner, who, in addition to his lyrical poetry, chiefly of the
sentimental kind, wrote an admirable series of monographs on
Swedish men of letters; Johan Borjesson (1790-1866), the last
of the Phosphorists, author of various romantic dramas; Vilhelm
August Detlof von Braun (1813-1860), a humorous lyrist;
" Talis Qualis," whose real name was Karl Vilhelm August
Strandberg (1818-1877); Oscar Patrick Sturzen-Becker (1811-
1869), better known as " Orvar Odd," a lyrical poet who was
also the author of a series of amusing sketches of everyday
life; and August Teodor Blanche (1811-1868), the popular
dramatist. Blanche produced a number of farces and comedies
which were announced as pictures from real life. His pieces
abound in comic situations, and some of them, Magistfr Bliick-
stadius (1844), Rika Morbror (1845), En tragedi i Vimmerby
(1848) and others, maintain their reputation. Fredrik August
Dahlgren (1816-1895) gained a great reputation as a dramatist
by his national opera, Vermlandingarne (1846). He is also the
author of translations from Shakespeare and Calderon, and of
considerable historical works. Other notable plays of the period
were the En Komedi of J. C. Jolin (1818-1884) and the Brollo-
pft pa Ulfdsa (1865) of Frans Hedberg (1828-1908). But
Runeberg is the only great poetic name of this period.
In prose there was not even a Runeberg. The best novelist
of the time was Emilie Flygare-Carlen (1807-1892). The
art was sustained by Karl Anton Wetterbergh (1804-1889),
who called himself " Onkel Adam," by August Blanche the
dramatist, and by Marie Sofie Schwartz (1819-1892). Fru
Schwartz (nee Birat) wrote novels demonstrating the rights of
the poor against the rich, of which The Man of Birth and the
Woman of the People (Eng. trans., 1868) is a good example.
Lars Johan Hierta (1801-1872) was the leading journalist,
Johan Henrik Thomander, bishop of Lund (1798-1865), the
greatest orator, Matthias Alexander Castren (1813-1852) a
prominent man of science, and Karl Gustaf af Forsell (1783-
1848), the principal statistician of this not very brilliant period.
Elias Lonnrot (q.v.; 1802-1884) is distinguished as the Finnish
professor who discovered and edited the Kalevala.
The most popular poet at the close of the igth century was
the patriotic Finn, Zakris Topelius (q.v.; 1818-1898). Of less im-
portance were Karl Herman Satherberg (1812-1897), a romantic
poet who was also a practising physician of distinction; the
elegiac poet Johan Nybom (1815-1889); and the poet, novelist,
and dramatist Frans Hedberg (d. 1908), who in his old age
made many concessions to the modern taste. The posthumous
poems of the bishop of Strangnas, Adam Teodor Stromberg
(1820-1889), were collected by Wirsen, and created some sensa-
tion. A typical academician was the poet, antiquary and con-
noisseur, Nils Fredrik Sander (1828-1900). The improvisator
of Gluntarne, Gunnar Wennerberg (q.v.; 1817-1901) survived
as a romantic figure of the past. Still older was the poetess
Wilhelmina Nordstrom (1815-1902), long a schoolmistress in
Finland. The aesthetic critic and poet, Carl Rupert Nyblom
(1832-1907), continued the studies, translations and original
pieces which had created him a reputation as one of the most
accomplished general writers of Sweden. His wife, Helene
Nyblom, was well known as a novelist. A. T. Gellerstedt
(b. 1836), an architect of position, was known as a poet
of small range but of very fine quality. Among writers of
the earlier generation were Achatius Johan Kahl (1794-1888),
the biographer of Tegner; Per Erik Bergfalk (1798-1890), the
critic and supporter of Geijer; the distinguished historian and
academician, Karl Johan Schlyter (1795-1888) and'the historical
writers, Fredrik Ferdinand Carlson (1811-1887), Vilhelm Erik
Svedelius (1816-1889), and Martin Weibull (1835-1902). The
work of King Oscar II. (q.v.) himself had given him a worthy
place among the intellectuals of the country. But the interest
of such veteran reputations is eclipsed by the more modern
school.
The serenity of Swedish literature was rudely shaken about
1884 by an incursion of realism and by a stream of novel and vio-
lent imaginative impulse. The controversy between
the old and the new schools raged so fiercely, and
the victory has remained so obviously in the hands
of the latter, that it is difficult, especially for a foreigner,
to hold the balance perfectly even. It will therefore be best
in this brief sketch to say that the leader of the elder school
was Viktor Rydberg (q.v.; 1828-1895) and that he was ably
supported by Carl Snoilsky (q.v.; 1841-1904) who at the
beginning of the 2oth century was the principal living poet
of the bygone generation in Sweden. Snoilsky was prominent
for the richness of his lyrical style, his cosmopolitan interests and
his great width of culture. Carl David af Wirsen (b. 1842)
distinguished himself, and made himself very unhappy, by his
dogged resistance to every species of renaissance in Swedish
thought, or art, or literature. A man of great talent, he was a
violent reactionary, and suffered from the consequences of an
attitude so unpopular. He found a vehicle for his criticism
in the Post och Innkes Tidningar, of which he was editor. He
published his Lyrical Poems in 1876; New Lyrical Poems in
1880; Songs and Sketches in 1885.
Four influences may be mentioned as having acted upon
young Sweden, and as having combined to release its literature
from the old hard-bound conventions. These are English
philosophy in the writings of Herbert Spencer, French realism
220
SWEDEN
[LITERATURE
in the practice and the preaching of Zola, Norwegian drama
mainly through Ibsen, and Danish criticism in the essays and
monographs of Georg Brandes. Unquestionably the greatest
name in recent Swedish literature is that of Johan August
Strindberg (q.v.; b. 1849). His drama of Master Olof in 1878
began the revolutionary movement. In 1879 the success of his
realistic novel, The Red Room, fixed universal attention upon
his talent. It was the sensation caused in 1884 by the lawsuit
brought against Strindberg's Married (a collection of short
stories dealing realistically with some of the seamy sides of
marriage) which brought to a head the rebellion against the ele-
gant and superficial conventions which were strangling Swedish
literature. He affronts every canon of taste, more by a radical
absence, it would seem, of the sense of proportion than by any
desire to shock. His diatribes against woman suggest a touch
of madness, and he was in fact at one time seized with an attack
of insanity. He writes like a man whose view is distorted by
physical or mental pain. His phraseology and his turns of
invention are too empirically pseudoscientific for the simplicity
of nature. With all these faults, and in spite of a terrible
vulgarity of mind, an absence of humour, and a boundless
confidence in the philosophy of Nietzsche, Strindberg is a writer
of very remarkable power and unquestionable originality. His
mind underwent singular transformations. After devoting him-
self wholly to realism of the coarsest kind, he began in 1889 his
series of mystico-pathological novels about life in the archipelago
of Stockholm. This led him to a culte du moi, of which the
strangest result was an autobiography of crude invective, A
Fool's Confession (1893), the printing of which in Swedish was
forbidden. He rapidly passed on, through books like Inferno
(1897), the diary of a semi-lunatic, up into the sheer mysticism
of To Damascus (1898), where he reconciles himself at last to
Christianity. His best work is classic in its breadth of style,
exquisite in local colour and fidelity to the national character-
istics of Sweden.
A curious antidote to the harsh pessimism of Strindberg
was offered by the delicate and fantastic temperament of Ola
Hansson (b. 1860), whose poems came prominently before the
public in 1884, and who, in Sensitiva amorosa (1887), preached
a gospel of austere self-restraint. Hansson has been as ardent
in the idolatry of woman as Strindberg has been in his hostility
to the sex. Of those who have worked side by side with Strind-
berg, the most prominent and active was Gustaf af Geijerstam
(b. 1858), in his curious and severely realistic studies of country
life in his Poor People (1884) and other books. In 1885 he pro-
duced a gloomy sketch of student life at Upsala, Erik Gram,
which made a great sensation. Since then Geijerstam has
published more than forty volumes, and has become one of the
most popular writers of the north of Europe. A melancholy
interest surrounds the name of Victoria Benedictsson (Ernst
Ahlgren, 1850-1889), who committed suicide in Copenhagen
after achieving marked success with her sketches of humble
life in Fran Sk&ne, and with the more ambitious works Money
and Marianne. She was perhaps the most original of the
many women writers of modern Sweden, and Money was hailed
by Swedish critics as the most important work of fiction since
Strindberg's Red Room. Her biography, a most affecting
narrative, was published by Ellen Key, and her autobiography
by Axel Lundegard (b. 1861), who, after some miscellaneous
writing, produced in 1889 a curious novel of analysis called
The Red Prince, and who, becoming a devout clerical, published
a number of popular stories in a neo-romantic manner. In
1898-1900 he produced a historical trilogy, Struensee, tracing
the career of the minister from his early years as a doctor in
Altona to his final downfall. In 1904 appeared the first volume
of a second historical trilogy, The Story of Queen Philippa.
Fru Alfhild Agrell (nee Martin), who was born in 1849, produced
a series of plays dealing with the woman question, Rescued
(1883) and others. She also showed great ability as a novelist,
among the best of her books being a series of sketches of country
life (1884-1887). An historical novelist of unequal powers, but
great occasional merit, is Matilda Mailing, nee Kruse (b. 1864),
whose romance about Napoleon (1894) enjoyed a huge success.
Tor Hedberg (b. 1861) also began as a decided realist, and
turned to a more psychological and idealist treatment of life.
His most striking work was Judas (1886); he has written some
excellent dramas. Late successes in the novel has been those
of Hilma Angered-Strandberg (On the Prairie, 1898) and
Gustaf Janson (Paradise, 1900). The most remarkable of the
novelists of the latest group is Selma Lagerlof (b. 1858), who
achieved a great success with Costa Berlings Saga in 1891-
1892. She employs the Swedish language with an extraordinary
richness and variety, and stands in the front rank of Swedish
novelists. But perhaps the most cosmopolitan recent novelist
of Sweden is Per Hallstrom (b. 1866), who spent much of his
youth in America, and appeared as an imaginative writer first
in 1891. He has published volumes of ballads, short stories
and sketches, fantastic and humoristic, all admirable in style.
His play, A Venetian Comedy, enjoyed a substantial success
in 1904.
Among the recent lyrical poets of Sweden, the first to adopt
the naturalistic manner was Albert Ulrik Baath (b. 1853),
whose earliest poems appeared in 1879. In his rebellion against
the sweetness of Swedish convention he proved himself somewhat
indifferent to beauty of form, returned to " early national "
types of versification, and concentrated his attention on dismal
and distressing conditions of life. He is a resolute, but, in his
early volumes, harsh and rocky writer. From 1882 onwards
Baath was steadily productive. Karl Alfred Melin (b. 1849)
has described in verse the life in the islands of the Stockholm
archipelago. Among lyrists who have attracted attention in
their various fields are Oskar Levertin (1862-1906) and Emil
Kleen (1868-1898). Of these Levertin is the more highly
coloured and perfumed, with an almost Oriental richness;
Kleen has not been surpassed in the velvety softness of his
language. But by far the most original and enjoyable lyrical
genius of the later period is that of Gustaf Eroding (b. 1860),
whose collection of poems, called Guitar and Accordion,
humorous, amatory and pathetic, produced a great sensation
in 1891. Three other volumes followed in 1894, 1895 and
1897, each displaying to further advantage the versatility and
sensuous splendour of Froding's talent, as well as its somewhat
scandalous recklessness. In 1897 he was struck down with
insanity, and after three months' confinement in the asylum
at Upsala, although he recovered his senses, all his joyousness
and wildness had left him. He became gloomily religious,
and in a new volume of poems he denounced all that he valued
and enjoyed before his conversion. A younger poet is K. G.
Ossian-Nilssen (b. 1875), the author of several volumes of
vigorous dramatic and satiric verse.
The writer who was exercising most influence in Sweden at
the opening of the 2oth century was Verner von Heidenstam
(b. 1859). He started authorship with a book of verse in 1888,
after which time he led a reaction against realism and pessimism,
and has turned back to a rich romantic idealism in his
novels of Endymion (1889) and Hans Alienus (1892), and in his
stories (1897) of the time of Charles XII. Heidenstam also
published interesting volumes of literary criticism, and he is a
lyrical poet of very high attainment. Miss Ellen Key (b. 1849),
a secularist lecturer of great fervour, became an author in
biographical and critical studies of remarkable originality.
She is distinguished from Selma Lagerlof, who is simply an
artist, by her exercise of pure intellect; she is a moral leader;
she has been called " the Pallas of Sweden." She published
in 1897 a biography of the Swedish author, Almqvist; in 1899
she collected her finest essays in the volume called Thought
Pictures; in 1900 appeared, under the title Human Beings,
studies of the Brownings and of Goethe; but the finest of Ellen
Key's books is The Century of Childhood (1901), a philosophical
survey of the progress of elementary education in the last
hundred years. She exercises a very remarkable power over the
minds of the latest generation in Sweden. A polemical essayist
of elaborate delicacy of style is Hjalmar Soderberg (b. 1869),
who has been influenced by Strindberg and by Anatole
SWEDENBORG
221
France. His ironic romance, Martin Birck's Youth, created
a sensation in 1901. Karl Johan Warburg (b. 1852) has done
good work both as an essayist and as an historian of literature.
But in this latter field by far the most eminent recent name in
Swedish literature is that of Professor Johan Henrik Schiick
(b. 1855), who has made great discoveries in the i6th and lyth
centuries, and who has published, besides a good book about
Shakespeare, studies in which a profound learning is relieved by
elegance of delivery. Warburg and Schiick have written an
excellent history of Swedish literature down to 1888. The poet
Levertin, who was also a distinguished critic, wrote a good book
about the Swedish theatre. Drama has rarely flourished in
Sweden, but several of the poets mentioned above have written
important plays, and, somewhat earlier, the socialistic problem-
pieces of Anne Charlotte Edgren-LefHer, duchess of Cajanello
(1840-1893), possessed considerable dramatic talent, working
under a direct impulse from Ibsen; but her greatest gift was as a
novelist. The plays of Harald Johan Molander (1858-1900) have
been popular in the theatres of Sweden and Finland since his
first success with Rococo in 1880. Altogether a remarkable
revival of belles-lettres has taken place in Sweden after a long
period of inertness and conventionality. It is regrettable,
for its own sake, that the Swedish Academy, which in earlier
generations had identified itself with the manifestations of
original literary genius, has closed its doors to the new writers
with an almost vindictive pertinacity.
Swedish Philosophy. — Swedish philosophy proper began in the
1 7th century with the introduction of Cartesiamsm. The protagonist
of the movement was J. Bilberg (I646-M7I7), who, in various theses
and discussions, defended the new ideas against the scholastic
Aristotelianism of the orthodox churchmen. A. Rydelius (1671-
1738), an intimate friend of Charles XII., endeavoured to find
a common ground for the opposing schools, and the Leibnitzio-
Wolffian philosophy was maintained by N. Wallerius (1706-1764).
Towards the close of the l8th century, a number of thinkers began
to expound the philosophy of the Enlightenment under the influence
of English and French ideas — J. H. Kellgren (1751-1795), K. G.
af Leopold (1756-1829), T. Thorild (1759-1808), K. A. Ehrensvard
(' 745-1 800); while the Kantian dialectic was worthily defended by
p. Boethius (1751-1810), whose work paved the way for a great
idealistic speculative movement headed by B. Hoijer (1767-1812), the
poet P. D. A. Atterbom (1790-1855), a follower of Schelling, and
J. J. Borelius (b. 1823), the great Swedish exponent of Hegelianism.
All the above thinkers reflected the general development of
European thought. There exists, however, a body of thought
which is the product of the peculiar genius of the Swedish people,
namely, the development of the individual soul in accordance with
a coherent social order and a strong religious spirit. This Personal
Philosophy owes its development to K. J. Bostrom (g.f.), and,
though traceable ultimately to Schelling's idealism, received its
distinctive character from the investigations of N. F. Biberg (1776-
1827), S. Grubbe (1786-1853) and E. G. Geijer (q.v.) (1783-1847),
all professors at Upsala. Bostrom's philosophy is logically expressed
and based on the one great conception of a spiritual, eternal, immut-
able Being, whose existence is absolute, above and external to the
finite world of time and space. It has for a long time exercised
almost unquestioned authority over Swedish thought, religious
and philosophical. It is strong in its unequivocal insistence on
personal purity and responsibility, and in the uncompromising
simplicity of its fundamental principle. Bostrom wrote little,
but his views are to be found in the works of two groups of thinkers.
The older group includes S. Ribbing (1816-1899), C. Y. Sahlin
(b. 1824), K. Claeson (1827-1859), H. Edfeldt (b. 1836), the
editor of Bostrom's works, A. Nyblaeus (1821-1899) and P. J. H.
Leander (b. 1831); the younger writers, less in agreement with one
another, but adhering in the main to the same tradition, are E. O.
Burman (b. 1845), K. R. Geijer (b. 1849), L. H. Aberg (1851-
1895), F. v. Scheele (b. 1853), J- V. A. Norstrom (b. 1856), of
Gothenburg, and P. E. Liljeqvist (b. 1865), of Lund. Of these,
Nyblaeus compiled a lucid account of Swedish philosophy from the
beginning of the l8th century up to and including Bostrom ; Ribbing
(Plains Ideeldra and Socratische Studien) showed how closely Swedish
idealism is allied to Greek. P. Wikner (1837-1888) broke away from
the Bostrcmian tradition and followed out a path of his own in a
more essentially religious spirit. V. Rydberg (q.v.) (1828-1895)
closely followed Bostrom, and in his numerous and varied writings
did "much to crystallize and extend the principles of idealism.
Among prominent modern writers may also be mentioned H. Larrson
and A. Herrlin at Lund, and A. Vannerus in Stockholm.
AUTHORITIES. — The Svecia litterata (1680) of J. Schefferus (1621-
1679) is the first serious attempt at a bibliography of Swedish litera-
ture. The Svenska stare och skalder (Upsala, 1841-1855) contains
an admirable series of portraits of Swedish writers up to the end of
the reign of Gustavus III.; many of Atterbom's judgments are
reversed in the Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens historia (1866-
1868) of B. E. Malmstrom; and a body of excellent criticism of the
subsequent period was supplied by G. Ljunggren in his Svenska
vilterhetens hdfder frdn Gustaf do'd (1818-1819; new ed. by SondSn
III.'s. 1833), which remains a classic exposition of the views of the
romanticists. The history of Swedish letters as it reflects the life of
the nation is dealt with by C. R. Nyblom, Estetiska studier (Stock-
holm, 1873-1884). Among general works on the subject, see
H. Schuck, Svensk literaturhistoria (1885, &c.) Schiick and Warburg,
Illustrerad Svensk literatur historia (1896); H. Paul, Grundriss der
germanischen Philologie (new ed., Strassburg, 1901, &c.). The official
handbook of Sweden prepared by the Swedish Central Bureau of
Statistics for the Paris Exhibition (English ed., Stockholm, 1904);
Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der skandinavischen Litteratur, forming
vol. viii. of Geschichte der Welt Litteratur in Einzeldarstellungen
(Leipzig, 3 pts., 1886-1889); Oscar Levertin, Svenska Gestalter
1904- (E. G.)
SWEDENBORG (or SWEDBERG), EMANUEL (1688-1772),
Swedish scientist, philosopher and mystic, was born at Stock-
holm on the 29th of January 1688. His father, Dr Jesper
Swedberg, subsequently professor of theology at Upsala and
bishop of Skara, was a pious and learned man, who did not
escape the charge of heterodoxy, seeing that he placed more
emphasis on the cardinal virtues of faith, love and communion
with God than on the current dogmas of the Lutheran Church.
Having completed his university course at Upsala, in 1710,
Swedenborg undertook a European tour, visiting England,
Holland, France and Germany, studying especially natural
philosophy and writing Latin verses, a collection of which he
published in 1710. In 1715 he returned to Upsala, and devoted
himself to natural science and various engineering works.
P'rom 1716 to 1718 he published a scientific periodical, called
Daedalus hyperboreus, a record of mechanical and mathematical
inventions and discoveries. In 1716 he was introduced to
Charles XII., who appointed him assessor-extraordinary on the
Swedish board of mines. His reports on smelting and assaying
were remarkable for their detail and for the comparisons drawn
between Swedish and other methods. Two years later he
distinguished himself at the king's siege of Frederikshall by
the invention of machines for the transport of boats and galleys
overland from Stromstadt to Iddefjord, a distance of 14 m.
The same year he published various mathematical and mechani-
cal works. At the death of Charles XII. Queen Ulrica elevated
him and his family to the rank of nobility, by which his name
was changed from Swedberg to Swedenborg, the " en " cor-
responding to the German " von." In the Swedish House of
Nobles his contributions to political discussion had great in-
fluence, and he dealt with such subjects as the currency, the
decimal system, the balance of trade and the liquor laws (where
he was the pioneer of the Gothenburg system) with marked
ability. He strongly opposed a bill for increasing the power
of the crown. The next years were devoted to the duties and
studies connected with his office, which involved the visitation
of the Swedish, Saxon, Bohemian and Austrian mines. In
1724 he was offered the chair of mathematics in the university
of Upsala, which he declined, on the ground that it was a
mistake for mathematicians to be limited to theory. His in-
quiring and philosophical mind gradually led him to wider studies.
As early as 1721 he was seeking to lay the foundation of a
scientific explanation of the universe, when he published his
Prodromus principiorum rerum naturalium, and had already
written his Principia in its first form. In 1734 appeared in
three volumes (Opera philosophica et mineralia, the first volume
of which (his Principia) contained his view of the first principles
of the universe, a curious mechanical and geometrical theory
of the origin of things. .The other volumes dealt with (a) iron
and steel, (b) copper and brass, their smelting, conversion and
assaying, and chemical experiments thereon.
There is no doubt that Swedenborg anticipated many scientific
facts and positions that are usually regarded as of much more
modern date. It was only towards the end of the ioth century
that his voluminous writings began to be properly collected and
examined, with the result of proving that there was hardly one
department of scientific activity in which he was not far ahead of
222
SWEDENBORG
his time. His work on palaeontology shows him the predecessor
of all the Scandinavian geologists, and his contributions in this
field alone would have been sufficient to perpetuate his fame. He
was also a great physicist and had arrived at the nebular hypo-
thesis theory of the formation of the planets and the sun long
before Kant and Laplace. His theory of light and theory of the
cosmic atoms were equally astonishing. He wrote a lucid account
of the phenomena of phosphorescence, and adduced a molecular
magnetic theory which anticipated some of the chief features of
the hypothesis of to-day. The great French chemist, Dumas,
gives him the credit for the first attempt to establish a system
of crystallography. He was the first to employ mercury for the
air-pump, and devised a method of determining longitude at sea
by observations of the moon among the stars. He suggested
the use of experimental tanks for testing the powers of ship
models, invented an ear-trumpet for the deaf, improved the
common house-stove of his native land, cured smoky chimneys,
took a lively interest in machine-guns and even sketched a
flying machine.
This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with
strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving
on a horizontal axis, and so arranged that the upstroke met with no
resistance while the downstroke provided the lifting power. Sweden-
borg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a
start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He
said " It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into
actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists
in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest
a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and
requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come some one might
know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition
to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet
there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such
flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials
are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind
an arm or leg."
In 1734 he also published Prodromus phUosophiae ratio-
cinantis de infinite et causa finali crealionis, which treats
of the relation of the finite to the infinite, and of the soul to
the body, seeking to establish a nexus in each case as a means
of overcoming the difficulty of their relation. From this time
he applied himself to the problem of discovering the nature of
soul and spirit by means of anatomical studies. In all his
researches he acknowledged and contended for the existence
and the supremacy of the spiritual and the divine. He travelled
in Germany, France and Italy, in quest of the most eminent
teachers and the best books dealing with the human frame,
and published, as the results of his inquiries among other works,
his Oeconomia regni animalis (London, 1740-1741) and Regnum
animate (the Hague, 1744-1745; London, 1745). In no field were
Swedenborg's researches more noteworthy than in those of physio-
logical science. In 1901, Professor Max Neuberger of Vienna
called attention to certain anticipations of modern views made
by Swedenborg in relation to the functions of the brain. The
university of Vienna appealed to the Royal Swedish Academy
for a complete issue of the scientific treatises, and this resulted
in the formation of a committee of experts who have been
entrusted with the task. It is clear that Swedenborg showed
(150 years before any other scientist) that the motion of the
brain was synchronous with the respiration and not with the
action of the heart and the circulation of the blood, a discovery
the full bearings of which are still far from being realized. He
had arrived at the modern conception of the activity of the
brain as the combined activity of its individual cells. The cere-
bral cortex, and, more definitely, the cortical elements (nerve
cells), formed the seat of the activity of the soul, and were ordered
into departments according to various functions. His views
as to the physiological functions of the spinal cord are also
in agreement with recent research, and he anticipated many
of the pre-eminent offices of the ductless glands which students
of the present time are only beginning to discover.
Up to middle age Swedenborg's position was that of a scholar,
a scientist, a practical administrator, a legislator, and a man of
affairs. But a profound change was coming over him, which
led him to leave the domain of physical research for that of
psychical and spiritual inquiry. Neither by geometrical, nor
physical, nor metaphysical principles had he succeeded in reach-
ing and grasping the infinite and the spiritual, or in elucidating
their relation to man and man's organism, though he had caught
glimpses of facts and methods which he thought only required
confirmation and development. Late in life he wrote to Oetinger
that " he was introduced by the Lord first into the natural
sciences, and thus prepared, and, indeed, from the year 1710
to 1745, when heaven was opened to him." This latter great
event is described by him in a letter to Thomas Hartley, rector
of Winwick, as " the opening of his spiritual sight," " the mani-
festation of the Lord to him in person," " his introduction
into the spiritual world." Before his illumination he had been
instructed by dreams, and enjoyed extraordinary visions, and
heard mysterious conversations. According to his own account,
the Lord filled him with His spirit to teach the doctrines of the
New Church by the word from Himself; He commissioned him
to do this work, opened the sight of his spirit, and so let him
into the spiritual world, permitting him to see the heavens and
the hells, and to converse with angels and spirits for years;
but he never received anything relating to the doctrines of the
church from any angel but from the Lord alone while he was
reading the word (True Christian Religion, No. 779). He
elsewhere speaks of his office as principally an opening of the
spiritual sense of the word. His friend Robsahm reports, from
Swedenborg's own account to him, the circumstances of the
first extraordinary revelation of the Lord, when He appeared
to him and said, " I am God the Lord, the Creator and Redeemer
of the world. I have chosen thee to unfold the spiritual sense
of the Holy Scripture. I will Myself dictate to thee what thou
shall write." From that time he gave up all worldly learning
and laboured solely to expound spiritual things. In the year
1747, to the great regret of his colleagues, he resigned his post of
assessor of the board of mines that he might devote himself
to his higher vocation, requesting only to be allowed to receive
as a pension the half of his salary. He took up afresh his study
of Hebrew, and began his voluminous works on the interpretation
of the Scriptures. His life from 1747 was spent alternately in
Sweden, Holland and London, in the composition of his works
and their publication, till his death, which took place in London
on the 29th of March 1772. He was buried in the Swedish
church in Princes Square, in the parish of St George's-in-the-
East, and on the 7th of April 1908 his remains were removed
at the request of the Swedish government to Stockholm.
Swedenborg was a man who won the respect, confidence and love
of all who came into contact with him. Though people might
disbelieve in his visions, they feared to ridicule them in his presence.
Those who talked with him felt that he was truth itself. He never
disputed on matters of religion, and if obliged to defend himself,
did it with gentleness and in a few words. His manner of life was
simple in the extreme ; his diet consisted chiefly of bread and milk
and large quantities of coffee. He paid no attention to the distinc-
tion of day and night, and sometimes lay for days together in a trance,
while his servants were often disturbed at night by hearing what he
called his conflicts with evil spirits. But his intercourse with
spirits was often perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his
faculties awake. Three extraordinary instances are produced by
his friends and followers in proof of his seership and admission
into the unseen world. But there exists no account at first hand
of the exact facts, and Swedenborg's own reference to one of these
instances admits of another explanation than the supernatural
one. Immanuel Kant was struck by them in 1/63, but in 1765,
after further inquiries, concluded that two of them had " no other
foundation than common report (gemeine Sage)." See Kehrbach's
edition of Kant's Traume eines Geistersehers (Leipzig, 1880).
As a theologian Swedenborg never attempted to preach or to
found a sect. He believed that members of all the churches could
belong to the New Church without forming a separate organization.
His theological writings roughly fall into four groups: (l) books of
spiritual philosophy, including The Divine Love and Wisdom,
The Divine Providence, The Intercourse between the Soul and the
Body, Conjugial Love; (2) Expository, including Arcana Celestia
(giving the spiritual sense of Genesis and Exodus), The Apocalypse
Revealed, The Apocalypse Explained; (3) Doctrinal, including
The New Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrines, The Four Chief
Doctrines, The Doctrine of Charity, The True Christian Religion,
Canons of the New Church; (4) Eschatological, including Heaven
and Hell, and The Last Judgment. About forty volumes are
available in English, and many have been translated into most
SWEETBREAD— SWEET-SOP
223
of the European languages as well as into Arabic, Hindi and
Japanese.
Swedenborg's theosophic system is most briefly and comprehen-
sively presented in his Divine Love and Wisdom. The point
of view from which God must be regarded is that of His
being the Divine Man. His esse is infinite love; His manifestation,
form or body is infinite wisdom. Divine love is the self-subsisting
life of the universe. From God emanates a divine sphere, which
appears in the spiritual world as a sun, and from this spiritual sun
again proceeds the sun of the natural world. The spiritual sun is
the source of love and intelligence, or life, and the natural sun
the source of nature or the receptacles of life; the first is alive,
the second dead. The two worlds of nature and spirit are perfectly
distinct, but they are intimately related by analogous substances,
laws and forces. Each has its atmospheres, waters and earths,
but in the one they are natural and in the other spiritual. In God
there are three infinite and uncreated " degrees " of being, and in
man and all things corresponding three degrees, finite and created.
They are love, wisdom, use; or end, cause and effect. The final
ends of all things are in the Divine Mind, the causes of all things
in the spiritual world, and their effects in the natural world. By
a love of each degree man comes into conjunction with them and
the worlds of nature, spirit and God. The end of creation is that
man may have this conjunction and become the image of his Creator
and creation. In man are two receptacles for God — the will
for divine love and the understanding for divine wisdom — that
love and wisdom flowing into both so that they become human.
Before the fall this influx was free and unhindered, and the con-
junction of man with God and the creation complete, but from
that time the connexion was interrupted and God had to interpose
by successive dispensations. At last the power and influence
of the spirits of darkness, with whom man associates himself by
his sin, became so great that the existence of the human race was
threatened, and Jehovah was necessitated to descend into nature
to restore the connexion between Himself and man. He could
not come in His unveiled divinity, for the " hells " would have
then perished, whom he did not seek to destroy but only to subjugate.
Another purpose of Jehovah's incarnation was the manifestation
of His divine love more fully than ever before. Swedenborg wholly
rejects the orthodox doctrine of atonement; and the unity of God,
as opposed to his idea of the trinity of the church, is an essential
feature of his teaching. Another distinctive feature is that Jehovah
did not go back to heaven without leaving behind him a visible repre-
sentative of Himself in the word of the Scripture. This word
is an eternal incarnation, with its threefold sense — natural, spiritual,
celestial. And Swedenborg is the divinely commissioned expounder
of this threefold sense, of the word, and so the founder of the New
Church, the paraclete of the last dispensation. That he might
perceive and understand the spiritual and the celestial senses of
the word he enjoyed immediate revelation from the Lord, was
admitted into the angelic world, and had committed to him the key
of "correspondences " with which to unlock the divine treasures
of wisdom. Swedenborg claimed also to have learnt by his admis-
sion into the spiritual world the true states of men in the next life,
the scenery and occupations of heaven and hell, the true doctrine of
Providence, the origin of evil, the sanctity and perpetuity of marriage
and to have been a witness of the " last judgment," or the second
coming of the Lord, which is a contemporary event. " All religion,"
he said, " has relation to life, and the life of religion is to do good."
" The kingdom of Heaven is a kingdom of uses." He exercised a
great influence over S. T. Coleridge, Robert and Elizabeth Browning,
Coventry Patmore, Henry Ward Beecher and Thomas Carlyle.
And the attention of modern psychologists is now being drawn to
his doctrine of the relation of the elements of the universe to the
membranes of the body.
Swedenborgianism, as professed by Swedenborg's followers, is
based on the belief of Swedenborg's claims to have witnessed the
last judgment, or the second advent of the Lord, with the inaugura-
tion of the New Church, through the new system of doctrine promul-
gated by him and derived from the Scriptures, into the true sense of
which he was the first to be introduced. The " doctrines " of the
New Church as given in the Liturgy (which also contains the " Creed "
and " Articles of Faith ") are as follows: —
1. That there is one God, in whom there is a Divine Trinity; and
that He is the Lord Jesus Christ.
2. That a saving faith is to believe on Him.
3. That evils are to be shunned, because they are of the devil and
from the devil.
4. That good actions are to be done, because they are of God and
from God.
5. That these are to be done by a man as from himself ; but that
it ought to be believed that they are done from the Lord with him
and by him.
Swedenborgians now constitute a widely spread and considerable
society, with a regularly constituted ecclesiastical organization and a
zealous missionary activity (see NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH).
See R. L. Tafel, Documents concerning the Life and Character of
Swedenborg, collected, translated and annotated (3 vols., Swedenborg
Society, 1875-1877); J. Hyde, A Bibliography of the Works of
Emanuel Swedenborg (743 pp., Swedenborg Society). Of English
lives the principal are those by J. J. G. Wilkinson (London, 1849);
E. Paxton Hood (London, 1854); William White (1856, rewritten
in 1867 and in 1868); G. Trobndge (London, 1907); also Emanuel
Swedenborg, the Spiritual Columbus, a Sketch, by U. S. E. (2nd ed.,
London, 1877). Some of his writings, e.g. The Divine Providence and
Heaven and Hell have been published in popular editions. A useful
handbook of Swedenborg's theology is the Compendium of the Theo-
logical Writings of Emanuel Swedenborg by the Rev. Samuel Warren
(London, 1885). Summaries of his system and writings are given in
all the above biographies, also in Edmund Swift, Manual of the
Doctrines of the New Church (London, 1885); and T. Parsons, Out-
lines of Swedenborg's Religion and Philosophy. Important critiques
from independent points of view are " The Mystic," in R. W.
Emerson's Representative Men (1850); Kant's Trdume eines Geister-
sehers (1766; the best edition by Kehrbach, Leipzig, 1880); J. G.
Herder's " Emanuel Swedenborg," in his Adrastea (Werke zur Phil,
und Gesch., xii. 110-125); J. J. von Goerres's Emanuel Swedenborg,
seine Visionen und sein Verhdltniss zur Kirche (1827); A. Dorner s
Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, pp. 662-667 (Munich, 1867).
See also Transactions of the International Swedenborg Congress
(London, 1910), summarized in The New Church Magazine
(August, 1910). (A. J. G.)
SWEETBREAD, a popular term for certain glands of animals,
particularly when used as articles of food; these are usually
the pancreas, the " stomach-sweetbread " of butchers, and the
thymus, or " breast sweetbread." The term is also sometimes
used to include the salivary and lymphatic glands (see DUCT-
LESS GLANDS, PANCREAS and LYMPHATIC SYSTEM).
SWEET POTATO. This plant, known botanically as Ipomaca.
batatas (formerly as Convolvulus batatas), and a member of
the natural order Convolvulaceae, is generally cultivated in
most tropical countries for the sake of its tuberous root, which is
an article of diet greatly in request. It is a climbing perennial
with entire or palmately-lobed leaves very variable in shape
borne on slender twining stems. The flowers are borne on long
stalks in loose clusters or cymes, and have a white or rosy funnel-
shaped corolla like that of the common bindweed of English
hedges. The edible portion is the root, which dilates into
large club-shaped masses filled with starch. It is ill suited
to the climate of the United Kingdom, but in tropical countries
it is as valuable as the potato is in higher latitudes. The plant
is not known in a truly wild state, nor has its origin been ascer-
tained. A. de Candolle concludes that it is in all probability of
American origin, where it has been cultivated from pre-
historic times by the aborigines. It is mentioned by Gerard
as the " potato," or " potatus " or " potades," in contra-
distinction to the " potatoes " of Virginia (Solanum luberosum).
He grew it in his garden, but the climate was not warm enough
to allow it to flower, and in winter it perished and rotted. But
as the appellation " common " is applied to them the roots must
have been introduced commonly. Gerard tells us he bought
those that he planted at " the Exchange in London," and he
gives an interesting account of the uses to which they were put,
the manner in which they were prepared as " sweetmeats,"
and the invigorating properties assigned to them. The
allusions in the Merry Wives of Windsor and other of Shake-
speare's plays in all probability refer to this plant, and not to
what we now call the " potato." The plants require a warm
sunny climate, long season, and a liberal supply of water during
the growing season. For an account of the cultivation in North
America, where large quantities are grown in the Southern
states, see L. H. Bailey, Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture
(1902). Sir George Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products
of India (1890), gives an account of its cultivation in India, where
some confusion has arisen by the use of the name batatas for
the yam (q.v.) ; the author suggests that the introduction of the
sweet potato into India is comparatively recent.
SWEET-SOP, or Sugar Apple, botanical name Anona squamosa,
a small tree or shrub with thin oblong-ovate leaves, solitary
greenish flowers and a yellowish-green fruit, like a shortened pine
cone in shape with a tubercle corresponding to each of the
carpels from the aggregation of which it has been formed. The
fruit is 3 to 4 in. in diameter and contains a sweet creamy-
yellow custard-like pulp. It is a native of the West Indies
and tropical America; it is much prized as a fruit, and has been
widely introduced into the eastern hemisphere.
224
SWELLENDAM— SWIFT, JONATHAN
Another species, A. muricala, is the sour-sop, a small ever-
green tree bearing a larger dark-green fruit, 6 to 8 in. long
and i to 5 Ib in weight, oblong or bluntly conical in shape,
with a rough spiny skin and containing a soft white juicy sub-
acid pulp with a flavour of turpentine. It is a popular fruit
in the West Indies, where it is native, and is grown with
special excellence in Porto Rico. A drink is made from the
juice. A. reticulala is the custard apple (q.v.) and A. palustris
the alligator apple.
SWELLENDAM, a town of South Africa, Cape province,
in the valley of the Breede River, 192 m. by rail E. by S. of Cape
Town. Pop. (1904), 2406, of whom.'ii39 were white. Swellen-
dam is one of the older Dutch settlements in the Cape, dating
from 1745, and was named after Hendrik Swellengrebel (then
governor of the Cape) and his wife, whose maiden name was
Damme. Early in 1795 the burghers of the town and district
rose in revolt against the Dutch East India Company, pro-
claimed a " free republic," and elected a so-styled national
assembly. At the same time the burghers of Graaff Reinet
also rebelled against the Cape authorities, who were powerless
to suppress the insurrectionary movement. One of the claims
of the " free republic " was " the absolute and unconditional
slavery of all Hottentots and Bushmen." In September of that
year Cape Town surrendered to the British and the " National "
party at Swellendam quietly accepted British rule.
The town is a trading centre of some importance, and in the
surrounding district are large sheep and ostrich farms. The
neighbourhood is noted for its abundance of everlasting flowers.
SWETCHINE, MADAME (1782-1857), Russian mystic, whose
maiden name was Soymanof, was born in Moscow, and under
the influence of Joseph de Maistre became a member of the
Roman Catholic Church in 1815. In the following year she
settled in Paris where, until her death, she maintained a famous
salon remarkable no less for its high courtesy and intellectual
brilliance than for its religious atmosphere. Though not
physically beautiful she had a personality of rare spiritual
charm, nurtured in the private chapel of her house. Her hus-
band, General Swetchine, was 25 years her senior. Her Life and
Works (of which the best known are " Old Age " and " Resigna-
tion ") were published by M. de Falloux (2 vols., 1860) and her
Letters by the same editor (2 vols., 1861).
See Sainte-Beuve, Nouveaux lundis, vol. i. ; and E. Scherer,
Etudes sur la litterature contemporaine, vol. i.
SWEYN I., KING or DENMARK ( -1014), son of Harold
Bluetooth, the christianizer of Denmark, by his peasant mistress
Aesa, according to the Jomsvikinga Saga, though more probably
his mother was Queen Gunild, Harold's consort. The lad was
a born champion and buccaneer. His first military expedition,
in alliance with the celebrated Jomsborg Viking, Palnatoke,
was against his own father, who perished during the struggle
(c. 986). Six years later he conducted a large fleet of warships
to England, which did infinite damage, but failed to capture
London. During his absence, Denmark was temporarily occu-
pied by the Swedish king, Eric Sersel, on whose death (c. 994)
Sweyn recovered his patrimony. About the same time he
repudiated his first wife Gunild, daughter of duke Mieszko
of Poland, and married King Eric's widow, Sigrid. This lady
was a fanatical pagan of a disquieting strength of character.
Two viceroys, earlier wooers, were burned to death by her
orders for their impertinence, and she refused the hand of Olaf
Trygvesson, king of Norway, rather than submit to baptism,
whereupon the indignant monarch struck her on the mouth with
his gauntlet and told her she was a worse pagan than any dog.
Shortly afterwards she married Sweyn, and easily persuaded her
warlike husband to unite with Olaf, king of Sweden, against
Olaf Trygvesson, who fell in the famous sea-fight off Svolde
(1000) on the west coast of Rtigen, after a heroic resistance
immortalized by the sagas, whereupon the confederates divided
his kingdom between them. After his first English expedition
Sweyn was content to blackmail England instead of ravaging
it, till the ruthless massacre of the Danes on St Brice's day,
the 3rd of November 1002, by Ethelred the Unready (Sweyn's
sister was among the victims) brought the Danish king to Exeter
(1003). During each of the following eleven years, the Danes,
materially assisted by the universal and shameless disloyalty
of the Saxon ealdormen, systematically ravaged England, and
from 991 to 1014 the wretched land is said to have paid its
invaders in ransoms alone £158,000. Sweyn died suddenly at
Gainsborough on the i3th of February 1014. The data relating
to his whole history are scanty and obscure, and his memory has
suffered materially from the fact that the chief chroniclers of
his deeds and misdeeds were ecclesiastics. It was certainly
unfortunate that he began life by attacking his own father.
It is undeniable that his favourite wife was the most stiff-necked
pagan of her day. His most remarkable exploit, Svolde, was
certainly won at the expense of Christianity, resulting, as it did,
in the death of the saintly Olaf. Small wonder, then, if Adam
of Bremen, and the monkish annalists who follow him, describe
Sweyn as a grim and bloody semi-pagan, perpetually warring
against Christian states. But there is another side to the
picture. Viking though he was, Sweyn was certainly a Christian
viking. We know that he built churches; that he invited
English bishops to settle in Denmark (notably Godibald, who
did good work in Scania); that on his death-bed he earnestly
commended the Christian cause to his son Canute. He was
cruel to his enemies no doubt, but he never forgot a benefit.
Thus he rewarded the patriotism of the Danish ladies who
sacrificed all their jewels to pay the heavy ransom exacted from
him by his captors, the Jomsborg pirates, by enacting a law
whereby women were henceforth to inherit landed property
in the same way as their male relatives. Of his valour as a
captain and his capacity as an administrator there can be no
question. His comrades adored him for his liberality, and the
frequent visits of Icelandic skalder to his court testify to a love
of poetry on his part, indeed one of his own strophes has come
down to us. As to his personal appearance we only know that
he had a long cleft beard, whence his nickname of Tiugeskaeg or
Fork-Beard.
See Danmarks riges historic. Oldliden og den cddre middelalder,
pp. 364-381 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). ( R. N. B.)
SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745), dean of St Patrick's,
Dublin, British satirist, was born at No. 7 Hoey's Court, Dublin,
on the 3oth of November 1667, a few months after the death of
his father, Jonathan Swift (1640-1667), who married about 1664
Abigaile Erick, of an old Leicestershire family. He was taken
over to England as an infant and nursed at Whitehaven, whence
he returned to Ireland in his fourth year. His grandfather,
Thomas Swift, vicar of Goodrich near Ross, appears to have been
a doughty member of the church militant, who lost his possessions
by taking the losing side in the Civil War and died in 1658 before
the restoration could bring him redress. He married Elizabeth,
niece of Sir Erasmus Dryden, the poet's grandfather. Hence
the familiarity of the poet's well-known " cooling-card " to the
budding genius of his kinsman Jonathan: " Cousin Swift, you
will never be a poet." The young Jonathan was educated mainly
at the charges of his uncle Godwin, a Tipperary official, who was
thought to dole out his help in a somewhat grudging manner.
In fact the apparently prosperous relative was the victim of
unfortunate speculations, and chose rather to be reproached with
avarice than with imprudence. The youth was resentful of
what he regarded as curmudgeonly treatment, a bitterness
became ingrained and began to corrode his whole nature; and
although he came in time to grasp the real state of the case he
never mentioned his uncle with kindness or regard. At six he
went to Kilkenny School, where Congreve was a schoolfellow; at
fourteen he entered pensioner at Trinity College, Dublin, where
he seems to have neglected his opportunities. He was referred
in natural philosophy, including mathematics, and obtained his
degree only by a special but by no means infrequent act of indul-
gence. The patronage of his uncle galled him: he was dull and
unhappy. We find in Swift few signs of precocious genius.
As with Goldsmith, and so many other men who have become
artists of the pen, college proved a stepmother to him.
In 1688 the rich uncle, whose supposed riches had dwindled
SWIFT, JONATHAN
so much that at his death he was almost insolvent, died, having
decayed, it would seem, not less in mind than in body and estate,
and Swift sought counsel of his mother at Leicester. After a
brief residence with his mother, who was needlessly alarmed at
the idea of her son falling a victim to some casual coquette,
Swift towards the close of 1689 entered upon an engagement as
secretary to Sir William Temple, whose wife (Dorothy Osborne)
was distantly related to Mrs Swift. It was at Moor Park, near
Farnham, the residence to which Temple had retired to cultivate
apricots after the rapid decline of his influence during the critical
period of Charles II. 's reign (1679-1681), that Swift's acquaint-
ance with Esther Johnson, the " Stella " of the famous Journal,
was begun. Stella's mother was living at Moor Park, as servant
or dame de compagnie of Temple's strong-minded sister, Lady
Giffard. Swift was twenty-two and Esther eight years old at the
time, and a curious friendship sprang up between them. He
taught the little girl how to write and gave her advice in reading.
On his arrival at Moor Park, Swift was, in his own words, a raw,
inexperienced youth, and his duties were merely those of account-
keeper and amanuensis: his ability gradually won him the con-
fidence of his employer, and he was entrusted with some impor-
tant missions. He was introduced to William III. during that
monarch's visit to Sir William's, and on one occasion accompanied
the king in his walks round the grounds. In 1693 Temple sent
him to try and convince the king of the inevitable necessity of
triennial parliaments. William remained unconvinced and Swift's
vanity received a useful lesson. The king had previously taught
him " how to cut asparagus after the Dutch fashion." Next
year, however, Swift (who had in the meantime obtained the
degree of M.A. ad eundem at Oxford) quitted Temple, who had, he
considered, delayed too long in obtaining him preferment. A
certificate of conduct while under Temple's roof was required by
all the Irish bishops he consulted before they would proceed
in the matter of his ordination, and after five months' delay,
caused by wounded pride, Swift had to kiss the rod and solicit in
obsequious terms the favour of a testimonial from his discarded
patron. Forgiveness was easy to a man of Temple's elevation and
temperament, and he not only despatched the necessary recom-
mendation but added a personal request which obtained for Swift
the small prebend of Kilroot near Belfast (January 1605), where
the new incumbent carried on a premature flirtation with a Miss
Jane Waring, whom he called " Varina." In the spring of
1696 he asked the reluctant Varina to wait until he was in a
position to marry. Just four years later he wrote to her in terms
of such calculated harshness and imposed such conditions as to
make further intercourse virtually impossible.
In the meantime he had grown tired of Irish life and was glad
to accept Temple's proposal for his return to Moor Park, where
he continued until Temple's death in January 1699. During
this period he wrote much and burned most of what he had written.
He read and learned even more than he wrote. Moor Park took
him away from brooding and glooming in Ireland and brought
him into the corridor of contemporary history, an intimate
acquaintance with which became the chief passion of Swift's
life. His Pindaric Odes, written at this period or earlier, in the
manner of Cowley, indicate the rudiments of a real satirist, but a
satirist struggling with a most uncongenial form of expression.
Of more importance was his first essay in satiric prose which
arose directly from the position which he occupied as domestic
author in the Temple household. Sir William had in 1692 pub-
lished his Essay upon Ancient and Modern Learning, transplant-
ing to England a controversy begun in France by Fontenelle.
Incidentally Temple had cited the letters of Phalaris as evidence
of the superiority of the Ancients over the Moderns. Temple's
praise of Phalaris led to an Oxford edition of the Epistles nomin-
ally edited by Charles Boyle. While this was preparing, William
Wotton, in 1694, wrote his Reflections upon Ancient and Modern
Learning, traversing Temple's general conclusions. Swift's
Battle of the Books was written in 1697 expressly to refute this.
Boyle's Vindication and Bentley's refutation of the authenticity
of Phalaris came later. Swift's aim was limited to co-operation
in what was then deemed the well-deserved putting down of
xxvi. 8
225
Bentley by Boyle, with a view to which he represented Bentley
and Wotton as the representatives of modern pedantry, trans-
fixed by Boyle in a suit of armour given him by the gods as the
representative of the " two noblest of things, sweetness and
light." The satire remained unpublished until 1704, when it
was issued along with The Tale of a Tub. Next year Wotton
declared that Swift had borrowed his Combat des livres from the
Histoire poetique de la guerre nouvellemenl declaree entre les
anciens et les modernes (Paris, 1688). He might have derived
the idea of a battle from the French title, but the resemblances
and parallels between the two books are slight. Swift was
manifestly extremely imperfectly acquainted with the facts of
the case at issue. Such data as he displays may well have been
derived from no authority more recondite than Temple's own
essay.
In addition to £100, Temple left to Swift the trust and profit
of publishing his posthumous writings. Five volumes appeared
in 1700, 1703 and 1709. The resulting profit was small, and
Swift's editorial duties brought him into acrimonious relation
with Lady Giffard. The dedication to King William was to have
procured Swift an English prebend, but this miscarried owing
to the negligence or indifference of Henry Sidney, earl of Romney.
Swift then accepted an offer from Lord Berkeley, who in the
summer of 1699 was appointed one of the lords justices of Ireland.
Swift was to be his chaplain and secretary, but upon reaching
Ireland Berkeley gave the secretaryship to a Mr Bushe, who had
persuaded him that it was an unfit post for a clergyman. The
rich deanery of Derry then became vacant and Swift applied
for it. The secretary had already accepted a bribe, but Swift
was informed that he might still have the place for £1000.
With bitter indignation Swift denounced the simony and threw
up his chaplaincy, but he was ultimately reconciled to Berkeley
by the presentation to the rectory of Agher in Meath with the
united vicarages of Laracor and Rathbeggan, to which was
added the prebend of Dunlavin in St Patrick's — the total value
being about £230 a year. He was now often in Dublin, at most
twenty miles distant, and through Lady Berkeley and her
daughters he became the familiar and chartered satirist of the
fashionable society there. At Laracor, near Trim, Swift rebuilt
the parsonage, made a fish-pond, and planted a garden with
poplars and willows, bordering a canal. His congregation con-
sisted of about fifteen persons, " most of them gentle and all of
them simple." He read prayers on Wednesdays and Fridays
to himself and his clerk, beginning the exhortation " Dearly
beloved Roger, the Scripture moveth you and me in sundry
places." But he soon began to grow tired of Ireland again and
to pay visits in Leicester and London. The author of the
Tale of a Tub, which he had had by him since 1696 or 1698, must
have felt conscious of powers capable of far more effective
exercise than reading-desk or pulpit at Laracor could supply;
and his resolution to exchange divinity for politics must appear
fully justified by the result. The Discourse on the Dissensions
in Athens and Rome (September 1701), written to repel the tactics
of the Tory commons in their attack on the Partition Treaties
" without humour and without satire," and intended as a dissua-
sive from the pending impeachment of Somers, Orford, Halifax
and Portland, received the honour, extraordinary for the maiden
publication of a young politician, of being generally attributed
to Somers himself or to Burnet, the latter of whom found a public
disavowal necessary. In April or May 1704 appeared a more
remarkable work. Clearness, cogency, masculine simplicity of
diction, are conspicuous in the pamphlet, but true creative power
told the Tale of a Tub. " Good God ! what a genius I had when
I wrote that book ! " was his own exclamation in his latter years.
It is, indeed, if not the most amusing of Swift's satirical works,
the most strikingly original, and the one in which the compass
of his powers is most fully displayed. In his kindred productions
he relies mainly upon a single element of the humorous — logical
sequence and unruffled gravity bridling in an otherwise frantic
absurdity, and investing it with an air of sense. In the Tale of a
Tub he lashes out in all directions. The humour, if less cogent
and cumulative, is richer and more varied; the invention, too,
226
SWIFT, JONATHAN
is more daringly original and more completely out of the reach
of ordinary faculties. The supernatural coats and the quintes-
sential loaf may be paralleled but cannot be surpassed; and the
book is throughout a mine of suggestiveness, as, for example,
in the anticipation of Carlyle's clothes philosophy within the
compass of a few lines. At the same time it wants unity and
coherence, it attains no conclusion, and the author abuses his
digressive method of composition and his convenient fiction of
hiatuses in the original manuscript. The charges it occasioned
of profanity and irreverence were natural, but groundless. There
is nothing in the book inconsistent with Swift's professed and
real character as a sturdy Church of England parson, who
accepted the doctrines of his Church as an essential constituent
of the social order around him, battled for them with the fidelity
of a soldier defending his colours, and held it no part of his duty
to understand, interpret, or assimilate them.
In February 1701 Swift took his D.D. degree at Dublin, and
before the close of the year he had taken a step destined to
exercise a most important influence on his life, by inviting two
ladies to Laracor. Esther, daughter of a merchant named Edward
Johnson, a dependant, and legatee to a small amount, of Sir
William Temple's (born in March 1680), whose acquaintance he
had made at Moor Park in 1689, and whom he has immortalized
as "Stella,"1 came over with her companion Rebecca Dingley,
a poor relative of the Temple family, and was soon permanently
domiciled in his neighbourhood. The melancholy tale of Swift's
attachment will be more conveniently narrated in another place,
and is only alluded to here for the sake of chronology. Mean-
while the sphere of his intimacies was rapidly widening. He had
been in England for three years together, 1701 to 1704, and
counted Pope, Steele and Addison among his friends. The
success of his pamphlet gained him ready access to all Whig
circles, but already his confidence in that party was shaken, and
he was beginning to meditate that change of sides which has
drawn down upon him so much but such unjustifiable obloquy.
The true state of the case may easily be collected from his next
publications — The Sentiments of a Church of England Man, and
On the Reasonableness of a Test (1708). The vital differences
among the friends of the Hanover succession were not political,
but ecclesiastical. From this point of view Swift's sympathies
were entirely with the Tories. As a minister of the Church he felt
his duty and his interest equally concerned in the support of her
cause; nor could he fail to discover the inevitable tendency of
Whig doctrines, whatever caresses individual Whigs might
bestow on individual clergymen, to abase the Establishment as a
corporation. He sincerely believed that the ultimate purpose
of freethinkers was to escape from moral restraints, and he had
an unreasoning antipathy to Scotch Presbyterians and English
Dissenters. If Whiggism could be proved to entail Dissent, he
was prepared to abandon it. One of his pamphlets, written
about this time, contains his recipe for the promotion of religion,
and is of itself a sufficient testimony to the extreme materialism
of his views. Censorships and penalties are among the means
he recommends. His pen was exerted to better purpose in the
most consummate example of his irony, the Argument to prove
that the abolishing of Christianity in England may, as things now
stand, be attended with some inconveniencies (1708). About this
time, too (November 1707), he produced his best narrative poem,
Baucis and Philemon, while the next few months witnessed one
of the most amusing hoaxes ever perpetrated against the quackery
of astrologers. In his Almanac for 1707 a Protestant alarmist
and plot vaticinator styled John Partridge warned customers
against rivals and impostors. This notice attracted Swift's
attention, and in January 1708 he issued predictions for the
ensuing year by Isaac Bickerstaff, written to prevent the people
of England being imposed upon by vulgar almanac makers.
In this brochure he predicts solemnly that on the zgth of March
1 The name " Stella " is simply a translation of Esther. Swift
may have learned that Esther means " star " from the Elementa
linguae persicae of John Greaves or from some Persian scholar;
but he is more likely to have seen the etymology in the form given
from Jewish sources in Buxtorf's Lexicon, where the interpretation
takes the more suggestive form " Stella Veneris."
at ii o'clock at night Partridge the almanac maker should
infallibly die of a raging fever. On the soth of March he issued
a letter confirming Partridge's sad fate. Grub Street elegies
on the almanac maker were hawked about London. Partridge
was widely deplored in obituary notices and his name was struck
off the rolls at Stationers' Hall. The poor man was obliged to
issue a special almanac to assure his clients and the public that
he was not dead: he was fatuous enough to add that he was not
only alive at the time of writing, but that he was also demonstrably
alive on the day when the knave Bickerstaff (a name borrowed
by Swift from a sign in Long Acre) asserted that he died of fever.
This elicited Swift's most amusing Vindication of Isaac Bicker-
staff Esq. in April 1 709. The laughter thus provoked extinguished
the Predictions for three years, and in 1715 Partridge died in
fact; but the episode left a permanent trace in classic literature,
for when in 1709 Steele was to start the Tatter, it occurred to
him that he could secure the public ear in no surer way than by
adopting the name of Bickerstaff.
From February 1708 to April 1709 Swift was in London,
urging upon the Godolphin administration the claims of the
Irish clergy to the first-fruits and twentieths (" Queen Anne's
Bounty "), which brought in about £2500 a year, already granted
to their brethren in England.2 His having been selected for
such a commission shows that he was not yet regarded as a
deserter from the Whigs, although the ill success of his represen-
tations probably helped to make him one. By November 1710
he was again domiciled in London, and writing his Journal to
Stella, that unique exemplar of a giant's playfulness, " which was
written for one person's private pleasure and has had indestruc-
tible attractiveness for every one since." In the first pages of this
marvellously minute record of a busy life we find him depicting
the decline of Whig credit and complaining of the cold reception
accorded him by Godolphin, whose penetration had doubtless
detected the precariousness of his allegiance. Within a few
weeks he had become the lampooner of the fallen treasurer, the
bosom friend of Oxford and Bolingbroke, and the writer of the
Examiner, a journal established as the exponent of Tory views
(November 1710). He was now a power in the state, the intimate
friend and recognized equal of the first writers of the day, the
associate of ministers on a footing of perfect cordiality and
familiarity. " We were determined to have you," said Boling-
broke to him afterwards; " you were the only one we were afraid
of." He gained his point respecting the Irish endowments; and,
by his own account, his credit procured the fortune of more than
forty deserving or undeserving clients. The envious but graphic
description of his demeanour conveyed to us by Bishop Kennet
attests the real dignity of his position no less than the airs he
thought fit to assume in consequence. The cheerful, almost
jovial, tone of his letters to Stella evinces his full contentment,
nor was he one to be moved to gratitude for small mercies. He
had it, in fact, fuUy in his own power to determine his relations
with the ministry, and he would be satisfied with nothing short
of familiar and ostentatious equality. His advent marks a new
era in English political life, the age of public opinion, created
indeed by the circumstances of the time, but powerfully fostered
and accelerated by him. By a strange but not infrequent irony
of fate the most imperious and despotic spirit of his day laboured
to enthrone a power which, had he himself been in authority, he
would have utterly detested and despised. For a brief time he
seemed to resume the whole power of the English press in his
own pen and to guide public opinion as he would. His services
to his party as writer of the Examiner, which he quitted in July
1711, were even surpassed by those which he rendered as the
author of telling pamphlets, among which The Conduct of the
Allies and of the Late Ministry, in beginning and carrying on the
Present War, and Remarks on the Barrier Treaty (November and
December 1711) hold the first rank. In truth, however, he was
lifted by the wave he seemed to command. Surfeited with glory,
* The grant of the first-fruits was to be made contingent on a
concession from the Irish clergy in the shape of the abolition of the
sacramental test. This Swift would not agree to. He ultimately
won his point from Harley, and his success marks his open rupture
with the Whigs.
SWIFT, JONATHAN
which it began, after Malplaquet, to think might be purchased at
too heavy a cost, the nation wanted a convenient excuse for
relinquishing a burdensome war, which the great military genius
of the age was suspected of prolonging to fill his pockets. The
Whigs had been long in office. The High Church party had
derived great strength from the Sacheverell trial. Swift did
not bring about the revolution with which, notwithstanding, he
associated his name. There seems no reason to suppose that he
was consulted respecting the great Tory strokes of the creation
of the twelve new peers and the dismissal of Marlborough (Decem-
ber 1711), but they would hardly have been ventured upon if
The Conduct of the Allies and the Examiners had not prepared the
way. A scarcely less important service was rendered to the
ministry by his Letter to the October Club, artfully composed to
soothe the impatience of Harley's extreme followers. He had
every claim to the highest preferment that ministers could
give him, but his own pride and prejudice in high places stood
in his way.
Generous men like Oxford and Bolingbroke cannot have been
unwilh'ng to reward so serviceable a friend, especially when their
own interest lay in keeping him in England. Harley by this
time was losing influence and was becoming chronically incapable
of any sustained effort. Swift was naturally a little sore at seeing
the see of Hereford slipping through his fingers. He had already
lost Waterford owing to the prejudice against making the author
of the Tale of a Tub a bishop, and he still had formidable antagon-
ists in the archbishop of York, whom he had scandalized, and the
duchess of Somerset, whom he had satirized. Anne was particu-
larly amenable to the influence of priestly and female favourites,
and it must be considered a proof of the strong interest made for
Swift that she was eventually persuaded to appoint him to the
deanery of St Patrick's, Dublin, vacant by the removal of Bishop
Sterne to Dromore. It is to his honour that he never speaks of
the queen with resentment or bitterness. In June 1713 he set
out to take possession of his dignity, and encountered a very cold
reception from the Dublin public. The dissensions between the
chiefs of his party speedily recalled him to England. He found
affairs in a desperate condition. The queen's demise was
evidently at hand, and the same instinctive good sense which
had ranged the nation on the side of the Tories, when Tories
alone could terminate a fatiguing war, rendered it Whig when
Tories manifestly could not be trusted to maintain the Protestant
succession. In any event the occupants of office could merely
have had the choice of risking their heads in an attempt to exclude
the elector of Hanover, or of waiting patiently till he should come
and eject them from their posts; yet they might have remained
formidable could they have remained united. To the indignation
with which he regarded Oxford's refusal to advance him in the
peerage the active St John added an old disgust at the treasurer's
pedantic and dilatory formalism, as well as his evident propensity,
while leaving his colleague the fatigues, to engross for himself the
chief credit of the administration. Their schemes of policy
diverged as widely as their characters: Bolingbroke's brain
teemed with the wildest plans, which Oxford might have more
effectually discountenanced had he been prepared with anything
in their place. Swift's endeavours after an accommodation
were as fruitless as unremitting. His mortification was little
likely to temper the habitual virulence of his pen, which rarely
produced anything more acrimonious than the attacks he at this
period directed against Burnet and his former friend Steele.
One of his pamphlets against the latter ( The Public Spirit of the
Whigs set forth in their Generous Encouragement of the Author of
the Crisis, 1714) was near involving him in a prosecution, some
invectives against the Scottish peers having proved so exasper-
ating to Argyll and others that they repaired to the queen to
demand the punishment of the author, of whose identity there
could be no doubt, although, like all Swift's writings, except the
Proposal for the Extension of Religion, the pamphlet had been
published anonymously. The immediate withdrawal of the
offensive passage, and a sham prosecution instituted against
the printer, extricated Swift from his danger.
Meanwhile the crisis had arrived, and the discord of Oxford
227
and Bolingbroke had become patent to all the nation. Fore-
seeing, as is probable, the impending fall of the former, Swift
retired to Upper Letcombe, in Berkshire, and there spent some
weeks in the strictest seclusion. This leisure was occupied in
the composition of his remarkable pamphlet, Some Free Thoughts
on the Present State of A/airs, which indicates his complete
conversion to the bold policy of Bolingbroke. The utter exclu-
sion of Whigs as well as Dissenters from office, the remodelling
of the army, the imposition of the most rigid restraints on the
heir to the throne— such were the measures which, by recom-
mending, Swift tacitly admitted to be necessary to the triumph
of his party. If he were serious, it can only be said that the
desperation of his circumstances had momentarily troubled the
lucidity of his understanding; if the pamphlet were merely
intended as a feeler after public opinion, it is surprising that he
did not perceive how irretrievably he was ruining his friends in
the eyes of all moderate men. Bolingbroke's daring spirit,
however, recoiled from no extreme, and, fortunately for Swift,
he added so much of his own to the latter's MS. that the produc-
tion was first delayed and then, upon the news of Anne's death,
immediately suppressed. This incident but just anticipated
the revolution which, after Bolingbroke had enjoyed a three
days' triumph over Oxford, drove him into"exile and prostrated
his party, but enabled Swift to perform the noblest action of
his life. Almost the first acts of Bolingbroke's ephemeral
premiership were to order him a thousand pounds from the
exchequer and despatch him the most flattering invitations.
The same post brought a letter from Oxford, soliciting Swift's
company in his retirement; and, to the latter's immortal honour,
he hesitated not an instant in preferring the solace of his friend
to the offers of St John. When, a few days afterwards, Oxford
was in prison and in danger of his life, Swift begged to share his
captivity; and it was only on the offer being declined that he
finally directed his steps towards Ireland, where he was very ill
received. The draft on the exchequer was intercepted by the
queen's death.
These four busy years of Swift's London life had not been
entirely engrossed by politics. First as the associate of Steele,
with whom he quarrelled, and of Addison, whose esteem for him
survived all differences, afterwards as the intimate comrade of
Pope and Arbuthnot, the friend of Congreve and Atterbury,
Parnell and Gay, he entered deeply into the literary life of the
period. He was treasurer and a leading member of the Brothers,
a society of wits and statesmen which recalls the days of Horace
and Maecenas. He promoted the subscription for Pope's Homer,
contributed some numbers to the Taller, Spectator, and Intelli-
gencer, and joined with Pope and Arbuthnot in establishing the
Scriblerus Club, writing Martinus Scriblerus, his share in which
can have been but small, as well as John Bull, where the chapter
recommending the education of all blue-eyed children in depravity
for the public good must surely be his. His miscellanies, in
some of which his satire made the nearest approach perhaps ever
made to the methods of physical force, such as A Meditation upon
a Broomstick, and the poems Sid Hamet's Rod, The City Shower,
The Windsor Prophecy, The Prediction of Merlin, and The
History of Vanbrugh's House, belong to this period. A more
laboured work, his Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascer-
taining the English Tongue (1712), in a letter to Harley, suggest-
ing the regulation of the English language by an academy, is
chiefly remarkable as a proof of the deference paid to French
taste by the most original English writer of his day. His History
of the Four Last Years of the Reign of Queen Anne is not on a level
with his other political writings. To sum up the incidents of
this eventful period of his life, it was during it that he lost his
mother, always loved and dutifully honoured, by death; his
sister had been estranged from him some years before by an
imprudent marriage, which, though making her a liberal allow-
ance, he never forgave.
The change from London to Dublin can seldom be an agreeable
one. To Swift it meant for the time the fall from unique
authority to absolute insignificance. All share in the adminis-
tration of even Irish affairs was denied him; every politician
228
SWIFT, JONATHAN
shunned him; and his society hardly included a single author or
wit. He " continued in the greatest privacy " and " began to
think of death." At a later period be talked of " dying of rage,
like a poisoned rat in a hole"; for some time, however, he was
buoyed up by feeble hopes of a restoration to England. So late
as 1726 he was in England making overtures to Walpole, but he
had no claim on ministerial goodwill, and as an opponent he had
by that time done his worst. By an especial cruelty of fate,
what should have been the comfort became the bane of his
existence. We have already mentioned his invitation of Esther
Johnson and Mrs Dingley to Ireland. Both before and after his
elevation to the deanery of St Patrick's these ladies continued
to reside near him, and superintended his household during his
absence in London. He had offered no obstacle in 1704 to a
match proposed for Stella to Dr William Tisdall of Dublin, and,
with his evident delight in the society of the dark-haired, bright-
eyed, witty beauty — a model, if we may take his word, of all that
woman should be — it seemed unaccountable that he did not
secure it to himself by the expedient of matrimony. A consti-
tutional infirmity has been suggested as the reason, and the con-
jecture derives support from several peculiarities in his writings.
But, whatever the cause, his conduct proved none the less the
fatal embitterment of his life and Stella's and yet another's.
He had always been unlucky in his relations with the fair sex.
In 1695 he had idealized " Varina." Varina was avenged by
Vanessa, who pursued Swift to far other purpose. Esther
Vanhomrigh (b. February 14, 1690), the daughter of a
Dublin merchant of Dutch origin, who died hi 1703 leaving
£16,000, had become known to Swift at the height of his political
influence. He lodged close to her mother, was introduced to the
family by Sir A. Fountaine in 1708 and became an intimate of the
house. Vanessa insensibly became his pupil, and he insensibly
became the object of her impassioned affection. Her letters
reveal a spirit full of ardour and enthusiasm, and warped by that
perverse bent which leads so many women to prefer a tyrant to
a companion. Swift, on the other hand, was devoid of passion.
Of friendship, even of tender regard, he was fully capable, but
not of love. The spiritual realm, whether in divine or earthly
things, was a region closed to him, where he had never set foot.
As a friend he must have greatly preferred Stella to Vanessa.
Marriage was out of the question with him, and, judged in the
light of Stella's dignity and womanliness, this ardent and un-
reasoning display of passion was beyond comprehension. But
Vanessa assailed him on a very weak side. The strongest of all
his instincts was the thirst for imperious domination. Vanessa
hugged the fetters to which Stella merely submitted. Flattered to
excess by her surrender, yet conscious of his binding obligations
and his real preference, he could neither discard the one beauty
nor desert the other. It is humiliating to human strength and
consoling to human weakness to find the Titan behaving like
the least resolute of mortals, seeking refuge in temporizing, in
evasion, in fortuitious circumstance. He no doubt trusted that
his removal to Dublin would bring relief, but here again his evil
star interposed. Vanessa's mother died (1714), and she followed
him to Ireland, taking up her abode at Celbridge within ten miles
of Dublin. Unable to marry Stella without destroying Vanessa,
or to openly welcome Vanessa without destroying Stella, he was
thus involved in the most miserable embarrassment; he continued
to temporize. Had the solution of marriage been open Stella
would undoubtedly have been Swift's choice. Some mysterious
obstacle intervened. It was rumoured at the time that Stella
was the natural daughter of Temple, and Swift himself at times
seems to have been doubtful as to his own paternity. There is
naturally no evidence for such reports, which may have been
fabrications of the anti-deanery faction in Dubh'n. From the
same source sprang the report of Swift's marriage to Stella by
Bishop Ashe in the deanery garden at Clogher in the summer
of 1716. The ceremony, it is suggested, may have been extorted
by the jealousy of Stella and have been accompanied by the
express condition on Swift's side that the marriage was never
to be avowed. The evidence is by no means complete and has
never been exhaustively reviewed. John Lyon, Swift's constant
attendant from 1735 onwards, disbelieved the story. It was
accepted by the early biographers, Deane Swift, Orrery, Delany
and Sheridan; also by Johnson, Scott, Dr Garnett, Craik, Dr
Bernard and others. The arguments against the marriage were
first marshalled by Monck Mason in his History of Si Patrick's,
and the conjecture, though plausible, has failed to convince
Forster, Stephen, Aitken, Hill, Lane Poole and Churton Collins.
Never more than a nominal wife at most, the unfortunate Stella
commonly passed for his mistress till the day of her death (in her
will she writes herself spinster), bearing her doom with uncom-
plaining resignation, and consoled in some degree by unquestion-
able proofs of the permanence of his love, if his feeling for her
deserves the name. Meanwhile his efforts were directed to soothe
Miss Vanhomrigh, to whom he addressed Cadenus [Decanus] and
Vanessa, the history of their attachment and the best example
of his serious poetry, and for whom he sought to provide honour-
ably in marriage, without either succeeding in his immediate aim
or in thereby opening her eyes to the hopelessness of her passion.
In 1720, on what occasion is uncertain, he began to pay her
regular visits. Sir Walter Scott found the Abbey garden at
Celbridge still full of laurels, several of which she was accustomed
to plant whenever she expected Swift, and the table at which they
had been used to sit was still shown. But the catastrophe of
her tragedy was at hand. Worn out with his evasions, she at
last (1723) took the desperate step of writing to Stella or, accord-
ing to another account, to Swift himself, demanding to know the
nature of the connexion with him, and this terminated the melan-
choly history as with a clap of thunder. Stella sent her rival's
letter to Swift, and retired to a friend's house. Swift rode down
to Marley Abbey with a terrible countenance, petrified Vanessa
by his frown, and departed without a word, flinging down a
packet which only contained her own letter to Stella. Vanessa
died within a few weeks. She left the poem and correspondence
for publication. The former appeared immediately, the latter
was suppressed until it was published by Sir Walter Scott.
Five years afterwards Stella followed Vanessa to the grave.
The grief which the gradual decay of her health evidently occa-
sioned Swift is sufficient proof of the sincerity of his attachment,
as he understood it. It is a just remark of Thackeray's that he
everywhere half-consciously recognizes her as his better angel,
and dwells on her wit and her tenderness with a fondness he
never exhibits for any other topic. On the 28th of January 1728,
she died, and her wretched lover sat down the same night to
record her virtues in language of unsurpassed simplicity, but
to us who know the story more significantly for what it conceals
than for what it tells. A lock of her hair is preserved, with the
inscription in Swift's handwriting, most affecting in its apparent
cynicism, " Only a woman's hair!" " Only a woman's hair,"
comments Thackeray; " only love, only fidelity, purity, inno-
cence, beauty, only the tenderest heart in the world stricken
and wounded, and passed away out of reach of pangs of hope
deferred, love insulted and pitiless desertion ; only that lock of
hair left, and memory, and remorse, for the guilty, lonely wretch,
shuddering over the grave of his victim." The more unanswer-
able this tremendous indictment appears upon the evidence the
greater the probability- that the evidence is incomplete. Tout
comprendre c'est tout pardonner.
Between the death of Vanessa and the death of Stella came the
greatest political and the greatest literary triumph of Swift's
life. He had fled to Ireland a broken man, to all appearance
politically extinct; a few years were to raise him once more to
the summit of popularity, though power was for ever denied
him. Consciously or unconsciously he first taught the Irish
to rely upon themselves and for many generations his name was
the most universally popular in the country. With his fierce
hatred of what he recognized as injustice, it was impossible that
he should not feel exasperated at the gross misgovernment of
Ireland for the supposed benefit of England, the systematic
exclusion of Irishmen from places of honour and profit, the
spoliation of the country by absentee landlords, the deliberate
discouragement of Irish trade and manufactures. An Irish
patriot in the strict sense of the term he was not; he was proud
SWIFT, JONATHAN
of being an Englishman, who had been accidentally " dropped
in Ireland "; he looked upon the indigenous population as
conquered savages; but his pride and sense of equity alike re-
volted against the stay-at-home Englishmen's contemptuous
treatment of their own garrison, and he delighted in finding
a point in which the triumphant faction was still vulnerable.
His Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manufactures, pub-
lished anonymously in 1720, urging the Irish to disuse English
goods, became the subject of a prosecution, which at length had
to be dropped. A greater opportunity was at hand. One of
the chief wants of Ireland in that day, and for many a day
afterwards, was that of small currency adapted to the daily
transactions of life. Questions of coinage occupy a large part
of the correspondence of the primate, Archbishop Boulter,
whose anxiety to deal rightly with the matter is evidently very
real and conscientious. There is no reason to think that the
English ministry wished otherwise; but secret influences were
at work, and a patent for supplying Ireland with a coinage of
copper halfpence was accorded to William Wood on such terms
that the profit accruing from the difference between the intrinsic
and the nominal value of the coins, about 40%, was mainly
divided between him and George I.'s favourite duchess of Kendal,
by whose influence Wood had obtained the privilege. Swift
now had his opportunity, and the famous six letters signed
M. B. Drapier (April to Dec. 1724) soon set Ireland in a flame.
Every effort was used to discover, or rather to obtain legal
evidence against, the author, whom, Walpole was assured, it
would then have taken ten thousand men to apprehend. None
could be procured; the public passion swept everything before
it; the patent was cancelled; Wood was compensated by a
pension; Swift was raised to a height of popularity which he
retained for the rest of his life; and the only real sufferers were
the Irish people, who lost a convenience so badly needed that
they might well have afforded to connive at Wood's illicit profits.
Perhaps, however, it was worth while to teach the English
ministry that not everything could be done in Ireland. Swift's
pamphlets, written in a style more level with the popular
intelligence than even his own ordinary manner, are models
alike to the controversialist who aids a good cause and to him
who is burdened with a bad one. The former may profit by the
study of his marvellous lucidity and vehemence, the latter by
his sublime audacity in exaggeration and the sophistry with
which he involves the innocent halfpence in the obloquy of the
nefarious patentee.
The noise of the Drapier Letters had hardly died away when
Swift acquired a more durable glory by the publication of Travels
IntoSeveral Remote Nations of the World, in four parts. By Lemuel
Gulliver, first a surgeon and then a captain of several ships
(Benjamin Motto, October 1726). The first hint came to him
at the meetings of the Scriblerus Club in 1714, and the work was
well advanced, it would seem, by 1720. Allusions show that
it was circulated privately for a considerable period before its
actual (anonymous) publication, on the 28th of October 1726.
Pope arranged that Erasmus Lewis should act as literary agent
in negotiating the manuscript. Swift was afraid of the recep-
tion the book would meet with, especially in political circles.
The keenness of the satire on courts, parties and statesmen cer-
tainly suggests that it was planned while Swift's disappoint-
ments as a public man were still rankling and recent. It is
Swift's peculiar good fortune that his book can dispense with
the interpretation of which it is nevertheless susceptible, and
may be equally enjoyed whether its inner meaning is appre-
hended or not. It is so true, so entirely based upon the facts of
human nature, that the question what particular class of persons
supplied the author with his examples of folly or misdoing,
however interesting to the commentator, may be neglected by
the .-eader. It is also fortunate for him that in three parts out
of the four he should have entirely missed " the chief end I
propose to myself, to vex the world rather than divert it." The
world, which perhaps ought to have been vexed, chose rather
to be diverted; and the great satirist literally strains his power
ut pueris placeat. Few books have added so much to the
229
innocent mirth of mankind of the first two parts of Gulliver; the
misanthropy is quite overpowered by the fun. The third part,
equally masterly in composition, is less felicitous in invention;
and in the fourth Swift has indeed carried out his design of
vexing the world at his own cost. Human nature indignantly
rejects her portrait in the Yahoo as a gross libel, and the protest
is fully warranted. An intelligence from a superior sphere,
bound on a voyage to the earth, might actually have obtained
a fair idea of average humanity by a preliminary call at Lilliput
or Brobdingnag, but not from a visit to the Yahoos. While
Gulliver is infinitely the most famous and popular of Swift's
works, it exhibits no greater powers of mind than many others.
The secret of success, here as elsewhere, is the writer's marvel-
lous imperturbability in paradox, his teeming imagination and
his rigid logic. Grant his premises, and all the rest follows; his
world may be turned topsy-turvy, but the relative situation of
its contents is unchanged. The laborious attempts that have
been made, particularly in Germany, to affiliate the Travels
only serve to bring Swift's essential originality into stronger
relief. He had naturally read Lucian and Rabelais — possibly
Crusoe and the Arabian Nights. He had read as a young man
the. lunary adventure of Bishop Wilkins, Bishop Godwin and
Cyrano de Bergerac. He had read contemporary accounts
of Peter the Wild Boy, the History of Sevarambes by D'Alais
(1677) and Foligny's Journey of Jacques Sadeut to Australia
(1693). He may have read Joshua Barnes's description of a
race of "Pygmies" in his Gerania of 1675. He copied the
account of the storm in the second voyage almost literally from
Sturmy's Compleat Mariner. Travellers' tales were deliberately
embalmed by Swift in the amber of his irony. Something
similar was attempted by Raspe in his Munchausen sixty years
later.
Swift's grave humour and power of enforcing momentous
truth by ludicrous exaggeration were next displayed in his
Modest Proposal for Preventing the' Children of Poor People
from being a Burden to their Parents or the Country, by fattening
and eating them (1729), a parallel to the Argument against
Abolishing Christianity, and as great a masterpiece of tragic
as the latter is of comic irony. The Directions to Servants
(first published in 1745) in like manner derive their overpowering
comic force from the imperturbable solemnity with which all
the misdemeanours that domestics can commit are enjoined
upon them as duties. The power of minute observation dis-
played is most remarkable, as also in Polite Conversation (written
in 1731, published in 1738), a surprising assemblage of the
vulgarities and trivialities current in ordinary talk. As in
the Directions, the satire, though cutting, is good-natured, and
the piece shows more animal spirits than usual in Swift's latter
years. It was a last flash of gaiety. The attacks of giddiness
and deafness to which he had always been liable increased upon
him. Already in 1721 he complains that the buzzing in his ears
disconcerts and confounds him. After the Directions he writes
little beyond occasional rerses, not seldom indecent and com-
monly trivial. He sought refuge from inferior society often
in nonsense, occasionally in obscenity. An exception must be
made in the case of the delightful Hamilton's Bawn, and still
more of the verses on his own death (1731), one of the most
powerful and also one of the saddest of his poems. In The
Legion Club of 1736 he composed the fiercest of all his verse
satires. He hated the Irish parliament for its lethargy and the
Irish bishops for their interference. He fiercely opposed Arch-
bishop Boulter's plans for the reform of the Irish currency, but
admitted that his real objection was sentimental: the coins
should be struck as well as circulated in Ireland. His exertions
in repressing robbery and mendicancy were strenuous and
successful. His popularity remained as great as ever (he
received the freedom of Dublin in 1729), and, when he was
menaced by the bully Bettesworth, Dublin rose as one man to
defend him. He governed his cathedral with great strictness
and conscientiousness, and for years after Stella's death con-
tinued to hold a miniature court at the deanery. But his
failings of mind were exacerbated by his bodily infirmities; he
230
SWIFT, JONATHAN
grew more and more whimsical and capricious, morbidly sus-
picious and morbidly parsimonius; old friends were estranged
or removed by death, and new friends did not come forward
in their place. For many years, nevertheless, he maintained
a correspondence with Pope and Bolingbroke, and with Arbuth-
not and Gay until their deaths, with such warmth as to prove
that an ill opinion of mankind had not made him a misanthrope,
and that human affection and sympathy were still very necessary
to him. The letters become scarcer and scarcer with the decay
of his faculties; at last, in 1740, comes one to his kind niece,
Mrs Whiteway, of heartrending pathos: —
" I have been very miserable all night, and to-day extremely deaf
and full of pain. I am so stupid and confounded that I cannot
express the mortification I am under both of body and mind. All
I can say is that I am not in torture; but I daily and hourly expect
it. Pray let me know how your health is and your family : I hardly
understand one word I write. 1 am sure my days will be very
few; few and miserable they must be. I am, for those few days,
yours entirely — JONATHAN SWIFT.
" If I dp not blunder, it is Saturday, July 26, 1740.
" If I live till Monday I shall hope to see you, perhaps for the
last time."
Account book entries continue until 1742.
In March 1742 it was necessary to appoint guardians of Swift's
person and estate. In September of the same year his physical
malady reached a crisis, from which he emerged a helpless wreck,
with faculties paralysed rather than destroyed — " He never
talked nonsense or said a foolish thing." The particulars of
his case have been investigated by Dr Bucknill and Sir William
Wilde, who have proved that he suffered from nothing that could
be called mental derangement until the " labyrinthine vertigo "
from which he had suffered all his life, and which he erroneously
attributed to a surfeit of fruit, produced paralysis, " a symptom
of which was the not uncommon one of aphasia, or the auto-
matic utterance of words ungoverned by intention. As a con-
sequence of that paralysis, but not before, the brain, already
weakened by senile decay, at length gave way, and Swift sank
into the dementia which preceded his death." In other words
he retained his reason until in his 74th year he was struck down
by a new disease in the form of a localized left-sided apoplexy or
cerebral softening. Aphasia due to the local trouble and general
decay then progressed rapidly together, and even then at 76, two
more years were still to elapse before " he exchanged the sleep
of idiocy for the sleep of death." The scene closed on the igth
of October 1745. With what he himself described as a satiric
touch, his fortune was bequeathed to found a hospital for idiots
and lunatics, now an important institution, as it was in many
respects a pioneer bequest. He was interred in his cathedral
at midnight on the 22nd of October, in the same coffin as Stella,
with the epitaph, written by himself, " Hie depositum est
corpus Jonathan Swift, S.T.P., hujus ecclesiae cathedralis
decani; ubi saeva indignatio cor ulterius lacerare nequit. Abi,
viator, et imitare, si poteris, strenuum pro virili libertatis
vindicem."
The stress which Swift thus laid upon his character as an
assertor of liberty has hardly been ratified by posterity, which
has apparently neglected the patriot for the genius and the wit.
Not unreasonably; for if half his patriotism sprang from an
instinctive hatred of oppression, the other half was disappointed
egotism. He utterly lacked the ideal aspiration which the
patriot should possess: his hatred of villany was far more intense
than his love of virtue. The same cramping realism clings to
him everywhere beyond the domain of politics — in his religion,
in his fancies, in his affections. At the same time, it is the secret
of his wonderful concentration of power: he realizes everything
with such intensity that he cannot fail to be impressive. Except
in his unsuccessful essay in history, he never, after the mistake
of his first Pindaric attempts, strays beyond his sphere, never
attempts what he is not qualified to do, and never fails to do
it. His writings have not one literary fault except their occa-
sional looseness of grammar and their frequent indecency. Within
certain limits, his imagination and invention are as active as
those of the most creative poets. As a master of humour,
irony and invective he has no superior; his reasoning powers
are no less remarkable within their range, but he never gets
beyond the range of an advocate. Few men of so much mental
force have had so little genius for speculation, and he is con-
stantly dominated by fierce instincts which he mistakes for
reasons. As a man the leading note of his character is the same
— strength without elevation. His master passion is imperious
pride — the lust of despotic dominion. He would have his
superiority acknowledged, and cared little for the rest. Place
and profit were comparatively indifferent to him; he declares
that he never received a farthing for any of his works except
Gulliver's Travels, and that only by Pope's management; and
he had so little regard for literary fame that he put his name to
only one of his writings. Contemptuous of the opinion of his
fellows, he hid his virtues, paraded his faults, affected some
failings from which he was really exempt, and, since his munifi-
cent charity could not be concealed from the recipients,
laboured to spoil it by gratuitous surliness. Judged by some
passages of his life he would appear a heartless egotist, and yet
he was capable of the sincerest friendship and could never
dispense with human sympathy. Thus an object of pity as well
as awe, he is the most tragic figure in our literature — the only
man of his age who could be conceived as affording a groundwork
for one of the creations of Shakespeare. " To think of him,"
says Thackeray, " is like thinking of the ruin of a great empire."
Nothing finer or truer could be said.
Swift inoculated the Scriblerus Club with his own hatred of
pedantry, cant and circumlocution. His own prose is the acme
of incisive force and directness. He uses the vernacular with
an economy which no other English writer has rivalled. There
is a masculinity about his phrases which makes him as clear
to the humblest capacity as they are capable of being made to
anyone. Ironist as he is, there is no writer that ever wrote
whose meaning is more absolutely unmistakable. He is the
grand master of the order of plain speech. His influence, which
grew during the i8th century in spite of the depreciation of
Dr Johnson, has shared in the eclipse of the Queen Anne wits
which began about the time of Jeffrey. Yet as the author of
Gulliver he is still read all over the world, while in England
discipleship to Swift is recognized as one of the surest passports
to a prose style. Among those upon whom Swift's influence
has been most discernible may be mentioned Chesterfield,
Smollett, Cobbett, Hazlitt, Scott, Borrow, Newman, Belloc.
AUTHORITIES. — Among the authorities for Swift's life the first
place is still of course occupied by his own writings, especially the
fragment of autobiography now at Trinity College, Dublin, and his
Correspondence, which still awaits an authoritative annotated
edition. The most important portion is contained in the Journal
to Stella. Twenty-five of these letters on Swift's death became the
property of Dr Lyon. Hawkesworth bought them for his 1766
edition of the Works and eventually gave them to the British
Museum. Forty additional letters were published by Dean Swift
in 1768 (of these only No. I survives in the British Museum).
Sheridan brought out the complete Journal in 1784 in a mangled
form, but the text has as far as possible been restored by modern
editors such as Forster, Rylands and Aitken. A full annotated
edition is in course of preparation by H. Spencer Scott. The Vanessa
correspondence was used by Sheridan, but first published in full
by Sir Walter Scott, and Swift's letters to his friend Knightley
Chetwode of Woodbrook between 1714 and 1731, over fifty in
number, were first issued by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 1899. The more
or less contemporary lives of Swift, most of which contain a certain
amount of apocrypha, are those of Lord Orrery (1751); Dr Delany's
Observations on Orrery (1754); Dean Swift's Essay upon the Life
of Swift _(i755) ; and Thomas Sheridan's Life (of 1785). Dr. Hawkes-
worth, in the life prefixed to his edition of the Works in 1755, adds
little of importance. Dr Johnson's Life is marred by manifest
prejudice. Dr Barrett produced an Essay upon the Early Life
of some value (in 1808). .Six years later came the useful biography
of Sir Walter Scott, and (in 1819) appeared the elaborate Life by
W. Monck Mason in the form of an appendix to his ponderous
History of St Patrick's. A new epoch of investigation was inaugu-
rated by John Forster, who began a new scrutiny of the accumulated
material and published his first volume in 1875. Invaluable in
many respects, it exhibited the process as well as the result of bio-
graphy, and never got beyond 1711. The Life by Sir Henry Craik
(1882 and reissues) now holds the field. Valuable monographs
have been produced by Sir Leslie Stephen (Men of Letters and the
Memoirs, in the Diet. Nat. Biog.), by Thackeray, in his English
Humourists, by W. R. Wilde, in his Closing Years of Dean Swift's
SWIFT— SWIMMING
231
Life, by Lecky, in his Leaders of Public Opinion, by G. P. Moriarty,
J. Churton Collins (1893), Max Simon (1893), Henrietta Cordelet
(1907) and Sophie Shilleto Smith (1910). The anecdotes of Swift
related in Spence, Laetitia Pilkington, Wilson's Swiftiana, Delany's
Autobiography, &c., though often amusing, can hardly be accepted
as authentic.
The collective editions of Dr Hawkesworth (various issues, 1755-
'779). T. Sheridan (1785), John Nichols (1801, 1804, 1808), Scott
(1814 and 1821) and Roscoe (2 vols., 1849) have been in most
respects superseded by the edition in Bohn's Standard Library in
fourteen volumes (including the two subsequently issued volumes
of Poems) (1897-1910); arranged as follows: I. Biog. Introduction
by W. E. H. Lecky; Tale of a Tub; Battle of the Books; Critical
Essay upon the Faculties of the Mind; The Bickerstaff Pamphlets, &c.,
ed. Temple Scott. II. Journal to Stella, ed. F. Ryland (two por-
traits of Stella). III. and IV. Writings on Religion and the Church,
ed. Temple Scott. V. Historical and Political Tracts — English,
ed. Temple Scott. VI. Historical and Political Tracts — Irish, ed.
Temple Scott. VII. The Drapier's Letters, ed. Temple Scott.
VIII. and XI. Literary Essays, including Gulliver's Travels (ed.
G. R. Dennis); A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertain-
ing the English Tongue; Hints towards an Essay on Conversation;
Character; Directions to Servants; and Autobiographical Fragment,
ed. Temple Scott. IX. Contributions to the Examiner, Taller,
Spectator, &c., ed. Temple Scott. X. Historical Writings, including
the Four Last Years; Abstract of English History; and Remarks on
Burnet, ed. Temple Scott. XII. Essays on the Portraits, &c.,
Bibliography by W. Spencer Jackson, and Index. Twelve por-
traits of Swift are included in the work, in addition to two portraits
of Stella and one of Vanessa. XIII. and XIV. Poems, ed. W.
Ernst Browning.
Translations and editions of Gulliver's Travels have been numerous.
" Valuable Notes for a Bibliography of Swift " were published by
Dr S. Lane Poole in The Bibliographer (November 1884).
(R. G.;T. SE.)
SWIFT, a bird so called from the extreme speed of its flight,
which apparently exceeds that of any other British species,
the Hirundo apus of Linnaeus and Cypselus apus or murarius
of modern ornithologists. Swifts were formerly associated
with swallows (q.v.) in classification, but whilst the latter are
true Passeres, it is now established that swifts are Coraciiform
birds (see BIRDS) and the sub-order Cypseli has been formed
to include them and their nearest allies, the humming-birds.
The four toes are all directed forwards, whereas in the Passeres
the hallux is directed backwards and by opposing the other
three makes the foot a grasping organ. In the swifts, moreover,
the middle and outer digits have only three joints and the
metatarsi and even the toes may be feathered. Swifts are
divided into three sub-families: Macropteryginae, the true
swifts, of tropical Asia, which form a nest gummed by saliva
to branches of trees; Chaeturinae, building in rocks or houses,
and with an almost world-wide range: it includes Chaetura
palagica, the " chimney-swallow " of the United States, Collo-
calia fuciphaga which obtained its specific name from the
erroneous idea that its edible nests were formed by partly
digested seaweed; Cypselinae, also world-wide and containing
Cypselus apus, the common European swift. All the swifts are
migratory. Well known as a summer visitor throughout the
greater part of Europe, the swift is one of the latest to return
from Africa, and its stay in the country of its birth is of the
shortest, for it generally disappears from England very early in
August, though occasionally to be seen for even two months
later.
The swift commonly chooses its nesting-place in holes under
the eaves of buildings, but a crevice in the face of a quarry, or
even a hollow tree, will serve it with the accommodation it
requires. This, indeed, is not much, since every natural function
except sleep, oviposition and incubation, is performed on the
wing, and the easy evolutions of this bird in the air, where it
remains for hours together, are the admiration of all who witness
them. Though considerably larger than a swallow, it can be
recognized at a distance less by its size than by its peculiar
shape. The head scarcely projects from the anterior outline of
the pointed wings, which form an almost continuous curve, at
right angles to which extend the body and tail, resembling the
handle of the crescentic cutting-knife used in several trades,
while the wings represent the blade. The mode of flight of the
two birds is also unlike, that of the swift being much more
steady, and, rapid as it is, ordinarily free from jerks. The whole
plumage, except a greyish white patch under the chin, is a sooty
black, but glossy above. Though its actual breeding-places
are by no means numerous, its extraordinary speed and discur-
sive habits make the swift widely distributed; and throughout
England scarcely a summer's day passes without its being seen
in most places. A larger species, C. melba or C. alpinus, with
the lower parts dusky white, which has its home in many of the
mountainous parts of central and southern Europe, has several
times been observed in Britain, and two examples of a species
of a very distinct genus Chaetura, which has its home in northern
Asia, but regularly emigrates thence to Australia, have been
obtained in England (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, p. i).
Among other peculiarities the swifts, as long ago described
(probably from John Hunter's notes) by Sir E. Home (Phil. Trans.
1817, pp. 332 et seq., pi. xvi.), are remarkable for the development
of their salivary glands, the secretions of which serve in most species
to glue together the materials of which the nests are composed,
and in the species of the genus Collocalia form almost the whole
substance of the structure. These are the " edible " nests so
eagerly sought by Chinese epicures as an ingredient for soup. These
remarkable nests consist essentially of mucus, secreted by the sali-
vary glands above mentioned, which dries and looks like isinglass.
Their marketable value depends on their colour and purity, for they
are often intermixed with feathers and other foreign substances.
The swifts that construct these " edible " nests form a genus Collo-
calia, with many species; but they inhabit chiefly the islands of the
Indian Ocean from the north of Madagascar eastward, as well as
many of the tropical islands of the Pacific so far as the Marquesas —
one species occurring in the hill-country of India. They breed in
caves, to which they resort in great numbers, and occupy them
jointly and yet alternately with bats — the mammals being the lodgers
by day and the birds by night. (A.N.)
SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being
common in Teutonic languages), the action of self-support and
self-propulsion on or in water; though used by analogy of
inanimate objects, the term is generally connected with animal
progression and specially with the art of self-propulsion on
water as practised by man. Natation (the synonym derived
from Lat. nalare) is one of the most useful of the physical
acquirements of man. There have been cases in which beginners
have demonstrated some ability in the art upon their first
immersion in deep water, but generally speaking it is an art
which has to be acquired. For many years Great Britain held
the supremacy in this particular form of athletics, but conti-
nental, Australian and American swimmers have so much
improved and have developed such speedy strokes, that the
claim can no longer be maintained. English swimmers have,
however, the satisfaction of knowing that in a great measure
through them has come about the very great interest which is
now taken in the teaching of swimming throughout the world,
and more particularly on the continent of Europe, where they
have made frequent tours and given instructive displays of
swimming, life-saving (see DROWNING), and water polo (q.v.);
the latter a water game entirely British in its origin.
The teaching of swimming has been taken up in schools, and
where the work is well done it is customary to use a form of
land drill so as to impress upon the pupils some idea of the motions
which have to be made in order to progress through the water.
This drill is the preliminary practice to the teaching of the
breast stroke. This stroke is about the most useful of all the
known forms of swimming, more particularly when any one is
thrown overboard in clothes; and though speed swimmers look
upon it as obsolete, it is undoubtedly the best for a long-distance
swim, such as across the English Channel, or other similar feats.
A knowledge of it, as well as of the back stroke, is essential to the
effective saving of life.
When learning the breast stroke, the first thing to avoid is
undue haste and rapidity in the movements. It is this fault,
probably born of nervousness, which causes many to aver that
though eager to do so, they have never been able to learn to swim.
Rapid action of the arms only exhausts the learner, whose breath-
ing then becomes hurried and irregular, and as a consequence
he fails to preserve the buoyancy necessary for carrying him
along the surface. When starting for the first stroke the be-
ginner should draw the elbows nearly to the side, at the same
232
SWIMMING
time bringing up the forearm and hands to the front of the chest
with the palms of the hands downwards near to the surface
of the water, the fingers being extended and closed and the
forefingers and thumbs nearly touching. The hands are then
pushed forward in front of the body to the full extent of the
arms, the palms of the hands are turned slightly outwards,
and the arms swept round until in a right angle with the shoulders,
when the elbows are dropped and the hands come up in front
of the chest for the next stroke. The arms should not be kept
rigid, but allowed to work gracefully. As the arms are swept
backwards the legs are drawn up, the knees being turned out-
ward to the right and left and the heels nearly touching. The legs
are then kicked outward and swept round as the arms are being
pushed forward to their fullest extent, a " flip " being given with
each of the feet, which must be kept loose at the ankles and in the
same position as when standing. All beginners have the great
fault of trying to make the limbs too rigid, thereby causing stiff-
ness and possibly cramp. Another difficulty with them is
the question of breathing, but if the learner will remember to
inhale when making each backward sweep of the arms, much of
the difficulty ^usually experienced at the start will be overcome.
Expiration should be carried out during the other portion of each
stroke. The important thing is to keep the body as level along
the surface as possible, and at the same time get regular and
natural breathing. The holding of the breath for two or three
strokes will exhaust the beginner more than anything else.
A knowledge of the back stroke can easily be acquired by those
who are able to swim on the breast, for the leg action is very
similar and the principles relating to the use of the arms are
almost the same. The arms, instead of being moved through
the water, are lifted in the air and carried out to beyond the head
with the palms upwards. The palms are then slightly turned
and the arms swept round. Just as this action is being made
the legs are drawn up as in the breast stroke, the body being
allowed to travel on with the force of the kick as the arms are
extended beyond the head. The great difficulty that a back
swimmer has to contend with in open water is that of steering,
and the best way to overcome it is to take an object for a guide
before starting and hold the head slightly to the side so as to
steer by it.
At one time the side stroke was the great racing stroke; the
body being placed on the side, the upper arm worked from the
head to the upper side of the body, the lower arm taken down-
wards through the water to the underside of the body and a
scissor-like kick made with the legs; but this has now been
generally given up in favour of the over-arm, trudgen and crawl
strokes.
In the over-arm stroke the body is usually turned on the right
side. At the start the lower arm is pulled downwards
towards the hips, the fingers being kept closed and the hand
flat, so as to present a large surface to the water. When the
stroke is finished the hand is turned quickly palm upwards,
so that together with the lower part of the arm it cuts the water
sideways, the arm being almost bent double. Then, as it is shot
forward, the hand is gradually turned from palm upwards to
palm downwards, until, when it arrives at its position beyond
the head, it is ready for the next stroke. The recovery and the
pull ought to be effected as quickly as possible. The upper
arm stroke is started when the downward stroke of the under
or right arm is finished. It is started in front of the forehead,
the arm being slightly bent and the fingers pointing downwards.
The hand is pulled past the face and chest with the arm bent at
right angles and swept back in front of the body, the arm gradu-
ally straightening as it leaves the water opposite the hip. When
the hand is opposite the hip it should be brought quickly out
of the water and sent forward for the next stroke. When the
upper arm is opposite the shoulder in its pull through the water
the legs are kicked wide apart and closed again at the moment
when the hand leaves the water. The kick is completed and
the legs straightened before the left hand is replaced ready for
the next stroke. As the legs are opened the upper leg is kicked
forward with the knee slightly bent, and the foot kept in its
ordinary position. The lower leg is bent double until the heel
approaches the thigh, which is brought backwards slightly.
In the actual kick the upper leg is sent forward, and as it is
straightened vigorously the under leg from the knee downward
comej forward to meet it with a vicious kick; the swirl of the
feet<«hd closing of the legs drives the body forward. This is
what has come to be known in Great Britain as the " Northern
Kick," by reason of its first being introduced by Lancashire
swimmers.
The trudgen stroke, more commonly known as the trudgeon
stroke, and on the continent of Europe as Spanish swimming,
was first made prominent in England in 1873 by a swimmer
named J. Trudgen, who stated that he had acquired a knowledge
of it while in South America. It was, however, known to Clias,
a writer on swimming, who described it in 1825 as " The Thrust."
Trudgen's speed was so great for his time that swimmers quickly
copied his style, and it is from this stroke that the crawl stroke
has been developed. When swimming Trudgen kept on the
chest and lifted the upper part of his body at each stroke out
of the water, and at each swing of the arms pulled himself forward,
a considerable swirl of the water occurring as each movement
was finished. The arms were brought forward sideways, each
completing a circle on each side of the body, and the head kept
completely above water. Those who copied Trudgen soon
found it was less laborious and equally as fast to use a double
over-arm stroke with the head and chest well down, and thus
have the body supported by the water, using the ordinary over-
arm leg kick. At first it was considered a stroke only usef'd
for short distances and for water polo where speed is essential,
but the idea was quickly dispelled, and several men, as well as
women, have swum as far as fifteen miles with this stroke.
The crawl stroke is, like the trudgen, an adaptation from native
swimmers. It was not generally known in Great Britain until
1902, when Mr Richard Cavill came from Australia to compete
in the English championships, but it is said to be common with
natives of the South Sea Islands, and from there introduced
into Australia about the year 1900. From thence it came to
Europe, and there Mr C. M. Daniels, the American amateur
champion, made so excellent a study of it that he not only so
greatly increased his own pace as to be able to win the English
championship, and beat the world's record for a hundred yards,
but also introduced various improvements upon it. This
stroke is distinct from any other form of swimming: the legs
from the knee upwards are kept in line with the body and almost
closed; there is no opening of the legs or drawing up of the knees
as for the breast, back and side strokes. The swimmer lies
flat upon his breast on the surface, the lower part of the legs
from the knee downward are alternately lifted above the surface
up to the middle of the calf and then they are struck down
upon the water with the instep with all force possible. This
striking is done from an upward to a downward direction, one
leg at a time. The arms are used somewhat similarly as in the
trudgen stroke, they are bent at the elbows, dipped in just
beyond the head and drawn smartly backwards till they come
out of the water at the hips. The right arm is dipped in when
the left foot strikes downward and vice versa. The result of
this movement is that when one or the other of the limbs is
pulling or propelling the body through the water at the same
moment another limb is being recovered for the next stroke,
most of the limbs are recovered through the air, fewer dead or
retarding points are produced than in any other stroke, and less
resistance is caused in the line of progress. In performing any
other stroke most of the limbs are recovered through the water.
One of the most useful accomplishments for a swimmer is
that of floating, but curiously enough many of them cannot
acquire a knowledge of it. It is purely a matter of buoyancy,
and requires constant practice before one can become perfect
in it. In learning to float the beginner experiences great diffi-
culty in overcoming the tendency of the legs to sink, and if after
frequent trials they are still found to sink he should get some one
to hold them up or else place them on the steps or behind the
rail of the bath, and thus assisted learn to balance the body on
SWIMMING
233
the surface. Before doing so he should completely fill his lungs,
spread his legs wide, and then lie backwards with the arms
extended in a line with the body and beyond the head, with
the .palms upwards, care being taken to throw as much weight
beyond the head as possible. Furthermore he must lie perfectly
still and take care not to hollow the back or raise the abdomen
above water. One may sink for an instant, but if the breath
be held the lips will come above the surtace, when easy breathing
may be indulged in. Only the face, chest and toes should
appear above the surface of the water. If the feet still have a
tendency to sink after they have been gently released from the
step or rail, more weight should be thrown beyond the head by
turning it well back and lifting the hands out of the water, which
will raise the feet. A knowledge of floating is of good service
to those attempting to save life and is also essential to those
desirous of making a study of the many tricks and scientific feats
which are performed by swimmers.
The usual method of entering the water is by what is
known as diving; some think that it should be termed
" springing." The best method of learning to dive is to stand
on the side of the bath or on the bank of the river, and then
stoop down until the body is nearly double, stretch out the
arms in front of the head, sink the head between them and
gradually fall over into the water. The ability to enter the
water head first will then soon be acquired. To begin, the
legs should be placed together and the body kept erect, then
a few short inspirations should be made and the lungs cleared
and inflated, the arms should be swung from the front and
a spring made from the diving base. As the feet leave
the base they should be thrown upwards, the body straightened
and the head placed between the arms, which should be
kept at full stretch beyond the head, with the hands palm
downwards and the thumbs touching so as to act as a cut-
water. Immediately the body has entered the water, the
hands should be turned upwards and the body will then come
to the surface at once. In high diving a leap is made into mid-
air, the body straightened almost to horizontal level, the arms
and head then declined towards the water and the legs brought
up. This action causes the body to shoot towards the water at
a proper angle and the dive is thereby made clean and effective.
A useful accomplishment is that known as surface diving, be-
cause it enables you to find and bring an object to the surface.
The correct method of performing it is to first swim a few yards
on the surface with the breast stroke, take a breath, then
suddenly depress the head, look downwards, elevate the body
at the hips, and at the same time make a powerful stroke with
the legs and an upward stroke with the hands. The impetus
thus obtained will suffice to take the swimmer to the bottom in
10 ft. of water. Once under the surface it is only necessary to
keep the head depressed and swim by means of the breast stroke
in order to find the object of search. When about to rise to the
surface, the head should be turned backwards with the eyes
upwards, and a vigorous stroke made with arms and legs.
Plunging is not very generally practised, though there is a
championship for it. A plunge is a standing dive made head
first from a firm take off, free from spring. The body must be
kept motionless face downwards, no progressive movement
must be imparted other than the action of the dive. The
plunge terminates when the plunger raises his face above the
surface of the water. With the idea of preventing long tests
without breathing, it was deemed in 1893 advisable by the
swimming association to impose a time limit of one minute in
all competitions. Yet even with this time limit, over 80 ft. has
been plunged. In Sweden and Germany skilled forms of
acrobatic and gymnastic diving have been more largely practised
than in England, and as a consequence diving in those countries
is in a much higher state of perfection than in England, though
even in England great improvement has been made owing to a
large influx of Swedish teachers.
Most of the principal races are decided in baths, but there has
been a tendency of late years to revert to open water in the
summer and also to encourage long-distance swimming. The
first public baths in Great Britain were opened by the corpora-
tion of Liverpool in 1828 and the Baths and Washhouses Act
was passed in 1846, the first of the London parishes to adopt the
act being St Martin's in the Fields, who opened baths in Green
Street, Leicester Square in 1846. Since then public baths
have been erected all over Great Britain and Ireland, and bath
swimming has become, by reason of the lack of reasonable open
water accommodation, the principal means of the teaching of
the young. But open water swimming, and more particularly
swimming in the sea, is the best training and practice for those
who really love the art, because they are able to swim under
normal climatic conditions, instead of in tepid water. Many
persons in England bathe in the open all the year round, notably
in the Serpentine in London, on the sea-coast and in various
inland waters.
When bathing in the open, care has to be taken to avoid weeds
or undercurrents. In the event of accidentally getting hold of
a bed of weeds, the swimmer should cease kicking and work
with the arms, and the current will then take him through. If
he tries to swim the weeds will entangle his legs and put him in
an awkward plight. If he be carried away by a current in a
river, he should select a spot on either bank and swim diagonally
towards it, never minding where he has left his clothes. When
in the sea, the conditions are not always the same, though the
general rule of swimming diagonally for shore also applies.
For sea bathing, however, it is far better, no matter how good
a swimmer one may be, to have a boat in attendance. Before
bathing in any strange place, the swimmer should make himself
acquainted with the currents and the direction of the tide.
When the tide is going out the course should be made along the
coast, close in shore. In a rough sea the swimmer should not
attempt to breast the waves, but as each wave rises he should
swim through, thereby saving himself from buffeting, which if
long continued would cause insensibility or else great waste of
physical power. When using a boat for bathing the best way
is to dive from the stern, to which some steps or a rope ladder
should be fixed, in order to aid the swimmer when getting in
again. Failing these being at hand, the best way is to lay hold
of the stern with both hands and then, making a hard rising kick,
raise the body till it rests on the edge of the hips. Then smartly
slip the hands a little forward, turn to a sitting position and enter
the boat.
Speed swimming records are so frequently altered, that students
had best obtain the Amateur Swimming Association's Annual
Handbook, in which are detailed the accepted records up to
date. The improvement in speed has been most remarkable.
In 1877 the mile amateur record was 29 m. 255 sees.; and that
stood until 1892. The record in 1907 was 24 m. 42 § sees, made
by Mr D. Billington. The hundred yards record has been
similarly reduced. In 1878 it was i m. i6j sees.; in 1888 it
had been lowered by Mr J. Nuttall to i m. 6j sees.; and :n
1907 Mr C. M. Daniels, of America, created a world's record
of 55! sees. The records over intermediate distances have
also been considerably lowered and many long-distance swimming
records have from time to time been created. One of the most
remarkable of these long-distance swims is the race which is
known as the " Swim through London," from Richmond lock
and weir to Blackfriars, which was instituted in 1907 and won
by Mr J. A. Jarvis of Leicester, in 3 hours 24 minutes 6| sees.
In this event 34 started, and 21 finished the distance, which
goes to show that much attention is being devoted to long-
distance trials; in this event Miss Lilian M. Smith finished
fourteenth. Much interest has centred in attempts to swim
across the English Channel; Captain Webb, D. Dalton and F.
Cavill, all claim to have done it, but only the swim of Captain
Webb has been accepted as genuine. The first recorded attempt
was made on the 24th of August 1872 by J. B. Johnson, who
started from Dover, but remained in the water only 65 minutes.
It was on the I2th of August 1875 that Captain Matthew Webb
made his first attempt. He started from Dover and remained
in the water 6 hours 49 m., when the weather became too rough
for him to continue. It is estimated that he was about 13^ m.
234
SWINBURNE
across when he had to give up. On the 24th-zsth of August
1875, he swam across the English Channel, diving from the
Admiralty Pier, Dover, and touching Calais sands, France,
after swimming for 21 hours 45 m. It is the greatest swim ever
recorded, and at the time of the accomplishment created a great
sensation in England. Since this great achievement, numerous
unsuccessful attempts have been made, the best being those of
Montague Holbein, Jabez Wolff and T. W. Burgess, and their
efforts created an interest in long-distance swimming in all parts
of the world, which has resulted in the accomplishment of trials
and tests once thought impossible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.— The literature of the subject of swimming is
considerable; the most useful work of general reference is Swimming,
by Ralph Thomas (London, 1904), with bibliography. Other chief
works on the technic of swimming that may be mentioned are:
Thevenot, The Art of Swimming (London, 1789); Steedman, Manual
of Swimming (Melbourne, 1867); W. Wilson, The Swimming Instruc-
tor (London, 1883); A. Sinclair and W. Henry, Swimming (Badmin-
ton Library, London, 1893); C. M. Daniels, How to Swim and Save
Life (Spalding's Library, London, 1907). (W. HY.)
SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837-1909), English
poet and critic, was born in London on the $th of April 1837.
He was the son of Admiral Charles Henry Swinburne (of an old
Northumbrian family) and of Lady Jane Henrietta, a daughter
of George, 3rd earl of Ashburnham. It may almost be said to
have been by accident that Swinburne owned London for his
birthplace, since he was removed from it immediately, and always
felt a cordial dislike for the surroundings and influences of life
in the heart of a great city. His own childhood was spent in a
very different environment. His grandfather, Sir John Edward
Swinburne, bart., owned an estate in Northumberland, and his
father, the admiral, bought a beautiful spot between Ventnor
and Niton in the Isle of Wight, called East Dene, together with
a strip of undercliff known as the Landslip. The two homes
were in a sense amalgamated. Sir Edward used to spend half
the year in the Isle of Wight, and the admiral's family shared
his northern home for the other half; so that the poet's earliest
recollections took the form of strangely contrasted emotions,
inspired on the one hand by the bleak north, and on the other
by the luxuriant and tepid south. Of the two, the influences of
the island are, perhaps naturally, the stronger in his poetry;
and many of his most beautiful pieces were actually written at
the Orchard, an exquisite spot by Niton Bay, which belonged
to relatives of the poet, and at which he was a constant visitor.
After some years of private tuition, Swinburne was sent to
Eton, where he remained for five years, proceeding to Balliol
College, Oxford, in 1857. He was three years at the University,
but left without taking a degree. Clearly he must have culti-
vated while there his passionate and altogether unacademic love
for the literature of Greece; but his undergraduate career was
unattended by university successes, beyond the Taylorian prize
for French and Italian, which he gained in 1858. He contributed
to the "Undergraduate Papers," published during his first year,
under the editorship of John Nichol, and he wrote a good deal
of poetry from time to time, but his name was probably regarded
without much favour by the college authorities. He took a
second class in classical moderations in 1858, but his name does
not occur in any of the " Final " honour schools. He left
Oxford in 1860, and in the same year published those remark-
able dramas, The Queen Mother and Rosamond, which, despite
a certain rigidity of style, must be considered a wonderful per-
formance for so young a poet, being fuller of dramatic energy
than most of his later plays, and rich in really magnificent blank
verse. The volume was scarcely noticed at the time, but it
attracted the attention of one or two literary judges, and was
by them regarded as a first appearance of uncommon promise.
It is a mistake to say, as most biographers do, that Swinburne,
after leaving Oxford, spent some time in Italy with Walter
Savage Landor. The facts are quite otherwise. The Swin-
burne family went for a few weeks to Italy, where the poet's
mother, Lady Jane, had been educated, and among other places
they visited Fiesole, where Landor was then living in the house
that had been arranged for him by the kindness of the Brownings.
Swinburne was a great admirer of Landor, and, knowing that
he was likely to be in the same town with him, had provided
himself with an introduction from his friend, Richard Monckton
Milnes. Landor and Swinburne met and conversed, with great
interest and mutual esteem; but the meetings were not for more
than an hour at a time, nor did they exceed four or five in number.
Swinburne never lived in Italy for any length of time. In 1865
appeared the lyrical tragedy of Atalanta in Calydon, followed
in the next year by the famous Poems and Ballads, and with
them the poet took the public gaze, and began to enjoy at once
a vogue that may almost be likened to the vogue of Byron.
His sudden and imperative attraction did not, it is true, extend,
like Byron's, to the unliterary; but among lovers of poetry it
was sweeping, permeating and sincere. The Poems and Ballads
were vehemently attacked, but Dolores and Faustine were on
everyone's lips: as a poet of the time has said, " We all went
about chanting to one another these new, astonishing melodies."
Chaslelard, which appeared between Atalanla and Poems and
Ballads, enjoyed perhaps less unstinted attention; but it is not
too much to say that by the close of his thirtieth year, in spite
of hostility and detraction, Swinburne had not only placed
himself in the highest rank of contemporary poets, but had
even established himself as leader of a choir of singers to whom
he was at once master and prophet.
Meanwhile, his private life was disturbed by troublous
influences. A favourite sister died at East Dene, and was
buried in the little shady churchyard of Bonchurch. Her loss
overwhelmed the poet's father with grief, and he could no longer
tolerate the house that was so full of tender memories. So the
family moved to Holmwood, in the Thames Valley, near Read-
ing, and the poet, being now within sound of the London literary
world, grew anxious to mix in the company of the small body of
men who shared his sympathies and tastes. Rooms were found
for him in North Crescent, off Oxford Street, and he was drawn
into the vortex of London life. The Pre-Raphaelite movement
was in full swing, and for the next few years he was involved in
a rush of fresh emotions and rapidly changing loyalties. It is
indeed necessary to any appreciation of Swinburne's genius
that one should understand that his inspiration was almost
invariably derivative. His first book is deliberately Shake-
spearian in design and expression; the Atalanta, of course, is
equally deliberate in its pursuit of the Hellenic spirit. Then:
with a wider swing of the pendulum, he recedes, in Forms and
Ballads, to the example of Bauaelaire and of the Pre-Raphaelites
themselves; with the Song of Italy (1867) he is drawirg towards
the revolt of Mazzini; by the time Songs before Sunrise are com-
pleted (in 1871) he is altogether under the inf uence of Victor
Hugo, while Rome has become to him " first naire of the world's
names." But, if Swinburne's inspiration was derivrtive, his
manner was in no sense imitative ; he brought to poetry a spirit
entirely his own, and a method even more individual than bis
spirit. In summing up his work we shall seek to indicate wherein
his originality and his service to poetry has lain; rreanwhhe;
it is well to distinguish clearly between the influences which
touched him and the original, personal fashion in which he
assumed those influences, and made them his own. The spirit
of Swinburne's muse was always a spirit of revolution. ID
Poems and Ballads the revolt is against moral conventions and
restraints; in Songs before Sunrise the arena of the contest is no
longer the sensual sphere, but the political and the ecclesiastical.
The detestation of kings and priests, which marked so much
of the work of his maturity, is now in full swing, and Swin-
burne's language is sometimes tinged with extravagance and an
almost virulent animosity. With Both-well (i?7^) he returned
to drama and the story of Mary Stuart. The play has fine
scenes and is burning with poetry, but its lergth not only
precludes patient enjoyment, but transcends all possibilities
of harmonious unity. Erechlheus (1876) was a return to the
Greek inspiration of Atalanta; and then in the second series
of Poems and Ballads (1878) the French influence is seen to
be at work, and Victor Hugo begins to hold alone the place
possessed, at different times, by Baudelaire and Mazzini. At
SWINDON
235
this time Swinburne's energy was at fever height; in 1879 he
published his eloquent Study of Shakespeare, and in 1880 no
fewer than three volumes, The Modern Heptalogia, a brilliant
anonymous essay in parody, Songs of the Springtides, and
Studies in Song. It was shortly after this date that Swinburne's
friendship for Theodore Watts-Dunton (then Theodore Watts)
grew into one of almost more than brotherly intimacy. After
1880 Swinburne's life remained without disturbing event,
devoted entirely to the pursuit of literature in peace and leisure.
The conclusion of the Elizabethan trilogy, Mary Stuart, was
published in 1881, and in the following year Tristram of Lyonesse,
a wonderfully individual contribution to the modern treatment
of the Arthurian legend, in which the heroic couplet is made to
assume opulent, romantic cadences of which it had hitherto
seemed incapable. Among the publications of the next few
years must be mentioned A Century of Roundels, 1883; A Mid-
summer Holiday, 1884; and Miscellanies, 1886. The current
of his poetry, indeed, continued unchecked; and though it
would be vain to pretend that he added greatly either to the
range of his subjects or to the fecundity of his versification,
it is at least true that his melody was unbroken, and his mag-
nificent torrent of words inexhaustible. His Marino Falicro
(1885) andLocrine (1887) have passages of power and intensity
unsurpassed in any of his earlier work, and the rich metrical
effects of Astrophel (1894) and The Tale of Balin (1896) are
inferior in music and range to none but his own masterpieces.
In 1899 appeared his Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards; in
1908 his Duke of Gardia; and in 1904 was begun the publication
of a collected edition of his Poems and Dramas in eleven
volumes.
Besides this wealth of poetry, Swinburne was active as a critic,
and several volumes of fine impassioned prose testify to the variety
and fluctuation of his literary allegiances. His Note on Charlotte
Bronte (1877) must be read by every student of its subject; the
Study of Shakespeare (1880) — followed in 1909 by The Age of
Shakespeare — is full of vigorous and arresting thought, and many
of his scattered essays are rich in suggestion and appreciation.
His studies of Elizabethan literature are, indeed, full of " the
noble tribute of praise," and no contemporary critic did so
much to revive an interest in that wonderful period of dramatic
recrudescence, the side-issues of which have been generally
somewhat obscured by the pervading and dominating genius
of Shakespeare. Where his enthusiasm was heart-whole, Swin-
burne's appreciation was stimulating and infectious, but the
very qualities which give his poetry its unique charm and
character were antipathetic to his success as a critic. He had
very little capacity for cool and reasoned judgment, and his
criticism is often a tangled thicket of prejudices and predilec-
tions. He was, of course, a master of the phrase; and it never
happened that he touched a subject without illuminating it
with some lightning-flash of genius, some vivid penetrating
suggestion that outflames its shadowy and confused environ-
ment. But no one of his studies is satisfactory as a whole;
the faculty for sustained exercise of the judgment was denied
him, and even his best appreciations are disfigured by error in
taste and proportion. On the other hand, when he is aroused
to literary indignation the avalanche of his invective sweeps
before it judgment, taste and dignity. His dislikes have all the
superlative violence of his affections, and while both alike present
points of great interest to the analyst, revealing as they do a
rich, varied and fearless individuality, the criticism which his
hatreds evoke is seldom a safe guide. His prose work also
includes an early novel of some interest, Love's Cross-currents,
disinterred from a defunct weekly, the Taller, and revised for
publication hi 1905.
Whatever may be said in criticism of Swinburne's prose,
there is at least no question of the quality of his poetry, or of
its important position in the evolution of English literary form.
To treat first of its technique, it may safely be said to have
revolutionized the whole system of metrical expression. It
found English poetry bound in the bondage of the iambic; it
left it revelling in the freedom of the choriambus, the dactyl
and the anapaest. Entirely new effects; a richness of orchestra-
tion resembling the harmony of a band of many instruments;
the thunder of the waves, and the lisp of leaves in the wind;
these, and a score other astonishing poetic developments were
allied in his poetry to a mastery of language and an overwhelm-
ing impulse towards beauty of form and exquisiteness of imagina-
tion. In Tristram of Lyonesse the heroic couplet underwent
a complete metamorphosis. No longer wedded to antithesis and
a sharp caesura, it grew into a rich melodious measure, capable
of an infinite variety of notes and harmonies, palpitating,
intense. The service which Swinburne rendered to the English
language as a vehicle for lyrical effect is simply incalculable.
He revolutionized the entire scheme of English prosody.
Nor was his singular vogue due only to this extraordinary
metrical ingenuity. The effect of his artistic personality was
in itself intoxicating, even delirious. He was the poet of youth
insurgent against all the restraints of conventionality and
custom. The young lover of poetry, when first he encounters
Swinburne's influence, is almost bound to be swept away by it;
the wild, extravagant licence, the apparent sincerity, the vigour
and the verve, cry directly to the aspirations of youth like a
clarion in the wilderness. But, while this is inevitable, it is
also true that the critical lover of poetry outgrows an unquestion-
ing allegiance to the Swinburnian mood more quickly than any
other of the diverse emotions aroused by the study of the great
poets. It is not that what has been called his " pan-anthro-
pism" — his universal worship of the holy spirit of man — is in
itself an unsound philosophy; there have been many creeds
founded on such a basis which have impregnably withstood the
attacks of criticism. But the unsoundness of Swinburne's
philosophy lies in the fact that it celebrates the spirit of man
engaged in a defiant rebellion that leads nowhere; and that as
a " criticism of life " it has neither finality nor a sufficiently
high seriousness of purpose. Walt Whitman preaches very
much the same gospel of the " body electric" and the glory of
human nature; but Whitman's attitude is far saner, far more
satisfying than Swinburne's, for it is concerned with the human
spirit realizing itself in accordance with the unchangeable laws
of nature; while Swinburne's enthusiasm is, more often than
not, directed to a spiritual revolution which sets the laws of
nature at defiance. It is impossible to acquit his poetry entirely
of the charge of an animalism which wars against the higher
issues of the spirit — an animalism sometimes of love, sometimes
of hatred, but, in both extremes, out of centre and harmony.
Yet, when everything has been said that can be said against
the unaesthetic violences of the poet's excesses, his service to
contemporary poetry outweighed all disadvantages. No one
did more to free English literature from the shackles of formalism;
no one, among his contemporaries, pursued the poetic calling
with so sincere and resplendent an allegiance to the claims of
absolute and unadulterated poetry. Some English poets have
turned preachers; others have been seduced by the attractions
of philosophy; but Swinburne always remained an artist
absorbed in a lyrical ecstasy, a singer and not a seer. When
the history of Victorian poetry comes to be written, it will be
found that his personality was, in its due perspective, among the
most potent of his time; and as an artistic influence it will be
pronounced both inspiring and beneficent. The topics that he
touched were often ephemeral; the causes that he celebrated
will, many of them, wither and desiccate; but the magnificent
freedom and lyrical resource which he introduced into the
language will enlarge its borders and extend its sway so long
as English poetry survives.
On the icth of April 1909, after a short attack of influenza
followed by pneumonia, the great poet died at the house on
Putney Hill, " The Pines," where with Mr Watts-Dunton he
had lived for many years. He was buried at Bonchurch, Isle
of Wight. (E. G.)
SWINDON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Cricklade parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 771 m.
W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891),
33,001; (1901), 45,006. It has two parts, New and Old. The
236
SWINE
new town grew up around the vast locomotive and wagon works
of the Great Western railway, and is an important junction on
that system with a separate station on the Midland and South-
western Junction railway. It arose rapidly on a strip of waste
land, and churches and chapels were built for the workmen,
whose numbers soon exceeded 10,000. Each man contributes
to a medical fund which maintains the fever, accident and general
hospitals, providing also laundries and baths. There are a
mechanics' institute, containing a large library, theatre, reading-
rooms and lecture-hall. The company owns a park with football
and cricket grounds. An aisle of St Saviour's Church, dedicated
in 1905, was built by the priest and congregation with their
own hands. The picturesque old town stands on a hill over-
looking the Gloucestershire borders, the White Horse Vale and
Lambourn Down in Berkshire, and the great chalk uplands of
Marlborough; while the camps of Blunsdon, Ringsbury, Barbury
and Badbury are all visible. Here the chief buildings are the
church, town-hall, market-hall and corn exchange. Old Swindon
received the right of holding a fair from Charles I. Coate
Reservoir, less than 2 m. south-east, is a broad lake which supplies
a branch of the Berks and Wilts Canal. Its shores are beautifully
wooded, and it abounds with fish. Swindon is governed by
a mayor, 1 2 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 4265 acres.
SWINE, a name properly applicable to the domesticated
pig (Sus scrofa), but also including its wild relatives. As stated
in the article ARTIODACTYLA, these animals typify the family
Suidae, which, with the Hippopotamidae, constitute the section
Suina, a group of equal rank with the Pecora. The Suidae
are divisible into the true Old World swine (Suinae) and the
American peccaries (Dicotylinae). Of the former the leading
characteristics are as follows: an elongated mobile snout, with
an expanded, truncated, nearly naked, flat, oval terminal surface
in which the nostrils are placed. Feet narrow, with four com-
pletely developed toes on each. Hoofs of the two middle toes
with their contiguous surfaces flattened. The outer toes not
reaching to the ground in the ordinary walking position. Teeth
variable in number, owing to the suppression in some forms
of an upper incisor and one or more premolars.
In the typical genus Sus, as exemplified by domesticated pigs
(see PIG) and the wild boar (see BOAR), the dentition is z.|, c.\, p.\,
m.l; total 44; the upper incisors diminishing rapidly in size from the
first to the third, and the lower incisors long, narrow, closely approxi-
mated, and almost horizontal in position, their tips inclining towards
the middle line, the second slightly larger than the first, the third
much smaller. The tusks or canines are strongly developed, with
FIG. i. — Dentition of Boar (Sus scrofa).
persistent roots and a partial enamel covering, those of the upper
]aw not having the usual downward direction, but curving out-
wards, upwards and finally inwards, while those of the lower
jaw are directed upwards and outwards with a gentle backward
curve, their hinder edges working and wearing against the front
edges of the upper pair. The tusks appear externally to the
mouth, the form of the upper lip being modified to allow of
their protrusion, but are much less developed in females than
in males. The teeth of the molar series gradually increase in
size and complexity from first to last, and are arranged in contiguous
series, except that the first lower premolar is separated by an interval
'rom the second. First and second upper premolars with compressed
crowns and two roots; and the third and fourth with an inner lobe
of the crown, and an additional pair of roots. The first and second
molars have quadrate crowns, with four principal obtuse conical
cusps, around which numerous accessory cusps are clustered. The
crown of the third molar is nearly as long as those of the first and
second together, having, in addition to the four principal lobes, a
large posterior heel, composed of clustered conical cusps, and sup-
ported by additional roots. The lower molars resemble generally
those of the upper jaw, but are narrower. Milk dentition : i.\,c.{, m.\ ;
total 28 — the first permanent premolar having no predecessor.
The third incisor in both upper and lower jaws is large, developed
before the others, with much the size, form and direction of the
canine. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13-14, L. 6, S. 4, Ca. 20-24. The hairy
covering of the body varies under different conditions of climate,
but when best developed, as in the European wild boar, consists of
long stiff bristles, abundant on the back and sides, and of a close
softer curling under-coat.
All the typical swine are further characterized by the fact that
the young are longitudinally striped with bands of dark brown and
some paler tint; this striped coat disappearing in the course of a few
months. On the other hand, this peculiar marking is rarely seen
in domestic pigs in any part of the world, although it has been
occasionally observed. It is stated by Darwin that the pigs which
have run wild in Jamaica and New Granada have resumed this
aboriginal character, and produce longitudinally striped young;
these being the descendants of domestic animals introduced from
Europe since the Spanish conquest, as before that time there were
no true pigs in the New World. Another character by which the
European domesticated pig differs from any of the wild species is
the concave outline of the frontal region of the skull.
In the wild boar (Sus scrofa} the upper or hinder surface of
the lower tusk, which has no enamel, inclines obliquely outwards
and is broader than the outer surface. The distributional area
FIG. 2. — Wild Boar and Young (Sus scrofa).
of this species includes northern Africa, Europe and central
and northern Asia as far as Amurland. Whether the Nubian
5. senarensis is really distinct, seems doubtful. To the same
group belongs the Indian 5. cristatus, distinguished by the more
pronounced development of the crest of long hairs on the nape
of the neck, and closely related to the next species. The third
species is the banded pig 5. vittatus, of Sumatra, characterized
by having a broad reddish or whitish band running from the
middle of the snout along the upper lip to disappear on the side
of the neck; the skull being short and high, with the facial
portion of the lachrymal bone small. Races of this type are
also met with in Java, Cochin-China and Formosa; the pig
from the latter island having been named 5. taivanus. Near
akin is the Japanese S. leucomystax and the small Andamanesc
S. andamanensis. Whether the New Guinea 5. papuensis
and 5. niger are really indigenous members of this group or
modified descendants of European tame pigs is doubtful;
although the general character of the Papuan fauna supports
the idea that they are introduced.
SWINEMUNDE— SWING, D.
A second group is typified by the warty pig, 5. verrucosus,
of Java, in which the hinder or upper unenamelled surface of
the lower tusk is narrower than the outer, concave, and set nearly
in the long axis of the skull. The skull itself is elongated, with
comparatively simple and primitive molars, the latter being
relatively short. There are also three small warts on each side
of the face, the largest of which is just below the eye and carries
long bristles. The small 5. celebensis of Celebes and S. philip-
pinensis are probably only varieties of this species. The
bearded pig 5. barbatus ( = longirostris) of Borneo is a very
distinct member of this group, distinguished by the great
elongation of the skull, and the presence of a tuft of long hair
near the muzzle. In Sumatra it is represented by the sub-
species 5. b. oi, and in south-west Borneo by S. b. gargantua.
Some doubt exists whether the pygmy hog of the Nepal
Terai, which is not much larger than a hare, is best regarded
as a member of the typical genus, under the name of Sus sahanius
or as representing a genus by itself, with the title Porcula
salvania.
Similar doubts have also been entertained with regard to
the African bush-pigs or river-hogs, but from geographical
considerations alone these are but regarded as representing a
separate genus, Potamochoerus, although they are nearly allied
to the verrucosus group of Sus. They are specially distinguished
by the great development of the anterior half of the zygomatic
arch of the skull, and by the presence in the boars of a horny
protuberance of the skin in front of each eye, which overlies a
tuberosity on the nasal bone; the molars are also small and simple,
and the anterior premolars are generally shed at an early stage
of life. The group is represented in Madagascar, as well as in
Africa south of the Sahara. (See RIVER-HOG.)
The recently discovered Hylochoerus of the equatorial forest-
districts of Africa comes nearest to the under-mentioned wart-
hogs, but the skull is of a much less specialized type, while the
upper tusks are much smaller although they have the same
general curvature and direction, and the cheek-teeth lack the
peculiar characteristics of those of Phacochoerus, although they
present a certain approximation thereto. On the other hand,
resemblance to that genus is shown by the reduction of the upper
incisors to a single pair. The skin is clothed with a thick coat
of coarse black hair of a bristly nature, but there are a few
whitish hairs on the face and in the groin.
In the African wart-hogs (Phacochoerus}, which take their name
from the large warty lobes projecting from each side of the face, the
teeth are remarkably modified. The milk-dentition, and even the
early condition of the permanent dentition, is formed on the same
general type as that of Sus, except that certain teeth are absent, the
formula being *§, c{, p\, ml, total 34; but as age advances all the
teeth have a tendency to disappear, except the canines and the
posterior molars, but these, which in some cases are the only teeth
left in the jaws, attain an extraordinary development. The upper
canines especially are of great size, and curve outwards, forwards
and upwards. Their enamel covering is confined to the apex, and
soon wears away. The lower canines are much more slender, but
follow the same curve; except on the posterior surface, their crowns
are covered with enamel ; both pairs of canines are large in the two
sexes. The third or last molar tooth of both jaws is of great size,
and presents a structure at first sight unlike that of any other
mammal, being composed of numerous (22-25) parallel cylinders or
columns, each with pulp-cavity, dentine and enamel-covering, and
packed together with cement. Examination will, however, show
that a modification similar to that which has transformed the com-
paratively simple molar tooth of the mastodon into the extremely
complex grinder of the Indian elephant has served to change the
tooth of the common pig into that of Phacochoerus. The tubercles
which cluster over the surface of the crown of the common pig are
elongated and drawn out into the columns of the wart-hog, as the
low transverse ridges of the mastodon's tooth become the leaf-like
plates of the elephant's molar. (See WART-HOG.)
The last existing representative of the Suidae is the babirusa
of Celebes, alone representing the genus of the same name,
and readily distinguished by the extraordinary size and form
of the tusks of the old males. (For the characteristics of this
animal see BABIRUSA.)
Extinct Swine. — Species of Sus are met with in Pliocene strata of
Europe and Asia, the Lower Pliocene 5. erymanthius of Greece and
5. gif>anteus and 5. titan of India being enormous animals; the last
237
with comparatively simple molars. The European 5. palaeochoerus
and the Indian 5. hysudricus are smaller forms; the first exhibiting
signs of relationship with Potamochoerus. In India also occurs
Hippohyus distinguished by the extremely complicated structure
of its molars. In the European Miocene we have Hyotherium and
Palaeochoerus, and in the Upper Oligocene Propalaeochoerus, which
have square molars without any tendency to a selenodont structure
in their cusps. Curiously enough a selenodont type is, however,
apparent in those of the imperfectly known Egyptian Geniohyus of
the Upper Eocene, the earliest species which can be included in the
family. Even in this the forward direction of the lower incisors is
noticeable. Choeropolamus is a European Oligocene genus with
bunodont molars which show a conspicuous basal cingulum in the
lower dentition; the first premolar is absent. In the European
Miocene Listriodon, which also occurs in the Indian Tertiaries, the
molars have a pair of transverse ridges, like those of the proboscidean
Dinotherium (q.v.) • but the genus is believed to be related to the
Oligocene Doliochoerus and Choerotherium, in which these teeth show
a more normal type of structure.
For the genus Elotherium, of the Lower Miocene and Upper
Oligocene of both hemispheres, which is often placed next the
Suidae, see ARTIODACTYLA. The American Dicotylinae are noticed
under PECCARY. (R. L.*)
SWINEMUNDE, a port and seaside resort of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Pomerania, situated at the east extremity
of the island of Usedom, and on the left bank of the river Swine
which connects the Stettiner Haff with the Baltic. Pop. (1905),
13,272. It serves as the outer port of Stettin (q.v.), 42 m. distant
by water, with which, as with Heringsdorf, it has direct railway
communication. Its broad unpaved streets and one-storey
houses built in the Dutch style give it an almost rustic appear-
ance, although its industries, beyond some fishing, are entirely
connected with its shipping. The entrance to the harbour, the
best on the Prussian Baltic coast, is protected by two long
breakwaters, and is strongly fortified. The grand lighthouse,
216 ft. high, rises beside the new docks on the island of Wollin,
on the other side of the narrow Swine. In 1897 the river con-
tinuation of the Kaiserfahrt was opened to navigation, and,
further, the waterway between the Haff and the Baltic was
deepened to 24 ft. in 1900-1901 and in other ways improved.
The connexion between Swinemunde and Stettin is kept open
in winter by ice breakers. Formerly ships of heavy burden
bound for Stettin discharged or lightened their cargo at Swine-
munde, but since the recent deepening of the river Oder they
can proceed direct to the larger port.
The Swine, the central and shortest passage between the
Stettiner Haff and the Baltic Sea, was formerly flanked
by the fishing villages of West and East Swine. Towards the
beginning of last century it was made navigable for large ships,
and Swinemunde, which was founded on the site of West
Swine in 1748, was fortified and raised to the dignity of a
town by Frederick the Great in 1765.
See Wittenberg, Swinemunde, Ahlbeck und Heringsdorf (Linz,
I893)-
SWING, DAVID (1830-1894), American clergyman, was born
of Alsatian stock in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 23rd of August
1830. He spent most of his boyhood on a farm and earned his
schooling; graduated at Miami University in 1852; studied
theology at Lane Seminary; and was principal of the preparatory
school at Miami in 1853-1866. He became pastor in 1866 of the
Westminster Presbyterian Church (after 1868 the Fourth Church)
in Chicago, which was destroyed in the fire of 1871; he then
preached in McVicker's theatre until 1874, when a new building
was completed. In April 1874 he was tried before the presbytery
of Chicago on charges of heresy preferred by Dr Francis
Landey Patton, who argued that Professor Swing preached
:hat men were saved by works, that he held a " modal" Trinity,
that he did not believe in plenary inspiration, that he unduly
countenanced Unitarianism, &c. The presbytery acquitted
Dr Swing, who resigned from the presbytery when he learned
that the case was to be appealed to the synod. As an action
was taken against the church, of which he had remained pastor,
tie resigned the pastorate, again leased McVicker's theatre (and
after 1880 leased Central Music Hall, which was built for the
purpose), and in 1875 founded the Central Church, to which
many of his former parishioners followed him, and in which he
SWINTON— SWITZERLAND
built up a large Sunday school, and established a kindergarten,
industrial schools, and other important charities. He died in
Chicago on the 3rd of October 1894. He was an excellent
preacher, but no theologian. He published Sermons (1874),
including most of his " heretical " utterances, Truths for To-day
(2 vols., 1874-1876), Motives of Life (1879), and Club Essays
(1881).
See Joseph F. Newton, David Swing, Poet-Preacher (Chicago,
1909).
SWINTON, an urban district in the Rotherham parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 105 m. N.E.
of Sheffield, on the Midland, North Eastern and Great Central
railways. Pop. (1891), 9705; (1901), 12,217. It is situated
at the junction of the Dearne and Dove navigation with the
river Don navigation. In the churchyard of St Margaret's
church (rebuilt in 1817) two beautiful Norman arches of the
old church are preserved. There are collieries, quarries and
brickfields in the neighbourhood. There are also flint and glass-
bottle works, ironworks (for stoves, grates, fenders and kitchen
ranges) , and earthenware manufactures. The town was formerly
renowned for its Rockingham ware. -A free warren was granted
to Swinton by Henry II.
SWINTON AND PENDLEBURY, an urban district in the
Eccles parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 5 m.
N.W. of Manchester, with stations on the Lancashire & York-
shire railway. Pop. (1901), 27,005. The church of St Peter,
a fine building of stone with a lofty western tower, was erected
from the designs of Sir Gilbert Scott in 1869. The Swinton
industrial schools, opened in February 1846, are a fine range
of buildings of brick with stone facings, surrounded with grounds
extending to 20 acres. The manufacture of cotton, and coal-
mining are the chief industries. Anciently a large part of
Swinton was possessed by the Knights Hospitallers of St John
of Jerusalem.
SWITCHBACK, a form of pleasure railway, built over alternate
descents and ascents, the train or car first gathering momentum
by running down an incline, and surmounting by means of this
a lesser ascent. Switchbacks were originally merely an imitation,
using cars upon wheels, of the sledge-coasting courses of Russia,
and were indeed named by the French montagnes russes. They
were introduced in Paris in 1816, but soon disappeared in con-
sequence of several serious accidents. About 1880 they again
became popular both in Europe and America. A variation
of the switchback, though lacking its essential principle of climb-
ing by means of momentum, is the water-chute, an imitation
of the Canadian toboggan-slide, in which cars built in the shape
of boats glide down steep inclines into artificial lakes at their
bases. This is popularly called " shooting the chutes." A
further variation is " looping the loop," in which a heavy car
on wheels, or a bicycle, starting at a considerable altitude,
descends an incline so steep that sufficient momentum is
accumulated to carry it completely round a track in the form
of a perpendicular loop, in the course of which journey the
occupants or rider, while crossing the top of the loop, are
actually head downwards. Later it was made even more
dangerous by taking out part of the top of the loop, so that the
car or bicycle actually passes through the air across the gap.
SWITCH PLANTS, a botanical term for plants, such as broom,
with leaves very small or absent, and slender green shoots.
SWITHUN (or SWITHIN), ST (d. 862), bishop of Winchester
and patron saint of Winchester Cathedral from the icth to the
1 6th century. He is scarcely mentioned in any document of
his own time. His death is entered in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
under the year 86 1; and his signature is appended to several
charters in Kemble's Codex diplomaticus. Of these charters
three belong to 833, 838, 860-862. In the first the saint signs
as " Swithunus presbyter regis Egberti," in the second as
" Swithunus diaconus," and in the third as " Swithunus epis-
copus." Hence if the second charter be genuine the first must
be spurious, and is so marked in Kemble. More than a hundred
years later, when Dunstan and Ethelwold of Winchester were
inaugurating their church reform, St Swithun was adopted
as patron of the restored church at Winchester, formerly dedi-
cated to St Peter and St Paul. His body was transferred from
its almost forgotten grave to Ethelwold's new basilica on the
15th of July 971, and according to contemporary writers,
numerous miracles preceded and followed the translation.
The revival of St Swithun's fame gave rise to a mass of legendary
literature. The so-called Vitae Swithuni of Lantfred and Wulstan,
written about A.D. loop, hardly contain any germ of biographical
fact; and all that has in later years passed for authentic detail of
St Swithun's life is extracted from a biography ascribed to Gotzelin,
a monk who came over to England with Hermann, bishop of Salis-
bury from 1058 to 1078. From this writer, who has perhaps pre-
served some fragments of genuine tradition, we learn that St
Swithun was born in the reign of Egbert, and was ordained priest
by Helmstan, bishop of Winchester (838-c. 852). His fame reached
the king's ears, who appointed him tutor of his son Adulphus (yEthel-
wulf) and numbered him amongst his chief friends. Under ./Ethel-
wulf he was appointed bishop of Winchester, to which see he was
consecrated by Archbishop Ceolnoth. In his new office he was
remarkable for his piety and his zeal in building new churches or
restoring old ones. At his request .iEthelwulf gave the tenth of his
royal lands to the Church. His humility was such that he made
his diocesan journeys on foot; and when he gave a banquet he
invited the poor and not the rich. He built near the eastern gate
of his cathedral city a bridge whose stone arches were so strongly
constructed that in Gotzelin's time they seemed a work "non leviter
ruiturus." He died on the 2nd of July 862, and gave orders that
he was not to be buried within the church, but outside in "a vile
and unworthy place."
William of Malmesbury adds that, as Bishop Alhstan of Sherborne
was /Ethelwulf's minister for temporal, so St Swithun was for spiritual
matters. The same chronicler uses a remarkable phrase in recording
the bishop's prayer that his burial might be " ubi et pedibus praeter-
euntium et stillicidiis ex alto rorantibus esset obnoxius. ' This
expression has been taken as indicating that the well-known weather
myth contained in the doggrel lines —
St Swithin's day if thou dost rain
For forty days it will remain ;
St Swithin's day if thou be fair
For forty days 'twill rain na mair —
had already, in the I2th century, crystallized round the name of
St Swithun; but it is doubtful if the passage lends itself by any
straining to this interpretation. James Raine suggested that
the legend was derived from the tremendous downpour of rain that
occurred, according to the Durham chroniclers, on St Swithun's
day, 1315 (Hist. Dunelm. pp. xiii. 96-97). Another theory, more
plausible, but historically worthless, traces it to a heavy shower
by which, on the day of his translation, the saint marked his dis-
pleasure towards those who were removing his remains. This
story, however, cannot be traced further back than some two or
three centuries at the outside, and is at variance with the loth-
century writers, who are all agreed that the translation took place
in accordance with the saint's desire as expressed by vision. More
probable is John Earle's suggestion that in the legend as now current
we have the survival of some pagan or possibly prehistoric day of
augury, which has successfully sheltered itself under the protection
of an ecclesiastical saint. This view is supported by the fact adduced
in Notes and Queries (ist series, xii. 137) that in France St Medard
(June 8) and StGervase and St Protais (June 19) are credited with
an influence on the weather almost identical with that attri-
buted to St Swithun in England. Similarly we have in Flanders
St Godelieve (July 6) and in Germany the Seven Sleepers' Day
(June 27). Of other stories connected with St Swithun the two
most famous are those of the Winchester egg-woman and Queen
Emma's ordeal. The former is to be found in Gotzelin's life (c. 1 100),
the latter in T. Rudborne's Historia major (15th century) — a work
which is also responsible for the not improbable legend that
Swithun accompanied Alfred on his visit to Rome in 856.
The so-called lives of St Swithun written by Wulstan, Lantfred,
and perhaps others towards the end of the loth century may be
found in Bollandus's Acta sanctorum (July), i. 321-327; Mabillon's
Ada SS. O. B. vi. 70, &c., vii. 628, &c. ; and J. Earle's Life and
Times of St Swithun, 59, &c. See also William of Malmesbury, Gest.
reg. i. 150, and De gest. pont. 160, 167, 179; Florence of Worcester,
i. 168; T. Rudborne ap. Wharton's Anglia sacra, i. 287; T. D.
Hardy's Cat. of MSS. i. 513-517; J. Brand's Popular Antiquities;
R. Chambers's Book of Days; Ethelwulf's Tithe Charters, nearly all
of which refer to St Swithun in the body of the text, may be
studied in Haddon and Stubbs's Councils, iii. 636-645; a com-
parison of the charter on page 642 with Gotzelin's life (ap. Earle, 69)
and William of Malmesbury (Gest. reg. 150; De gest. pont. 160)
seems to show that these charters, even if forgeries, date back
at least to the nth century, as well as the story of his being
Ethelwulf's " altor et ductor."
SWITZERLAND, a republican country of central Europe,
comprising the Swiss Confederation, and bounded N. by the
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
SWITZERLAND
239
German Empire, E. by Austria (except where the principality
of Liechtenstein intervenes), S. by Italy, and W. by France.
Physical Description. — Switzerland extends between the
parallels 45° 49' 2" and 47° 48' 32" lat. (Greenwich) and the
meridians 5° 57' 26" and 10° 29' 40" long. (Greenwich). It forms
an irregular quadrilateral, of which the greatest length from east
to west is 2265 m., and the greatest breadth from north to south
is nearly 137 m. (136-8). It has, however, no proper physical
unity, as it consists of a number of small districts, differing from
each other widely in language, religion, ethnology, customs, &c.,
but bound together in a political alliance, made originally for
common defence against a common foe. It is therefore an
artificial land, just as its inhabitants form an artificial nation,
though nowadays it is becoming more homogeneous in both
respects. Its political boundaries thus do not coincide with
those of nature. The entire canton of Ticino is south of the
Alps, as are the valleys of Simplon (Valais), Mesocco, Bregaglia,
Poschiavo and Minister (all in the Grisons); the whole canton
3. The Swiss portion of the main chain of the Alps and this great
northern outlier run parallel to each other from the Mont Dolent
to near Coire, while for a short distance they actually unite near the
Pizzo Rotondo (west of the St Gotthard Pass), parting again near
the Oberalp Pass (east of the St Gotthard). Between these two
great snowclad ranges flow two of the mightiest European rivers,
the Rhone towards the west and the Rhine towards the east, their
headwaters being only separated by the tangled mountain mass
between the Pizzo Rotondo and the Oberalp Pass, which sends the
Reuss towards the north and the Ticino towards the south.
4. To the north of this great northern outlier rises the Jura range
(q.v.), really a huge spur of the Alps (with which it is connected by
trie Jorat range), while between the northern outlier and the Jura
extends what may be called the plains or " plateau " of Switzerland,
consisting all but wholly of the undulating valley of the Aar (below
Thun) with its numerous affluents. To that river valley we must
add the valley of the Thur (a direct affluent of the Rhine), that lies
between the Aar basin and the Rhine basin (the Lake of Constance).
We may thus roughly describe Switzerland (as it exists at
the present time) as consisting of three great river valleys
(Rhone, Rhine and Aar) with the smaller one of the Thur, which
THE SWISS
CONFEDERATION
1291 -1798
The 3 original CantonsfDie (lrkantone)12S)1-1332
The 8 ancient Cantons 1353^1481^^MM The 13 Cantons 1513-1.798
(Sodded between 1332 and 1353) (5 added between 1481 and 1513)
Allied and Protected Districts? /.-.•. \ Subject DistrictotioMiM Dates of Confederation, Alliance or Conquest, are shown thus:
Subject States incorporated with Cantons are indicated by the word To with the date of incorporation:- To Bern 1556
of Schaffhausen and part of that of Basel are north of the Rhine,
while a large part of the Grisons lies to the east of the Rhine
basin, and Porrentruy is far down on the western slope of the
Jura. But it is to be noted that all these exceptional cases
were outside the limits of the Swiss Confederation up to 1798.
Putting them aside, the physical geography of Switzerland may
thus be described: —
1. On the south runs the main chain of the Alps (q.v.), which is
joined, at the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.) in the chain of Mont Blanc,
by the lower ranges that rise south of the Lake of Geneva, and
which continues partly Swiss till close to the Stelvio Pass on the
east.
2. To the north of this main chain there is another great range
of mountains (wholly Swiss) only slightly inferior in extent and
height, which starts from the hills known as the Jorat range above
Lausanne, and culminates in the great snowy summits of the Bernese
Oberland and of the Todi group, before trending to the north near
Coire, and, after rising once more in the Sands group, dies away on
the southern shore of the Lake of Constance.
all lie to the north of the main chain of the Alps and include
the region between the Alps and the Jura. If we examine
matters more carefully we note that the Rhone and Rhine
valleys are shut off from that of the Aar (and, of course, of the
Thur) by the great northern outlier of the Alps, which consists
of the Bernese Oberland and Todi Alps. Two wide and undulat-
ing valleys (Aar and Thur) and two deeply cut trenches (Rhone
and Rhine) thus lie on the northern slope of the Alps, to the
north and south respectively of the great northern outlier of
the Alps. The main chain cf the Alps rises in Swiss territory to
the height of 15,217 ft. in the loftiest summit or Dufourspitze
(wholly Swiss) of Monte Rosa, though the Dom (14,942 ft.),
in the Mischabel range, between Zermatt and Saas, is the highest
mountain mass which is entirely Swiss. The great northern
outlier attains a height of 14,026 ft. in the Finsteraarhom
(Bernese Oberland), while the lowest level (581 ft.) within
the Confederation is on the Lago Maggiore. The highest
240
SWITZERLAND
[PHYSICAL FEATURES
permanently inhabited village in Switzerland is Juf (6998 ft.), at
the head of the Avers valley (a tributary of the Hinter Rhine,
Grisons), while the lowest is Ascona (666 ft.), on the Lago
Maggiore and just south-west of Locarno.
According to the most recent calculations, the total area of
Switzerland is 15,951 sq. m. (some 2500 sq. m. less than that
of Servia). Of this 11,927-5 sq. m. (or 74-8%) are reckoned
as " productive," forests occupying 3,390-9 sq. m. and vine-
yards 108-7 scl- m-> the remainder, or 8427-7 sq. m., consisting
of arable and pasture land. Of the " unproductive " area of
4023-5 sq. m (or 25-2%) much consists of lakes and rivers,
while glaciers cover 709-7 sq. m. Approximately the Alps occupy
one-sixtieth of this area, the Jura about one-tenth, and the
" plateau " the rest. Of the entire area the great cantons of the
Grisons, Bern and the Valais take up 741 1 -8 sq. m., or nearly one-
half, while if to them be added Y'aud, Ticino and St Gall the
extent of these six (out of twenty-two) cantons is 10,527-6
sq. m., or almost two-thirds of the area of the Confederation.
Not included in the total area of Switzerland are three small
" enclaves " (4 sq. m. in all), Busingen and Verenahof (both in
Schaffhausen) belonging to Baden, while Campione (opposite
Lugano) is Italian. Switzerland borders on many countries —
France west and south-west, Italy south, Austria east (Tirol
and Vorarlberg), and Germany north (Bavaria, Wiirttemberg,
Baden and Alsace). Switzerland sends its waters to four great
river basins (which drain to three different seas) in the following
proportions: Rhine basin, 11,159 sq. m.; Rhone basin, 2768
sq. m.; Po basin, 1361 sq. m.; and Inn basin, 663 sq. m.
The thirteen cantons which till 1798 formed the Confederation
are all comprised in the Rhine basin, the ten oldest (i.e. all before
1500) being within that of the Aar, and it was only after 1798 that
certain Romonsch-, French- and Italian-speaking " allies " and
subject lands— with their river basins — were tacked on to them.
Most of the great Swiss rivers, being in their origin mere mountain
torrents, tend to overflow their banks, and hence much is required
and has been done to prevent this by embanking them, and regaining
arable land from them. So the Rhine (between Ragatz and the Lake
of Constance), the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss; and in particular
we may mention the great work on the Linth (1807-1816) carried
out by Hans Konrad Escher, who earned by his success the surname
of " Von der Linth," and on the Zihl near the lakes of NeuchStel
and Bienne, while the diversion of the Kander from its junction
with the Aar at Thierachern to a channel by which it flows into the
Lake of Thun was effected as early as 1714.
There are very many lakes, large and small, in Switzerland. The
two most extensive, those of Geneva and of Constance, balance
each other, as it were, at the south-west and north-east corners
of the land. But neither of these is wholly Swiss, this distinction
being claimed by the next in size, that of Neuchatel (92-4 sq. m.),
the Lago Maggiore (partly Swiss only) coming next in the list, and
being followed by the wholly Swiss lakes of Lucerne and of Zurich.
Then come Lugano, Thun, Bienne, Zug, Brienz, Morat, the Walensee,
and Sempach (5! sq. m.). These fourteen only are over 4 sq. m.
in extent. Eleven of them are in the Rhine basin (also in that of
the Aar), two (Maggiore and Lugano) in that of the Po, and one
(Geneva) in that of the Rhone. There are no large lakes in the Swiss
portion of the Inn basin, the most extensive being that of Sils
(ij sq. m.). Of the smaller lakes those best known to travellers are
the Daubensee (near the summit of the Gemmi), the Oeschinensee
(at the foot of the Blumlis Alp range) and the Marjelensee, formed
by the damming up of the waters of the Great Aletsch glacier by
a huge lateral moraine. Alpine tarns are innumerable.
Of the countless waterfalls in Switzerland those of the Rhine
(near Schaffhausen) have volume but not height, while the reverse
is the case in varying degrees with those of the Aar at the Handegg,
of the Reichenbach, of Pissevache, and particularly of the Staubbach,
a mere thread of water falling clear of a cliff of great height.
There are said to be 1077 glaciers in Switzerland, but it is really
impossible to estimate the number accurately, as practically all
are now in retreat, and it is not easy to say whether an isolated
fragment of ice is or is not entitled to rank as an independent glacier.
From them flow all the more important Swiss rivers and streams.
Yet their distribution is very unequal, for eleven cantons (just
one-half of the Confederation) have none. The Valais heads the
list with 375 sq. m., then come the Grisons (138-6), Bern (111-3),
Uri (44-3), Glarus (13-9) and Ticino (13-1). The five others (Unter-
walden, Vaud, St Gall, Schwyz and Appenzell) boast of 13-3 all
together. The three longest glaciers in the Alps are all in the
great northern outlier (not in the main chain) — the Great Aletsch
(l6j m.), the Fiescher and the Unteraar (each 10 m.). In the main
chain the Corner (g\ m.) is the longest. Of glaciers covering an
area of over 6 sq. m. no fewer than 17 are in Switzerland, as against
two each in the French portion of the chain of Mont Blanc and in
the Eastern Alps.
Forests cover 21-2% (3390-99 sq. m.) of the total area of
Switzerland. Of the six most extensive cantons five are also at the
head in the matter of forests: Bern (591 sq. m.), the Grisons (503),
Vaud (320), the Valais (297-4) and Ticino (267-2). St Gall (157)
ranks in this respect after Zurich (180-8) and Aargau (172), while
the only other cantons with over 100 sq. m. are Lucerne (120-4),
Fribourg (119) and Soleure (111-3), the lowest place being taken
by Geneva (9-9). By far the greater part (67 %) of the forest
area belongs to the communes or private corporations, while
28-5% is in the hands of private individuals (much of this having
become private property in the time of Napoleon I.), but only 4-5%
is in the hands of the state, in consequence of the suppression
of many monasteries. The communes own 94-3% of the lorest
area in the Valais, private individuals 78-8 % in Lucerne, and the
state 16% in Schaffhausen. Schaffhausen and the Jura cantons
are the most wooded in proportion to their area, while at the other
end of the scale are the towns of Geneva and Basel, and the barren
canton of Uri. The great floods of 1834, 1852 and 1868 drew
attention to the negligent administration of the forests, considered
specially as a protection against damage due to the forces of nature.
A forestry department was created in the polytechnic school in
Zurich when it was opened in 1855. The Federal Constitution of
1874 (art. 24) handed over to the Confederation the oversight of
the forests " in the high mountains," this being interpreted to mean
the Alps with their spurs, but not to include the Jura, and a law of
1876 was enacted to carry out this task. In 1897 the limitation
mentioned above was struck out, so that the Confederation now has
oversight of all forests within its territory, a law of 1902 regulating
in detail the whole subject. Since 1876 much has been done,
either directly by the Confederation or indirectly bv subsidizing the
efforts of the cantons, to reafforest districts where the trees had
been recklessly cut down, and to ensure the proper administration
of forests generally.
Geology. — The greater part of Switzerland is occupied by the
belts of folded rock which constitute the Alps and the Jura (q.v.).
The central plain, however, is covered by nearly undisturbed
deposits of Oligocene and Miocene age, concealed in many places
by glacial, alluvial and other accumulations of later date. Both
the Oligocene and the Miocene beds are, for the most part, of fresh-
water or brackish-water origin, but the middle of the Miocene
series is formed of marine deposits. During this period an arm of
the Mediterranean spread up the valley of the Rhone. It reached
its maximum extension during the middle portion of the Miocene
period, when it appears to have stretched continuously along the
outer border of the Alps from the present Golfe du Lion into Austria;
but at an earlier and a later date it was represented in Switzerland
only by a series of brackish-water lagoons or fresh-water lakes.
Climate. — In Switzerland, where the height above sea-level ranges
from 581 ft. (Lago Maggiore) to 15,217 ft. (Monte Rosa), we naturally
find very many climates, from the regions of olives, vines, oaks and
beeches, pines and firs, to those of the high mountain pastures,
rhododendrons, and of eternal snow. It has been reckoned that,
while in Italian Switzerland winter lasts only three months, at
Glarus (1578 ft.) it lasts four, in the Engadine (5945 to 3406 ft.) six,
on the St Gotthard (6936 ft.) eight, on the Great St Bernard (81 1 1 ft.)
nine, and on the St Th6odule Pass (10,899 ft-) practically always.
The highest mean annual temperature (53° F.) in Switzerland is
naturally that at Lugano (909 ft.), while at Bevers (5610 ft., Upper
Engadine) the lowest mean temperature in winter is -14 F.,
but the highest in summer is 77° F., an immense difference.
At Montreux the annual mean is 50°, at Sion, Basel, Geneva and
Coire about 49°, at Zurich 48°, at Bern and Lucerne 47-5°, at St
Gall 45°, at Davos 37-5°, at Sils-Maria 34-5°, and on the Great St
Bernard 29°. Of course many factors, such as the shape of the
ground, the sheltered position of the -place, the degree of exposure
to sunshine, counterbalance the mere height at which the town is
situated.
The snow-clad Alps of course have the heaviest rain- or snow-fall
in Switzerland, this being estimated at 89-7 in. per annum. The
greatest actually recorded rainfall (87-3 in.) was on the San Bernar-
dino Pass (6769 ft.), while the lowest (21-7 in.) was at Sierre (1767 ft.,
Valais). At Lugano the average annual rainfall is 65-4 in., on the
Great St Bernard 48-7 in., at Lucerne 45-6 in., at Montreux 42-6 in.,
at Sils-Maria 37 in., at Bern and Davos 36-6 in., and at Basel, Coire
and Geneva about 32-7 in. It has been shown by careful observa-
tions that the rain- or snow-fall is greatest as we approach the Alps,
whether from the north or the south, the flanks of the great ranges
and the valleys opening out towards the plains receiving much more
rain than the high Alpine valleys enclosed on all sides by lofty
ridges. Thunderstorms generally vary in frequency with the
amount of rainfall, being most common near the great ranges, and
often very local. The floods caused by excessive rainfall are some-
times very destructive, as in 1834, '852 and 1868, while the same
cause leads to landslips, of which the most remarkable have been
those of the Rossberg above Goldau (1806), at Evionnaz (1835) and
at Elm (1881). The Fohn (q.v.) is the most remarkable local wind.
For all these reasons Switzerland has many varieties of climate;
and, while, owing to the distribution of the rainfall, the Ticino and
PEOPLE]
SWITZERLAND
241
Aar valleys are very fertile, the two great trenches between the main
chain and its north outlier, though warm, are less productive, as the
water comes from the rivers and not from the skies.
People. — The first estimate of the population of Switzerland
with any pretence to accuracy was that of 1817, which put the
number at 1,687,900. The first regular census took place in
1836 to 1838, but was therefore not synchronous, while it was
also not very systematic — the number was put at 2,190,258.
That of 1850 was better organized, while in 1860 the census
was declared decennial, a slight alteration being made as to
that of 1888 for practical reasons. The following was the
number of the population usually resident (the number of those
actually present was also taken, but all detailed subdivisions
refer only to the residents) : in 1850, 2,392, 740; in 1860, 2,510,494;
in 1870, 2,655,001; in 1880, 2,831,787; in 1888, 2,917,754; and
in 1900, 3,315,443. The density per square mile was as
follows: 150 in 1850; 157 in 1860; 159 in 1870; 177 in
1880; 182 in 1888; and 207 in 1900. The increase in the
whole of the country from 1850 to 1900 was 39%. Thirteen
cantons showed an increase lower than this average, the lowest of
all being Aargau, Glarus and Lucerne; while in Bern the increase
of the towns did not counterbalance the diminution in the
country districts. The nine cantons which increased above
the average rate did so either owing to special circumstances
(e.g. the construction of the Simplon railway in the Valais),
or because their industries were very flourishing (e.g. St Gall),
or because they contain great towns (e.g. Zurich). The highest
rates of increase were shown by Geneva (107% increase) and
the half canton of Urban Basel (278% increase). As to the
actual distribution of the population, the Alpine legions are
the sparsest generally (with the exception of the Outer Rhodes
of Appenzell), the Jura region has a much higher ratio, while
the densest region of all is the Swiss plateau. The strong
attraction of the towns is shown by the facts that between 1850
and 1900 the population of the nineteen largest nearly tripled,
while, in 1900, of the 187 " political districts " in Switzerland
41 showed a decrease, and they were all exclusively rural.
The shifting of the population within the country is also proved
when we note that in 1900 but 38-5 % of the Swiss citizens inhabited
their commune of birth, though the proportion was 64% in 1850.
If we consider the different cantons, we find that in 1900 31-5%
(in 1850 but 26-4%) lived in another commune within their canton
of birth, while 18-4% (as against 6-6% in 1850) dwelt in a canton
other than their canton of birth. To sum up, in 1850, out of the
25 cantons and half cantons, no fewer than 21 had a majority of
citizens living in their commune of birth, while in 1900 the number
was but II, and those all rural cantons. Of the 3164 communes (or
civil parishes) in Switzerland, only 21 in 1900 had a population
exceeding 10,000, while 20 had under 50 inhabitants. If we look
at the height of the communes above the sea-level, we find that there
were but 3 (with a population of 463 souls) above 1900 metres
(2953 ft.), while 68 (with a total population of 188,394) were below
300 metres (984 ft.). The number of inhabited houses rose from
347,327 in 1860 (the number was not taken in 1850) to 434,084 in
1900, while that of separate households mounted from 485,087
in 1850 (528,105 in 1860) to 728,920 in 1900.
The non-Swiss element of the population increased from 3% in
1850 to n-6% in 1900, and its number from 71,570 in 1850 to
383,424 in 1900. The Germans are the most numerous, next in
order come Italians, French and Austrians. In 1900 there were
3535 British subjects resident in Switzerland, and 1559 citizens of
the United States. Of course most of the non-Swiss are found in
the towns, or in rural districts where any great railway line is being
constructed.
The emigration of Swiss beyond seas was but 1691 in 1877, though
it rose in 1883 to 13,502 (the maximum as yet attained). Then the
number fell pretty steadily till 1899 (2493), then rose again, and in
1906 was 5296. About 89% go to the United States, and about
6% to the Argentine Republic (mainly from the French-speaking
cantons). Bern, Zurich, Ticino, the town of Basel and St Gall are
the chief cantons which furnish emigrants.
In the matter of religion, the Protestants formed 59-3% in 1850
and 57-8% in 1900, and the Roman Catholics (including the " Chris-
tian " or " Old " Catholics, who arose in 1874) 40-6% and 41-6%
respectively, while the Jews increased from I % in 1850 to 4% in
1900 — the remainder (other religions or none) being 2 % in 1860
(not reckoned separately in 1850) and in 1900. Ten and a half
cantons have a majority of Protestants, while in the rest the
" Catholics " have the upper hand. The same proportypn prevailed
in 1850, save that then Geneva had a Protestant majority, whereas
in 1870 already the balance had shifted, owing to the number of
immigrants from France and Italy.
As to languages habitually spoken, Switzerland presents a very
variegated picture. By the Federal Constitutions of 1848 (art. 109)
and 1874 (art. 116), German, French and Italian are recognjzed as
" national languages," so that debates in the Federal parliament
may be carried on in any of the three, while Federal Laws, decrees,
&c., appear also in the three. The old historical dialects of Romonsch
and Ladin (nearly confined to the canton of the Grisons, q.v.) enjoy
no political recognition by the Confederation, are largely maintained
by artificial means in the shape of societies founded for tneir preserva-
tion, and are not even in the majority (which is German) in the Gri-
sons. Of the other 21 cantons, all have a German-speaking majority
save 6 — French prevails in Fribourg, Vaud, the Valais, Neuchatel
and Geneva, and Italian in Ticino. Since the census of 1880, when
detailed inquiries as to language were made for the first time, there
has been a certain amount of shifting, as is shown by the following
figures. German was spoken by 71-3 of the population in 1880, by
71-4 in 1888 and by 69-8 in 1900; the figures for French are
respectively 21-4, 21-8 and 22, and for Italian 5-7, 5-3 and 6-7,
while Romonsch fell from 1-4 to !••} and 1-2 %. " Other languages "
were 2, 2 and 3 %. Thus in 1900 there were nearly 70 % of German-
speaking persons, as against nearly 30% who spoke one or other of
the Romance tongues. The most interesting cases are the cantons
of Fribourg (q.v.) and the Valais (g.».), in which French is advancing
at the expense of German.
Chief Political Divisions and Towns. — When considering
Switzerland it must never be forgotten that, strictly speaking,
the only political " divisions " are the 187 " districts " into
which the cantons are divided (Bern has 30, Vaud 19 and St
Gall 15, no others having over 15). These are administrative
districts, created for political purposes. The cantons themselves
are not " divisions " but sovereign states, which have formed an
alliance for certain purposes, while they are built up out of the
3164 " communes," which are really the political units. Of
the 22 cantons,1 3 are subdivided — Unterwalden (from before
1291) into Obwalden and Nidwalden, and Appenzell (since
1 597) into the Outer Rhodes and the Inner Rhodes, while Basel
(since 1833) forms urban Basel (the city) and rural Basel (the
country districts). The Swiss political capital is Bern (by virtue
of a Federal law of 1848), while the Federal Supreme Tribunal
is (since its foundation in 1874) at Lausanne, and the Federal
Polytechnic School (since it was opened in 1855) at Zurich.
In 1900 there were 19 towns in Switzerland which had a population
exceeding 10,000 souls, all having increased very much within the
50 previous years. The following are the six largest, the figures
for 1850 being enclosed within brackets: Zurich, 150,703 (35,483);
Basel, 109,161 (27,844); Geneva, 104,796 (42,127), Bern, 64,227
(27,558) ; Lausanne, 46,732 (17,108), and La Chaux de Fonds, 35,968
(13,659). Thus Geneva was first in 1850, but only third in 1900.
Thirteen of these nineteen towns are cantonal capitals, though
La Chaux de Fonds, Winterthur, Bienne, Tablat (practically a
suburb of St Gall), Le Locle and Vevey are not, while no fewer than
twelve cantonal capitals (Sion, Bellinzona, Aarau, Altdorf, Schwyz,
Frauenfeld, Glarus, Liestal, Sarnen, Stans, Appenzell and Zug) are
below this limit. It is reckoned that while the 19 Swiss towns having
over 10,000 inhabitants had in 1850 a population of 255,722, that
number had swollen in 1900 to 742,205.
Communications. — The carriage roads of Switzerland were
much improved and increased in number after a strong Federal
government was set up in 1848, for it largely subsidized
cantonal undertakings. In the course of the I9th century
many splendid roads were carried over the Alpine passes, whether
within or leading from Swiss territory; in the latter case with
financial aid from Italy (or till 1859 Austria, as the mistress of
the Milanese). The earliest in date was that over the Simplon
(1800-1807), while others were opened respectively over the
Furka (7992 ft.) in 1867, to the top of the Great St Bernard
(8111 ft.) in 1893, over the Grimsel (7100 ft.) in 1895, and over
the Klausen Pass (6404 ft.) in 1900. The highest carriage road
entirely within Switzerland is that over the Umbrail Pass
(8242 ft.), opened in 1901, and leading from the Swiss upper
Miinster valley to close to the Stelvio.
The first Swiss lake over which a steamer plied regularly was
that of Geneva (1823), followed by Constance (1824), Lago Mag-
giore (1826), Neuchatel (1827), Thun (1835), Lucerne (1835) and
*The cantons are — Aargau, Appenzell, Basel, Bern, Fribourg,
Geneva, Glarus, Grisons, Lucerne, Neuchatel, St GalJ, Schaffhausen,
Schwyz, Soleure, Thurgau, Ticino, Unterwalden, Uri, Valais, Vaud,
Zug, Zurich (see separate articles).
242
SWITZERLAND
[INDUSTRIES
Brienz (1839). The first railway opened within Switzerland was
that (14 m. long) from Zurich to Baden in Aargau (1847), though
the Swiss bit of that from Basel to Strassburg had been opened
in 1844. From 1852 to 1872 the cantons granted concessions
for the building of railways to private companies, but from
1872 onwards the conditions were other and the lines were con-
structed under Federal supervision. In the 'fifties and 'sixties
many lines were built, but not always according to sound finan-
cial principles, so that in 1878 the great " National Railway "
became bankrupt. Hence the idea of the state purchase of the
chief lines made considerable progress, so that in 1898 such a
scheme was accepted by the Swiss people. Accordingly in
1901 most of the great lines became Federal railways, and the
Jura-Simplon in 1903, while the Gotthard line became Federal
in 1909. This state ownership only applies to the main lines,
not to the secondary lines or to the mountain cog-wheel railways
(of which the first was that from Vitznau up the Rigi, 1871)
now so widespread throughout the country. The highest point
as yet attained in Switzerland by a mountain railway is the
Eismeer station (10,371 ft.) of the line towards the Jungfrau.
Many tunnels have been pierced through the Swiss Alps, such
as the St Gotthard (1882), the Albula (1903) and the Simplon
(1906). The highest line carried over a Swiss pass is that over
the Little Scheidegg (6772 ft.).
Industries. — a. Of the Land. If we look at the annual turnover
there is no doubt that the principal Swiss industry is that of the
entertainment of foreign visitors, for its gross receipts are larger
than those of any other branch. It appears from the official statis-
tics that in 1905 its gross receipts amounted to rather over £7,500,000
(as against about £4,500,000 in 1894, and rather over £2,000,000 in
1880), the net profit being nearly £1,500,000 (as against £656,000
and nearly £300,000 respectively), while in 1905 the capital invested
in this industry was rather over £31,000,000 (as against £20,750,000
and £12,750,000 respectively). In 1905 there were in Switzerland
1924 hotels (of which 402 were in Bern and 358 in the Grisons)
specially built for the accommodation of foreign visitors, containing
124,068 beds, and employing 33,480 servants (the numbers for
1894 and 1880 are 1693 and 1002, 88,634 and 58,137, and 23,997
and 16,022 respectively). Part of this increase is due to the fashion
of visiting Switzerland in winter for skating, tobogganing, skiing, &c.
Of the actual " productive " soil about two-thirds is devoted
to arable or pasturage purposes, but the latter branch is by far
the more important, occupying about 83% of this two-thirds,
for Switzerland is much more a pastoral than an agricultural
country. In 1906 the number of cattle was officially put at
1,497,904 (as against 1,340,375 in 1901 and 993,291 in 1866).
In summer they are supported on the numerous mountain pastures
or " alps " (see ALPS, 2), which number 4778, and are of an
estimated capital value of rather over £3,000,000, while in winter
they are fed on the hay mown on the lower meadows or purchased
from outside. Two main breeds of cattle are found in Switzer-
land, the dun race (best represented by the cattle of Schwyz)
and the dappled race (of which the Simme valley beasts are of the
red and white kind, and those of the Gruyere of the black and white
variety). The best Swiss cheeses are those of the Emmenthal and
of the Gruyere, while the two principal condensed milk factories
(Nestle at Vevey and that at Cham) are now united. It should be
noted that the proportion of the land devoted to pastoral pursuits
increases, like the rainfall, from the west and north-west to the east
and north-east, so that it is highest (nearly 90%) in Appenzell and
St Gall. As regards other domestic animals, the number of swine
increased from 304,428 in 1866 to 566,974 in 1896 (the maximum
recorded), but in 1906 fell to 548,355. The number of goats has
remained pretty steady (359,913 in 1906 to 375,482 in 1866, the
maximum, 416,323, being attained in 1886), but that of sheep has
decreased from 447,001 in 1866 to 209,443 'n 1906.
It is stated that but 14 % of the " productive " area of Switzerland
is corn-growing, this proportion being however doubled in Vaud.
Hence for its food supply the country is largely dependent on its
imports, the home supply sufficing for 153 days only. Tobacco is
grown to a certain extent, especially near Payerne in the Broye
valley (Vaud) and in Ticino, while more recently beetroot has been
cultivated for the purpose of manufacturing sugar. Fruit and
vegetables are made into jams and concentrated foods at Lenzburg
and Kemptthal, while kirschwasser (cherry brandy) is made in Zug.
Forests cover about 28^ % of the " productive " area of Switzerland.
They are now well cared for, and produce considerable profits.
Vineyards in Switzerland now cover 108-7 ^q- m., though the area
is_ steadily decreasing owing to the competition of foreign cheap
wines. The only cantons which have over 10% of their area thus
planted are Vaud (25 %), Ticino (20%), Zurich (17 %) and the Valais
(10-7 %). Among the best Swiss wines are those of La C&te, Lavaux
and Yvorne (all in Vaud), and Muscat, Pendant and Vin du Glacier
(all in the Valais). Those grown near Neuchatel, at the northern
end of the lake of Zurich, near Baden (Aargau), and along the Swiss
bank of the Rhine, are locally much esteemed.
Among the raw mineral products of Switzerland the most impor-
tant is asphalt, which is worked by an English company in the Val
de Travers (Neuchatel). Various metals (even including gold and
silver) exist in Switzerland, but are hardly worked at all, save iron
(Delemont), copper (Val d'Anniviers) and argentiferous lead (LOts-
chenthal). True coal is wholly absent, but lignites occur here and
there, and are sometimes worked (e.g. at Kapfnach, Zurich). An-
thracite is found in the Valais, while peat is worked in many parts.
Salt was first found at Bex (Vaud) in 1544, and the mines are still
worked. But far more important are the saline deposits along the
Rhine, from near Basel to Coblenz (at the junction of the Rhine and
the Aar), which were discovered at Schweizerhall in the year 1836,
at Kaiseraugst in 1844, at Rheinfelden in 1845 and at Ryburg in
1848. Marble, sandstone and granite are worked in various spots
for building purposes. Marl, clay and limestone are also found,
and are much used for the manufacture of various kinds of cement.
There are said to be 620 mineral springs in Switzerland, the best
known being those at Baden in Aargau and at Schinznach (both
sulphur), Schuls-Tarasp and St Moritz, Stachelberg, Ragatz and
Pfafers, Leukerbad and Weissenburg. The most important slate
quarries are those in the canton of Glarus. The relative importance
of the Swiss industries concerned with the land is best shown by the
census taken in 1900 as to the occupations of the inhabitants. No
fewer than 1,035,010 (about one-third of the total population) were
engaged in pastoral or agricultural pursuits, as against 19,334
employed in market gardening, 18,233 'n various matters touching
the forests, 12,785 in the vineyards and 12,323 in extracting minerals
(of these 8004 were employed in stone or marble quarries).
b. Manufactures. — The same census also shows the relative
importance of the chief branches of manufacture in Switzerland —
textile industries 270,114 (of which 88,457 were in the silk branch
and 63,853 in that of cotton), watchmaking 115,617, embroidery
89,558, besides 74,148 engaged in the manufacture of machinery.
Eastern Switzerland is the industrial portion of the land, though
watchmaking and some minor industries are carried on in the Jura.
The textile industries are by far the most important in Switzerland,
Zurich and its neighbourhood being the main centre both for silk
(this branch was revived by the Protestant exiles from Italy in the
i6th century) and cotton, while St Gall, Appenzell and Thurgau
are mainly devoted to embroidery, and Basel to the silk ribbon and
floss silk departments. The watchmaking industry has been estab-
lished in Geneva since the end of the l6th century, and spread in the
early i8th century to the Neuchatel portion of the Jura (centre La
Chaux de Fonds and Le Locle). Musical boxes are chiefly made at
Ste Croix in the Vaud section of the Jura, while Geneva is famous for
its jewelry and goldsmiths' work. The growth of the manufacture
of machines is much more recent, having originally been a mere
adjunct of the textile industry, and developed in order to secure
its independence of imports from England. Its centres are in and
around Zurich, Winterthur, St Gall and Basel. Among other
products and industries are chocolate (Suchard, Cailler, Spriingli,
Tobler, Peter, Maestrani, &c.), shoemaking (Schonenwerd), straw
plaiting (Aargau and Gruyere), wood carving (Brienz in the Eernese
Oberland since 1825), concentrated soups and meats (Miggi's factory
is at Kemptthal near Winterthur), aniline dyes (Basel), aluminium
(Neuhausen in Schaffhausen).
Commerce. — Switzerland is naturally adapted for free trade
for it depends on the outside world for much of its food-stuffs and
the raw materials of its manufactures. After the adoption of the
Federal Constitution of 1848, customs duties within the land were
abolished, while moderate duties only were levied on imports, the
sum increasing as the articles came more or less within the category
of luxuries, but being lowest on necessaries of life. Down to 1870
Switzerland was all but entirely on the side of free trade. Since
that time it has been becoming more and more protectionist. This
change was due in part to the increased tariffs levied in Germany
and France, and in part to the strong pressure exercised by certain
branches of the Swiss manufacturing industries, while treaties of
commerce have been made with divers countries. Hence in 1903
the Swiss people adopted the principle of a greatly increased scale
of duties, the detailed tariff of the actual sums levied on the various
articles coming into force on the 1st of January 1906. These
higher duties were meant to serve as a weapon for obtaining better
terms in future commercial treaties, but were finally increased still
more at the instigation of certain of the great manufacturers, so that
Switzerland became decidedly a protectionist country. In Ipoi
the receipts from the customs duties were about £1,858,000, while
in 1905 they were £2,541,000, and in 1907 rather more (£2,894,000).
Excluding goods in transit, the total value of imports rose from
about £36,500,000 in 1895 to about £55,000,000 in 1905, while
between the same dates the exports rose from about £26,500,000
to £38,750,000 — in other words, the unfavourable balance of trade
had increased from £10,000,000 in 1895 to £16,250,000 in 1905.
The increase during the same period in the case ot the four great
articles of export from Switzerland was as follows: silk from nearly
£8,500,000 to rather over £10,000,000, embroideries from nearly
£3,000,000 to £5,000,000, watches from £3,500,000 to £5,250,000,
and machinery from rather under £1,000,000 to £2,250,000.
SWITZERLAND
y Juitui PerOuis . Gotb» .Germany,
Abbreviations
, C, Col. Cv Cow., Canal,- C« dam,. Chap.
Chapel,- Jf^Jfent.- Gl.. Glacier; Gdjes}-, &rond-:t3i; Gr., Grot*.-
H.,Hohf. h., Horn,- Heinr.. Htinricht; hfn-, hofen,- hm+
St., Sinter* Ktr.. Hnut.t,
\! Ml M,',tt .M.-Hi,- M« Madonna,- Jfd^Jiifd^r^ trt>., Ober, P,
pass, olio Fie, Pirn,- P?. Prima* P° Pimmo,- Pte^ Fontt; S.r
A/- Sjtitme,- ft., xto,-k. Stat., Station; St. Maiyreth^ St.Margre
then,- th-, thai, talf U* Uhfy fritter, JfotJrtf m,
writtrn thu* m n
Copvrtght in the United Suu«« of America. 1910
' by Th* Encyclopaedia Britannicm Co
GOVERNMENT]
SWITZERLAND
243
Government. — The Swiss Confederation must be carefully
distinguished from the 22 cantons of which it is composed, and
which are sovereign states, save in so far as they have given up
their rights to the Federal government. These cantons them-
selves are built up of many political communes, or Gemeinden,
or civil parishes, which are the real political units of the country
(and not merely local subdivisions); for any one desiring to
become naturalized a Swiss must first become (by purchase or
grant) a member of a commune, and then, if his burghership
of the commune is confirmed by the cantonal authorities, he
obtains also, simultaneously, both cantonal and Federal
citizenship.
a. Now in Switzerland there are 3164 political communes
(municipalites or Einwohnergemeinden) . These are composed
of all male Swiss citizens over twenty years of age, of good
character and resident in the commune for at least three months.
The meeting of these persons is called the assembles generale or
Gemeindeversammlung, while the executive council chosen by
it is the conseil municipal or Gemeinderat, the chief person in
the commune (elected by the larger meeting) being termed the
syndic or maire, the Gemeindepriisident or the Gemeindeammann.
This kind of commune includes all Swiss residents (hence the
German name) within its territorial limits, and has practically
all powers of management of local affairs, including the carrying
out of cantonal and Federal laws or decrees, save and except
matters relating to the pastures and forests held in common.
This class of commune dates only from the time of the Helvetic
republic (1798-1802), and its duties were largely increased after
the liberal movement of 1830; the care of the highways, the
police, the schools, the administration of the poor law being
successively handed over to it, so that it became a political body.
As regards Swiss citizens belonging to cantons other than that
in which they reside, the Federal Constitution of 1848 (art. 41)
gave them rights of voting there in cantonal and Federal matters,
but not in those relating exclusively to the commune itself.
The Federal Constitution of 1874 (art. 43) gives to such persons
as those named above (tstablis or Niedergelassenen — that is,
permanent settlers) all voting rights, Federal, cantonal and
communal (save as below), the two last named after a stay of
three months. Temporary residents being Swiss citizens
(e.g. labourers, servants, students, officials not being communal
officials) are called residents or Aufenthalter , and are in most
cantons considered to be as such incapable of voting in communal
matters until after a residence of three months, though some
cantons require a longer sojourn. Foreign residents are included
under this class of Aufenthalter.
The burgher communes (communes bourgeoises or Burgergemeinden),
now principally of historical interest, having for the most part
gradually merged with the other class of communes, were originally
simply the communities that dealt with the management of the
" lands subject to common user " or Allmend (mainly summer
pastures and forests), but gradually obtained, by purchase or other-
wise, the manorial rights, the burghers then being themselves the
lords of the manor (as at Brixham in Devonshire). But when after
the Reformation, owing to the suppression of the monasteries, the
care of the poor was imposed by the Federal Diet, in 1551, on the
several communes, these naturally aided only their own members,
a course which gave rise to a " communal burghership, " a system
designed to prevent persons from gaining a " settlement " in any
commune to which they did not properly belong. Thus all non-
burgher residents, permanent or temporary, were excluded from
any share in the enjoyment of the lands subject to common user,
or in their management, and remained complete outsiders, though
paying local rates. With the increased facilities of communication
and the rise of a shifting industrial population such restrictions
became invidious and unfair, particularly after the introduction,
under the Helvetic republic, of a Federal citizenship, superior to
cantonal citizenship, and after the communes became more and more
burdened with public duties, so that the amount of the rates equalled,
if it did not exceed, the sums produced by the " common lands."
To avoid some of these inconveniences " political communes "
were set up, consisting practically of all Swiss permanent residents.
But the relation between these and the old Biirgergemeinden (the
burghers of which only have rights of user over the common lands)
was very delicate, and has been settled (if settled at all) in various
fashions. In some cases the older communes simply merged with
the newer, the ownership of the common lands thus passing from
one to the other class. In other cases the Burgergemeinden still
exist as distinct from the " political communes," but solely for
purposes (enjoyment, management, &c.) relating to the common
lands, and thus form a sort of privilege'd community inside the larger
and now more generally important community. In some cases the
common lands have been divided in varying proportions between
the two classes of communes, the Burgergemeinden thus continuing to
exist solely as regards that part of the common lands which they have
retained. In other cases the common lands, whether before or after
1798, have passed into the possession of a small number of the
burghers, who form a close corporation, the revenues of which are
enjoyed by the members as such, and not as citizens — in short are
subject to no public obligations or burdens save rates and taxes.
b. The twenty-two cantons (three are subdivided — Unter-
walden, Appenzell and Basel — into two halves) are divided into
" administrative districts " (187 in number), which are ruled by
prefects, in the French fashion, appointed by the cantonal autho-
rities. These are the true local divisions in the country. Each
canton has its own legislature, executive and judiciary. The
older cantons have in some cases (Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell
and Glarus) preserved their ancient democratic assemblies (or
Landesgemeinden), in which each burgher appears in person,
and which usually meet once a year, on the last Sunday in April
or the first Sunday in May, always (weather permitting) in the •
open air. These annual assemblies elect annually a sort of
standing committee, and also the chief magistrate or Landam-
mann, as well as the judiciary. In the other eighteen cantons
the legislature (Gross Rat or grand conseil) is composed of
representatives chosen by the cantonal voters in proportion,
varying in each canton, to the population. They are thus local
parliaments rather than mere county councils. The executive
(Regierungsrat or conseil d'etat] is elected everywhere (save
Fribourg, the Valais and Vaud) by a popular vote, this plan
having gradually superseded election by the cantonal legislature.
All the cantons (save Fribourg) have the referendum and
initiative, by which the electors can exercise control over their
elected representatives. The cantonal judiciary is chosen by
the people.
c. In 1848 the Federal government was reorganized according
to the plan adopted in the United States, at any rate so far as
regards the legislature (Bundesversammlung or assembleeffdirale).
This is composed of two houses: (i) the Standerat or conseil
des etats, to which each canton, great or small, sends two repre-
sentatives (generally chosen for varying terms by the people,
but, in 1907, still by the cantonal legislature in Bern, Fribourg,
Neuchatel, St Gall, the Valais and Vaud), this house being like
the American Senate; (2) the Nationalrat or conseil national,
composed of representatives (at present 167 in number) elected
within the cantons in the proportion of i to every 20,000 (or
fraction over 10,000) of the population, and holding office for
three years, before the expiration of which it cannot be dissolved.
The two houses are on an absolutely equal footing, and bills
are introduced into one or the other simply because of reasons
of practical convenience. The Federal parliament meets, at,
least, once a year, in Bern, the Federal capital. The Federal
executive (Bundesrat or conseil federal) was set up in 1848 and
is composed of seven members, who are elected for three years
by the two houses of the Federal legislature, sitting together
as a congress, but no two members may belong to the same canton.
The Federal parliament annually names the president (Bundes-
priisident or president de la confederation) and the vice-president,
so that the former is really but the chairman of a committee,
and not in any way like the American president. The Federal
president always holds the foreign portfolio (the " political
department "), the other portfolios being annually redistributed
among the other members, but all decisions proceed from the
council as a whole. The Federal councillors cannot be at the
same time members of either house of the Federal parliament,
though they may speak or introduce motions (but not vote)
in either house. The Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgerichl
or tribunal federal) was created by the Federal Constitution
of 1874 and is (since 1904) composed of 19 full members (plus
9 substitutes), all elected by the two houses of the Federal
parliament, sitting together and holding office for six years;
the Federal parliament also elects every two years the president
244
SWITZERLAND
[EDUCATION
and vice-president of the Federal tribunal. Its seat is at
Lausanne. Its jurisdiction extends to disputes between the
Confederation, the cantons, and private individuals, so far as
these differences refer to Federal matters. An appeal lies in
some cases (not too clearly distinguished) to the Federal council,
and in some to the two houses of the Federal legislature sitting
together. As to the referendum and initiative (whether as
to the revision of the constitution or as to bills) see REFERENDUM.
It was natural that, as the members of the Swiss Confedera-
tion were drawn closer and closer together, there should arise
the idea of a Federal code as distinguished from the manifold
cantonal legal systems. The Federal Constitution of 1874
conferred on the Federal authorities the power to legislate on
certain denned legal subjects, and advantage was taken of this
to revise and codify the Law of Obligations (1881) and the Law
of Bankruptcy (1889). The success of these attempts led to the
adoption by the Swiss people (1898) of new constitutional
articles, extending the powers of the Federal authorities to the
other departments of civil law and also to criminal law. Drafts
carefully prepared by commissions of specialists were slowly
considered during nearly two years by the, two houses of the
Federal parliament, which finally adopted the civil code on
the loth of December 1907, and it was expected that by 1912
both a complete Federal civil code and a complete Federal
criminal code would come into operation.
Before 1848 there was scarcely such a thing as Federal finances
for there was no strong central Federal authority. As the power
of those authorities increased, so naturally did their expenditure
and receipts. In 1849 the receipts were nearly £240,000, as against
an expenditure of £260,000. By 1873 each had risen to rather
over £1,250,000, while in 1883 they just overtopped £2,000,000
sterling each, and in 1900 the receipts were just over £4,000,000
sterling, as against an expenditure of nearly £4,000,000. The figures
for 1907 are £5,750,000 as against just over £5,500,000, and are the
highest yet recorded. The funded Federal debt rose from a modest
£150,000 in 1849 to rather over £2,000,000 in 1891, and rather over
£4,000,000 in 1903, standing in 1905 at £3,250,000.
By the Federal Constitution of 1848 the post office was made a
Federal attribute, and the first Federal law on the subject was
passed in 1849 (postage stamps within the country in 1850, for
foreign lands in 1854, and post-cards in 1870), while a Federal law
of 1851 extended this privilege to the electric telegraph, so that in
1852 the first line was opened with thirty-four offices. In the
Federal Constitution of 1874 both branches are declared to fall
within the jurisdiction of the Confederation, while in 1878 this
privilege was extended to the newly invented telephone. Inviol-
ability of communications in all three cases is guaranteed.
In 1891 the Swiss people accepted the principle of a slate bank
with a monopoly of note issue. A first scheme was rejected
by a popular vote in 1897, but a second was more successful in
1905. The " Swiss National Bank " was actually opened on
the 2Oth of June 1907, its two chief seats being at Zurich
and at Bern. It has a capital of £2,000,000 sterling, divided into
100,000 shares. Two-fifths of this capital is reserved to the cantons
in proportion to their population in 1900, and two-fifths were taken
up by public subscription in June 1906. The remaining fifth
was reserved to the existing thirty-six banks in Switzerland (all
founded between 1834 and 1900), which have hitherto enjoyed the
right of issuing notes. It was stipulated that within three years
of the opening of the National Bank all notes issued by these thirty-
six banks must be withdrawn, and many had by 1907 taken this
course in anticipation.
There is no " established Swiss Church " recognized by the Federal
Constitution, but there may be one or more " established churches "
in any canton. The Federal Constitution of 1874 guarantees full
religious liberty and freedom of worship, not being contrary to morals
and the public peace, as well as exemption from any compulsory
church rates (arts. 49 and 50). But it repeats, with fresh pricks (art.
51), the provision of the Constitution of 1848 by which the Jesuits
and all affiliated religious orders are forbidden to settle in Switzerland,
extending this prohibition to any other orders that may endanger
the safety of the state or the public peace. It also introduces a new
article (No. 52) forbidding the erection of new religious orders or
new monasteries or the re-establishment of old ones, and also a
new clause (last part of art. 50) by which the erection of new bishop-
rics on Swiss soil is subject to the approval of the Federal authorities.
The Jesuit article was due to the " Sonderbund " War of 1847, and
the rest of this exceptional legislation to the " Kulturkampf ' which
raged in Switzerland in 1872-1874. The Protestants form rather over
three-fifths of the population, but have the majority in ioj of the
22 cantons only. In the German-speaking cantons they are Zwing-
lians, and in the French-speaking cantons Calvinists, though in
neither case of the original and orthodox shade. The Protestants
alone are " established " in the Outer Rhodes of Appenzell ; while
the Romanists alone are " established " in ?J cantons (Lucerne,
Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Ticino, the Valais, and the Inner
Rhodes of Appenzell), but only jointly in the 3 other cantons
(Fribourg, St Gall and Soleure) in which they are in a majority.
In June 1907 Geneva decided on the complete separation of church
and state, and now stands alone in Switzerland in not having any
" established church " at all (previously it had two — Protestants
and Christian Catholics). In the other 21 cantons, the Protestants
and Romanists are jointly " established " in nj, as are the Protes-
tants and the Christian Catholics in ij, in which the Christian
Catholics take the place of the Romanists. Thus out of the 21
cantons with " established churches " (Landeskirchen or eglises
nationales) the Protestants are solely or jointly " established " in
13!, and the Romanists in 19 (not in Bern, Urban Basel and the
Outer Rhodes of Appenzell), while the Christian Catholics are
recognized in 7 cantons, in two of which (Basel and Neuchatel) they
are also " endowed." The case of Neuchatel is particularly striking,
as it has three " established churches " (Protestants, Romanists
and Christian Catholics), while there the Jewish rabbis, as well as
the pasteurs of the Free Evangelical Church, are exempt from military
service. Besides a few parishes in Bern there are also three " Evan-
gelical Free Churches " (£,glises fibres), viz. in Vaud (since 1847), in
Geneva (since 1848) and in Neuchatel (since 1873). The Romanists
have five diocesan bishops in Switzerland — Sion (founded in the 4th
century), Geneva (4th century), Basel (4th century, but reorganized in
1828), Coire (sth century), Lausanne (6th century), and St Gall (till
1824 part of the bishopric of Constance, and a separate see since 1847).
There are besides the sees of Lugano (erected in 1888 for Italian
Switzerland — till then in Milan or Como — but united for the present
to the see of Basel, though administered by a suffragan bishop)
and Bethlehem (a see in partibus, annexed in 184.0 to the abbacy
of St Maurice in the Valais). The Christian Catholics (who resemble
the Old Catholics in Germany) split off from the Romanists in 1874
on the question of papal infallibility (in Bern and Geneva politics
also played a great part), and since 1876 have had a bishop of their
own (consecrated by the German Old Catholic, Bishop Reinkens),
who resides in Bern, but bears no diocesan title. The Christian
Catholics (who in the census are counted with the Romanists) are
strongest in Bern, Soleure and Geneva, while their number in 1906
was estimated variously at from twenty to thirty-four thousand —
they have 38 parishes (10 being in French-speaking Switzerland)
and some 57 pastors. There are still a few monasteries in Switzer-
land which have escaped suppression. The principal are the
Benedictine houses of Disentis (founded in the 7th century by the
Irish monk Sigisbert), Einsiedeln (q.v. ; loth century) ancl Engelberg
(q.v.; I2th century) as well as the houses of Austin Canons at St
Maurice (held by them since 1 128, though the house was founded by
Benedictines in the 6th century) and on the Great St Bernard
(nth century).
Education. — Education of all grades is well cared for in Switzer-
land, and large sums are annually spent on it by the cantons and
the communes, with substantial grants from the Confederation
(these last in 1905 were about £224,000), so far as regards primary
and higher education. Four classes of educational establishments
exist.
a. In the case of the primary education, the Confederation has
the oversight (Federal Constitution of 1874, art. 27), but the cantons
the administration. It is laid down that in the case of the public
primary schools four principles must be observed by the cantons:
the instruction given must be sufficient, it must be under state
(i.e. lay) management (ecclesiastics as such can have no share in
it), attendance must be compulsory, and the instruction must be
gratuitous, while members of all religions must be able to frequent
the schools without offence to their belief or consciences (this is
interpreted to mean that the general instruction given must be
undenominational, while if any denominational instruction is given
attendance at it must not be made compulsory). By an amendment
to the Federal Constitution adopted in 1902 the Confederation is
empowered to make grants in aid in the case of primary schools,
while a Federal law of 1903, regulating such grants to be appropriated
solely to certain specified purposes, provides that the term " primary
schools " shall include continuation schools il attendance is compul-
sory. The cantons organize primary education in their territories,
delegating local arrangements (under the control of a cantonal
inspector) to a committee (Schulkommission) elected ad hoc in each
commune, so that it is not a committee of the communal council.
The general principles laid down by the Confederation are elaborated
into laws by each canton, while the communal councils pass by-laws.
Hence there is a great variety in details between canton and canton.
The school age varies from 6 to 16 (for younger scholars there are
voluntary kindergarten schools or ecoles enfantines), and attendance
during this period is compulsory, it not being possible to obtain
exemption by passing a certain standard. Two-thirds of the schools
are " mixed ; in the towns, however, boys are often separated from
girls. The teachers (who must hold a cantonal certificate of effi-
ciency) are chosen by the Schulkommission from among the candi-
dates who apply for the vacant post, but are elected and paid by the
communal council. Religious tests prevail as to teachers, who must
declare the religion they profess, and are required to impart the
ARMY]
SWITZERLAND
245
religious instruction in the school, this being compulsory on the
children professing the religion that is in the majority in that par-
ticular commune — consequently a Protestant teacher would never
be appointed in a Romanist school or vice versa. The religious teach-
ing occupies an hour (always at the beginning of the school hours)
thrice a week, while special dogmatic instruction is imparted by the
pastor, outside the school-house as a rule, or in a room specially set
apart therein. The pastor is ex officio president of the Schulkom-
mission, while the religious teaching in school is based on a special
" school Bible," containing short versions of the chief events
in Bible history. The exact curriculum (code) is prescribed by
the canton, and also the number of hours during which the school
must be open annually, but the precise repartition of these is left
to the local Schulkommission. The attendance registers kept
by the teachers are submitted to the Schulkommission, which takes
measures against truant children or negligent parents by means of a
written warning, followed (if need be) by a summons before a court.
The treasurer of the Schulkommission receives and distributes the
money contributions of the cantons (including the grant in aid from
the Confederation) and also of the communes, or of benevolent
private individuals. The school hours are as a rule four hours
(from 7 a.m. in summer and 8 a.m. in winter) in the morning and
(in the.winter) three hours in the afternoon, but on two afternoons
in the week there is a sewing school for the girls, the boys being then
free. There are no regular half-holidays. Private schools are
permitted, but receive no financial aid from the outside, while the
teacher must hold a certificate of efficiency as in the state schools,
must adopt the same curriculum, and is subject to the by-laws made
by the Schulkommission. On the other hand he is not bound by
any conscience clause and can charge fees. A cantonal inspector
examines each school (of either class) annually and reports to the
cantonal educational authorities, who point out any deficiencies
to the local Schulkommission, which must remedy them. There
is no payment by results, nor do the money contributions (from any
source) depend on the number of attendances made, though of
course they are more or less in proportion to the number of scholars
attending that particular school. Some favour the idea of making
the primary schools wholly dependent financially on the Confedera-
tion. This course has obvious conveniences, but a first attempt was
defeated in 1882, and the scheme is still opposed, mainly on the
ground that it would seriously impair the principle of cantonal
sovereignty, and immensely strengthen the power of the Federal
educational authorities. By the law of 1903 the quota of the
Federal subvention was fixed at sixpence per head of the resident
population of each canton, but in the case of 6j cantons (the poorer
ones) an extra twopence was added.
b. The secondary schools are meant on the one side to help those
scholars of the primary schools who desire to increase their know-
ledge though without any idea of going on to higher studies, and on
the other to prepare certain students for entrance into the middle
schools. The attendance everywhere is optional, save in the city
of Basel, where it is compulsory. These schools vary very much
from canton to canton. The course of studies extends over two to
four years, and students are admitted at ages from ten upwards.
The curriculum includes the elements of the classical and modern
languages, of mathematics, and of the natural sciences. They
receive no Federal subvention, but are supported by the cantons
and the communes. In 1905 the cantons contributed £20,000 less
than the communes to the total cost of about £234,000.
c. Under the general name of middle schools (Mittelschulen or
holes moyennes) the Swiss include a variety of educational establish-
ments, which fall roughly under two heads: —
1. Technical schools (like those at Bienne and Winterthur) and
schools for instruction in various professions (commerce,
agriculture, forestry and the training colleges for teachers).
2. Grammar schools, colleges and cantonal schools, which in
some cases prepare for the universities and in some cases do
not.
The expenses of both classes fall mainly on the cantons (in 1905
about £300,000 to £130,000 from the communes), who for the former
class (including certain departments of the second) receive a grant
in aid from the Confederation — in 1905 about £84,500.
d. As regards the higher education the Federal Constitution of
1874 (art. 27) empowered the Confederation to erect and support,
besides the existing Federal Polytechnic School (opened at Zurich
in 1855, having been founded by virtue of art. 22 of the Federal
Constitution of 1848), a Federal university (this has not yet been
done) and other establishments for the higher education (see c. I
above). This clause would seem to authorize the Confederation
to make grants in aid of the cantonal universities, but as yet this has
not been done, while the cantons are in no hurry to give up their
local universities. There are seven full universities in Switzerland —
Basel (founded in 1460), Zurich (1833), Bern (1834), Geneva (1873,
founded in 1559 as an academie), Fribourg (international Catholic,
founded in 1889), Lausanne (1890, founded in 1537 as an academie)
and Neuchatel (existed 1840-1848, refounded in 1866, and raised from
the rank of an academie to that of a university in 1909). There is
besides a law school at Sion (existed 1807-1810, refounded in 1824).
In general they each (save Sion, of course) have four faculties —
theology, medicine, law and philosophy. Fribourg and Neuchatel
both lack a medical faculty, while Zurich and Bern have distinct
faculties for veterinary medicine, and Zurich a special one for den-
tistry (in Geneva there is a school of dentistry), while Geneva and
Neuchatel support observatories. The theological faculty is in every
case Protestant, save that in Fribourg there is only a Romanist
faculty (192 students in 1907), while Bern has both a Protestant
faculty and also a Christian Catholic faculty (n students in 1907),
but no Romanist faculty, despite the fact that the Romanists
(mainly in the Bernese Jura) form about one-sixth of the population,
while there are not very many Christian Catholics. These eight
academical institutions were maintained by the cantons at a cost
in 1005 of about £155,000, while in the winter session of 1906 the
total number of matriculated students (of whom 3784 were non-
Swiss) was 6444 (of whom 1904 were women — Fribourg does not
receive them), besides 2077 " hearers" — in all 8521. The largest
institution was Bern (1626 matriculated students) and the smafiest
Neuchatel (163). The Federal Polytechnic School is fixed at
Zurich and now comprises seven departments — architecture,
engineering, industrial mechanics, industrial chemistry, agriculture
and forestry, training of teachers in mathematics, physics and the
natural sciences, and military science, besides a department for
philosophy and political science. It enjoys a very high reputation
and is much frequented by non-Swiss, who in the winter session of
1905-1906 numbered 522 out of the 1325 matriculated students
(women are not admitted). In 1905 the cost of the maintenance of
the school (which falls entirely upon the Confederation) was about
£56,000.
Army. — The Swiss army is a purely militia force, receiving
only periodical training (so far as regards men between 20 and
48 years of age), based upon the principle of universal compulsory
personal military service. Till 1848 the cantons alone raised,
armed, equipped and trained all military units and nominated
the officers. By the Federal Constitution of 1848 (art. 20) the
Confederation was entrusted with the training of the engineers,
the artillery and the cavalry, with the education of instructors
for all other arms, and with the higher training of all arms, while
it was empowered to found military schools, to organize general
military manoeuvres, and to supply a part of the war materiel.
The Confederation, too, was given the supervision of the training
of the infantry, as well as the furnishing, the construction and
the maintenance of all war materiel, which the cantons were
bound to supply to the Confederation. The Federal Constitu-
tion of 1874 marked an advance on that of 1848 as to the follow-
ing points. The principle of universal military service and the
organization of the Federal army were developed according to
the proportion of the population capable of bearing arms (in
contradistinction to the 1848 system, art. 19, of fixed contingents
in the proportion of 3 to every 100 men of the population of
each canton); the entire military training and arming of these
men and the cost of their uniform and equipment were taken
over by the Confederation, which, too, supervised the military
administration of the cantons. The uniform, equipment and
weapons of the men were to be free of cost to them, while
compensation was due from the Confederation to the families of
those killed or permanently injured in the course of their mili-
tary service, as well as to the invalids themselves. There thus
remained to the cantons the raising of all the infantry units and
of most of the cavalry and artillery units as well as the nomina-
tion of the officers of all arms; all these acts were subject to the
supervision of the Confederation and had to be in accordance
with Federal laws and regulations. An attempt made in 1895
to extend still further the sphere of action of the Confederation
in military matters was rejected by a vote of the Swiss people.
Thus the present system rests partly on the 1874 Constitution,
and partly on the new military law, passed by the Federal
parliament on the I2th of April 1907.
a. The 1874 Constitution forbids the maintenance of any
standing army (art. 13), and also (art. n) the practice (formerly
very widespread) of hiring out contingents of mercenary soldiers by
the Confederation or the cantons to foreign powers (" military-
capitulations "). The Federal government can, at or without
the request of any canton, repress any disturbances within Switzer-
land by means of Federal troops, the cantons being bound to allow
these free passage over their territory (arts. 16-17). By art. 18
every Swiss male citizen is subject to the obligation of personal
military service (the families of those killed or permanently injured
in the course of active Federal service as well as the invalids them-
selves are provided for by the Confederation), and the tax for those
exempted is to be fixed by a Federal law, while every recruit receives
free of cost his first uniform, equipment and weapons. Art. 16
246
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
provides that the Confederation has control of the Federal army and
of the war materiel, the cantons being only allowed certain defined
rights within their respective territories. By art. 20 the limits
of the jurisdiction of the Confederation and of the cantons are
defined. The Confederation has the sole right of legislation in
military matters, but the execution of these laws is in the hands of
the cantons, though under Federal supervision, while all branches
of military training and arming are handed over to the Confederation ;
on the other hand, the cantons supply and keep up the equipment
and the uniforms of the soldiers, though these expenses are reim-
bursed by the Confederation according to a certain scale fixed by
Federal regulations to be made later on. Art. 21 enacts that, where
military considerations do not stand in the way, the military units
are to be formed of men of the same canton, but the actual raising
of these units and the maintenance of their numbers, as well as the
nomination and the promotion of the officers, belong to the cantons,
subject to certain general principles to be laid down by the Confedera-
tion. Finally, the Confederation has (art. 22) the right of using
or acquiring military drill grounds, buildings, &c., belonging to the
cantons on payment of moderate compensation according to prin-
ciples to be laid down in a Federal law. It will thus be seen that
the Swiss army is by no means wholly in the hands of the Federal
authorities, the cantons still having a large share in its management,
though the military department of the Federal executive has the
ultimate control and pays most of the military expenses. In fact
it has been said in jest that the coat of a soldier belongs to his canton
and his rifle to the Confederation.
b. After much discussion and careful consideration of the
opinions of many experts, the Federal law of 1907 was enacted,
by which more uniformity was introduced into administrative
matters and the whole system remodelled, of course according to
the general principles formulated in the Federal Constitution of
1874 and summarized under a.
The following is a bird's-eye view of the actual organization
of the Swiss army. Every Swiss male citizen is bound to render
personal military service between the ages of twenty and forty-
eight. Certain classes are exempt, such as high Federal officials,
clergymen (not being military chaplains), officials of hospitals and
prisons, as well as custom-house officials and policemen and
officials of public means of communication, but in the latter case
only those whose services would be indispensable in time of war,
e.g. post office, telegraph, telephone, railway and steamer employes
(all exempted before 1907) — custom-house men, policemen and
the officials last named must have had a first period of training
before they are exempt. Those who are totally disqualified for any
reason must, till the age of forty, pay an extra tax of 6 francs a head,
plus I J francs on every 1000 francs of their net property, and ij
francs on every 100 francs of their net income, the maximum tax
that can be levied in any particular case being 3000 francs a year
(property under 1000 francs and the first 600 francs of income
are free from this tax, which is only levied as to its half in case of
the men in the Landwehr) : this tax is equally divided between
the Confederation and the cantons, its total yield in 1905 being about
£171,000. The cantonal authorities muster in certain fixed centres
their young men of twenty years, who must appear personally in
order to submit themselves at the hands of the Federal officials to
a medical examination, a literary examination (reading, arithmetic,
elementary Swiss geography and history, and the composition of
a short written essay), as well as (since 1905) pass certain elementary
gymnastic tests (a long jump of at least 8 ft., lifting at least four
times a weight of about 37 Ib in both hands at once, and running
about 80 yds. in under 14 seconds), different marks being given
according to the degree of proficiency in these literary and gymnastic
departments. Those falling below a certain standard — bodily, mental
or muscular — are exempted, but may be " postponed " for not more
than four years, in hopes that before that date the desired standard
will be attained. If not totally disqualified (in that case they pay
a tax) they may be incorporated not in the territorial army, but in
the auxiliary forces (e.g. pioneers, hospital, commissariat, intelligence
and transport departments). The cantons (under Federal super-
vision) see that the lads, while still at school, receive a gymnastic
training, while the Confederation makes money grants to societies
which aim at preparing lads after leaving school for their military
service, whether by stimulating bodily training or the practice
of rifle shooting, in which case rifles, ammunition and equipment
are supplied free — in all these cases the attendance of the lads is
purely voluntary. In some cantons the young men, between the
ages of eighteen and twenty, are required to attend a night school
(in order to rub up their school knowledge) for sixty hours a winter
for two winters, the teacher being paid by the Confederation
and the lads being under military law. Naturally the lads from the
large towns and the more prosperous cantons do best in the literary
examination and those who belong to gymnastic societies in the
gymnastic tests, though sheer bodily untrained strength avails
much in the lifting of weights. In 1906 26,808 young men of twenty
years of age were examined (this is exclusive of older men then first
mustered). Of this number 14,045 (52-4%) were at once. enrolled
as recruits, 3497 (13%) were " postponed " for one or two years,
and 9266 (34'6%) were exempted wholly — these ratios vary but
little, for the standard is kept rather high, partly owing to con-
siderations of expense, so that a young fellow of twenty who becomes
a " recruit " at once may be taken to be distinctly above the average
in bodily and mental qualities. By the new law of 1907 the army
is divided into three (not, as previously, four) classes — the Auszug
or elite (men from twenty to thirty-two), the Landwehr (men between
thirty-three and forty) and the Landsturm or reserve (men between
forty-one and forty-eight). The recruits serve for different
periods during their first year according to the arm of the service
into which they are incorporated — infantry and engineers sixty-five
days, artillery and garrison troops seventy-five days and cavalry
ninety days, while those in the auxiliary troops serve but sixty
days. Soldiers in the Elite are called out seven times during their
term of service for a period ol eleven days a year (fourteen days for
the artillery and garrison troops), while the Landwehr is only called
out once for a training period of eleven days. Cavalry men serve
ten years in the Elite (no service in the Landwehr), and during that
period are called out eight times for a training period of eleven days-
a year. Between the ages of twenty and forty each soldier must
attain a certain proficiency in marksmanship (at least 30 points
out of 90 in 10 shots), while there is an annual inspection (by cantonal
officials) of arms, uniform and equipment. The Confederation also
makes money grants to rifle societies, which in 1906 numbered 3732,
had 220,951 members (all soldiers between twenty and forty must
be members), and received Federal grants to the amount of about
£13,500. Rifle and uniform become the full property of the
soldier after he has completed his full term of service. Officers
serve in the Elite till thirty-eight years of age, and in the Landwehr
till forty-four (in the case of officers on the staff the service lasts till
forty-eight years of age), while they remain in the Landsturm till
fifty-two years of age. The Swiss army is made up (according to
the new law of 1907) of a staff, composed of all the commanding
officers on active service from the rank of major upwards (in this
as in all the following cases the actual number is to be fixed by a
Federal law), the general staff, the army service corps (post office,
telegraph, railways, motor cars, chaplains, police, courts of justice,
secretaries, &c.. and the auxiliary services), while the soldiers proper
are divided into a number of classes — infantry (including sharp-
shooters and cyclists), cavalry, artillery (including the mountain
batteries), engineers (including sappers and railway labourers),1
garrison troops, the medical, veterinary (veterinary surgeons and
farriers), commissariat and transport services (drivers and leaders
of laden horses and mules). On the first of January 1907 (still under
the old system) the numbers of the Swiss army were as follows : the
Elite had 139,514 (of which 104,263 were infantry, 5183 cavalry,
18,544 artillery and 5567 engineers), and the Landwehr 93,163
(including 67,955 infantry, 4378 cavalry, 13,332 artillery and 4313
engineers) — making thus a total of 232,677 men between the ages
of twenty and forty-four years of age (17,221 infantry, 9561 cavalry,
31,866 artillery and 9880 engineers). To this total must be added
44,294 men in the armed Landsturm (forty-five to fifty years of
age) and 262,138 auxiliary troops (pioneers, workmen in military
establishments, medical, commissariat and transport departments,
police, firemen, clerks, and men at a military d6p6t). The total of
the Landsturm and the auxiliary services is 306,432, so that a
grand total is 539,109 men (under the old system officers served
in the Landwehr till forty-eight, and in the Landsturm till fifty-five).
The total expenses of the Swiss army rose from £928,000 in 1896 to
£1,400,000 in 1906. Rifles are manufactured in Bern, ammunition
at Thun and at Altdorf , uniforms are made in Bern, and the cavalry
remount d6p6t is at Thun, which is also the chief artillery centre of
Switzerland . There is a department for military science at the Federal
Polytechnic School at Zurich, one section being meant for students
in general, and the other specially for officers. (W. A. B. C.)
HISTORY
The Swiss Confederation is made up of twenty-two small
states, differing from each other in nearly every point —
religious, political, social, industrial, physical and linguistic;
yet it forms a nation the patriotism of whose members is univers-
ally acknowledged. History alone can supply us with the key
to this puzzle; but Swiss history, while thus essential if we could
thoroughly grasp the nature of the Confederation, is very
intricate and very local. A firm hold on a few guiding principles
is therefore most desirable, and of these there are three which
we must always bear in mind, (i) The first to be mentioned
is the connexion of Swiss history with that of the Empire. Swiss
history is largely the history of the drawing together of bits of
each of the imperial kingdoms (Germany, Italy and Burgundy)
for common defence against a common foe — the Habsburgs;
and, when this family have secured to themselves the permanent
possession of the Empire, the Swiss League little by little wins
its independence of the Empire, practically in 1499, formally
in 1648. Originally a member of the Empire, the Confederation
becomes first an ally, then merely a friend. (2) The second
is the German origin and nature of the Confederation. Round
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
247
a German nucleus (the three Forest districts) there gradually
gather other German districts; the Confederation is exclusively
German (save partially in the case of Fribourg, in which after
its admission in 1481 Teutonic influences gradually supplanted
the Romance speech); and it is not till 1803 and 1815 that its
French- and Italian-speaking " subjects " are raised to political
equality with their former masters, and that the Romonsch-
speaking Leagues of Raetia (Graubunden) pass from the status
of an ally to that of a member of the Confederation. (3) Swiss
history is a study in federalism. Based on the defensive
alliances of 1291 and 1315 between the three Forest districts,
the Confederation is enlarged by the admission of other districts
and towns, all leagued with the original three members, but not
necessarily with each other. Hence great difficulties are en-
countered in looking after common interests, in maintaining
any real union; the Diet was merely an assembly of ambassadors
with powers very strictly limited by their instructions, and there
was no central executive authority. The Confederation is a
Slaalenbund, or permanent alliance of several small states.
After the break-up of the old system in 1798 we see the idea
of a Bundesstaat, or an organized state with a central legislative,
executive and judiciary, work its way to the front, an idea which
is gradually realized in the Constitutions of 1848 and 1874. The
whole constitutional history of the Confederation is summed up
in this transition to a federal state, which, while a single state
in its foreign relations, in home matters maintains the more or
less absolute independence of its several members.
Swiss history falls naturally into five great divisions: (i) the
origins of the Confederation — up to 1291 (for the legendary
origin see TELL, WILLIAM); (2) the shaking off dependence
on the Habsburgs — up to 1394 (1474); (3) the shaking off
dependence on the Empire — up to 1499 (1648); (4) the period
of religious divisions and French influence — up to 1814; (5)
the construction of an independent state as embodied in the
Constitutions of 1848 and 1874.
i. On the ist of August 1291 the men of the valley of Uri
(homines vallis Uraniae], the free community of the valley of
Schwyz (universitas vallis de Switz), and the association of the
men of the lower valley or Nidwalden (communitas hominum
intramonlanorum vallis inferioris) — Obwalden or the upper
valley is not mentioned in the text, though it is named on the
Early seal appended — formed an Everlasting League for
History of the purpose of self-defence against all who should
the Three attack or trouble them, a league which is expressly
stated to be a confirmation of a former one (antiquam
confederationis formam juramento vallatam presentibus innovando).
This league was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation.
What were these districts? and why at this particular moment
was it necessary for them to form a defensive league? The
legal and political conditions of each were very different, (a) In
853 Louis the German granted (inter alia) all his lands (and the
rights annexed to them) situated in the pagellus Uraniae to the
convent of Sts Felix and Regula in Zurich (the present Frau-
munster), of which his daughter Hildegard was the first abbess,
and gave to this district the privilege of exemption from all
jurisdiction save that of the king (Reichsfreiheit), so that though
locally within the Zurichgau it was not subject to its count, the
king's deputy. The abbey thus became possessed of the greater
part of the valley of the Reuss between the present Devil's
Bridge and the Lake of Lucerne, for the upper valley (Urseren)
belonged at that time to the abbey of Disentis in the Rhine
valley, and did not become permanently allied with Uri till 1410.
The privileged position of the abbey tenants gradually led the
other men of the valley to " commend " themselves to the abbey,
whether they were tenants of other lords or free men as in the
Schachenthal. The meeting of all the inhabitants of the valley,
for purposes connected with the customary cultivation of the
soil according to fixed rules and methods, served to prepare
them for the enjoyment of full political liberty in later days.
The important post of " protector " (adwcatus or vogt) of the
abbey was given to one family after another by the emperor
as a sign of trust; but when, on the extinction of the house
of Zaringen in 1218, the office was granted to the Habsburgs,
the protests of the abbey tenants, who feared the rapidly rising
power of that family, and perhaps also the desire of the German
king to obtain command of the St Gotthard Pass (of which
the first authentic mention occurs about 1236, when of course
it could only be traversed on foot), led to the recall of the grant
in 1231, the valley being thus restored to its original privileged
position, and depending immediately on the king, (b) In
Schwyz (first mentioned in 972) we must distinguish between
the districts west and east of Steinen. In the former the land
was in the hands of many nobles, amongst whom were the
Habsburgs; in the latter there was, at the foot of the Mythen,
a free community of men governing themselves and cultivating
their land in common; both, however, were politically subject
to the king's delegates, the counts of the Zurichgau, who after
1173 were the ever-advancing Habsburgs. But in 1240 the free
community of Schwyz obtained from the emperor Frederick II.
a charter which removed them from the jurisdiction of the
counts, placing them in immediate dependence on the king, like
the abbey men of Uri. In a few years, however, the Habsburgs
contrived to dispense with this charter in practice, (c) In
Unterwalden things were very different. The upper valley
(Obwalden or Sarnen), like the lower (Nidwalden or Stans),
formed part of the Zurichgau, while in both the soil was owned
by many ecclesiastical and lay lords, among them being the
Habsburgs and the Alsatian abbey of Murbach. Hence in this
district there were privileged tenants, but no free community,
and no centre of unity, and this explains why Obwalden and
Nidwalden won their way upwards so much more slowly than
their neighbours in Uri and Schwyz. Thus the early history and
legal position of these three districts was very far from being the
same. In Uri the Habsburgs, save for a brief space, had absolutely
no rights; while in Schwyz, Obwalden and Nidwalden they were
also, as counts of the Zurichgau, the representatives of the king.
The Habsburgs had been steadily rising for many years from
the position of an unimportant family in the Aargau to that of
a powerful clan of large landed proprietors in Swabia and Alsace,
and had attained a certain political importance as counts of
the Zurichgau and Aargau. In one or both qualities the cadet
or Laufenburg line, to which the family estates in the Forest
districts round the Lake of Lucerne had fallen on the division
of the inheritance in 1232, seem to. have exercised their legal
rights in a harsh manner. In 1240 the free men of Schwyz
obtained protection from the emperor, and in 1244 we hear of
the castle of New Habsburg, built by the Habsburgs
on a promontory jutting out into the lake not far
from Lucerne, with the object of enforcing their
real or pretended rights. It is therefore not a matter for sur-
prise that when, after the excommunication and deposition of
Frederick II. by Innocent IV. at the Council of Lyons in 1245,
the head of the cadet line of Habsburg sided with the pope,
some of the men of the Forest districts should rally round the
emperor. Schwyz joined Sarnen and Lucerne (though Uri
and Obwalden supported the pope) ; the castle of New Habsburg
was reduced to its present ruined state; and in 1247 the men of
Schwyz, Sarnen and Lucerne were threatened by the pope
with excommunication if they persisted in upholding the emperor
and defying their hereditary lords the counts of Habsburg.
The rapid decline of Frederick's cause soon enabled the Habsburgs
to regain their authority in these districts. Yet these obscure
risings have an historical interest, for they are the foundation
in fact (so far as they have any) of the legendary stories of
Habsburg oppression told of and by a later age. After this
temporary check the power of the Habsburgs continued to increase
rapidly. In 1273 the head of the cadet line sold all his lands
and rights in the Forest districts to the head of the elder or
Alsatian line, Rudolph, who a few months later was elected
to the imperial throne, in virtue of which he acquired for his
family in 1282 the duchy of Austria, which now for the first
time became connected with the Habsburgs. Rudolph recog-
nized the privileges of Uri but not those of Schwyz; and, as he
now united in his own person the characters of emperor, count
of the Zurichgau, and landowner in the Forest districts (a name
occurring first in the I4th century), such a union of offices might
248
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
be expected to result in a confusion of rights. On the i6th of
April 1291 Rudolph bought from the abbey of Murbach in Alsace
(of which he was " advocate ") all its rights over the town of
Lucerne and the abbey estates in Unterwalden. It thus seemed
probable that the other Forest districts would be shut off from
their natural means of communication with the outer world
by way of the lake. Rudolph's death, on the I5th of July of
the same year, cleared the way, and a fortnight later (August i )
the Everlasting League was made between the men of Uri,
Schwyz and Nidwalden (the words et vallis superioris, i.e.
Obwalden, were inserted, perhaps between the time of the draw-
ing up of the document, the text of which does not mention
Obwalden, and the moment of its sealing on the original seal
of Nidwalden) for the purpose of self-defence against a common
foe. We do not know the names of the delegates of each valley
who concluded the treaty, nor the place where it was made, nor
have we any account of the deliberations of which it was the
result. The common seal — that great outward sign of the right
of a corporate body to act in its own name — appears first
in Uri in 1243, in Schwyz in 1281, in Unterwalden not till this
very document of 1291; yet, despite the great differences in
their political status, they all joined in concluding this League,
and confirmed it by their separate seals, thereby laying claim
on behalf of their union to an independent existence. Besides
promises of aid and assistance in the case of attack, they agree
to punish great criminals by their own authority, but advise
that, in minor cases and in all civil cases, each man should
recognize the " judex " to whom he owes suit, engaging that
the Confederates will, in case of need, enforce the decisions of
the " judex." At the same time they unanimously refuse to
recognize any " judex " who has bought his charge or is a stranger
to the valleys. All disputes between the parties to the treaty
are, as far as possible, to be settled by a reference to arbiters,
a principle which remained in force for over six hundred years.
" Judex " is a general term for any local official, especially the
chief of the community, whether named by the lord or by the
community; and, as earlier in the same year Rudolph had
promised the men of Schwyz not to force upon them a " judex "
belonging to the class of serfs, we may conjecture from this very
decided protest that the chief source of disagreement was in
the matter of the jurisdictions of the lord and the free community,
and that some recent event in Schwyz led it to insist on the
insertion of this provision. It is stipulated also that every
man shall be bound to obey his own lord " convenienter," or
so far as is fitting and right. The antiqua confoederatio mentioned
in this document was probably merely an ordinary agreement
to preserve the peace in that particular district, made probably
during the interregnum (1254-1273) in the Empire.
2. In the struggle for the Empire, which extended over the
years following the conclusion of the League of 1291, we find
Morgartea
tnat
Confederates supported without exception
and the the anti-Habsburg candidate. On the i6th of
League of October 1291 Uri and Schwyz allied themselves
with Ziirich, and joined the general rising in Swabia
against Albert, the new head of the house of Habsburg. It soon
failed, but hopes revived when in 1292 Adolf of Nassau was
chosen emperor. In 1297 he confirmed to the free men of
Schwyz their charter of 1240, and, strangely enough, confirmed
the same charter to Uri, instead of their own of 1231. It is
in his reign that we have the first recorded meeting of the
" Landsgemeinde " (or legislative assembly) of Schwyz (1294).
But in 1 298 Albert of Habsburg himself was elected to the Empire.
His rule was strict and severe, though not oppressive. He did
not indeed confirm the charters of Uri or of Schwyz, but he
did not attack the ancient rights of the former, and in the
latter he exercised his rights as a landowner and did not abuse
his political rights as emperor or as count. In Unterwalden we
find that in 1304 the two valleys were joined together under a
common administrator (the local deputy of the count) — a great
step forward to permanent union. The stories of Albert's
tyrannical actions in the Forest districts are not heard of till
two centuries later, though no doubt the union of offices in his
person was a permanent source of alarm to the Confederation.
It was in his time too that the " terrier " (or list of manors and
estates, with enumeration of all quit rents, dues, &c., payable
by the tenants to their lords) of all the Habsburg possessions
in Upper Germany was begun, and it was on the point of being
extended to Schwyz and Unterwalden when Albert was murdered
(1308) and the election of Henry of Luxemburg roused the free
men to resist the officials charged with the survey. Despite
his promise to restore to the Habsburgs all rights enjoyed by
them under his three predecessors (or maintain them in posses-
sion), Henry confirmed, on the 3rd of June 1309, to Uri and
Schwyz their charters of 1297, and, for some unknown reason,
confirmed to Unterwalden all the liberties granted by his pre-
decessor, though as a matter of fact none had been granted.
This charter, and the nomination of one royal bailiff to administer
the three districts, had the effect of placing them all (despite
historical differences) in an identical political position, and that
the most privileged yet given to any of them — the freedom of
the free community of Schwyz. A few days later the Confeder-
ates made a fresh treaty of alliance with Zurich; and in 1310
the emperor placed certain other inhabitants of Schwyz on the
fame privileged footing as the free community. The Habsburgs
were put off with promises; and, though their request (1311) for
an inquiry into their precise rights in Alsace and in the Forest
districts was granted, no steps were taken to carry out this
investigation. Thus in Henry's time the struggle was between
the Empire and the Habsburgs as to the recognition of the rights
of the latter, not between the Habsburgs and those dependent
on them as landlords or counts.
On Henry's death in 1313 the electors hesitated long between
Frederick the Handsome of Habsburg and Louis of Bavaria.
The men of Schwyz seized this opportunity for making a wanton
attack on the great abbey of Einsiedeln, with which they had a
long-standing quarrel as to rights of pasture. The abbot caused
them to be excommunicated, and Frederick (the choice of the
minority of the electors), who was the hereditary " advocate "
of the abbey, placed them under the ban of the Empire.
Louis, to whom they appealed, removed the ban; on which
Frederick issued a decree by which he restored to his family
all their rights and possessions in the three valleys and Urseren,
and charged his brother Leopold with the execution of this order.
The Confederates hastily concluded alliances with Glarus,
Urseren, Arth and Interlaken to protect themselves from attack
on every side. Leopold collected a brilliant army at the Austrian
town of Zug in order to attack Schwyz, while a body of troops
was to take Unterwalden in the rear by way of the Briinig Pass.
On the i5th of November 1315, Leopold with from 15,000 to
20,000 men moved forward along the shore of the Lake of Aegeri,
intending to assail the town of Schwyz by climbing the slopes
of Morgarten above the south-eastern end of the lake. There
they were awaited by the valiant band of the Confederates
from 1300 to 1500 strong. The march up the rugged and slippery
slope threw the Austrian army into disarray, which became a
rout and mad flight when huge boulders and trunks of trees
were hurled from above by their foes, who charged down
and drove them into the lake. Leopold fled in hot haste
to Winterthur, and the attack by the Briinig was driven back
by the men of Unterwalden. On the gth of December 1315
representatives of the victorious highlanders met at Brunnen,
on the Lake of Lucerne, not far from Schwyz, and renewed the
Everlasting League of 1291. In their main lines the two docu-
ments are very similar, the later being chiefly an expansion of
the earlier. That of 1315 is in German (in contrast to the 1291
League, which is in Latin), and has one or two striking clauses
largely indebted to a decree issued by Ziirich on the 24th of
July 1291. None of the three districts or their dependents is
to recognize a new lord without the consent and counsel of the
rest. (This is probably meant to provide for an interregnum in or
disputed election to the Empire, possibly for the chance of the
election of a Habsburg.) Strict obedience in all lawful matters
is to be rendered to the rightful lord in each case, unless he attacks
or wrongs any of the Confederates, in which case they are to be
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
249
free from all obligations. No negotiations, so long as the " Lander "
have no lord, are to be entered on with outside powers, save
by common agreement of all. Louis solemnly recognized and
confirmed the new league in 1316, and in 1318 a truce was
concluded between the Confederates and the Habsburgs, who
treat with them on equal terms. The lands and rights annexed
belonging to the Habsburgs in the Forest districts are fully
recognized as they existed in the days of. Henry of Luxemburg,
and freedom of commerce is granted. But there is not one word
about the political rights of the Habsburgs as counts of the
Ziirichgau and Aargau. This distinction gives the key to the
whole history of the relations between the Confederates and
Habsburgs; the rights of the latter as landowners are fully
allowed, and till 1801 they possessed estates within the Con-
federation; it is their political rights which were always contested
by the Swiss, who desired to rule themselves.
As early as 1320 we find the name " Switzerland " (Sweicz)
(derived from Schwyz, which had always been the leader in the
The League struggle) applied to the three Forest cantons, and in
ofBight 1352 extended to the Confederation as a whole.
Members. But ;t was not t;u after Sempach (1386) that it
came into popular use, the historian J. von Muller (1785) fixing
the distinction between " Schweiz " (for the country) and
" Schwyz " (for the canton), and it did not form the official name
of the Confederation till 1803. (Officially in the middle ages and
later the Confederation was named " les Ligues de la Haute
Allemagne," or, as Commines, late in the isth century, puts it,
" les vieilles Ligues d'Allemagne qu'on appelle Suisses," while
fromc. 145 2 onwards the people were called" Swiss "). This is in
itself a proof of the great renown which the League won by its
victory at Morgarten. Another is that as years go by we find
other members admitted to the privileges of the original alliance
of the three Forest districts. First to join the League (1332) was
the neighbouring town of Lucerne, which had grown up round
the monastery of St Leodegar or Leger (whence the place took
its name), perhaps a colony, certainly a cell of the great house of
Murbach in Alsace, under the rule of which the town remained
till its sale in 1291 to the Habsburgs. This act of Lucerne was
opposed by the house of Austria, but, despite the decision of
certain chosen arbitrators in favour of the Habsburg claims, the
town clung to the League with which it was connected by its
natural position, and thus brought a new element into the pastoral
association of the Forest districts, which now surrounded the
entire Lake of Lucerne. Next, in 1351, came the ancient town of
Zurich, which in 1218, on the extinction of the house of Zaringen,
had become a free imperial city in which the abbess of the
Fraumiinster (the lady of Uri) had great influence, while in 1336
there had been a great civic revolution, headed by Rudolph Brun,
which had raised the members of the craft gilds to a position in
the municipal government, of equal power with that of the
patricians, who, however, did not cease intriguing to regain their
lost privileges, so that Brun, after long hesitation, decided to
throw in the lot of the town with the League rather than with
Austria. In this way the League now advanced from the hilly
country to the plains, though the terms of the treaty with Zurich
did not bind it so closely to the Confederates as in the other cases
(the right of making alliances apart from the League being reserved
though the League was to rank before these), and hence rendered
it possible for Zurich now and again to incline towards Austria
in a fashion which did great hurt t& its allies. In 1352 the League
was enlarged by the admission of Glarus and Zug. Glarus
belonged to the monastery of Sackingen on the Rhine (founded
by the Irish monk Fridolin), of which the Habsburgs were
" advocates," claiming therefore many rights over the valley,
which refused to admit them, and joyfully received the Con-
federates who came to its aid; but it was placed on a lower footing
than the other members of the League, being bound to obey their
orders. Three weeks later the town and district of Zug, attacked
by the League and abandoned by their Habsburg masters, joined
the Confederation, forming a transition link between the civic
and rural members of the League. The immediate occasion of
the union of these two districts was the war begun by the
Austrian duke against Zurich, which was ended by the Branden-
burg peace of 1352, by which Glarus and Zug were to be restored
to the Habsburgs, who also regained their rights over Lucerne.
Zug was won for good by a bold stroke of the men of Schwyz in
1364, but it was not till the day of Nafels (1388) that Glarus
recovered its lost freedom. These temporary losses and the
treaty made by Brun of Zurich with Austria in 1356 were, how-
ever, far outweighed by the entrance into the League in 1353 of
the famous town of Bern, which, founded in 1191 by Berlhold V.
of Zaringen, and endowed with great privileges, had become a
free imperial city in 1218 on the extinction of the Zaringen
dynasty. Founded for the purpose of bridling the turbulent
feudal nobles around, many of whom had become citizens, Bern
beat them back at Dornbuhl (1298), and made a treaty with the
Forest districts as early as 1323. In 1339, at the bloody fight of
Laupen, she had broken the power of the nobles for ever, and in
1352 had been forced by a treaty with Austria to take part in the
war against Zurich, but soon after the conclusion of peace entered
the League as the ally of the three Forest districts, being thus
only indirectly joined to Lucerne and Zurich. The special
importance of the accession of Bern was that the League now
began to spread to the west, and was thus brought into connexion
for the first time with the French-speaking land of Savoy. The
League thus numbered eight members, the fruits of Morgarten,
and no further members were admitted till 1481, after the
Burgundian War. But, in order thoroughly to understand the
nature of the League, it must be remembered that, while each of
the five new members was allied with the original nucleus — the
three Forest districts — these five were not directly allied to
one another: Lucerne was allied with Zurich and Zug; Zurich
with Lucerne, Zug and Glarus; Glarus with Zurich; Zug with
Lucerne and Zurich; Bern with no one except the three original
members. The circumstances under which each entered the
League can alone explain these very intricate relations.
After a short interval of peace the quarrels with Austria broke
out afresh; all the members of the League, save the three Forest
districts and Glarus, joined (1385) the great union Sem fl
of the south German cities; but their attention was
soon called to events nearer home. Lucerne fretted much under
the Austrian rule, received many Austrian subjects among her
citizens, and refused to pay custom duties to the Austrian bailiff
at Rothenburg, on the ground that she had the right of free
traffic. An attack on the custom-house at Rothenburg, and the
gift of the privileges of burghership to the discontented inhabi-
tants of the little town of Semppch a short way off, so irritated
Leopold III. (who then held all the possessions of his house out-
side Austria) that he collected an army, with the intention of
crushing his rebellious town. Lucerne meanwhile had summoned
the other members of the League to her aid, and, though Leooold's
feint of attacking Zurich caused the troops of the League to
march at first in that direction, they discovered their mistake in
time to turn back and check his advance on Lucerne. From
1500 to 1600 men of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Lucerne
opposed the 6000 which made up the Austrian army. The
decisive fight took place on the 9th of July 1386, near Sempach,
on a bit of sloping meadow-land, cut up by streams and hedges,
which forced the Austrian knights to dismount. The great heat
of the day, which rendered it impossible to fight in armour, and
the furious attacks of the Confederates, finally broke the Austrian
line after more than one repulse and turned the day (see WINKEL-
RIED). Leopold, with a large number of his followers, was slain,
and the Habsburg power within the borders of the Confederation
finally broken. Glarus at once rose in arms against Austria,
but it was not till the expiration of the truce made after Sempach
that Leopold's brother, Albert of Austria, brought an army
against Glarus, and was defeated at Nafels (not far from Glarus)
on the 9th of April 1388, by a handful of Glarus and Schwyz
men
In 1389 a peace for seven years was made, the Confederates
being secured in all their conquests; an attempt made in 1393 by
Austria by means of Schono, the chief magistrate of Zurich
and leader of the patrician party, to stir up a fresh attack
250
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
failed owing to a rising of the burghers, who sympathized with
Freedom tne Confederates, and on the i6th of July 1394 the
from the peace was prolonged for twenty years (and again in
Political J4J2 for fifty years) , various stipulations being made
which the long struggle of the League against the
Habsburgs was finally crowned with success.
By the peace of 1394 Glarus was freed on payment of £200
annually (in 1395 it bought up all the rights of Sackingen);
Zug too was released from Austrian rule. Schwyz was given
the odvocatia of the great abbey of Einsiedeln; Lucerne
got the Entlebuch (finally in 1405), Sempach and Rothenburg,
Bern and Soleure were confirmed in their conquests. Above all,
the Confederation as a whole was relieved from the overlordship
of the Habsburgs, to whom, however, all their rights and dues
as landed proprietors were expressly reserved; Bern, Zurich
and Soleure guaranteeing the maintenance of these rights and
dues, with power in case of need to call on the other Confederates
to support them by arms. Though the house of Habsburg
entertained hopes of recovering its former rights, so that techni-
cally the treaties of 1389, 1394 and 1412 were but truces, it finally
and for ever renounced all its feudal rights and privileges within
the Confederation by the " Everlasting Compact " of 1474.
It is probable that Bern did not take any active share in the
Sempach War because she was bound by the treaty of peace made
with the Austrians in 1368; and Soleure, allied with Bern, was
doubtless a party to the treaty of 1394 (though not yet in the
League), because of its sufferings in 1382 at the hands of the
Kyburg line of the Habsburgs, whose possessions (Thun,
Burgdorf, &c.) in 1384 fell into the hands of the two allies.
We may mention here the foray (known as the English or
Gugler War) made in 1375 by Enguerrand de Coucy (husband of
Isabella, daughter of Edward III. of England) and his freebooters
(many of them Englishmen and Welshmen), called " Gugler"
from their pointed steel caps, with the object of obtaining
possession of certain towns in the Aargau (including Sempach),
which he claimed as the dowry of his mother Catherine,
daughter of the Leopold who was defeated at Morgarten. He
was put to rout in the Entlebuch by the men of Bern, Lucerne,
Schwyz and Unterwalden in December 1375. This victory was
commemorated with great rejoicings in 1875.
3. The great victory at Sempach not merely vastly increased
the fame of the Everlasting League but also enabled it to extend
struggles la both its influence and its territory. The isth
Appeazeii, century is the period when both the League and
st Qaii an(/its several members took the aggressive, and the
B va ais. expans;on of their power and lands cannot be better
seen than by comparing the state of things at the beginning
and at the end of this century. The pastoral highlands of
Appenzell (Abbatis Cella) and the town of St Gall had long been
trying to throw off the rights exercised over them by the great
abbey of St Gall. The Appenzellers, especially, had offered a
stubborn resistance, and the abbot's troops had been beaten back
by them in 1403 on the heights of Vogelinseck, and again in 1405
in the great fight on the Stoss Pass (which leads up into the high-
lands), in which the abbot was backed by the duke of Austria.
The tales of the heroic defence of Uri Rotach of Appenzell, and
of the appearance of a company of Appenzell women disguised as
warriors which turned the battle, are told in connexion with this
fight, but do not appear till the i7th and i8th centuries, being
thus quite unhistorical, so far as our genuine evidence goes.
Schwyz had given them some help, and in 1411 Appenzell was
placed under the protection of the League (save Bern), with
which in the next year the city of St Gall made a similar treaty
to last ten years. So too in 1416-1417 several of the " tithings "
of the Upper Valais (i.e. the upper stretch of the Rhone valley),
which in 1388 had beaten the bishop and the nobles in a great
fight at Visp, became closely associated with Lucerne, Uri and
Unterwalden. It required aid in its final struggle (1418-10)
against the great house of Raron, the count-bishop of Sitten (or
Sion), and the house of Savoy, which held the Lower Valais — the
Forest districts, on the other hand, wishing to secure them-
selves against Raron and Savoy in their attempt to conquer
permanently the Val d'Ossola on the south side of the Simplon
Pass. Bern, however, supported its burgher, the lord of Raron,
and peace was made in 1420. Such were the first links which
bound these lands with the League; but they did not become
full members for a long time — Appenzell in 1513, St Gall in 1803,
the Valais in 1815.
Space will not allow us to enumerate all the small conquests
made in the first half of the isth century by every member of
the League; suffice it to say that each increased and rounded
off its territory, but did not give the conquered lands any political
rights, governing them as " subject lands," often very harshly.
The same phenomenon of lands which had won their own freedom
playing the part of tyrant over other lands which joined them
more or less by their voluntary action is seen on a larger scale in
the case of the conquest of the Aargau, and in the first attempts
to secure a footing south of the Alps.
In 1412 the treaty of 1394 between the League and the Habs-
burgs had been renewed for fifty years; but when in 1415 Duke
Frederick of Austria helped Pope John XXII. to escape from
Constance, where the great oecumenical council was then sitting,
and the emperor Sigismund placed the duke under the ban of the
Empire, summoning all members of the Empire to arm against
him, the League hesitated, because of their treaty of 1412, till
the emperor declared that all the rights and lands of Austria in
the League were forfeited, and that their compact did not release
them from their obligations to the Empire. In the name, there-
fore, of the emperor, and by his special command, the different
members of the League overran the extensive Habsburg posses-
sions in the Aargau. The chief share fell to Bern, but certain
districts (known as the Freie Aemter) were joined together and
governed as bailiwicks held in common by all the members of the
League (save Uri, busied in the south, and Bern, who had already
secured the lion's share of the spoil for herself). This is the first
case in which the League as a whole took up the position of rulers
over districts which, though guaranteed in the enjoyment of
their old rights, were nevertheless politically unfree. As an
encouragement and a reward, Sigismund had granted in advance
to the League the right of criminal jurisdiction (haute justice
or Blutbann), which points to the fact that they were soon
to become independent of the Empire, as they were of Austria.
As the natural policy of Bern was to seek to enlarge its borders
at the expense of Austria, and later of Savoy, so we find that Uri,
shut off by physical causes from extension in other directions,
as steadily turned its eyes towards the south. In 1410 the
valley of Urseren was finally joined to Uri; though First
communications were difficult, and carried on only by Italian
means of the " Stiebende Brucke," a wooden bridge Conquest*.
suspended by chains over the Reuss, along the side of a great
rocky buttress (pierced in 1707 by the tunnel known as the
Urnerloch), yet this enlargement of the territory of Uri gave it
complete command over the St Gotthard Pass, long commercially
important, and now to serve for purposes of war and conquest.
Already in 1403 Uri and Obwalden had taken advantage of a
quarrel with the duke of Milan as to custom dues at the market
of Varese to occupy the long narrow upper Ticino valley on the
south of the pass called the Val Leventina; in 1411 the men of
the same two lands, exasperated by the insults of the local lords,
called on the other members of the League, and all jointly (except
Bern) occupied the Val d'Ossola, on the south side of the Simplon
Pass. But in 1414 they lost this to Savoy, and, with the object
of getting it back, obtained in 1416-1417 the alliance of the men
of the Upper Valais, then fighting for freedom, and thus regained
(r4i6) the valley, despite the exertions of the great Milanese
general Carmagnola. In 1419 Uri and Obwalden bought from
its lord the town and district of Bellinzona. This rapid advance,
however, did not approve itself to the duke of Milan, and Car-
magnola reoccupied both valleys; the Confederates were not at
one with regard to these southern conquests; a small body pressed
on in front of the rest, but was cut to pieces at Arbedo near
Bellinzona in 1422. A bold attempt in 1425 by a Schwyzer,
Peter Rissi by name, to recover the Val d'Ossola caused the
Confederates to send a force to rescue these adventurers; but
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
251
civil War
the duke of Milan intrigued with the divided Confederates, and
finally in 1426, by a payment of a large sum of money and the
grant of certain commercial privileges, the Val Leventina, the
Val d'Ossola and Bellinzona were formally restored to him.
Thus the first attempt of Uri to acquire a footing south of the
Alps failed; but a later attempt was successful, leading to the
inclusion in the Confederation of what has been called " Italian
Switzerland."
The original contrasts between the social condition of the
different members of the League became more marked when the
period of conquest began, and led to quarrels and ill-
feeing m tne matter of the Aargau and the Italian
conquests which a few years later ripened into a civil
war, brought about by the dispute as to the succession to the
lands of Frederick, count of Toggenburg, the last male representa-
tive of his house. Count Frederick's predecessors had greatly
extended their domains, so that they took in not only the Toggen-
burg or upper valley of the Thur, but Uznach, Sargans, the Rhine
valley between Feldkirch and Sargans, the Prattigau and the
Davos valley. He himself, the last great feudal lord on the left
bank of the Rhine, had managed to secure his vast possessions
by making treaties with several members of the League, par-
ticularly Zurich (1400) and Schwyz (1417) — from 1428 inclining
more and more to Schwyz (then ruled by Ital Riding), as he was
disgusted with the arrogant behaviour of Stiissi, the burgomaster
of Zurich. His death (April 30, 1436) was the signal for the
breaking out of strife. The Prattigau and Davos valley formed
the League of the Ten Jurisdictions in Raetia (see below), while
Frederick's widow sided with Zurich against Schwyz for different
portions of the great inheritance which had been promised them.
After being twice defeated, Zurich was forced in 1440 to buy peace
by certain cessions (the " Hofe ") to Schwyz, the general feeling
of the Confederates being opposed to Zurich, so that several of
them went so far as to send men and arms to Schwyz. Zurich,
however, was bitterly disappointed at these defeats, and had
recourse to the policy which she had adopted in 1356 and 1393 —
an alliance with Austria (concluded in 1442), which now held the
imperial throne in the person of Frederick III. Though tech-
nically within her rights according to the terms on which she had
joined the League in 1351, this act of Zurich caused the greatest
irritation in the Confederation, and civil war at once broke out,
especially when the Habsburg emperor had been solemnly received
and acknowledged in Zurich. In 1443 the Zurich troops were
completely defeated at St Jakob on the Sihl, close under the walls
of the city, Stussi himself being slain. Next year the city itself was
long besieged. Frederick, unable to get help elsewhere, procured
from Charles VII. of France the despatch of a body of Armagnac
free lances (the ficorcheurs), who came, 30,000 strong, under
the dauphin Louis, plundering and harrying the land, till at the
very gates of the free imperial city of Basel (which had made a
twenty years' alliance with Bern), by the leper house of St Jakob
on the Birs (Aug. 26, 1444), the desperate resistance of a small
body of Confederates (1200 to 1500), till cut to pieces, checked
the advance of the freebooters, who sustained such tremendous
losses that, though the victors, they hastily made peace, and
returned whence they had come. Several small engagements
ensued, Zurich long declining to make peace because the Con-
federates required, as the result of a solemn arbitration, the
abandonment of the Austrian alliance. At length it was
concluded in 1450, the Confederates restoring almost all the
lands they had won from Zurich. Thus ended the third attempt
of Austria to conquer the League by means of Zurich, which
used its position as an imperial free city to the harm of the
League, and caused the first civil war by which it was distracted.
These fresh proofs of the valour of the Confederates, and of
the growing importance of the League, did not fail to produce
Constitution imPortant results. In 1452 the "Confederates of
of the the Old League of Upper Germany" (as they styled
League, themselves) made their first treaty of alliance with
France, a connexion which was destined to exercise
so much influence on their history. Round the League there
began to gather a new class of allies (known as " Zugewandte
Orte," or associated districts), more closely joined to it, or to
certain members of it, than by a mere treaty of friendship, yet
not being admitted to the rank of a full member of the League.
Of these associates three, the abbot (1451) and town of St Gall
(1454), and the town of Bienne (Biel), through its alliance
(i352) with Bern, were given seats and votes in the Diet, being
called socii; while others, known as confoederati, were not so
closely bound to the League, such as the Valais (1416-1417),
Schaffhausen (1454), Rottweil (1463), Muhlhausen (1466), (to
the class of confoederati belonged in later times Neuchatel
1406-1501), the Three Leagues of Raetia (1497-1498), Geneva
(1519-1536), and the bishop of Basel (1579). Appenzell, too,
in 1452, rose from the rank of a " protected district " into the
class of associates, outside which were certain places " protected "
by several members of the League, such as Gersau (1359), the
abbey of Engelberg (c. 1421), and the town of Rapperswil (1464).
The relation of the " associates " to the League may be compared
with the ancient practice of " commendation ": they were
bound to obey orders in declaring war, making alliances, &c.
In 1439 Sigismund succeeded his father Frederick in the
Habsburg lands in Alsace, the Thurgau, and Tirol and, being
much irritated by the constant encroachments of the Confeder-
ates, in particular by the loss of Rapperswil (1458), declared war
against them, but fared very badly. In 1460 the Confederates
overran the Thurgau and occupied Sargans. Winterthur was
only saved by an heroic defence. Hence in 1461 Sigismund
had to give up his claims on those lands and renew the peace for
fifteen years, while in 1467 he sold Wintherthur to Zurich.
Thus the whole line of the Rhine was lost to the Habsburgs, who
retained (till 1801) in the territories of the Confederates the
Frickthal only. The Thurgovian bailiwicks were governed in
common as " subject " lands by all the Confederates except Bern.
The touchiness of the now rapidly advancing League was shown
by the eagerness with which in 1468 its members took up arms
against certain small feudal nobles who were carrying on a
harassing guerrilla warfare with their allies Schaffhausen and
Muhlhausen. They laid siege to Waldshut, and to buy them off
Sigismund in August 1468 engaged to pay 10,000 gulden as
damages by the 24th of June 1469; in default of payment the
Confederates were to keep for ever the Black Forest, and Walds-
hut, one of the Black Forest towns on the Rhine. A short time
before (1467) the League had made treaties of friendship with
Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and with the duke of Milan.
All was now prepared for the intricate series of intrigues which
led up to the Burgundian War — a great epoch in the history of
the League, as it created a common national feeling, enormously
raised its military reputation, and brought about the close
connexion with certain parts of Savoy, which finally (1803-1815)
were admitted into the League.
Sigismund did not know where to obtain the sum he had
promised to pay. In this strait he turned to Charles the Bold
(properly the Rash), duke of Burgundy, who was The
then beginning his wonderful career, and aiming at Burgundian
restoring the kingdom of Burgundy. For this purpose War-
Charles wished to marry his daughter and heiress to Maximilian,
son of the emperor, and first cousin of Sigismund, in order that
the emperor might be induced to give him the Burgundian crown.
Hence he was ready to meet Sigismund's advances. On the 9th
of May 1469 Charles promised to give Sigismund 50,000 florins,
receiving as security for repayment Upper Alsace, the Breisgau,
the Sundgau, the Black Forest, and the four Black Forest towns
on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, Sackingen, Laufenburg and Walds-
hut), and agreed to give Sigismund aid against the Swiss, if
he was attacked by them. It was not unnatural for Sigismund
to think of attacking the League, but Charles's engagement to
him is quite inconsistent with the friendly agreement made be-
tween Burgundy and the League as late as 1467. The emperor
then on his side annulled Sigismund's treaty of 1468 with the
Swiss, and placed them under the ban of the Empire. Charles
committed the mortgaged lands to Peter von Hagenbach, who
proceeded to try to establish his master's power there by such
harsh measures as to cause the people to rise against him.
252
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
The Swiss in these circumstances began to look towards
Louis XI. of France, who had confirmed the treaty of friendship
made with them by his father in 1452. Sigismund had applied
to him early in 1469 to help him in his many troubles, and to give
him aid against the Swiss, but Louis had point-blank refused.
Anxious to secure their neutrality in case of his war with Charles,
he made a treaty with them on the I3th of August 1470 to this
effect. All the evidence goes to show that Sigismund was not a
tool in the hands of Louis, and that Louis, at least at that time,
had no definite intention of involving Charles and the Swiss in a
war, but wished only to secure his own flank.
Sigismund in the next few years tried hard to get from Charles
the promised aid against the Swiss (the money was paid punctually
enough by Charles on his behalf), who put him off with various
excuses. Charles on his side, in 1471-1472, tried to make an
alliance with the Swiss, his efforts being supported by a party in
Bern headed by Adrian von Bubenberg. Probably Charles wished
to use both Sigismund and the Swiss to further his own interests,
but his shifty policy had the effect of alienating both from him.
Sigismund, disgusted with Charles, now inclined towards Louis,
whose ally he formally became in the summer of 1473 — a change
which was the real cause of the emperor's flight from Treves in
November 1473, when he had come there expressly to crown
Charles. The Confederates on their side were greatly moved by
the oppression of their friends and allies in Alsace by Hagenbach,
and tried in vain (January 1474) to obtain some redress from his
master. Charles's too astute policy had thus lost him both
Sigismund and the Swiss. They now looked upon Louis, who,
thoroughly aware of Charles's ambition, and fearing that his
disappointment at Treves would soon lead to open war, aimed
at a master stroke — no less than the reconciliation of Sigismund
and the Swiss. This on the face of it seemed impracticable, but
common need- and Louis's dexterous management brought it to
pass, so that on the 3Oth of March 1474 the Everlasting Compact
was signed at Constance, by which Sigismund finally renounced
all Austrian claims on the lands of the Confederates, and guaran-
teed them in quiet enjoyment to them; they, on the other hand,
agreed to support him if Charles did not give up the mortgaged
lands when the money was paid down. The next day the Swiss
joined the league of the Alsatian and Rhine cities, as also
did Sigismund. Charles was called on to receive the money
contributed by the Alsatian cities, and to restore his lands to
Sigismund. He, however, took no steps. Within a week the
oppressive bailiff Hagenbach was captured, and a month later
(May 9, 1474) he was put to death, Bern alone of the Confederates
being represented. On the gth of October the emperor, acting
of course at the instance of Sigismund, ordered them to declare
war against Charles, which took place on the zsth of October.
Next day Louis formally ratified his alliance with the Con-
federates, promising money and pensions, the latter to be increased
if he did not send men. Throughout these negotiations and later
Bern directs Swiss policy, though all the Confederates are not
quite agreed. She was specially exposed to attack from Charles
and Charles's ally (since 1468) Savoy, and her best chance of
extending her territory lay towards the west and south. A
forward policy was thus distinctly the best for Bern, and this
was the line supported by the French party under Nicholas von
Diesbach, Adrian von Bubenberg opposing it, though not with
any idea of handing over Bern to Charles. The Forest districts,
however, were very suspicious of this movement to the west, by
which Bern alone could profit, though the League as a whole
might lose; then, too, Uri had in 1440 finally won the Val
Leventina, and she and her neighbours favoured a southerly
policy — a policy which was crowned with success after the gallant
victory won at Giornico in 1478 by a handful of men from Zurich,
Lucerne, Uri and Schwyz over 12,000 Milanese troops. Thus
Uri first gained a permanent footing south of the Alps, not
long before Bern won its first conquests from Savoy.
The war in the west was begun by Bern and her allies (Fribourg,
Soleure, &c.) by marauding expeditions across the Jura, in which
Hericourt (November 1474) and Blamont (August 1475) were
taken, both towns being held of Charles by the " sires " de
Neuchatel, a cadet line of the counts of Montbdliard. It is said
that in the former expedition the white cross was borne (for the
first time) as the ensign of the Confederates, but not in the other.
Meanwhile Yolande, the duchess of Savoy, had, through fear
of her brother Louis XI. and hatred of Bern, finally joined
Charles and Milan (January 1475), the immediate result of
which was the capture, by the Bernese and friends (on the
way back from a foray on Pontarlier in the free county of Bur-
gundy or Franche-Comte), of several places in Vaud, notably
Grandson and Echallens, both held of Savoy by a member of
the house of Chalon, princes of Orange (April 1475), as well
as of Orbe and Jougne, held by the same, but under the
count of Burgundy. In the summer Bern seized on the
Savoyard district of Aigle. Soon after (October-November
1475) the same energetic policy won for her the Savoyard
towns of Moral, Avenches, Estavayer and Yverdon; while
(September) the Upper Valais, which had conquered all
Lower or Savoyard Valais, entered into alliance with Bern
for the purpose of opposing Savoy by preventing the arrival of
Milanese troops. Alarmed at their success, the emperor and
Louis deserted (June-September) the Confederates, who thus,
by the influence of Louis and Bernese ambition, saw themselves
led on and then abandoned to the wrath of Charles, and very
likely to lose their new conquests. They had entered on the
war as " helpers " of the emperor, and now became principals
in the war against Charles, who raised the siege of Neuss, made
an alliance with Edward IV. of England, received the surrender
of Lorraine, and hastened across the Jura (February 1476)
to the aid of his ally Yolande. On the 2ist of February Charles
laid siege to the castle of Grandson, and after a week's siege the
garrison of Bernese and Fribourgers had to surrender (Oct.
28), while, by way of retaliation for the massacre of the garrison
of Estavayer in 1475, of the 412 men two only were spared in
order to act as executioners of their comrades. This hideous
news met a large body of the Confederates gathered together
in great haste to relieve the garrison, and going to their
rendezvous at Neuchatel, where both the count and town
had become allies of Bern in 1406. An advance body of
Bernese, Fribourgers and Schwyzers, in order to avoid the
castle of Vauxmarcus (seized by Charles), on the shore of
the Lake of Neuchatel, and on the direct road from Neuchatel
to Grandson, climbed over a wooded spur to the north, and
attacked (March 2) the Burgundian outposts. Charles drew
back his force in order to bring down the Swiss to the more
level ground where his cavalry could act, but his rear mis-
interpreted the order, and when the main Swiss force appeared
over the spur the Burgundian army was seized with a panic
and fled in disorder. The Swiss had gained a glorious
victory, and regained their conquest of Grandson, besides
capturing very rich spoil in Charles's camp, parts of which are
preserved to the present day in various Swiss armouries. Such
was the famous battle of Grandson. Charles at once retired to
Lausanne, and set about reorganizing his army. He resolved
to advance on Bern by way of Moral (or Murten), which was
occupied by a Bernese garrison under Adrian von Bubenburg,
and laid siege lo il on the glh of June. The Confederates had
now put away all jealousy of Bern, and collected a large army.
The decisive batlle took place on the afternoon of the 22nd of
June, after the arrival of the Zurich contingenl under Hans
Waldmann. English archers were in Charles's army, while with
the Swiss was Rene, the dispossessed duke of Lorraine. After
facing each other many hours in the driving rain, a body of Swiss,
by oulflanking Charles's van, slormed his palisaded camp,
and the Burgundians were soon hopelessly beaten, the losses on
both sides (a contrast to Grandson) being exceedingly heavy.
Vaud was reoccupied by the Swiss (Savoy having overrun
it on Charles's advance); but Louis now stepped in and pro-
cured the restoration of that region to Savoy, save Grand-
son, Moral, Orbe and Echallens, which were to be held by
the Bernese jointly with the Fribourgers, Aigle by Bern alone
— Savoy at the same time renouncing all its claims over Fri-
bourg. Thus French-speaking districls firsl became permanently
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
253
connected with the Confederation, hitherto purely German,
and the war had been one for the maintenance of recent
conquests, rather than purely in defence of Swiss freedom.
Charles tried in vain to raise a third army; Rene recovered
Lorraine, and on the 5th of January 1477, under the walls of
Nancy, Charles's wide-reaching plans were ended by his defeat
and death, many Swiss being with Rene's troops. The wish of
the Bernese to overrun Franche-Comte was opposed by the older
members of the Confederation, and finally, in 1479, Louis, by
very large payments, secured the abandonment of all claims on
that province, which was annexed to the French crown.
These glorious victories really laid the foundation of Swiss
nationality; but soon after them the long-standing jealousy
internal between the civic and rural elements in the Con-
oisputes la federation nearly broke it up. This had always
the League, hindered common action save in the case of certain
pressing questions. In 1370, by the " Parsons' ordinance "
(Pfaffenbrief), agreed on by all the Confederates except Bern
and Glarus, all residents whether clerics or laymen, in the
Confederation who were bound by oath to the duke of
Austria were to swear faith to the Confederation, and this
oath was to rank before any other; no appeal was to lie to
any court spiritual or lay (except in matrimonial and purely
spiritual questions) outside the limits of the Confederation,
and many regulations were laid down as to the suppression
of private wars and keeping of the peace on the high roads.
Further, in 1393, the " Sempach ordinance " was accepted
by all the Confederates and Soleure; this was an attempt
to enforce police regulations and to lay down " articles of
war " for the organization and discipline of the army of the
Confederates, minute regulations being made against plunder-
ing— women, monasteries and churches being in particular
protected and secured. But save these two documents common
action was limited to the meeting of two envoys from each
member of the Confederation and one from each of the " socii "
in the Diet, the powers of which were greatly limited by the
instructions brought by each envoy, thus entailing frequent
reference to his government, and included foreign relations,
war and peace, and common arrangements as to police, pestilence,
customs duties, coinage, &c. The decisions of the majority did
not bind the minority save in the case of the affairs of the baili-
wicks ruled in common. Thus everything depended on common
agreement and good will. But disputes as to the divisions of
the lands conquered in the Burgundian War, and the proposal
to admit into the League the towns of Fribourg and Soleure,
which had rendered such good help in the war, caused the two
parties to form separate unions, for by the latter proposal the
number of towns would have been made the same as that of the
" Lander," which these did not at all approve. Suspended a
moment by the campaign in the Val Leventina, these quarrels
broke out after the victory of Giornico; and at the Diet of Stans
(December 1481), when it seemed probable that the failure of
all attempts to come to an understanding would result in the
disruption of the League, the mediation of Nicholas von der
Flue (or B ruder Klaus), a holy hermit of Sachseln in Obwalden,
though he did not appear at the Diet in person, succeeded in
bringing both sides to reason, and the third great ordinance of
the League — the " compact of Stans " — was agreed on. By
this the promise of mutual aid and assistance was renewed,
especially when one member attacked another, and stress was
laid on the duty of the several governments to maintain the
peace, and not to help the subjects of any other member in case
of a rising. The treasure and movables captured in the war
were to be equally divided amongst the combatants, but the
territories and towns amongst the members of the League. As
a practical proof of the reconciliation, on the same day the towns
of Fribourg and Soleure were received as full members of the
Confederation, united with all the other members, though on
less favourable terms than usual, for they were forbidden to make
alliances, save with the consent of all or of the greater part of
the other members. Both towns had long been allied with
Bern, whose influence was greatly increased by their admission.
Fribourg, founded in 1178 by Berthold IV. of Zaringen, had on
the extinction of that great dynasty (1218) passed successively
by inheritance to Kyburg (1218), by purchase to Austria (1277),
and by commendation to Savoy (1452); when Savoy gave up its
claims in 1477 Fribourg once more became a free imperial city.
She had become allied with Bern as early as 1243, but in the
I4th and isth centuries became Romance-speaking, though from
1483 onwards German gained in strength and was the official
language till 1798. Soleure (or Solothurn) had been associated
with Bern from 1295, but had in vain sought admission into
the League in 1411. Both the new members had done much for
Bern in the Burgundian War, and it was for their good service
that she now procured them this splendid reward, in hopes
perhaps of aid on other important and critical occasions.
The compact of Stans strengthened the bonds which joined
the members of the Confederation ; and the same centralizing ten-
dency is well seen in the attempt (1483-1489) of Hans Waldmann,
the burgomaster of Zurich, to assert the rule of his city over the
neighbouring country districts, to place all power in the hands
of the gilds (whereas by Brun's constitution the patricians had
an equal share), to suppress all minor jurisdictions, and to raise
a uniform tax. But this idea of concentrating all powers in the
hands of the government aroused great resistance, and led to
his overthrow and execution. Peter Kistler succeeded (1470)
better at Bern in a reform on the same lines, but less sweeping.
The early history of each member of the Confederation, and
of the Confederation itself, shows that they always professed to
belong to the Empire, trying to become immediately dependent
on the emperor in order to prevent oppression by middle
lords, and to enjoy practical liberty. The Empire itself had
now become very much of a shadow; cities and princes
were gradually asserting their own independence, sometimes
breaking away from it altogether. Now, by the practical
time of the Burgundian War, the Confederation Freedom
stood in a position analogous to that of a powerful irom the
free imperial city. As long as the emperor's nominal BmPIre-
rights were not enforced, all went well; but, when Maximilian,
in his attempt to reorganize the Empire, erected in 1495 at
Worms an imperial chamber which had jurisdiction in all
disputes between members of the Empire, the Confederates were
very unwilling to obey it — partly because they could maintain
peace at home by their own authority, and partly because it
interfered with their practical independence. Again, their
refusal to join the " Swabian League," formed in 1488 by the
lords and cities of South Germany to keep the public peace,
gave further offence, as well as their fresh alliances with France.
Hence a struggle was inevitable, and the occasion by reason
of which it broke out was the seizure by the Tyrolese authorities
in 1499 of the Miinsterthal, which belonged to the " Gotles-
hausbund," one of the three leagues which had gradually arisen
in Raetia. These were the " Gotteshausbund " in 1367 (taking
in all the dependents of the cathedral church at Chur living
in the Oberhalbstein and Engadine); the " Ober " or " Grauer
Bund " in 1395 and 1424 (taking in the abbey of Disentis and
many counts and lords in the Vorder Rhein valley, though its
name is not derived, as often stated, from the " grey coats "
of the first members, but from " grawen " or " grafen," as
so many counts formed part of it); and the " League of the Ten
Jurisdictions " (Zehngerichtenbund), which arose in the Fratti-
gau and Davos valley (1436) on the death of Count Frederick
of Toggenburg, but which, owing to certain Austrian claims in
it, was not quite so free as its neighbours. The first and third
of these became allied in 1450, but the formal union of the three
dates only from 1524, as documentary proof is wanting of the
alleged meeting at Vazerol in 1471, though practically before
1524 they had very much in common. In 1497 the Obcr Bund,
in 1498 the Gotteshausbund, made a treaty of alliance with the
Everlasting League or Swiss Confederation, the Ten Jurisdic-
tions being unable to do more than show sympathy, owing to
Austrian claims, which were not bought up till 1649 and 1652.
Hence this attack on the Miinsterthal was an attack on an
" associate " member of the Swiss Confederation, Maximilian
being supported by the Swabian League; but its real historical
importance is the influence it had on the relations of the Swiss
254
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
to the Empire. The struggle lasted several months, the chief
fight being that in the Calven gorge (above Mais; May 22, 1499),
in which Benedict Fontana, a leader of the Gotteshausbund
men, performed many heroic deeds before his death. But, both
sides being exhausted, peace was made at Basel on the 22nd of
September 1499. By this the matters in dispute were referred
to arbitration, and the emperor annulled all the decisions of the
imperial chamber against the Confederation; but nothing was
laid down as to its future relations with the Empire. No further
real attempt, however, was made to enforce the rights of the
emperor, and the Confederation became a state allied with the
Empire, enjoying practical independence, though not formally
freed till 1648. Thus, 208 years after the origin of the Confedera-
tion in 1291, it had got rid of all Austrian claims (1394 and 1474),
as well as all practical subjection to the emperor. But its further
advance towards the position of an independent state was long
checked by religious divisions within, and by the enormous
influence of the French king on its foreign relations.
With the object of strengthening the northern border of the
Confederation, two more full members were admitted in 1501 —
Basel and Schaffhausen — on the same terms as Fribourg and
Soleure. The city of Basel had originally been ruled by its
bishop, but early in the i4th century it became a free imperial
city; before 1501 it had made no permanent alliance with the
Confederation, though it had been in continual relations with
it. Schaffhausen had grown up round the Benedictine monas-
tery of All Saints, and became in the early i3th century a free
imperial city, but was mortgaged to Austria from 1330 to 1415,
in which last year the emperor Sigismund declared all Duke
Frederick's rights forfeited in consequence of his abetting
the flight of Pope John XXII. It bought its freedom in 1418
and became an " associate " of the Confederation in 1454.
A few years later, in 1513, Appenzell, which in 1411 had
become a " protected " district, and in 1452 an " associate "
The League memDer °f tne Confederation, was admitted as the
enlarged to thirteenth full member; and this remained the
Thirteen number till the fall of the old Confederation in 1798.
Members. Roun(j tke three original members had gathered
first five others, united with the three, but not necessarily with
each other; and then gradually there grew up an outer circle,
consisting of five more, allied with all the eight old members,
but tied down by certain stringent conditions. Constance, which
seemed called by nature to enter the League, kept aloof, owing
to a quarrel as to criminal jurisdiction in the Thurgau, pledged
to it before the district was conquered by the Confederates.
In the first years of the i6th century the influence of the
Confederates south of the Alps was largely extended. The
system of giving pensions, in order to secure the
"Sh' °f enlisting men within the Confederation, and
of capitulations, by which the different members
supplied troops, was originated by Louis XI. in 1474, and later
followed by many other princes. Though a tribute to Swiss valour
and courage, this practice had very evil results, of which the first-
fruits were seen in the Milanese troubles (1500-1516), of which the
following is a summary. Both Charles VIII. (1484) and Louis XII.
(1499 for ten years) renewed Louis XL's treaty. The French at-
tempts to gain Milan were largely carried on by the help of Swiss
mercenaries, some of whom were on the opposite side; and, as
brotherly feeling was still too strong to make it possible for them
to fight against one another, Lodovico Sforza's Swiss troops
shamefully betrayed him to the French at Novara (1500). In
1500, too, the three Forest districts occupied Bellinzona (with
the Val Blenio) at the request of its inhabitants, and irf 1503
Louis XII. was forced to cede it to them. He, however, often
held back the pay of his Swiss troops, and treated them as
mere hirelings, so that when the ten years' treaty came to an
end Matthew Schinner, bishop of Sitten (or Sion), induced them
to join (1510) the pope, Julius II., then engaged in forming the
Holy League to expel the French from Italy. But when, after
the battle of Ravenna, Louis XII. became all-powerful in
Lombardy, 20,000 Swiss poured down into the Milanese and
occupied it, Felix Schmid, the burgomaster of Zurich, naming
Maximilian (Lodovico's son) duke of Milan, in return for which
he ceded to the Confederates Locarno, Val Maggia, Mendrisio
and Lugano (1512), while the Raetian Leagues seized Chiavenna,
Bormio and the Valtellina. (The former districts, with Bellin-
zona, the Val Blenio and the Val Leventina, were in 1803 made
into the canton of Ticino, the latter were held by Raetia till
1797.) In 1513 the Swiss completely defeated the French at
Novara, and in 1515 Pace was sent by Henry VIII. of England
to give pensions and get soldiers. Francis I. at once on his
accession (1515) began to prepare to win back the Milanese,
and, successfully evading the Swiss awaiting his descent from
the Alps, beat them in a pitched battle at Marignano near
Milan (Sept. 13, 1515), which broke the Swiss power in north
Italy, so that in 1516 a peace was made with France — the
Valais, the Three Raetian Leagues and both the abbot and town
of St Gall being included on the side of the Confederates. Pro-
vision was made for the neutrality of either party in case the
other became involved in war, and large pensions were promised.
This treaty was extended by another in 1521 (to which Zurich,
then under Zwingli's influence, would not agree, holding aloof
from the French alliance till 1614), by which the French king
might, with the consent of the Confederation, enlist any number
of men between 6000 and 16,000, paying them fit wages, and the
pensions were raised to 3000 francs annually to each member
of the Confederation. These two treaties were the starting-
point of later French interference with Swiss affairs.
4. In 1499 the Swiss had practically renounced their allegi-
ance to the emperor, the temporal chief of the world according
to medieval theory; and in the i6th century a great
number of them did the same by the world's spiritual
chief, the pope. The scene of the revolt was Zurich,
and the leader Ulrich Zwingli (who settled in Zurich at the very
end of 1518). But we cannot understand Zwingli's career unless
we remember that he was almost more a political reformer than
a religious one. In his former character his policy was threefold.
He bitterly opposed the French alliance and the pension and
mercenary system, for he had seen its evils with his own eyes
when serving as chaplain with the troops in the Milanese in
1512 and 1515. Hence in 1521 his influence kept Zurich back
from joining in the treaty with Francis I. Then, too, at the
time of the Peasant Revolt (1525), he did what he could to lighten
the harsh rule of the city over the neighbouring rural districts,
and succeeded in getting serfage abolished. Again he had it
greatly at heart to secure for Zurich and Bern the chief power
in the Confederation, because of their importance and size; he
wished to give them extra votes in the Diet, and would have
given them two-thirds of the " common bailiwicks " when these
were divided. In his character as a religious reformer we must
remember that he was a humanist, and deeply read in classical
literature, which accounts for his turning the canonries of the
Grossmiinster into professorships, reviving the old school of the
Carolinum, and relying on the arm of the state to carry out
religious changes (see ZWINGLI). After succeeding at two public
disputations (both held in 1523) his views rapidly gained ground
at Zurich, which long, however, stood quite alone, the other
Confederates issuing an appeal to await the decision of the
asked-for general council, and proposing to carry out by the arm
of the state certain small reforms, while clinging to the old
doctrines. Zwingli had to put down the extreme wing of the
Reformers — the Anabaptists — by force (1525-1526). Quarrels
soon arose as to allowing the new views in the " common baili-
wicks." The disputation at Baden (1526) was in favour of the
maintainers of the old faith; but that at Bern (1528) resulted
in securing for the new views the support of that great town,
and so matters began to take another aspect. In 1528 Bern
joined the union formed in December 1527 in favour of religious
freedom by Zurich and Constance (Christliches Burgrechi), and
her example was followed by Schaffhausen, St Gall, Basel,
Bienne and Miihlhausen (1528-1 529). This attempt virtually to
break up the League was met in February 1529 by the offensive
and defensive alliance made with King Ferdinand of Hungary
(brother of the emperor) by the three Forest districts, with
Lucerne and Zug, followed (April 1529) by the " Christliche
Vereinigung," or union between these five members of the
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
255
League. Zurich was greatly moved by this, and, as Zwingli
held that for the honour of God war was as necessary as icono-
clasm, hostilities seemed imminent; but Bern held back; and the
first peace of Kappel was concluded (June 1529), by which the
Hungarian alliance was annulled and the principle of " religious
parity " (or freedom) was admitted in the case of each member
of the League, while in the "common bailiwicks " the majority
in each parish was to decide the religion of that parish. This was
at once a victory and a check for Zwingli. He tried to make
an alliance with the Protestants in Germany, but failed at the
meeting at Marburg (October 1529) to come to an agreement
with Luther on the subject of the Eucharist, and the division
between the Swiss and the German Reformations was stereo-
typed. Zwingli now developed his views as to the greater
weight which Zurich and Bern ought to have in the League.
Quarrels, too, went on in the " common bailiwicks," for the
members of the League who clung to the old faith had a majority
of votes in matters relating to these districts. Zurich tried to
cut off supplies of food from reaching the Romanist members
(contrary, to the wishes of Zwingli), and, on the death of the
abbot of St Gall, disregarding the rights of Lucerne, Schwyz and
Glarus, who shared with her since 1451 the office of protectors
of the abbey, suppressed the monastery, giving the rule of the
land and the people to her own officers. Bern in vain tried to
moderate this aggressive policy, and the Romanist members
of the League indignantly advanced from Zug towards Zurich.
Near Kappel, on the nth of October 1531, the Zurich vanguard
under Goldli was (perhaps owing to his treachery) surprised, and
despite reinforcements the men of Zurich were beaten, among the
slain being Zwingli himself. Another defeat completed the
discomfiture of Zurich, and by the second peace of Kappel
(November 1531) the principle of " parity " was recognized, not
merely in the case of each member of the League and of the
" common bailiwicks," but in the latter Romanist minorities
in every parish were to have a right to celebrate their own wor-
ship. Thus everywhere the rights of a minority were protected
from the encroachments of the majority. The " Christliches
Burgrecht " was abolished, and Zurich was condemned to pay
heavy damages. Bullinger succeeded Zwingli, but this treaty
meant that neither side could now try to convert the other
wholesale. The League was permanently split into two religious
camps: the Romanists, who met at Lucerne, numbered, besides
the five already mentioned, Fribourg, Soleure, Appenzell
(Inner Rhoden) and the abbot of St Gall (with the Valais and
the bishop of Basel), thus commanding sixteen votes (out of
twenty-nine) in the Diet; the Evangelicals were Zurich, Bern,
Schaffhausen, Appenzell (Ausser Rhoden), Glarus and the towns
of St Gall, Basel and Bienne (with Graubiinden), who met at
Aarau.
Bern had her eyes always fixed upon the Savoyard lands to
the south-west, in which she had got a footing in 1475, and now
Conquest of made zeal for religious reforms the excuse for resum-
Vaudby mg her advance policy. In 1526 Guillaume Farel,
;rn' a preacher from Dauphine, had been sent to reform
Aigle, Morat and Neuchatel. In 1532 he came to Geneva, an
ancient city of which the rule had long been disputed by the
prince-bishop, the burgesses and the house of Savoy, the latter
holding the neighbouring districts. She had become in isigthe
ally of Fribourg, in 1526 that of Bern also; and in 1530, by their
influence, a peace was made between the contending parties.
The religious changes introduced by Farel greatly displeased
Fribourg, which abandoned the alliance (1534), and in 1535 the
Reformation was firmly planted in the city. The duke of
Savoy, however, took up arms against Bern (1536), who overran
Gex, Vaud and the independent bishopric of Lausanne, as well
as the Chablais to the south of the lake. Geneva was only
saved by the unwillingness of the citizens. Bern thus ruled
north and south of the lake, and carried matters with a high
hand. Shortly after this John Calvin, a refugee from Picardy,
was, when passing through Geneva, detained by Farel to aid him,
and, after an exile from 1538-1541, owing to opposition of the
papal party and of the burghers, who objected to Bernese rule,
he was recalled (1541) and set up his wonderful theocratic
government in the city, in 1553 burning Servetus, the Unitarian
(see CALVIN and SERVETUS), and in 1555 expelling many who
upheld municipal liberty, replacing them by French, English,
Italians and Spaniards as new burghers, whose names are still
frequent in Geneva (e.g. Candolle, Mallet, Diodati). His theo-
logical views led to disputes with the Zurich Reformers, which
were partly settled by the Consensus Tigurinus of 1549, and
more completely by the Helvetic Confession of 1562-1566, which
formed the basis of union between the two parties.
By the time of Calvin's death (1564) the old faith had begun
to take the offensive; the reforms made by the Council of Trent
urged on the Romanists to make an attempt to recover lost
ground. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, the hero of St
Quentin (1557), and one of the greatest generals of the day, with
the support of the Romanist members of the League, demanded
the restoration of the districts seized by Bern in 1536, and on the
30th of October 1564 the Treaty of Lausanne confirmed the
decision of the other Confederates sitting as arbitrators (according
to the old constitutional custom). By this treaty Gex, the
Genevcis and the Chablais were to be given back, while Lausanne,
Vevey, Chillon, Villeneuve, Nyon, Avenches and Yverdon were
to be kept by Bern, who engaged to maintain the old rights and
liberties of Vaud. Thus Bern lost the lands south of the lake,
in which St Francis of Sales, the exiled prince-bishop of Geneva
(1602-1622), at once proceeded to carry out the restoration of
the old faith. In 1555 Bern and Fribourg, as creditors of the
debt-laden count, divided the county of Gruyere, thus getting
French-speaking subjects. In 1558 Geneva renewed her alliance
with Bern, and in 1584 she made one with Zurich. The duke
of Savoy made several vain attempts to get hold of Geneva, the
last (in 1602) being known as the " escalade."
The decrees of the Council of Trent had been accepted fully
by the Romanist members of the League, so far as relates to
dogma, but not as regards discipline or the relations -fbeCouater-
of church and state, the sovereign rights and juris- Reforms-
diction of each state being always carefully reserved. a°a'
The counter-Reformation, however, or reaction in favour of
the old faith, was making rapid progress in the Confederation,
mainly through the indefatigable exertions of Charles Borromeo,
from 1560 to 1584 archbishop of Milan (in which diocese
the Italian bailiwicks were included), and nephew of Pius IV.,
supported at Lucerne by Ludwig Pfyffer, who, having
been (1562-1570) the chief of the Swiss mercenaries in the
French wars of religion, did so much till his death (1594) to
further the religious reaction at home that he was popularly
known as the " Swiss king." In 1574 the Jesuits, the great
order of the reaction, were established at Lucerne; in 1579 a
papal nuncio came to Lucerne; Charles Borromeo founded the
" Collegium Helveticum " at Milan for the education of forty-
two young Swiss, and the Catholic members of the League made
an alliance with the bishop of Basel; in 1581 the Capuchins were
introduced to influence the more ignorant classes. Most impor-
tant of all was the Golden or Borromean League, concluded
(Oct. 5, 1586) between the seven Romanist members of the
Confederation (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug,
Fribourg and Soleure) for the maintenance of the true faith in
their territories, each engaging to punish backsliding members
and to help each other if attacked by external enemies, notwith-
standing any other leagues, old or new. This league marks
the final breaking up of the Confederation into two great parties,
which greatly hindered its progress. The Romanist members
had a majority in the Diet, and were therefore able to refuse
admittance to Geneva, Strassburg and Muhlhausen. Another
result of these religious differences was the breaking up of
Appenzell into two parts (1597), each sending one representative
to the Diet — " Inner Rhoden " remaining Romanist, " Ausser
Rhoden " adopting the new views. We may compare with this
the action of Zurich in 1555, when she received the Protestant
exiles (bringing with them the silk-weaving industry) from
Locarno and the Italian bailiwicks into her burghership, and
Italian names are found there to this day (e.g. Orelli, Muralt).
In the Thirty Years' War the Confederation remained neutral,
being bound both to Austria (1474) and to France (1516), and
256
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
neither religious party wishing to give the other an excuse for
calling in foreign armies. But the troubles in Raetia threatened
entanglements. Austria wished to secure the Miinsterthal
(belonging to the League of the Ten Jurisdictions), and Spain
wanted the command of the passes leading from the Valtellina
(conquered by the leagues of Raetia in 1512), the object being
to connect the Habsburg lands of Tirol and Milan. In the
Valtellina the rule of the Three Raetian Leagues was very harsh,
and Spanish intrigues easily brought about the massacre of
1620, by which the valley was won, the Romanist members of
the Confederation stopping the troops of Zurich and Bern. In
1622 the Austrians conquered the Prattigau, over which they
still had certain feudal rights. French troops regained the
Valtellina in 1624, but it was occupied once more in 1629 by
the imperial troops, and it was not till 1635 tnat the French,
under Rohan, finally succeeded in holding it. The French,
however, wished to keep it permanently; hence new troubles
arose, and in 1637 the natives, under George Jenatsch, with
Spanish aid drove them out, the Spaniards themselves being
forced to resign it in 1639. It was only in 1649 and 1652 that
the Austrian rights in the Prattigau were finally bought up by the
League of the Ten Jurisdictions, which thus gained its freedom.
In consequence of Ferdinand II. 's edict of restitution (1629),
by which the status quo of 1552 was re-established — the high-
water mark of the counter-Reformation — the abbot of St Gall
tried to make some religious changes in his territories, but the
protest of Zurich led to the Baden compromise of 1632, by which,
in the case of disputes on religious matters arising in the " com-
mon bailiwicks, " the decision was to be, not by a majority of
the cantons, but by means of friendly discussion — a logical
application of the doctrine of religious parity — or by arbitration.
But by far the most important event in Swiss history in this
age is the formal freeing of the Confederation from the empire.
Formal Basel had been admitted a member of the League
Freedom in 1501, two years after the Confederation had been
from the practically freed from the jurisdiction of the imperial
mpre' chamber, though the city was included in the new
division of the empire into " circles " (1521), which did not take
in the older members of the Confederation. Basel, however,
refused to admit this jurisdiction; the question was taken up by
France and Sweden at the congress of Miinster, and formed the
subject of a special clause in both the treaties of Westphalia,
by which the city of Basel and the other " Helvetiorum cantones "
were declared to be " in the possession, or almost in the posses-
sion, of entire liberty and exemption from the empire, and
nullatenus subject to the imperial tribunals." This was intended
to mean formal exemption from all obligations to the empire
(with which the Confederation was connected hereafter simply
as a friend), and to be a definitive settlement of the question.
Thus by the events of 1499 and 1648 the Confederation had
become an independent European state, which, by the treaty of
1516, stood as regards France in a relation of neutrality.
In 1668, in consequence of Louis XIV.'s temporary occupation
of the Franche Comte, an old scheme for settling the number
of men to be sent by each member of the Confederation to the
joint army, and the appointment of a council of war in war
time, that is, an attempt to create a common military organiza-
tion, was accepted by the Diet, which was to send two deputies
to the council, armed with full political powers. This agreement,
known as the Defcnsionale, is the only instance of joint and
unanimous action in this miserable period of Swiss history, when
religious divisions crippled the energy of the Confederation.
Throughout the i7th and i8th centuries the Confederation
was practically a dependency of France. In 1614 Zurich for
Preach the first time joined in the treaty, which was renewed
influence, jn rf^ wjt]j Spec;ai provisions as regards the
D/l/stons Protestant Swiss mercenaries in the king's pay and
andRise'of a promise of French neutrality in case of civil war
aoAiisto- in the League. The Swiss had to stand by while
Louis XIV. won Alsace (1648), Franche Comte
(1678) and Strassburg (1681). But, as Louis inclined more
and more to an anti-Protestant policy, the Protestant members
of the League favoured the Dutch military service; and it was
through their influence that in 1707 the " states " of the princi-
pality of Neuchatel, on the extinction of the Longueville line
of these princes, decided in favour of the king of Prussia (repre-
senting the overlords — the house of Chalon-Orange) as against
the various French pretenders claiming from the Longueville
dynasty by descent or by will. In 1715 the Romanist members
of the League, in hopes of retrieving their defeat of 1712 (see
below), agreed, while renewing the treaty and capitulations,
to put France in the position of the guarantor of their freedom,
with rights of interfering in case of attack from within or from
without, whether by counsel or arms, while she promised to
procure restitution of the lands lost by them in 1712. This
last clause was simply the surrender of Swiss independence, and
was strongly objected to by the Protestant members of the
Confederation, so that in 1777 it was dropped, when all the
Confederates made a fresh defensive alliance, wherein their
sovereignty and independence were expressly set forth. Thus
France had succeeded to the position of the empire with
regard to the Confederation, save that her claims were practically
asserted and voluntarily admitted.
Between 1648 and 1798 the Confederation was distracted
by religious divisions and feelings ran very high. A scheme
to set up a central administration fell through in 1655, through
jealousy of Bern and Zurich, the proposers. In 1656 a question
as to certain religious refugees, who were driven from Schwyz
and took refuge at Zurich, brought about the first Villemergen
War, in which the Romanists were successful, and procured a
clause in the treaty asserting very strongly the absolute sove-
reignty, in religious as well as in political matters, of each member
of the League within its own territories, while in the " common
bailiwicks " the Baden arrangement (1632) was to prevail.
Later, the attempt of the abbot of St Gall to enforce his rights
in the Toggenburg swelled into the second Villemergen War
(1712), which turned out very ill for the defeated Romanists.
Zurich and Bern were henceforth to hold in severally Baden,
Rapperswil, and part of the " common bailiwicks " of the
Aargau, both towns being given a share in the government
of the rest, and Bern in that of Thurgau and Rheinthal, from
which, as well as from that part of Aargau, she had been carefully
excluded in 1415 and 1460. The only thing that prospered
was the principle of " religious parity," which was established
completely, as regards both religions, within each parish in the
" common bailiwick."
The Diet had few powers; the Romanists had the majority
there; the sovereign rights of each member of the League and
the limited mandate of the envoys effectually checked all pro-
gress. Zurich, as the leader of the League, managed matters
when the Diet was not sitting, but could not enforce her orders.
The Confederation was little more than a collection of separate
atoms, and it is really marvellous that it did not break up
through its own weakness.
In these same two centuries, the chief feature in domestic
Swiss politics is the growth of an aristocracy: the power of
voting and the power of ruling are placed in the hands of a
small class. This is chiefly seen in Bern, Lucerne. Fribourg
and Soleure, where there were not the primitive democracies
of the Forest districts nor the government by gilds as at
Zurich, Basel and Schaffhausen. It was effected by refusing
to admit any new burghers, a practice which dates from the
middle of the i6th century, and is connected (like the similar
movement in the smaller local units of the " communes " in
the rural districts) with the question of poor relief after the
suppression of the monasteries. Outsiders (Hintersasse
or Niedergelassene) had no political rights, however long they
might have resided, while the privileges of burghership were
strictly hereditary. Further, within the burghers, a small
class succeeded in securing the monopoly of all public offices,
which was kept up by the practice of co-opting, and was known
as the " patriciate." So in Bern, out of 360 burgher families
69 only towards the close of the i8th century formed the ruling
oligarchy — and, though to foreigners the government seemed
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
257
admirably managed, yet the last thing that could be said of
it was that it was democratic. In 1749 Samuel Henzi (dis-
gusted at being refused the post of town librarian) made a
fruitless attempt to overthrow this oligarchy, like the lawyer,
Pierre Fatio at Geneva in 1707. The harsh character of Bernese
rule (and the same holds good with reference to Uri and the
Val Leventina) was shown in the great strictness with which
its subject land Vaud was kept in hand: it was ruled as a
conquered land by a benevolent despot, and we can feel no
surprise that Major J. D. A. Davel in 1723 tried to free his
native land, or that it was in Vaud that the principles of the
French Revolution were most eagerly welcomed. Another
result of this aristocratic tendency was the way in which the
cities despised the neighbouring country districts, and managed
gradually to deprive them of their equal political rights and to
levy heavy taxes upon them. These and other grievances
(the fall in the price of food after the close of the Thirty Years'
War, the lowering of the value of the coin, &c.), combined with
the presence of many soldiers discharged after the great war,
led to the great Peasant Revolt (1653) in the territories of
Bern, Soleu're, Lucerne and Basel, interesting historically as
being the first popular rising since the old days of the I3th and
i4th centuries, and because reminiscences of legends connected
with those times led to the appearance of the " three Tells,"
who greatly stirred up the people. The rising was put down at
the cost of much bloodshed, but the demands of the peasants
were not granted. Yet during this period of political powerless-
ness a Swiss literature first arises: Conrad Gesner and Giles
Tschudi in the i6th century are succeeded by J. J. Scheuchzer,
A. von Haller, J. C. Lavater, J. J. Bodmer, H. B. de Saussure,
J. J. Rousseau, J. von M tiller; the taste for Swiss travel is
stimulated by the publication (1793) of the first real Swiss
guide-book by J. G. Ebel (q.v.), based on the old Deliciae;
industry throve greatly. The residence of such brilliant foreign
writers as Gibbon and Voltaire within or close to the territories
of the Confederation helped on this remarkable intellectual
revival. Political aspirations were not, however, wholly
crushed, and found their centre in the Helvetic Society,
founded in 1762 by F. U. Balthasar and others.
The Confederation and France had been closely connected
for so long that the outbreak of the French Revolution could
E« „, • not fail to affect the Swiss. The Helvetian Club,
Effects of . . '
the French founded at Pans in 1790 by several exiled Vaudois
Revolution and Fribourgers, was the centre from which the new
on the Con- [^eas were Spread in the western part of the Confede-
tera oa. ratjon> an(j rjsjngs directed or stirred up. In 1790 the
Lower Valais rose against the oppressive rule of the upper
districts; in 1791 Porrentruy defied the prince-bishop of Basel,
despite the imperial troops he summoned, and proclaimed
(November 1792) the " Rauracian republic," which three
months later (1793) became the French department of the
Mont Terrible; Geneva was only saved (1792) from France by
a force sent from Zurich and Bern; while the massacre of the
Swiss guard at the Tuileries on the loth of August 1792 aroused
intense indignation. The rulers, however, unable to enter
into the new ideas, contented themselves with suppressing
them by force, e.g. Zurich in the case of Slafa (1795). St Gall
managed to free itself from its prince-abbot (1795-1797), but the
Leagues of Raetia so oppressed their subjects in the Valtellina
that in 1797 Bonaparte (after conquering the Milanese from the
Austrians) joined them to the Cisalpine republic. The Diet
was distracted by party struggles and the fall of the old Con-
federation was not far distant. The rumours of the vast
treasures stored up at Bern, and the desire of securing a bulwark
against Austrian attack, specially turned the attention of the
directory towards the Confederation; and this was utilized
by the heads of the Reform party in the Confederation — Peter
Ochs (1752-1821), the burgomaster of Basel, and Frederic
Cesar Laharpe (1754-1838; tutor, 1783-1794, to the later
tsar Alexander I.), who had left his home in Vaud through
disgust at Bernese oppression, both now wishing for aid from
outside in order to free their land from the rule of the oligarchy,
xxvi. 9
Hence, when Laharpe, at the head of some twenty exiles from
Vaud and Fribourg, called (Dec. 9, 1797) on the Directory
to protect the liberties of Vaud, which, so he said (by a bit of
purely apocryphal history), France by the treaty of 1565 was
bound to guarantee, his appeal found a ready answer. In
February 1798 French troops occupied Muhlhausen and Bienne
(Biel), as well as those parts of the lands of the prince-bishop
of Basel (St Imier and the Munsterthal) as regards which he
had been since 1579 the ally of the Catholic members of the
Confederation. Another army entered Vaud (February 1798),
when the " Lemanic republic " was proclaimed, and the Diet
broke up in dismay without taking any steps to avert the coming
storm. Brune and his army occupied Fribourg and Soleure,
and, after fierce fighting at Neuenegg, entered (March 5)
Bern, deserted by her allies and distracted by quarrels within.
With Bern, the stronghold of the aristocratic party, fell the
old Confederation. The revolution triumphed throughout
the country. Brune (March 16-19) Put forth a wonderful
scheme by which the Confederation with its " associates "
and " subjects " was to be split into three republics — the Tellgau
(i.e. the Forest districts), the Rhodanic (i.e. Vaud, the Valais,
the Bernese Oberland and the Italian bailiwicks), and the
Helvetic (i.e. the northern and eastern portions) ; but the direc-
tory disapproved of this (March 23), and on the 29th of March
the " Helvetic republic, one and indivisible," was The
proclaimed. This was accepted by ten cantons Helvetic
only as well as (April 12) the constitution drafted Republic.
by Ochs. By the new scheme the territories of the Everlasting
League were split up into twenty-three (later nineteen, Raetia
only coming in in 1799) administrative districts, called " can-
tons," a name now officially used in Switzerland for the first
time, though it may be found employed by foreigners in the
French treaty of 1452, in Commynes and Machiavelli, and in
the treaties of Westphalia (1648). A central government was
set up, with its seat at Lucerne, comprising a senate and a great
council, together forming the legislature, and named by electors
chosen by the people in the proportion of i to every 100 citizens,
with an executive of five directors chosen by the legislature,
and having four ministers as subordinates or " chief secretaries."
A supreme court of justice was set up; a status of Swiss citizen-
ship was recognized; and absolute freedom to settle in any
canton was given, the political " communes " being now com-
posed of all residents, and not merely of the burghers. For the
first time an attempt was made to organize the Confederation
as a single state, but the change was too sweeping to last, for
it largely ignored the local patriotism which had done so much
to create the Confederation, though more recently it had made
it politically powerless. The three Forest districts rose in
rebellion against the invaders and the new constitutions which
destroyed their ancient prerogatives; but the valiant resistance
of the Schwyzers, under Alois Reding, on the heights of
Morgarten (April and May), and that of the Unterwaldners
(August and September) , were put down by French armies. The
proceedings of the French, however, soon turned into disgust
and hatred the joyful feelings with which they had been hailed
as liberators. Geneva was annexed to France (April 1798);
Gersau, after an independent existence of over 400 years, was
made a mere district of Schwyz; immense fines were levied and
the treasury at Bern pillaged; the land was treated as if it had
been conquered. The new republic was compelled to make a
very close offensive and defensive alliance with France, and
its directors were practically nominated from Paris. In June-
October 1799 Zurich, the Forest cantons and Raetia became
the scene of the struggles of the Austrians (welcomed with joy)
against the French and Russians. The manner, too, in which
the reforms were carried out alienated many, and, soon after the
directory gave way to the consulate in Paris (18 Brumaire or
Nov. 10, 1799), the Helvetic directory (January 1800) was
replaced by an executive committee.
The scheme of the Helvetic republic had gone too far in the
direction of centralization; but it was not easy to find the happy
mean, and violent discussions went on between the " Unitary "
258
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
(headed by Ochs and Laharpe) and " Federalist " parties.
Many drafts were put forward and one actually submitted to
but rejected by a popular vote (June 1802). In July 1802 the
French troops were withdrawn from Switzerland by Bonaparte,
ostensibly to comply with the treaty of Amiens, really to show
the Swiss that their best hopes lay in appealing to him. The
Helvetic government was gradually driven back by armed
force, and the Federalists seemed getting the best of it, when
(Oct. 4) Bonaparte offered himself as mediator, and summoned
ten of the chief Swiss statesmen to Paris to discuss
matters with him (the " Consulta "—December 1802).
He had long taken a very special interest in Swiss
matters, and in 1802 had given to the Helvetic republic the
Frickthal (ceded to France in 1801 by Austria), the last Austrian
possession within the borders of the Confederation. On the
other hand, he had made (August 1802) the Valais into an
independent republic. In the discussions he pointed out that
Swiss needs required a federal constitution and a neutral posi-
tion guaranteed by France. Finally (Feb. 19, 1803) he laid
before the Consulta the Act of Mediation which he had elaborated
and which they had perforce to accept — a document which
formed a new departure in Swiss history, and the influence of
which is visible in the present constitution.
Throughout, " Switzerland " is used for the first time as the
official name of the Confederation. The thirteen members
of the old Confederation before 1798 are set up again, and to
them are added six new cantons — two (St Gall and Graubiinden
or Grisons) having been formerly " associates," and the four
others being made up of the subject lands conquered at different
times — Aargau (1415), Thurgau (1460), Ticino or Tessin (1440,
1500, 1512), and Vaud (1536). In the Diet, six cantons which
had a population of more than 100,000 (viz. Bern, Zurich,
Vaud, St Gall, Graubiinden and Aargau) were given two
votes, the others having but one apiece, and the deputies were
to vote freely within limits, though not against their instructions.
Meetings of the Diet were to be held alternately at Fribourg,
Bern, Soleure, Basel, Zurich and Lucerne — the chief magis-
trate of each of these cantons being named for that year the
" landamman of Switzerland." The " landsgemeinden," or
popular assemblies, were restored in the democratic cantons,
the cantonal governments in other cases being in the hands
of a " great council " (legislative) and the " small council "
(executive) — a property qualification being required both for
voters and candidates. No canton was to form any political
alliances abroad or at home. The " communes " were given
larger political rights, the burghers who owned and used the
common lands became more and more private associations.
There was no Swiss burghership, as in 1798, but perfect liberty
of settlement in any canton. There were to be no privileged
classes or subject lands. A very close alliance with France
(on the basis of that of 1516) was concluded (Sept. 27,
1803). The whole constitution and organization were far
better suited for the Swiss than the more symmetrical system
of the Helvetic republic; but, as it was guaranteed by Bonaparte,
and his influence was predominant, the whole fabric was closely
bound up with him, and fell with him. Excellent in itself,
the constitution set forth in the Act of Mediation failed by reason
of its setting.
For ten years Switzerland enjoyed peace and -prosperity
under the new constitution. Pestalozzi and Fellenberg worked
out their educational theories; K. Escher of Zurich
01*1815 embanked the Linth, and his family was thence
called "von der Linth"; the central government
prepared many schemes for the common welfare. On the other
hand, the mediator (who became emperor in 1804) lavishly
expended his Swiss troops, the number of which could only be
kept up by a regular blood tax, while the " Berlin decrees "
raised the price of many articles. In 1806 the principality
of Neuchitel was given to Marshal Berthier; Tessin was occupied
by French troops from 1810 to 1813, and in 1810 the Valais
was made into the department of the Simplon, so as to secure
that pass. At home, the liberty of moving from one canton to
another (though given by the constitution) was, by the Diet
in 1805, restricted by requiring ten years' residence, and then
not granting political rights in the canton or a right of profiting
by the communal property. As soon as Napoleon's power
began to wane (1812-1813), the position of Switzerland became
endangered. Despite the personal wishes of the tsar (a pupil of
Laharpe's), the Austrians, supported by the reactionary party
in Switzerland, and without any real resistance on the part of
the Diet, as well as the Russians troops, crossed the frontier
on the 2ist of December 1813, and on the 29th of December
the Diet was induced to declare the abolition of the 1803 con-
stitution, guaranteed, like Swiss neutrality, by Napoleon. Bern
headed the party which wished to restore the old state of things,
but Zurich and the majority stood out for the nineteen cantons.
The powers exercised great pressure to bring about a meeting
of deputies from all the nineteen cantons at Zurich (April 6,
1814, " the long Diet "); party strife was very bitter, but on the
1 2th of September it decided that the Valais, Neuchatel and
Geneva should be raised from the rank of " associates " to that
of full members of the Confederation (thus making up the
familiar twenty-two). As compensation the congress of Vienna
(March 20, 18 1 5) gave Bern the town of Bienne (Biel) , and all (save
a small part which went to Basel) of the territories of the prince-
bishop of Basal (" the Bernese Jura "); but the Valtellina was
granted to Austria, and Miihlhausen was not freed from France.
On the 7th of August 1815 the new constitution was sworn
to by all the cantons save Nidwalden, the consent of which was
only obtained (Aug. 30) by armed force, a delay
for which she paid by seeing Engelberg and the
valley above (acquired by Nidwalden in 1798) given
to Obwalden. By the new constitution the sovereign rights of
each canton were fully recognized, and a return made to the
lines of the old constitution, though there were to be no subject
lands, and political rights were not to be the exclusive privilege
of any class of citizens. Each canton had one vote in the Diet,
where an absolute majority was to decide all matters save
foreign affairs, when a majority of three-fourths was required.
The management of current business, &c., shifted every two
years between the governments of Zurich, Bern and Lucerne
(the three " Vororte "). The monasteries were guaranteed in
their rights and privileges; and no canton was to make any
alliance contrary to the rights of the Confederation or of any
other canton. Provision was made for a Federal army.
Finally, the Congress, on the 2Oth of November 1815,
placed Switzerland and parts of North Savoy (Chablais, Faucigny
and part of the Genevois) under the guarantee of the Great
Powers, who engaged to maintain their neutrality, thus freeing
Switzerland from her 300 years' subservience to France, and
compensating in some degree for the reactionary nature of the
new Swiss constitution when compared with that of 1803.
5. The cities at once secured for themselves in the cantonal
great councils an overwhelming representation over the neigh-
bouring country districts, and the agreement of
1805 as to migration from one canton to another was jje/bnn
renewed (1819) by twelve cantons. For some time
there was little talk of reforms, but in 1819 the Helvetic Society
definitely became a political society, and the foundation in 1824
of the Marksmen's Association enabled men from all cantons to
meet together. A few cantons (notably Tessin) were beginning
to make reforms, when the influence of the July revolution (1830)
in Paris and the sweeping changes in Zurich led the Diet to declare
(Dec. 27) that it would not interfere with any reforms of cantonal
constitutions provided they were in agreement with the pact
of 1815. Hence for the next few years great activity in this
direction was displayed, and most of the cantons reformed
themselves, save the most conservative (e.g. Uri, Glarus) and
the advanced who needed no changes (e.g. Geneva, Graubiinden).
Provision was always made for revising these constitutions at
fixed intervals, for the changes were not felt to be final, and seven
cantons — Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Soleure, St Gall, Aargau and
Thurgau — joined together to guarantee their new free constitu-
tions (Siebener Concordat of March 17, 1832). Soon after, the
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
259
question of revising the Federal pact was brought forward by a
large majority of cantons in the Diet (July 17), whereon, by the
league of Sarnen (Nov. 14), the three Forest cantons, with
Neuchatel, the city of Basel, and the Valais, agreed to maintain
the pact of 1815 and to protest against the separation of Basel
in two halves (for in the reform struggle Schwyz and Basel had
been split up, though the split was permanent only in the latter
case). A draft constitution providing for a Federal administra-
tion distinct from the cantons could not secure a majority in
its favour; a reaction against reform set in, and the Diet was
forced to sanction (1833) the division of Basel into the " city "
and " country " divisions (each with half a vote in the Diet),
though fortunately in Schwyz the quarrel was healed. Religious
quarrels further stirred up strife in connexion with Aargau,
which was a canton where religious parity prevailed, later in
others. In Zurich the extreme pretensions of the Radicals
and freethinkers (illustrated by offering a chair of theology in
the university to D. F. Strauss of Tubingen because of his Life of
Jesus, then recently published) brought about a great reaction in
1839, when Zurich was the " Vorort." In Aargau the parties were
very evenly balanced, and, when in 1840, on occasion of the re-
vision of the constitution, the Radicals had a popular'majority the
aggrieved clerics stirred up a revolt (1840), which was put
down, but which gave their opponents, headed by Augustine
Keller, an excuse for carrying a vote in the great council to
suppress the eight monasteries in the canton (Jan. 1841). This
was flatly opposed to the pact of 1815, which the Diet by a small
majority decided must be upheld (April 1841), though after
many discussions it determined (Aug. 31, 1843) to accept the
compromise by which the men's convents only were to
be suppressed, and declared that the matter was now settled.
On this the seven Romanist cantons — Uri, Schwyz, Unter-
walden, Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg and the Valais — formed (Sept.
13, 1843) a " Sonderbund " or separate league, which (February
1844) issued a manifesto demanding the reopening of
the question and the restoration of all the monasteries.
Like the Radicals in former years the Romanists went
too far and too fast, for in October 1844 the clerical party
in Lucerne (in the majority since 1841, and favouring the
reaction in the Valais) officially invited in the Jesuits and
gave them high posts, an act which created all the more sensa-
tion because Lucerne was the " Vorort." Twice (December
1844 and March 1845) parties of free lances tried to capture
the city. In December 1845 the Sonderbund turned itself into
an armed confederation, ready to appeal to war in defence of
the rights of each canton. The Radicals carried Zurich in
April 1845 and Bern in February 1846, but a majority could
not be secured in the Diet till Geneva (Oct. 1846) and St Gall (May
1847) were won by the same party. On the 2oth of July 1847,
the Diet, by a small majority, declared that the Sonderbund was
contrary to the Federal pact, which on the i6th of August it was
resolved to revise, while on the 3rd of September it was decided
to invite each canton to expel the Jesuits. Most of the Great
Powers favoured the Sonderbund, but England took the con-
trary view, and the attempt of Metternich, supported by Louis
Philippe, to bring about European intervention, on the plea of
upholding the treaties of Vienna, was frustrated by the policy
of masterly inactivity pursued by Lord Palmerston, who delayed
giving an answer till the forces of the Sonderbund had been
defeated, a friendly act that is still gratefully remembered in
the country. On the 2gth of October the deputies of the
unyielding cantons left the Diet, which ordered on the 4th of
November that its decree should be enforced by arms. The
war was short (Nov. 10-29), mainly owing to the ability of the
general, G. H. Dufour (1787-1875), and the loss of life trifling.
One after another the rebellious cantons were forced to surrender,
and, as the Paris revolution of February 1848, entailing the
retirement of Guizot (followed 'three weeks later by that of
Metternich), occupied all the attention of the Great Powers
(who by the constitution of 1815 should have been consulted
in the revision of the pact), the Swiss were enabled to settle
their own affairs quietly. Schwyz and Zug abolished their
" landsgemeinden," and the seven were condemned to pay the
costs of the war (ultimately defrayed by subscription), which
had been waged rather on religious than on strict particularist
or states-rights grounds. The Diet meanwhile debated the
draft constitution drawn up by Johann Conrad Kern (1808-
1888) of Thurgau and Henri Druey (1799-1855) of Vaud, which
in the summer of 1848 was accepted by fifteen and a half cantons,
the minority consisting of the three Forest cantons, the Valais, '
Zug, Tessin and Appenzell (Inner Rhoden), and it was proclaimed
on the 1 2th of September.
The new constitution inclined rather to the Act of Mediation
than to the system which prevailed before 1798. A status of
" Swiss citizenship " was set up, closely joined to
cantonal citizenship; a man settling in a canton not
being his birthplace got cantonal citizenship after
a residence of at most two years, but was excluded from all local
rights in the " commune " where he might reside. A Federal
or central government was set up, to which the cantons gave up
a certain part of their sovereign rights, retaining the rest. The
Federal Legislature (or assembly) was made up of two houses —
the Council of States (Slanderat), composed of two deputies
from each canton, whether small or great (44 in all), and the
National Council (Nationalral), made up of deputies elected
for three years, in the proportion of one for every 20,000 souls
or fraction over 10,000, the electors being all Swiss citizens.
The Federal council or executive (Bundesrat) consisted of
seven members elected by the Federal Assembly sitting as a
congress; they were jointly responsible for all business, though
for sake of convenience there were various departments, and their
chairman was called the president of the Confederation. The
Federal judiciary (Bundesgericht) was made up of eleven
members elected for three years by the Federal Assembly
sitting in congress; its jurisdiction was chiefly confined to civil
cases, in which the Confederation was a party (if a canton, the
Federal council may refer the case to the Federal tribunal), but
took in also great political crimes — all constitutional questions,
however, being reserved for the Federal Assembly. A Federal
university and a polytechnic school were to be founded. All
military capitulations were forbidden in the future. Every
canton must treat Swiss citizens who belong to one of the
Christian confessions like their own citizens, for the right of
free settlement is given to all such, though they acquired no
rights in the " commune." All Christians were guaranteed the
exercise of their religion, but the Jesuits and similar religious
orders were not to be received in any canton. German, French
and Italian were recognized as national languages.
The constitution as a whole marked a great step forward;
though very many rights were still reserved to the cantons,
yet there was a fully organized central government. Almost
the first act of the Federal Assembly was to exercise the power
given them of determining the home of the Federal authorities,
and on the 28th of November 1848 Bern was chosen, though
Zurich still ranks as the first canton in the Confederation. '
Soon after 1848 a beginning was made of organizing the different
public services, which had now been brought within the jurisdic-
tion of the central Federal authority. Thus in 1849 a uniform
letter post service was established, in 1850 a single coinage
replaced the intricate cantonal currencies, while all customs
duties between cantons were abolished; in 1851 the telegraph
service was organized, while all weights and measures were
unified (in 1868 the metrical system was allowed, and in 1875
declared obligatory and universal), in 1854 roads and canals
were taken in hand, while finally in 1855 the Federal Polytechnic
School at Zurich was opened, though the Federal university
authorized by the new constitution has not yet been set up.
These were some of the non-political benefits of the creation of
a Federal central executive. But in 1852 the Federal Assembly
decided to leave the construction of railways to private
enterprise and so had to buy them up in 1903 at a vastly
enhanced price.
By this early settlement of disputes Switzerland was protected
from the general revolutionary movement of 1848, and in later
260
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
years her political history has been uneventful, though she has
felt the weight of the great European crises in industrial and
social matters.
The position of Neuchatel, as a member of the Confederation
(as regards its government only) and as a principality ruled by
the king of Prussia, whose rights had been expressly recognized
by the congress of Vienna, was uncertain. She had not sent
troops in 1847, and, though in 1848 there was a republican
revolution there, the prince did not recognize the changes.
Finally, a royalist conspiracy in September 1856 to undo the
work of 1848 caused great excitement and anger in Switzerland,
and it was only by the mediation of Napoleon III. and the other
powers that the prince renounced (1857) all his rights, save his
title, which his successor (the German emperor) has also dropped.
Since that time Neuchatel has been an ordinary member of
the Confederation. In 1850-1860 the cession of Savoy (part of
it neutralized in 1815) to France aroused considerable indigna-
tion, and in 1862 the long-standing question of frontiers in the
Vallee des Dappes was finally arranged with France. In 1871
many French refugees, especially Bourbaki's army, were most
hospitably received and sheltered. The growth of the Old
Catholics after the Vatican Council (1870) caused many disturb-
ances in western Switzerland, especially in the Bernese Jura.
The attack was led by Bishop Eugene Lachat (1810-1886) of
Basel, whose see was suppressed by several cantons in 1873,
but was set up again in 1884 though still not recognized by Bern.
The appointment by the pope of the abbe Gaspard Mermillod
(1824-1892) as " apostolic vicar " of Geneva, which was separated
from the diocese of Fribourg, led to Monseigneur Mermillod's
banishment from Switzerland (1873), but in 1883 he was raised
to the vacant see of Lausanne and Geneva and allowed by the
Federal authorities to return, but Geneva refused to recognize
him, though he was created a cardinal in 1890. An event of
great importance to Switzerland was the opening of the St
Gotthard tunnel, which was begun in 1871 and opened in 1882;
by it the Forest cantons seem likely to regain the importance
which was theirs in the early days of the Confederation.
From 1848 onwards the cantons continually revised their
constitutions, always in a democratic sense, though after the
Sonderbund War Schwyz and Zug abolished their " lands-
gemeinden " (1848). The chief point was the introduction of
the referendum, by which laws made by the cantonal legislature
may (facultative referendum) or must (obligatory referendum) be
submitted to the people for their approval, and this has obtained
such general acceptance that Fribourg alone does not possess
the referendum in either of its two forms. It was therefore
only natural that attempts should be made to revise the federal
constitution of 1848 in a democratic and centralizing sense,
for it had been provided that the Federal Assembly, on its own
initiative or on the written request of 50,000 Swiss electors,
could submit the question of revision to a popular vote. In
1866 the restriction of certain rights (mentioned above) to
Christians only was swept away; but the attempt at final
revision in 1872 was defeated by a small majority, owing to
the efforts of the anti-centralizing party. Finally, however,
another draft was better liked, and on the igih of April 1874 the
Revised new constitution was accepted by the people — 145
Constitution cantons against i\ (those of 1848 without Tessin,
of 1874. j,^ wjth Fribourg and Lucerne) and 340,199 votes
as against 198,013. This constitution is still in force, and
is mainly a revised edition of that of 1848, the Federal power
being still further strengthened. Among the more important
novelties three points may be mentioned. A system of free
elementary education was set up, under the superintendence
of the Confederation, but managed by the cantons. A man
settling in another canton was, after a residence of three months
only, given all cantonal and communal rights, save a share in
the common property (an arrangement which as far as possible
kept up the old principle that the " commune " is the true
unit out of which cantons and the Confederation are built), and
the membership of the commune carries with it cantonal and
federal rights. The " Referendum " was introduced in its
" facultative " form; i.e. all federal laws must be submitted
to popular vote on the demand of 30,000 Swiss citizens or of
eight cantons. But the " Initiative " (i.e. the right of com-
pelling the legislature to consider a certain subject or bill) was
not introduced into the Federal Constitution till 1891 (when it
was given to 50,000 Swiss citizens) and then only as to a partial
(not a total) revision of that constitution. By the constitutions
of 1848 and 1874 Switzerland has ceased to be a mere union of
independent states jointed by a treaty, and has become a single
state with a well-organized central government, to which have
been given certain of the rights of the independent cantons,
but increased centralization would destroy the whole character
of the Confederation, in which the cantons are not administrative
divisions but living political communities. Swiss history
teaches us, all the way through, that Swiss liberty has been won
by a close union of many small states, and we cannot doubt
that it will be best preserved by the same means, and not by
obliterating all local peculiarities, nowhere so striking and
nowhere so historically important as in Switzerland.
M. Numa Droz (who was for seventeen years — 1876 to 1892 — a
member of the Federal executive, and twice, in 1881 and in
1887, president of the Swiss Confederation) expressed the opinion
shortly before his death in December 1899 (he was born in 1844)
that while the dominant note of Swiss politics from 1848 to
1874 was the establishment of a Federal state, that of the period
extending from 1874 to 1899 (and this is true of a later period)
was the direct rule of the people, as distinguished from govern-
ment by elected representatives. Whether this distinction be
just or not, it is certain that this advance towards democracy
in its true sense is due indirectly to the monopoly of political
power in the Federal government enjoyed by the Radical party
from 1848 onwards: many were willing to go with it some part
of the way, but its success in maintaining its close monopoly
has provoked a reaction against it on the part of those who
desire to see the Confederation remain a Confederation, and not
become a strongly centralized state, contrary to its past history
and genius. Hence after 1874 we find that democratic measures
are not advocated as we should expect by the Radicals, but by
all the other political parties with a view of breaking down this
Radical monopoly, for it is a strange fact that the people elect
and retain Radical representatives, though they reject the
measures laid before them for their approval by the said Radical
representatives. For these reasons the struggle between Fede-
ralists and Centralists (the two permanent political parties
in Switzerland), which up to 1874 resulted in favour of the
Centralists, has been turning gradually in favour of the Fede-
ralists, and that because of the adoption of such democratic
institutions as the Referendum and the Initiative.
The general lines on which Swiss politics have run since 1874
may be most conveniently summarized under three headings —
the working of the political machinery, the principal political
events, and then the chief economical and financial features of
the period. But it must be always borne in mind that all the
following remarks relate only to Federal politics, those of the
several cantons being much more intricate, and of course turning
more on purely local differences of opinion.
i. Political Machinery. — The Federal Constitution of 1848
set up a permanent Federal executive, legislature and tribunal,
each and all quite distinct from and independent of any cantonal
government. This system was a modified revival of the state
of things that had prevailed from 1798 to 1803, and was an
imitation of the political changes that had taken place in the
cantonal constitutions after 1830. Both were victories of the
Centralist or Radical party, and it was therefore but natural
that this party should be called upon to undertake the Federal
government under the new constitution, a supremacy that it
has kept ever since. To the Centralists the Council of States
(two members from each canton, however large or small) has
always been a stumbling-block, and they have mockingly nick-
named it " the fifth wheel of the coach." In the other house
of the Federal legislature, the National Council (one member per
20,000, or fraction of over 10,000 of the entire population), the
HISTORY]
SWITZERLAND
261
Radicals have always since its creation in 1848 had a majority.
Hence, in the Congress formed by both houses sitting together,
the Radicals have had it all their own way. This is particularly
important as regards the election of the seven members of the
Federal executive which is made by such a Congress. Now the
Federal executive (Federal Council) is in no sense a cabinet, i.e.
a committee of the party in the majority in the legislature for
the time being. In the Swiss Federal Constitution the cabinet
has no place at all. Each member of the Federal executive is
elected by a separate ballot,, and holds office for the fixed term
of three years, during which he cannot be turned out of office,
while as yet but a single instance has occurred of the rejection
of a Federal councillor who offered himself for re-election.
Further, none of the members of the Federal executive can hold
a seat in either house of the Federal legislature, though they may
appear and speak (but not vote) in either, while the Federal
Council as such has not necessarily any common policy, and never
expresses its views on the general situation (though it does as
regards particular legislative and administrative measures) in
anything resembling the " speech from the Throne " in England.
Thus it seems clear that the Federal executive was intended by
the Federal Constitution of 1848 (and in this respect that of
1874 made no change) to be a standing committee of the legis-
lature as a whole, but not of a single party in the legislature, or
a " cabinet," even though it had the majority. Yet this rule
of a single political party is just what has taken place. Between
1848 and the end of 1908, 38 Federal councillors were elected
(24 from German-speaking, 12 from French-speaking and 2 from
Italian-speaking Switzerland, the canton of Vaud heading the
list with 7). Now of these 38 three only were not Radicals,
viz. M Paul Ceresole (1870-1875) of Vaud, who was a Protestant
Liberal-Conservative, Herren Josef Zemp (1891-1908) and
Josef Anton Schobinger (elected 1908), both of Lucerne and
Romanist Conservatives, yet the Conservative minority is a
large one, while the Romanists form about two-fifths of the
population of Switzerland. But despite this predominance of
a single party in the Federal Council, no true cabinet system
has come into existence in Switzerland, as members of the council
do not resign even when their personal policy is condemned
by a popular vote, so that the resignation of Herr Welti (a
member of the Federal Council from 1867 to 1891), in conse-
quence of the rejection by the people of his railway policy,
caused the greatest amazement and consternation in Switzerland.
The chief political parties in the Federal legislature are the
Right, or Conservatives (whether Romanists or Protestants),
the Centre (now often called " Liberals," but rather answering
to the Whigs of English political language, the Left (or Radicals)
and the Extreme Left (or the Socialists of varying shades).
In the Council of States there is always a Federalist majority,
since in this house the smaller cantons are on an equality with
the greater ones, each indifferently having two members. But
in the National Council (167 elected members) there has always
(since 1848) been a considerable Radical majority over all other
parties. The Socialists long worked under the wing of the
Radicals, but now in every canton (save Geneva) the two parties
have quarrelled, the Socialist vote having largely increased,
especially in the town of Zurich. In the country the anti-
Radical opposition is made up of the Conservatives, who are
strongest in the Romanist, and especially the Forest, cantons,
and of the " Federalists " of French-speaking Switzerland.
There is no doubt that the people are really anti-Radical,
though occasionally led away by the experiments made recently
in the domain of State socialism: they elect, indeed, a Radical
majority, but very frequently reject the bills laid before them
by their elected representatives.
2. Politics. — The cantons had led the way before 1848, and
they continued to do so after that date, gradually introducing
reforms all of which tended to give the direct rule to the people.
The Confederation was bound to follow this example, though it
adopted a far more leisurely pace. Hence, in 1872 a new
Federal Constitution was drafted, but was rejected on a popular
vote by a small majority, as it was thought to go too far in a
centralizing direction, and so encountered the combined oppo-
sition of the Conservatives and of the Federalists of French-
speaking Switzerland. The last-named party was won over by
means of concessions as to military matters and the proposed
unification of cantonal laws, civil and criminal, and especially
by strong provisions as to religious freedom, since the " Kultur-
kampf " was then raging in French-speaking Switzerland.
Hence a revised draft was accepted in 1874 by a considerable
popular majority, and this is the existing Federal Constitution.
But it bears marks of its origin as a compromise, and no one
party has ever been very eager to support it as a whole. At
first all went smoothly, and various very useful laws carrying
out in detail the new provisions of the constitution were drafted
and accepted. But divisions ,of opinion arose when it was
proposed to reform the military system at a very great expendi-
ture, and also as to the question of the limitation of the right
to issue bank-notes, while (as will be seen under 3 below) just
at this time grave financial difficulties arose with regard to the
Swiss railways, and in consequence of Prince Bismarck's anti-
free trade policy, which threatened the prosperity of Switzerland
as an exporting country. Further, the disturbed political state
of the canton of Ticino (or Tessin) became more or less acute
from 1873 onwards. There the Radicals and the Conservatives
are nearly equally balanced. In 1872 the Conservatives obtained
the majority in this canton, and tried to assure it by some
certainly questionable means. The Radicals repeatedly ap-
pealed to the Federal government to obtain its armed inter-
vention, but in vain. In 1876 the Conservatives at a rifle match
at Stabio fired on the Radicals, but in 1880 the accused persons
were acquitted. The long-desired detachment of Ticino from
the jurisdiction of the foreign dioceses of Como and Milan was
effected in 1888 by the erection of a see at Lugano, but this
event caused the Radicals to fear an increase of clerical influence.
Growing impatient, they finally took matters in their own
hands, and in September 1890 brought about a bloody revolu-
tion. The partial conduct of the Radical Federal commissioner
was much blamed, but after a state trial at Zurich in 1891 the
revolutionists were acquitted, although they loudly boasted of
their share in this use of force in political matters.
From 1885 onwards Switzerland had some troubles with
foreign powers owing to her defence of the right of asylum for
fugitive German Socialists, despite the threats of Prince Bis-
marck, who maintained a secret police in Switzerland, one
member of which, Wohlgemuth, was expelled in 1889, to the
prince's huge but useless indignation. From about 1890, as
the above -troubles within and without gradually subsided, the
agitation in the country against the centralizing policy of the
Radicals became more and more strongly marked. By the united
exertions of all the opposition parties, and against the steady
resistance of the Radicals, an amendment was introduced in
1891 into the Federal Constitution, by which 50,000 Swiss citizens
can by the " Initiative " compel the Federal legislature and execu-
tive to take into consideration some point in the Federal Constitu-
tion which, in the opinion of the petitioners, requires reform,
and to prepare a bill dealing with it which must be submitted
to a popular vote. Great hopes and fears were entertained at
the time as to the working of this new institution, but both have
been falsified, for the Initiative has as yet only succeeded in
inserting (in 1893) in the Federal Constitution a provision by
which the Jewish method of killing animals is forbidden, and
another (in 1908) prohibiting the manufacture or sale of absinthe
in the country. On the other hand, it has failed (in 1894) to
secure the adoption of a Socialist scheme by which the state was
bound to provide work for every able-bodied man in the country,
and (also in 1894) to carry a proposal to give to the cantons a
bonus of two francs per head of the population out of the rapidly
growing returns of the customs duties, similarly in 1900 an
attempt to introduce the election of the Federal executive by a
popular vote and proportional representation in the Nationalrat
failed, as in 1903 did a proposal to make the elections to the
Nationalrat depend on the Swiss population only, instead of the
total population of the country.
262
SWITZERLAND
[HISTORY
The great rise in the productiveness of the customs duties
(see 3 below) has tempted the Swiss people of late years to
embark on a course of state socialism, which may be also
described as a series of measures tending to give more and more
power to the central Federal government at the expense of the
cantons. So in 1890 the principle of compulsory universal insur-
ance against sickness and accidents was accepted by a popular
vote, in .189 1 likewise that of a state or Federal bank, and in 1898
that of the unification of the cantonal laws, civil and criminal,
into a set of Federal codes. In each case the Federal government
and legislature were charged with the preparation of laws carrying
out in detail these general principles. But in 1897 their proposals
as to a Federal bank were rejected by the people, though another
draft was accepted in 1905, so that the bank (with a monopoly
of note issue, a provision accepted by a popular vote in 1891)
was actually opened in 1907. At the beginning of 1900 the
suspicion felt as to the insurance proposals elaborated by the
Federal authorities was so keen that a popular demand for a
popular vote was signed by 117,000 Swiss citizens, the legal
minimum being only 30,000: they were rejected (May 20, 1900)
on a popular vote by a nearly two to one majority. The prepara-
tion of the Federal civil and criminal codes has progressed
quietly, drafts being framed by experts and then submitted for
criticism to special commissions and public opinion, but finally
the civil code was adopted by the Federal Assembly in December
1907. By a popular vote in 1887 the Federal authorities were
given a monopoly of alcohol, but a proposal to deal similarly
with tobacco has been very ill received (though such a monopoly
would undoubtedly produce a large amount), and would pretty
certainly be refused by the people if a popular vote were ever
taken upon it. In 1895 the people declined to sanction a state
monopoly of matches, even though the unhealthy nature of the
works was strongly urged, and have also resolutely refused on
several occasions to accept any projects for the centralizing of
the various branches of military administration, &c., though in
1897 the forests high up on the mountains were placed under
Federal supervision, while in 1902 large Federal grants in aid were
made to the cantons towards the expenses of primary education,
and in 1908 the supervision of the employment of the power
derived from rivers and streams was given to the Confederation.
Among other reforms which have recently been much discussed in
Switzerland are the introduction of the obligatory referendum
(which hitherto has applied only to amendments to the Federal
Constitution) and the extension of the initiative (now limited to
piecemeal revision of the Federal Constitution) to all Federal
laws, &c. The first-named scheme is an attempt to restrain
important centralizing measures from being presented as laws
(and as such exempt from the compulsory referendum), and not
as amendments to the Federal Constitution.
Besides the insurance project mentioned above, two great
political questions have engaged the attention of the Swiss.
a. State Purchase of the Railways. — In 1891 the purchase of
the Central railway was rejected by a popular vote, but in 1898,
by the aid of various baits thrown out, the people were induced
to accept the principle of the purchase by the Confederation
of the five great Swiss railway lines — three in 1901, viz. the
Central, the North-Eastern, and the United Swiss lines; one (the
Jura-Simplon) in 1903, and one (the St Gotthard line) in 1909,
this delay being due to international conventions that still
have some years to run. Further, very important economical
consequences, e.g. as to strikes, may be expected to result from
the transformation of all railway officials of whatever grade into
state servants, who may naturally be expected to vote (as in other
cases) for their employers, and so greatly increase the strength
of the Centralist political party.
b. The " Double Initiative." — This phrase denotes two purely
political reforms that have been coupled together, though in
reality they are by no means inseparable. One is the introduction
of proportional representation (within the several cantons) into
the elections for the National Council of the Federal parliament,
the object being thus to secure for several large minorities
a number of M.P.'s more in accordance with the size of those
minorities in the country than is now possible under the regime
of pure majorities: naturally these minorities would then receive
a proper share of political power in the senate house, instead
of merely exerting great political influence in the country, while
if they were thus strengthened in the legislature they would
soon be able to claim the right of naming several members of
the Federal executive, thus making both legislature and executive
a mirror of the actual political situation of the country, instead
of the preserve of one political party. The other reform is the
election of the members of the Federal executive by popular
vote, the whole body of voters voting, not by cantons, but as
a single electoral constituency. This would put an end to the
" lobbying " that goes on previously to the election of a
member of the executive by the two houses of the Federal
parliament sitting jointly in Congress; but, on the other hand,
it might stereotype the present system of electing members of
the executive by the majority system, and so reduce large
minorities to political impotence. The " double initiative "
scheme was launched in the beginning of 1899, and by the
beginning of the following July secured more than the requisite
number of signatures (50,000), the first-named item having been
supported by nearly 65,000 citizens, and the second item by
56,000. Hence the Federal parliament was bound to take these
two reforms into formal consideration, but in June 1900 it
rejected both, and this decision was confirmed by a popular
vote taken in the following November.
3. Economics and Finance. — Soon after the adoption of the
Federal Constitution of 1874 the economical and financial state
of the Confederation became very unsatisfactory. The great
financial crisis in Vienna in 1873 was a severe blow to Swiss
commerce, which had taken a very great start after the Franco-
German War of 1870-71. In the later 'seventies, too, the
financial position of some of the great Swiss railway lines was
very unfavourable: the bankruptcy of the National line ruined for
the time (till a Federal loan at a very low rate of interest was
forced upon them) the four Swiss towns which were its guarantors;
the North-Eastern line had to beg for a " moratorium " (a legal
delay of the period at which it had to pay its debts) from the
Federal government; the Bern-Lucerne line was actually put up
to auction, and was bought by the canton of Bern. Further, the
expenses of constructing the St Gotthard railway vastly exceeded
all estimates, and in 1876 over 100,000,000 francs more were
required. Hence the subventions already granted had to be
increased. Germany (which gave originally 20,000,000 francs)
and Italy (original contribution 45,000,000 francs) each promised
10,000,000 francs more; the St Gotthard company itself gave
12,000,000, and the two Swiss railway lines interested (Central
and North-Eastern) added 1,500,000 to the 20,000,000 they had
already agreed to give jointly with the cantons interested in
the completion of this great undertaking. But these latter
refused to add anything to their previous contributions, so that
finally the Federal government proposed that it should itself
pay the 6,500,000 francs most urgently required. This proposal
aroused great anger in east and west Switzerland, but the matter
was ultimately settled by the Confederation paying 4,500,000
francs and the interested cantons 2,000,000, the latter gift being
made dependent on a grant of 4,500,000 francs by the Federal
government for new tunnels through the Alps in east and west
Switzerland, and of 2,000,000 more for the Monte Cenere tunnel
between Bellinzona and Lugano. This solution of a most
thorny question was approved by a popular vote in 1879,
and the St Gotthard line was successfully completed in 1882.
Gradually, too, the other Swiss railway lines, attained a state
of financial equilibrium, owing to the more careful management
of new directors and managers. The completion of the Simplon
tunnel (1906), the commencement (1906) of that beneath the
Lotschen Pass (q.v.), and the rival claims of projected tunnels
under the Spliigen Pass (q.v.), besides the struggle for or against
a tunnel under the Faucille (supported by Geneva almost alone),
show that railway politics play a very prominent part in Swiss
national life. They are, too, complicated by many local
rivalries, which in this country are of greater importance than
LITERATURE]
SWITZERLAND
263
elsewhere because of the considerable share of power still legally
belonging to the cantons. Another kindred question (owing
to the rapid development of electric traction in Switzerland)
is the equitable proposal (accepted in 1908) that the utilization
of the immense force supplied by the many rivers and torrents
in Switzerland should become a Federal monopoly, so as to
secure to the Confederation the control over such important
sources of revenue as otherwise might easily be unscrupulously
exploited by private companies and firms.
Switzerland, by reason of natural conditions, is properly
a free trade country, for it exports far more than it imports,
in order to supply the demand for objects that it cannot itself
produce. But Prince Bismarck's protectionist policy in 1879
was imitated by France, Austria and Italy, so that Switzerland
was gradually shut in by a high wall of tariffs. Hence in 1891
the Swiss people approved, in sheer self-defence, a great increase
of the customs duties, and in 1903 sanctioned a further very con-
siderable advance in these duties, so that it is now a thoroughly
Protectionist country, despite its obvious natural disadvantages.
The huge increase in revenue naturally led to increased expendi-
ture, which took the form of lavish subventions to all sorts of
cantonal objects, magnificent Federal buildings, most useful
improvements in the post and telegraph services, and extensive
and lamentable construction of military fortifications in Uri
and the Valais against some unknown foe. In 1894 it was pro-
posed to distribute part of this new wealth in giving a bonus to
the cantons at the rate of 2 francs per head of the population, but
this extravagant proposal (nicknamed the " Beutezug ") was
rejected, owing to the cool common sense of the Swiss people, by
a majority of over two to one. These prosperous circumstances,
however, contributed mainly to the adoption or suggestion
of various measures of state socialism, e.g. compulsory sick
insurance, Federal subvention to primary schools, purchase
of the five great Swiss railway lines, giving a right to every able-
bodied man to have work at the expense of the state, subventions
to many objects, &c. (W. A. B. C.)
LITERATURE
There is no such thing as a Swiss national vernacular literature
properly speaking, this being explained by the diversity
between the states of which it is composed, which has not
favoured any common intellectual life. But there are four
branches which make up a literature of Switzerland, distin-
guished according to the language in which the works in
each are composed. As the Confederation, from its founda-
tion in 1291 till 1798, was exclusively composed (with a
partial exception in the case of Fribourg) of German-speaking
districts, the real Swiss vernacular literature (if any one
branch is to be dignified by that name) is in German,
though in the i8th century French became the fashionable
language in Bern and elsewhere, while the influence of the French-
speaking " allies " and subject lands was more marked than
before. Hence the German branch is by far the more important
and more national, while the French branch is not really Swiss
till after 1815, when these regions took full rank as cantons.
Thus Geneva and Lausanne in the i8th century, with their
respective brilliant societies, were only " Swiss " in so far as
Geneva was an " ally " and Vaud a " subject land." The Italian
and Romonsch-Ladin branches are of not sufficient importance
to deserve more than a passing notice.
a. German Branch. — It is noticeable that while the original
League of 1291 (like the earlier charters of liberties to the first
members of the Confederation) is drawn up in Latin, all later alliances
among the cantons, as well as documents concerning the whole
Confederation (the Parsons' Ordinance of 1370, the Sempach
Ordinance of 1393, and the Compact of Stans 1481) and all the
Recesses of the Diets are compiled in German. Though such
political documents are not " literature," yet they show that these
early pre- Reformation alliances rested on the popular consent, and
so were expressed in vernacular German rather than in clerkly
Latin. But this vigorous popular life found other channels in
which to develop its energy. First in order of date are the Minne-
singers, the number of whom in the districts that ultimately formed
part of the medieval Swiss Confederation are said to have exceeded
thirty. Zurich then (as now) was the chief literary centre of the
Confederation. The two Manesses (father and son) collected many
of their songs in a MS. that has happily come down to us and is
preserved in Paris. The most prominent personage of this circle
of the muses was Master John Hadlaub, who flourished in the second
half of the I3th and the first quarter of the I4th centuries. Next
we have a long series of war songs, celebrating the marvellous victories
of the early Swiss. One of the earliest and most famous of these was
composed by Hans Halbsuter of Lucerne to commemorate the
glorious fight of Sempach (1366), not far from his native town.
There are other similar songs for the victory of Nafels (1388) and those
of Grandson and Morat (both 1476) in the Burgundian War, while
in the I4th century the Dominican friar Ulnch Boner of Bern
versified many old fables. Still more important are the historical
chronicles relating to different parts of Switzerland. Thus in the
I4th century we have Christian Kuchimeister's continuation of
the annals of the famous monastery of St Gall, in the early 1 5th
century the rhymed chronicle of the war between the Appenzellers
and the abbot of St Gall, and rather later in the same century the
chronicles of Conrad Justinger of Bern and Hans Friind (d. 1469)
of Lucerne, besides the fantastical chronicle of Strattligen and a
scarcely less fanciful poem on the supposed Scandinavian descent
of the men of Schwyz and of Ober Hasle, both by Eulogius Kiburgcr
(d. 1506) of Bern. In the isth century, too, we have the While
Book of Sarnen and the first Tell song (see TELL), which gave rise
to the well-known legend, as well as the rather later play named the
Urnerspiel dealing with the same subject. The Burgundian War
witnessed a great outburst of historical ardour in the shape of
chronicles written by Diebold Schilling (d. 1486) of Bern, by Melchior
Russ (d. 1499), Diebold Schilling (d. between 1516 and 1523) and
Petermann Etterlin (d. 1509), all three of Lucerne as well as by Gerold
Edlibach (d. 1530) of Zurich, and by Johnanes Lenz (d. 1541) of
Brugg. In the vernacular, too, are the earliest descriptions of the
Confederation, those by Albert von Bonstetten of Einsiedeln
(1479) and by Conrad Tiirst of Zurich (1496), to whom also we owe
the first map of the country (1495-1497).
The Swiss Humanists wrote naturally in Latin, as did also, what
was more surprising, the Swiss Reformers, at any rate for the most
part, though the Zurich Bible of 1531 forms a striking exception.
But Nicholas Manuel (1484-1530), a many-sided Bernese, composed
satirical poems in German against the pope, while Valerius Anshelm
(d. 1540), also of Bern, wrote one of the best Swiss chronicles extant.
Giles Tschudi (q.v.) of Glarus, despite great literary activity, pub-
lished but a single German work in his lifetime — the Uralt warhafftig
Alpisch Rhaetia sampt dem Tract der anderen Alpgebirgen (1538) —
besides his map of Switzerland (same date). Sebastian Miinster
(q.v.), who was a Swiss by adoption, published (1544) his Cosmo-
graphia in German, the work being translated into Latin in 1550.
But the many-sided Conrad Gesner (q.v.), a born Swiss, wrote all his
works in Latin, German translations appearing only at a later date.
Thus the first important original product in German was the very
remarkable and elaborate history and description of Switzerland,
issued in 1548 at Zurich by Johannes Stumpf (q.v.) of that town.
But Josias Simler (q.v.), who was in a way his continuator, wrote all
his works, theological and geographical, in Latin. Matthew Merian
(q.v.) engraved many plates, which were issued in a series of volumes
(1642-1688) under the general title of Topographia, the earliest
volume describing Switzerland, while all had a text in German by an
Austrian, Martin Zeiller. Very characteristic of the age are the
autobiography of the Valais scholar Thomas Platter (1499-1582)
and the diary of his still more distinguished son Felix (1536-1614),
both written in German, though not published till long after. But
gradually Swiss historical writers gave up the use of Latin for their
native tongue, so Michael Stettler (1580-1642) of Bern, Franz
Haffner (1609-1671) of Soleure, and quite a number of Grisons
authors (though the earliest in date, Ulrich Campell of Siis, c. 1509-
c. 1582, still clung to Latin), such as Bartholomew Anhorn (1566-
1640) and his son of the same name (1616-1670) and Johannes
Guler (1562-1637). Yet Fortunatus Sprecher (1585-1647) preferred
to write his Pallas raetica in Latin, as did Fortunatus Juvalta
(1567-1654) in the case of his autobiography. But we have some
compensation in the delightful autobiography of Hans Ardiiser of
Davos (i557~post 1614) and the amusing dialogue between the
Niesen and the Stockhorn by Hans Rudolf Rebmann (1566-1605),
both composed in naive German. I. B. Plantin (1625-1697) wrote
his description of Switzerland in Latin, Helvetia nova et antiqua
(1656), but J. J. Wagner's (1641-1695) guide to Switzerland is in
German, despite its titles Index memerabilium Helvetiae (1684)
and Mercurius helvcticus (1688), though he issued his scientific
description of his native land in Latin, Historia naturalis Helvetiae
curiosa (1680).
In the 1 8th century the intellectual movement in Switzerland
greatly developed, though it was naturally strongly influenced by
local characteristics. Basel, Bern and especially Zurich were the
chief literary centres. Basel was particularly distinguished for its
mathematicians, such as Leonhard Euler (1707-1783, q.v.) and three
members of the Bernoulli family (q.v.) refugees from Antwerp, the
brothers Jakob (1654-1705) and Johannes (1667-1748), and the
latter's son Daniel (1700-1782). But its chief literary glory was
Isaac Iselin (1728-1783), one of the founders of the Helvetic Society
264
SWITZERLAND
[LITERATURE
(1760) and of the Economical Society (1777)> and author of a treatise
on the philosophy of history entitled Geschichte der Menschheit
(1764), and of another on ideal politics, Philosophische und pairio-
tische Trtiume eines Menschenfreundes (1755), while many of his
economical tracts appeared (1776-1782) under the general title of
Ephemeriden der Menschheit. At Bern Albrecht von Haller (q.v.),
though especially distinguished as a scientific writer, yet by his poem
Die Alpen (1732) and his travels in his native country did much to
excite and stimulate the love of mountain scenery. Another
Bernese, Charles Victor de Bonstetten (q.v.), is a type of the gallicized
Liberal Bernese patrician, while Beat Ludwig von Muralt (1665-
1749) analysed the racial characteristics of other nations for the
instruction of his fellow-countrymen, his Lettres sur les anglais el
les frangais (1725) being his principal work. Samuel Wyttenbach
(1748-1830) devoted himself to making known the beauties of his
country to its natives, travelling much and writing much about his
travels. Gottlieb Sigmund Gruner (q.v.) wrote the Eisgebirge des
Schweizerlandes (1760), a work describing the ice-clad mountains of
Switzerland, though it is rather a useful compilation than an original
contribution to knowledge, but a decided advance on his fellow
Bernese Johann Georg Altmann's (1697-1758) Versuch einer histor-
ischen und physischen Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisgebirge
(1751). In another department of knowledge a son of Albrecht
von Haller, Gottlieb Emmanuel von Haller (1735-1786), compiled
a most useful bibliography of writings relating to Swiss history, the
Bibliothek der Schweizergeschichte (6 vols., 1784-1787), that is still
indispensable to the historical student.
But in the i8th century Zurich was undoubtedly the intellectual
and literary capital of German-speaking Switzerland, and gained the
title of " Athens on the Limmat." One of its earliest and most
famous celebrities was J. J. Scheuchzer (q.v.), who travelled much
in Switzerland, and wrote much (his travels are described in Latin)
as to its natural curiosities, being himself an F.R.S., and closely
associated with Newton and the other English scientific men of the
day. But in the purely literary domain the names of J. J. Bodmer
(q.v.) and of his friend Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), are the
most prominent. By their united exertions the antiquated tradi-
tions of German literature were broken down to a large extent, while
great praise was bestowed on English poets, Shakespeare, Milton
and others. Their views were violently opposed by Gottsched,
the leader of the Saxon school, and the controversy that arose forms
partof the history of German literature. In 1721-1723 they published
jointly the Discourse der Maler, a periodical which spread their
views, while more elaborate and systematic expositions of their
critical doctrine as to poetry are Bodmer's Kritische Abhandlung von
dent Wunderbaren in der Poesie (1740), and Breitinger's Critische
Dichtkunst (also in 1740). Their untiring efforts helped to prepare
the way for the later outburst of German literature begun by Klop-
stock, Wieland and Lessing. Another famous Zurich writer was
Solomon Gesner (q.v.), the pastoral poet, and yet another was
J. K. Lavater (q.v.), now best remembered as a supporter of the
view that the face presents a perfect indication of character and
that physiognomy may therefore be treated as a science. Other
well-known Zurich names are those of J. H. Pestalozzi (1746—1827,
q.v.), the educationalist, of Johann Caspar Hirzel (1725-1803),
another of the founders of the Helvetic Society, and author of Die
Wirthschaft eines philosophischen Bauers (1761), and of Johann
Georg Sulzer (1720—1779), whose chief work is one on the laws of
art or aesthetics, entitled Allgemeine Theorie der schonen Kunste
(1771-1774).
Outside the three towns named above there were several writers
of German-speaking Switzerland who must be mentioned. One
of the best known even now is Johann Georg Zimmermann (1728-
J795 §•"•). whose Betrachtungen uber die Einsamkeit (1756-1784-
1785) profoundly impressed his contemporaries. He, like the fabulist
A. E. Frohlich (q.v.), was born at Brugg. Johannes von Miiller
(q.v.) of Schaffhausen, was the first who attempted to write (1780)
a detailed history of Switzerland, which, though inspired rather by
his love of freedom than by any deep research, was very character-
istic of his times. J. G. Ebel (q.v.) was a Swiss by adoption only,
but deserves mention as the author of the first detailed guide-
book to the country (1793), which held its ground till the days of
"Murray" and "Baedeker." A later writer, Heinrich Zschokke
(1771-1848), also a Swiss by adoption only, produced (1822) a
history of Switzerland written for the people, which had a great
vogue.
In the later literary history of German-speaking Switzerland three
names stand out above all others — Albrecht Bitzius (q.v.), known as
Jeremias Gotthelf from the first of his numerous tales of peasant life
in the Emmenthal, Gottfried Keller (q.v.), perhaps the most genuinely
Swiss poet and novelist of the century, and Conrad Ferdinand
Meyer (q.v.), also a poet and novelist, but of more cosmopolitan
leanings and tastes. Jakob Burckhardt (q.v.) was a famous
writer on Italian art, while Jakob Frey (1824-1875) continued
the work of Bitzius by his tales of Swiss peasant life. Ulrich
Hegner (1759-1840) of Winterthur wrote novels full of local
colour, as is also the case with David Hess (1770-1843)
in his description of a cure at Baden in Aargau and various
tales. Johann Martin Usteri (1763-1828) of Zurich was one
of the earliest to write poems in his native dialect. Later we
have a number of Zurich poets or versifiers, some of whose
writings have become very well known. Such were Heinrich Leut-
hold (1827-1879), August Corrodi (1826-1885) and Leonhard Widmer
(1808-1868), the author of Trittst im Morgenrot daher (1842), which,
set to music by the Cistercian monk Alberic Zwyssig (1808-1854), 's
now known as the " Swiss Psalm," of Es lebt in jeder Schweizerbrusl
(1842), and Wo Berge sich erheben (1844). To the Bernese poet,
Johann Rudolf Wyss (1781-1830), whose father, J. D. Wyss (1743-
1818), was the author of the Swiss Family Robinson, we owe the
Swiss national anthem, Rufst du mein Vaterland? and the song,
Herz, myn Herz, warum so trurig? — while Johann Georg Krauer
(1792-1845), of Lucerne, wrote the Rutlilied, Von feme set herzlich
gegriisset, and Gottfried Keller himself was responsible for O mein
Heimatland. Gottlieb Jakob Kuhn (1775-1845) wrote many poems
in the Bernese dialect as to the Alps and their inhabitants. Less
national in sentiment and more metaphysical are the lyrics of
" Oranmor," the pen-name of the Bernese Ferdinand Schmid
(1823-1888).
Among the chief contemporary Swiss writers in the department
of belles-lettres, novelists, poets, &c., may be mentioned Ernst
Zahn, Meinrad Lienert, Arnold Ott, Carl Spitteler, Fritz Marti,
Walther Siegfried, Adolf Frey, Hermann Hesse, J. C. Herr, J. V.
VVidmann, and Gottfried Strasser.
Isabella Kaiser, by her poems and stories, upholds the honour of
the fair sex, while the fame won by Johanna Spyri (d. 1891) for
her children's stories is still fresh. Of historical writers in different
departments of their subject in the course of the igth century some
of the principal were (in alphabetical order): Ildefons von Arx
(1755-1833), the historian of St Gall, of which he had been a monk,
E. Blosch (1838-1900), the historian of the Protestant churches in
German-speaking Switzerland, J. J. Blumer (1819-1875), and J. C.
Bluntschh (1808-1881), who both devoted their energies to Swiss
constitutional matters, J. J. Hottinger (1783-1860), the continuator
of J. von Miiller's Swiss history, J. E. Kopp (1793-1866), who
rewrote early Swiss history on the basis of authentic documents,
R. Maag (1866-1899), wno began the publication of the invaluable
Habsburg terrier of the early I4th century, but had to leave the
completion of the work to other competent hands, P. C. von Planta
(1815-1902) and J. A. Pupikofer (1797-1882), the historians re-
spectively of the Grisons and of the Thurgau, A. P. von Segesser
(1817-1888), the historian and statesman of Lucerne, A. F. Stettler
(1796-1849), A. von Tillier (1792-1854), E. von Wattenwyl (1815-
1890), and J. L. Wurstemberger (1783-1862) who all four wrote on
Bernese history, G. von Wyss (1816—1893), to whom we owe, among
many excellent works, an admirable account of all Swiss historians
and their works, his step-brother F. von Wyss (1818-1907), a great
authority on the legal and constitutional history of Switzerland, and
J. C. Zellweger (1768-1855), the historian of Appenzell. Among
contemporary historical writers of German-speaking Switzerland we
may mention (in alphabetical order), A. Biichi, J. L. Brandstetter,
W. Burckhardt, K. Dandliker, J. Dierauer, R. Durrer, H. Escher,
A. Heusler, R. Hoppeler, T. von Liebenau, W. Merz, G. Meyer
von Knonau, W. F. von Mulinen, W. Oechsli, I. R. Rahn, L. R.
von Salis, P. Schweizer, J. Schollenberger, J. Strickler, R. Thommen,
and H. Wartmann.
b. French Branch. — The knight Othon of Grandson is the earliest
figure in the literature of the Suisse romande. He was killed in
a judicial duel in 1397, the last scion of his ancient house, and left
some amatory poems behind him, while one is extant only in a
translation by Chaucer, who makes flattering mention of him. In
the I5th and l6th centuries many miracle plays in the local Romance
dialect were known. The Chronique des chanoines de Neuchdtel
was formerly supposed to date from the I5th century, but is now
considered by many to be a forgery. More individual and character-
istic are the romance about Charlemagne, entitled Fierabras le
Geant (1478), by Jean Bagnyon, and the poem named Congie pris
du siecle seculier (1480), by Jacques de Bugnin. But the first
really prominent personage in this department of literature is
Francois Bonivard (q.v. ; d. 1570) who wrote the Chroniques de
Geneve that extend down to 1530 and were continued to 1562 by
Michel Roset (d. 1613). The first Protestant French translation
of the Bible was issued at Neuchatel in 1535, its principal authors
being Pierre Robert (nicknamed Olivetan) and Pierre de Vingle.
Asa sort of pendant to the Protestant Bonivard, we have the nun
Jeanne de Jussie who in her Levain du Calvinisme (c. 1545) recounts
the establishment of Calvinism at Geneva, while the noble Pierre
de Pierrefleur in his Memoires does the same in a lighter and less
lachrymose style for Orbe, his native district. Naturally the
Reformers of the Suisse Romande used French much in their
theological and polemical works. Of more general interest are the
writings of two Frenchmen who were driven by religious persecu-
tions to end their lives at Geneva — the memoirs and poems of
Theodore Agrippa d'Aubign£ (1552-1630), and the historical
writings and poems of Simon Goulart (1543-1628). The great
deliverance of Geneva from the duke of Savoy, known as the
Escalade (1602), was described in prose by David Piaget (1580-
1644) in his Histoire de I 'escalade and celebrated in verse by Samuel
Chappuzeau (1625-1701)^ his Geneve delivree, though the narratives
LITERATURE]
SWITZERLAND
265
of Goulart and that (published officially by the government) attri-
buted to Jean Sarasin (1574-1632), the author of the Citadin de
Geneve (1606), are more laconic and more striking. J. B. Plantin
(1625-1697), of Vaud, wrote his topography of Switzerland, Helvetia
anliqua et nova (1656), in Latin, but his Abrege de I'histoire generate
de la Suisse (1666) in French, while Georges de Montmollin (1628-
I7O3) of Neuchatel wrote, besides various works as to local history,
Memoires of his times which have a certain historical value.
But the 1 7th century in the Suisse Romande pales before the
glories of the 1 8th century, which forms its golden age, and was in
a large degree due to the influence of French refugees who, with
their families, flocked thither after the Revocation of the Edict
of Nantes (1685) and settled down there for the rest of their lives.
Such was Louis Bourguet (1678-1743), who, besides his geological
works, founded two periodicals which in different ways did much
to stimulate the intellectual life of the Suisse Romande; these
were the Bibliotheque italique (1729-1734), which aimed at making
more widely known the results of Italian research, and the Mercure
suisse which, first issued in 1732, lasted till 1784, under different
names (from 1738 onwards the literary section bore the name of
Journal helvetique), and secured contributions from most of the lead-
ing writers of the Suisse Romande of the day, such as Firmin
Abauzit (1679-1767), Abraham Ruchat (1678-1750), and others.
Ruchat is now best remembered as the author (under the pen-name
of Gottlieb Kypseler) of an excellent guide-book to Switzerland,
the Delices de la Suisse, which first appeared in 1714 and passed
through many editions, the latest being issued in 1778; but his
Histoire de la Reformation de la Suisse (1727-1728) was much
esteemed in his day. Another Vaudois historian and antiquary
was Charles Guillaume Loys de Bochat (1695-1754) whose Memoires
critiques sur divers points de Vancienne histoire de la Suisse (1747-
1749) still form a treasure-house for archaeologists. Yet a third
Lausanne man was J. P. de Crousaz (1663-1750; q.v.), who intro-
duced there the philosophy of Descartes, and was, by his books,
the master of Gibbon in logic. A French refugee at Lausanne,
Jean Barbeyrac (1674-1744), published in 1712 the Droit de la
nature et des gens, a translation of Puffendorf's treatise, with a
striking preface of his own. A precursor of Montesquieu and of
Rousseau was Jean Jacques Burlamaqui (1694-1750) in his Principes
du droit naturel et poliiique (1747 and 1751, issued together in 1763),
while the celebrated international lawyer, Emeric de Vattel (1714-
1767), was a native of Neuchatel by birth and descent, and, though
he spent most of his life at foreign courts, died at Neuchatel, not so
very long after the publication of his famous Droit des gens (1758).
The year 1754 is a great date in the literary history of the Suisse
Romande, for in that year Rousseau came back for good to Geneva,
and Voltaire established himself at Ferney, while m 1753 Gibbon
had begun his first residence (which lasted till 1758) in Lausanne.
The earlier writers mentioned above had then nearly all dis-
appeared, and a more brilliant set took their place. But Rousseau
(q.v.), though a Genevese, belongs rather to European than to Swiss
literature, as do later Jacques Necker (q.v.) and his daughter, Madame
deStael (q.v.), Benjamin Constant (q.v.) andSismondi (q.v.). Madame
de Charnere (1740-1805) was Dutch by birth, but married to a
native of Neuchatel. Among her earlier works were two novels,
Le Mart sentimental (1783), and the Lettres de Mistress Henley
(1784), both of which had a great vogue in their day and paint,
from her own experience, the sad results of an unsuitable marriage.
More celebrated by reason of the liveliness and acuteness with which
the manners of a little provincial town are described are her Lettres
de Lausanne (1871), and her Lettres neuchateloises (1784), particularly
the second part of a story of the former, entitled Caliste, and
published in 1788, for, according to Sainte-Beuve, it was a sort of
foreshadowing of the more famous Corinne (1807) of Madame de Stael.
P. H. Mallet (q.v.), a Genevese, who held a chair at Copenhagen,
devoted himself to making known to the educated world the history
and antiquities of Scandinavia. But more characteristic of Geneva
were the efforts of a group of men to spread the cause of natural
science by personal investigations in the higher Alps, then but little
known. Possibly their interest in such matters had been stimu-
lated by the scientific and psychological speculations of Charles
Bonnet (q.v.). The chief of this school was H. B. de Saussure
(q.v.) one of the founders of geology and meteorology, while his
Alpine ascents (undertaken in the cause of science) opened a new
world even to non-scientific travellers. The brothers De Luc (q.v.)
devoted themselves mainly to questions of physics in the Alps,
while Senebier (q.v.), the biographer of Saussure, was more known
as a physiologist than as a physicist, though he wrote on many
branches of natural science, which in those days was not yet highly
specialized. On the other hand Marc Theodore Bourrit (q.v.),
the contemporary of these three men, was rather a curious and
inquisitive traveller than a scientific investigator, and charms us
even now by his genial simplicity as contrasted with the austerity
and gravity of the three writers we have mentioned. Philippe
Cyriaque Bridel (1757-1845), best known as the " doyen Bride!,"
was the earliest of the Vaudois poets by virtue of his Poesies helve-
tiennes (1782). But he is better known as the painter of the scenery
and people among whom he worked as pastor at Basel, at Chateau
d'Oex, and at Montreux successively. His Course de Bdle a Bienne
par les vallees du Jura appeared in 1802, while descriptions of his
travels, as well as of the manners of the natives, local history, and
in short everything that could stimulate national sentiment, were
issued in a series of periodicals from 1783 to 1831 under the successive
titles of Etrennes helvetiennes and of Conservateur suisse. His
patriotic aim met with great success, while his impressions of his
mountain wanderings are fresh and unspoilt by any straining after
effect. He was the first writer of the Suisse Romande to undertake
such wanderings, so that, with obvious differences, he may be re-
garded not merely as the forerunner, but as the inspirer and model
of later Vaudois travellers and climbers in the Alps, such as Rodolphe
Topffer (q.v.), of E. Rambert (q.v.), and of the last-named's most
brilliant pupil, Emile Jayelle (1844-1883), whose articles were col-
lected in 1886 by the pious care of his friends under the title of
Souvenirs d'un alpiniste. As a poet Juste Olivier (q.v.) surpassed
Bridel. Nor can we wonder that with the advance of knowledge
Bridel's history is found to be more picturesque than scientific.
Two Vaudois, Charles Monnard (1790-1865) and Louis Vulliemin
(1797-1879) carried out their great scheme of translating (1837-
1840) J. von Miiller's Swiss history with its continuation by Hottin-
ger, and then completed it (1841-1851) down to 1815. This gigantic
task did not, however, hinder the two friends from making many
solid contributions to Swiss historical learning. Later in date
were Alexandre Daguet (1816-1894) who wrote an excellent history
of Switzerland, while jean Joseph Hisely (1800-1866), Albert
Rilliet (1809-1883), and Pierre Vaucher (1833-1898), all devoted
much labour to studying the many problems offered by the early
authentic history (from 1291 onwards) of the Swiss Confederation.
A different type of history is the work of an honest but partisan
writer, the Genevese Jules Henri Merle d'Aubign6 (1794-1872),
entitled Histoire de la reformation au temps de Calvin (1835-1878).
The Vaudois noble Frederic Gingins-la-Sarra (1790-1863) represents
yet another type of historian, devoting himself mainly to the
medieval history of Vaud, but occasionally going beyond the number-
less authentic documents brought to light by him, and trying to
make them prove more than they can fairly be expected to tell us.
Jean Antoine Petit-Senn (1792-1870) was a thorough Genevese
and a biting satirist, a pensive poet, the " Genevese La Bruyere,"
as he liked to be called, but was not fully appreciated till after his
death, when his widely scattered writings were brought together.
Alexandre Vinet (q.v.), the theologian, and H. F. Amiel (q.v.),
the philosopher, in a fashion balance each other, and need only be
mentioned here. Jean Jacques Porchat (1800-1864) was one of
the most prominent among the minor poets of the region, very French
owing to his long residence in Paris, and best remembered probably
by his fables, first published in 1837 under the title of Clanures
d Esope (reissued in 1854 as Fables et paraboles), though in his
day his stories for the young were much appreciated. Urbain
Olivier (1810-1888), a younger brother of the poet, wrote many
tales of rural life in Vaud, while the Genevese novelist Victor
Cherbuliez (1829-1899, q.v.) was perhaps the most brilliant of a
brilliant family. Fribourg has produced the local novelist Pierre
Scioberet (1830-1876) and the Bohemian poet Etienne Eggis
(1830-1867), and Neuchatel Auguste Bachelin (1830-^1890) whose
best novel was Jean Louis, a tale of which the scene is laid in the
old-fashioned little village of St Blaise. Another Neuchatel
writer, Alice de Chambrier, the poetess, died young, as did the
Genevese poet Louis Duchosal, both showing in their short lives
more promise than performance. Madame de Gasparin's (1813-
1894) best tale is Horizons prochains (1857), a very vivid story of
rural life in the Vaudois Jura, remarkable for the virile imagination
of its descriptions.
Edouard Rod (q.v.) the novelist, and Marc Monnier (q.v.), critic,
poet, dramatist and novelist, are the most prominent figures in
the recent literature of the Suisse Romande. Amongst lesser
stars we may mention in the department of belles-lettres (novelists,
poets or critics) Charles Du Bois-Melly, "T. Combe" (the pen
name of Mile Adele Huguenin), Samuel Cornut, Louis Favre,
Philippe Godet, Oscar Huguenin, Philippe Monnier, Noelle Roger,
Virgile Rossel, Paul Seippel and Gaspard Vallette. The chief
literary organ of the Suisse Romande is the Bibliotheque univer-
selle, which in 1816 took that title in lieu of Bibliotheque britannique
(founded in 1796), and in 1861 added that of Revue suisse, which
it then absorbed. Amongst historians the first place is due to one
of the most learned men whom Switzerland has ever produced,
and whose services to the history of the Valais were very great,
and abbe Jean Gremaud (1823-1897) of Fribourg. The principal
contemporary historians are Victor van Berchem, Francis De Crue,
Camille Favre, Henri Fazy, B. de Mandrot, Berthold van Muyden
and Edouard Rott.
c. Italian Branch. — Italian Switzerland is best known by its
artists, while its literature is naturally subject to strong Italian
influences, and not to any of a strictly Swiss nature. Stefano
Franscini (1796-1857) did much for his native land, especially in
educational matters, while his chief published work (1835) was
one that gave a general account of the canton. But. this is not so
thorough and good as a later book by Luigi Layizzari (1814-1875),
entitled Escursioni nel cantone Ticino (1863), which is very complete
from all points of view. Angelo Barofno (d. 1893) and Einilio
266
SWITZERLAND
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
Motta represent the historical sciences, the latter contributing much
to the Bollettino delta Syizzera Italiana (from 1879 onwards), which,
though mainly historical, devotes much space to literary and
historical matters relating to the canton. The art of novel writing
does not flourish in Ticino. But it has produced a great number
of poets such as Pietro Peri (1794-1869), who translated the Swiss
national anthem into Italian, J. B. Buzzi (1825-1898), Giovanni
Airoldi (died before 1900) and Carlo Cioccaii (1829-1891)— the
two former were lyric poets, and the third a dramatist. Two
younger singers are F. Chiesa and M. A. Nessi.
d. Romonsch and Ladin Branch. — In the Grisons alone still
lingers a quaint Romance dialect, which is a laggard sister of French
and Italian, and has therefore not much to show in the way of literary
activity. Indeed it would probably have perished altogether by
this time had not certain energetic men and societies more or less
successfully tried to bring; about a sort of artificial revival. It is
distinguished into two main dialects, that of the Biindner Oberland
or the valley of the Vorder Rhine being called Romonsch, while
that spoken in the Engadine and the neighbouring valleys is known
as Ladin. Both took their origin from the spoken tongue or lingua
rustica Romana in the days of the later empire. The earliest
known monument of this interesting survival was discovered in
1907, and consists of a few lines, in an early form of the Romonsch
dialect, of interlinear translation (with the original Latin text)
of a sermon attributed to St Augustine. This monument is said
to date from the early I2th century. The first poem in Ladin was
one on the Musso War, written in 1527 by Johann von Travers
(1483-1563), though it was not published till 1865. The first
book printed in it (at Poschiavo in 1552) was the translation of
a German catechism, and the next a translation of the New
Testament, also at Poschiavo, but in 1560. Most of the works in
both these dialects are translations of books of a religious or educa-
tional nature. The principal writers in the Romonsch dialect
(the less literary of the two) of recent times are Theodor von
Castelberg (1748-1830), a poet and translator of poetry, and P. A.
de Latour (about 1814) also a poet, while the best of all poets
in this dialect was Anton Huonder, whose lyrics are considered
remarkable. Alexander Balletta (1842-1887) wrote prose romances
and sketches, while J. C. Muoth (1844-1906), himself a most
typical and characteristic figure, wrote much in prose and verse
as regards his native region. In Ladin one of the chief figures was
the poet Conradin von Flugi (1787-1874), who published volumes
of poems in 1845 and 1861, but the poems, novels and translations
of J. F. Caderas (1830-1891) are placed above them. Other Ladin
poets are Florin Valentin, O. P. Juvalta and S. Caratsch (d. 1892),
while P. Lansel represents a younger generation. Zaccaria Pallioppi
(1820-1873) also wrote poems, but the excellent Ladin dictionary
that he compiled was not published till 1895 by the care of his
son. (W. A. B. C.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — a. General. — The indispensable work for any
one desiring to know what books have been written on any subject
relating to Switzerland is the officially published Bibliographic
der schweizerischen Landeskunde, a series of detached parts, each
complete in itself, and issued separately (Bern, from 1892 onwards).
In particular may be mentioned : A. Waber's Landes- und Reisebe-
schreibungen (1899; with a supplement, 1909), that deals with works
of travel in Switzerland (see, too, the new edition, London, 1899,
of J. Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps, pp. 140-
152), and I. H. Graf, Kartenwesen (1896), which enumerates all the
maps of Switzerland and its various districts. Among the best
of the older descriptions may be mentioned those of A. von Bon-
stetten (1479), Conrad Tlirst (1495), Sebastian Munster (1544),
J. Stumpf (1548), J. Simler (1574), M. Merian (1642), J. J. Scheuchzer
(1723), G. S. Gruner (1760), P. F. D. de Zurlauben (1777) and W.
Coxe (1779). More modern, but still useful in many ways, are
Max Wirth, Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz
(3 vols., Zurich, 1871-1875), and H. A. Berlepsch, Schweizerkunde
(2nd ed., Brunswick, 1875). The most complete and recent mono-
graph on the country from all points of view is the work (700 pp.)
entitled La Suisse (also in German), with atlas of 48 maps, reprinted
from the Dictionnaire geographique de la Suisse (Neuchatel, 1909).
For a pretty complete detailed account of its chief towns, villages
and mountains, by far the best work is the Dictionnaire geographique
de la Suisse (Neuchatel, 1902, and following years; it is also issued
in German). A complete account of the country in the igth century
is given in the work entitled La Suisse au xixme siecle (3 vols.,
Lausanne, 1899-1900; also issued in German). For statistics see
the official census of 1900 (Bern, 3 vols., 1904-1907), as well as the
annual official publication Statislisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz (from
1891, see specially the vol. for 1897, Alias graphique et statistique de
la Suisse, with many diagrams), and another (appearing six times
a year at Bern, since 1865) the Zeitschriftfur schweizerische Statistik.
For educational matters the annual official Jahrbuch fur Unter-
richtswesen in der Schweiz (Zurich, from 1894) is very useful. For
mountaineers there is the Climbers' Guides Series (London, from
1890, now comprising n vols. relating to Switzerland), and the
two works published by the Swiss Alpine Club, Clubfiihrer durch
die darner Alpen (1902), and Clubfuhrer durch die Urner Alpen
(2 vols., 1905). Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Switzerland
was thoroughly revised (i9th edition) in 1904, while it is not neces-
sary to do more than mention the guide-books of Baedeker and
Joanne, of which new editions often appear (that by Iwan von
Tschudi is no longer kept up to date).
The best maps of Switzerland are those published by the Federal
Topographical Bureau at Bern. One, called from the director
of the survey (G. H. Dufour, 1787-1875) the Dufour Map (scale
i : 100,000), was published in twenty-five sheets between 1845 and
1863 (see the detailed history of this map in the work entitled Die
schweizerische Landesvermessung, 1832-1864, Bern, 1806). It has
however, been practically superseded by the issue (revised and
corrected) of the original survey (scale I : 25,000 for the plains and
I : 50,000 for the mountain districts) in 598 sheets, of which the
publication began in 1870 — this magnificent map, one of the finest
ever executed, is named the Siegfried Atlas, from the successor of
Dufour at the head of the survey, Hermann Siegfried (1819-1879).
The history of Swiss travel has been told by G. Peyer, Geschichte
des Reisens in der Schweiz (Basel, 1885), and W. A. B. Coolidge,
Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (London, 1889). That of the
exploration of the Swiss Alps is contained in Gottlieb Studer's
Ober Eis und Schnee (Bern, 3 vols., new ed., 1896-1899), while
Bernard Studer's Geschichte der physischen Geographic der Schweiz
bis 1815 (Bern, 1863) describes the gradual examination of the
country from the scientific point of view. The last-named work
contains many short lives of eminent Swiss. These are narrated
more in detail in R. Wolf's Biographieen zur Kulturgeschichte der
Schweiz (4 vols., Zurich, 1858-1862); E. Secretan's Galerie suisse
(3 vols., Lausanne, 1873-1880); and Sammlung berner Biographieen
(Bern, as yet 5 vols., 1884-1906). (See also ALPS and GLACIERS.)
As to languages in Switzerland the best general work is J. Zim-
merli's Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (3 vols.,
Basel and Geneva, 1891-1899); while for the Swiss-German dialects
there is the splendid Schweizerisches Idiotikon (of which the publica-
tion began at Frauenteld in 1881); and the Glossaire des patois de la
Suisse romande. For one branch of the curious Ladin dialect,
see Z. and E. Pallioppi's Dizionari dels idioms romauntschs d'Engia-
dina, &c. (Samaden, 1895); while for select extracts of all branches
of the Romonsch or Ladin literature consult C. Decurtins, Rdto-
romanische Chrestomathie (8 vols., Erlangen, 1894-1907), of which
the vols. i., ii., iii. and iv. refer to the Romonsch dialect of the
Biindner Oberland, and the rest to the Ladin dialect of the Engadine.
F. J. Stalder's Versuch eines schweizeriscfan Idiotikon (2 vols.-
Aarau, 1806-1812) is still useful, as is his later work Die Landes-
sprachen der Schweiz (Aarau, 1819).
The Archiv fur Voikskunde published by the Societe suisse des
traditions pppulaires (Zurich, from 1897), contains much that is
interesting in the way of folk-lore, while for Swiss legends in general
consult E. Kohlrusch, Schweizerisches Sagenbuch (Leipzig, 1854);
A. Lutolf, Sagen, Brauche, Legenden aus den Funf Orten (Lucerne,
1862}; M. Tscheinen and P. J. Ruppen, Walliser-Sagen (Sion,
1872); A. CeV6sole, Legendes des alpes vaudoises (Lausanne, 1885);
T. Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St Gallen (St Gall, 1903); T. Verna-
leken, Alpensagen (Vienna, 1858); D. Gempeler's Sagen und Sagen-
geschichten aus dem Simmenthal (Thun, 1 883-1 893) ; and Walliser- Sagen
(2 vols., Brieg, 1907). Another feature of the life of the people in
Switzerland is treated in H. Herzog's Schweizerische Volksfeste,
Sitten, und Gebrduche (Aarau, 1884).
For educational matters the two following books (with the
Jahrbuch fur Unterrichtswesen in der Schweiz, already mentioned)
will be found specially useful: F. Escali, L' Instruction primaire
en Suisse (Paris, 1883) and the annual volume (Geneva, from
1904) entitled L'Education en Suisse. For the Swiss universities
see the special histories mentioned in the articles on the several
cantons, while for the Swiss Polytechnic School at Zurich, consult
W. Oechsli's Geschichte der Grundung des eidg. Polytechnicums
(Frauenfeld. 1905).
As to the mountain pastures, see ALP, where a list of books is
given.
Swiss carriage roads, especially across the Alpine passes, are
described in S. Bavier, Die Strassen der Schweiz (Zurich, 1878),
and the official book, Die schweizerischen Alpenpdsse (2nd ed.,
1893). For the history of the several Swiss Alpine passes consult
in particular P. H. Scheffel, Verkehrsgeschichte der Alpen (Berlin,
1908-1909); R. Reinhard, Passe und Strassen in den schweizer
Alpen (Lucerne, 1903), which gives full references; and E. Oehl-
mann's articles " Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter," published in
vols. iii. and iv. (Zurich, 1878-1879) of the Jahrbuch fur schweizer-
ische Geschichte). The Simplon has a special history, F. Barbey,
La Route du Simplon (Geneva, 1906), as has also the St Gotthard;
E. Motta, Dei Personaggi celebri che varcarono il Gottardo nei tempi
antichi e moderni (Bellinzona, 1884; later continued in the Bollet-
tino della Svizzera Italiana}. As to Swiss railways in general, see
R. Herold, Der schweizerische Bund und die Eisenbahnen bis zur
Jahrhundertwende (Munich, 1902); P. Weissenbach, Die Eisen-
bahnverstaatlichung in der Schweiz (Berlin, 1905); and C. P. Wiede-
mann, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der schweizer. Eisenbahn-
gesetzgebung (Zurich, 1905). The St Gotthard railway and its history
are treated of at length bv M. Wanner in his two works — Geschichte
der Begrundung des Gotthardunternehmens (Lucerne, 1880); and
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
SWITZERLAND
267
Geschichte des Baues der Gotthardbahn (Lucerne, 1885). For a
general estimate of the commercial importance of the Simplon
railway, see A. Mohring, Die Simplonbahn — eine verkehrswirth-
schaftliche Studie (Bern, 1907). For a technical description of the
works for the Simplon tunnel see an artic|e (also issued separately)
by K. Pressel in vol. xlvii. of the Schweizerische Bauzeitung (Zurich),
while similar details, as well as more general notices, relating to
the Spliigen tunnel are given in G. Bener and R. Herold, Studien
zur Ostalpenbahnfrage (Zurich, 1907); and A. Mettler, Der Splugen
als ostschweizerische Alpenbahn (Zurich, 1907). As to the Jungfrau
railway, see A. H. Guyer-Zeller, Das Projekt der Jungfraubahn
(Zurich, 1896, with atlas of plates) ; and S. Herzog, Die Jungfraubahn
(Zurich, 1904). A special part of the Bibliographic der schweizer.
Landeskunde is devoted to Swiss railways.
Economical: Trade and Commerce. — As to the general economical
state of Switzerland, the older Volkswirthschafts-Lexikon der Schweiz,
by A. Furrer (Bern, 4 vols., 1885-1892), may still be consulted
with advantage, while naturally more up to date is N. Reichesberg's
Handworterbuch der Schweiz. Volkswirthschaft, Socialpolitik und
Verwaltung (Bern, since 1903). A very useful and well-arranged
work is A. Le Cointe's Inventaire des institutions economiques et
sociales de la Suisse a la fin du xixm° siecle (Geneva, 1900). W. H.
Dawson's Social Switzerland (London, 1897), deals with matters
rather from the social than from the strictly economical standpoint,
but contains a variety of interesting information, while H. D.
Lloyd's The- Swiss Democracy (London, 1908), is rather more political.
A very handy, trustworthy and admirable work of moderate size
on Switzerland generally from an economical point of view is
T. Geering and R. Hotz's Economie politique de la Suisse (Zurich,
1903, trans, of a German work issued in 1902) — the German only
has the detailed bibliography. P. Clerget's La Suisse au xx*m'
necle (Paris, 1908), is very useful. Other works relating to Swiss
industries and commerce are T. Geering, Die Handelspolilik der
Schweiz am Ausgang des xix. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1902);
E. Hofmann, Die Schweiz als Industriesiaat (Zurich, 1902) ; and
H. Wartmann, Industrie und Handel der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert
(Bern, 1902). The following are historical monographs as to some
of the principal Swiss industries : A. Biirkli-Meyer, Die Geschichte
der zuricherischen Seidenindustrie (Zurich, 1894); H. Lehmann,
Die aargauische Strohindustrie (Aarau, 1896); and A. Steinmann,
Die ostschweizerische Stickerei-Industrie (Zurich, 1905); while the
following deal rather with local centres of industry: H. Wartmann,
Industrie und Handel des Kantons Si Gallen auf 1866 (St Gall, 1870,
besides many reports as to local industry, 1708 to 1890) ; T. Geering,
Handel und Industrie der Stadt Basel (Basel, 1886); A. Bachelin,
L'Horlogerie neuch&teloise (Neuchatel, 1888); and A. Pfleghart, Die
Schweizerische Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 1908). A full technical
and weli-illustrated description of some of the chief industrial
establishments in Switzerland is given in Die induslrielle und kom-
merzielle Schweiz beim Eintriti ins xx. Jahrhundert (Zurich, since
1900) ; while B. de Cerenville's Le Systeme continental et la Suisse,
1803-1813 (Lausanne, 1906) treats of an interesting period in Swiss
commercial history. Swiss mercantile law is expounded in
A. Curd's Schweizerisches Handelsrecht (Zurich, 1903). For purely
financial matters' the Finanz Jahrbuch (Bern, from 1899), contains
much information of the latest date; while H. Ernst's Eine Schweizer-
ische Bundesbank (Winterthur, 1904) sketches the foundation of
the Swiss National Bank that was successfully launched in 1907.
G. Schanz's Die Steuern der Schweiz (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1890) is a
remarkably complete and instructive work; while the later book
by J. Steiger, Grundzuge des Finanzhaushaltes der Kantone und
Gemeinden (2 vols., Bern, 1903), is specially devoted to taxes
levied by the cantons and the communes, and is of the greatest
utility in studying a very complicated subject. E. Naef's Tabak-
monopol und Biersteuer (Zurich, 1903), treats of two special sources
of revenue in the Swiss financial system. The history of the Swiss
coinage is admirably narrated, with many fine illustrations, by
L. Coraggioni, in his Miinzgeschichte der Schweiz (Geneva, 1896),
and is the chief authority on Swiss numismatics in general.
As to the fine arts, the best general work on medieval Swiss
architecture is J. R. Rahn's Geschichte der bildenden Kunste in der
Schweiz (Zurich, 1876). The same author has also collected various
of his art essays in his Kunst- und Wanderstudien in der Schweiz
(Vienna, 1883), while he has described (alone or with the help of
others) the chief art monuments in the various Swiss cantons —
these notices appeared in the Anzeiger fur schweiz. Alterthumskunde
(Zurich, from 1868), and for the cantons of Soleure, Ticino, Thurgau
and Unterwalden, form appendices which are really art monographs.
An older and more special work on the same subject is J. D.
Blavignac'sHistoire del' architecture sacreedu zV"" au xim° siecle dans
les anciens eveches de Geneve, Lausanne, et Sion (Geneva, 1853).
There are two general books on the special subject of Swiss castles—
Mme de Montmolier's Les Chateaux suisses (1816-1823, new ed.,
later); and F. Kiipfer's Burgen und Schlosser der Schweiz (n.d.).
Many have now special monographs; so Habsburg (1896) and Lenz-
burg (1904), both by W. Merz, whose later work Die mittelatterlichen
Burganlagen und Wehrbauten des Kantons Aargau (2 vols., Aarau,
1906) is a very complete treatise on the most castellated region
of the country. For the Bernese castles we have E. L. C. Eden
and A. von Fischer's Die Schlosser d. Kant. Bern (Bern, about 1898).
All the great churches of Switzerland have also been made the sub-
ject of monographs — so the Munster in Bern, by B. Haendcke and
V. Muller (Bern, 1894); Lausanne, by E. Dupraz (Lausanne. 1906),
&c. As to the wooden architecture so characteristic of Switzerland,
consult E. G. Gladbach's Die Holz-Architektur der Schweiz (2nd
ed., Leipzig, 1885 — the same author has also issued several series
of plates illustrating this subject). Domestic Swiss architecture
in general is represented by J. Hunziker'sPos Schtueizerhaus (Aarau),
which includes 4 vols. dealing respectively with the Valais (1900),
Ticino (1902), the Grisons and Glarus (1905), and the Jura with
most of the Suisse Romande (1907). A. Robida's Les Vieittes
miles de Suisse (Paris, 1879) is a pleasantly written book. The
biographies of Swiss artists are conveniently summarized in the
Schweizerisches Kunstler-Lexikon (Frauenfeld, from 1902 onwards),
the order followed being alphabetical, while full references to special
works, are given in each case. For Swiss glass painting, see H.
Meyer's Die Schweizerische Silte der Fenster- und Wappenschenkung
vom xv. bis xvii. Jahrhundert (Frauenfeld, 1884); and B. Haendcke's
Die schweiz. Malerei im xvi. Jahrhundert unler Berucksichtigung
der Glasmalerei, des Formschnittes, und des Kupferstiches (Aarau,
1893); while Swiss fresco painting is treated of in Konrad Escher's
Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Wand- und Deckenmalerei in
der Schweiz vom ix. bis zum Anfang des xvi. Jahrhunderts (Strass-
burg, 1906); while the town shields are depicted in P. Kupfer's
Armorial des villes suisses (Basel, 1885); and their seals in E. Schul-
thess's Die Stadte- und Landes-Siegel der Schweiz (Zurich, 1853).
Early Swiss heraldry is historically described in P. Ganz's Geschichte
d. herald. Kunst in der Schweiz im xii. und xiii. Jahrhundert (Frauen-
feld, 1899). The Swiss Renaissance is dealt with by G. Schneeli,
Renaissance in der Schweiz (Munich, 1896); while J. H. Heer in
his Die schweiz. Malerei des xix. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1905), has
printed his lectures relating to most of the best-known modern
Swiss painters. Many splendid series of reproductions in various
departments of Swiss art have appeared, two of the most striking
being the three series of Handzeichnungen schweizerischer Meister
des xv.-xviii. Jahrhunderts (Basel, from 1904); and the Kunstdenk-
mdler der Schweiz (2nd series, Geneva, from 1901), to which we may
add R. Anheisser's Altschweizerische Baukunst (Bern, 1906-1907) ;
R. Hinderer, Alte schweizer Bauweise (Frankfort, 1907); and the
four series (Bern, 1883-1887) of E. von Rodt's Kunstgeschichtliche
Denkmaler der Schweiz. The most artistic and accurate repro-
ductions of Swiss costumes are the thirty-six coloured plates,
drawn after originals, published by Fr. Julie Heierli (Zurich, 1897,
sqq.), under the title of Die schweizer Trachten vom xvii.— xix.
Jahrhundert.
b. History. — The great collection (officially published in 32 vols.,
1858-1905) entitled Amtliche Sammlung der altern eidgenossischen
A bschiede contains lall the recesses of the Diet, &c., from 124510 1848,
and is absolutely indispensable. A series of selected extracts from
chroniclers, documents, &c., is given in W. Oechsli's Quellenbuch
zur Schweizergeschichte (2 vols. 2nd ed. of vol. i. 1901, and 1st ed.
of vol. ii., Zurich, 1893). The texts (with short introductions) of
all the Federal Constitutions from 1798 onwards are conveniently
collected in S. Kaiser and J. Strickler's Geschichte und Texte der
Bundesverfassungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft von 1798 bis zur
Gegenwart (Bern, 1901). The texts of the early alliances (1291-
1513) are reprinted in J. von Ah's Die Bundesbriefe der alien Eiage-
nossen_ (Einsiedeln, 1891), while a commentary on all the Federal
Constitutions from 1291 (with reprints of certain texts) is furnished
by C. Hilty in his Die Bundesverfassungen der schweiz. Eidgenossen-
schaft (Bern, 1891 ; also in French). For more recent documents
and laws see the Amtliche Sammlung der Bundesgesetze (from 1849
onwards), which are conveniently arranged and classified by P.
Wolf in his Die Schweizerische Bundesgesetzgebung (2nd ed., 3 vols.,
Basel, 1905-1908). G. von Wyss's Geschichle der Historiographie
in der Schweiz (Zurich, 1895) is an admirable guide to the works
and lives of all Swiss historians up to about 1850, while all arti-
cles (published in Swiss periodicals from 1812 to 1900) relating to
the subject are most carefully indexed and classified in J. L.
Brandstetter and H. Earth's Repertorium uber die in Zeit- und
Sammelschriften enthaltenen Aufsdtze und Mitteilungen schweizer-
geschichtlichen Inhaltes (2 vols., Basel, 1892 and 1906).
The latest revised texts of the Federal Constitution and (often)
of the cantonal constitutions can be procured separately, but the
last official collection of all in one volume dates from 1891 (Recueil
des constitutions federales et cantonales), since which time many
changes have been made. These can generally be discovered, and
much valuable present-day knowledge of Swiss matters gained, in
C. Hilty's Politisches Jahrbuch der schweizer. Eidgenossenschaft
(published at Bern annually since 1886).
The best general recent histories are J. Dierauer, Geschichte der
schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (3 vols., up to 1648, Zurich, 1887-
1907 to be continued), which gives in detail the original authorities and
the statements of modern writers for every point ; W. D. McCrackan,
The Rise of the Swiss Republic (2nd ed., New York, 1901), and B.
van Muyden, Histoire de la nation suisse (3 vols., Lausanne, 1896-
1899). Some of the older histories (such as those of Daguet and
Dandliker) may still be consulted with ad vantage, while W. Oechsli's
268
SWITZERLAND
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lehrbuch fur den Geschichtsunterricht in der Sekunddrschule (Zurich,
1885), is very accurate and handy. Far more popular in style than
any yet mentioned are J. Sutz's Schweizer-Geschichte fur das Volk
erzaUt (La Chaux de Fonds, 1899), and A. Gobat, Histoire de la
Suisse racontee au peuple (Neuchatel, 190x1). A very attractive
summary (including social and economical history) is given in H.
Vulliety s La Suisse a trovers les Ages (Basel and Geneva, 1901).
J. Heierli's Urgcschichte der Schweiz (Zurich, 1901) has superseded
all earlier works (such as Heer) on prehistoric Switzerland. The
authentic early history of the Confederation (seealsoTELL.TscHUDi,
and WINKELRIED) is admirably told in W. Oechsli's Die Anf tinge
der schiveizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zurich, 1891, also in French),
as well as in the older work by A. Rilliet, Les Origines de la confedera-
tion suisse (2nd ed., Geneva and Basel, 1869). For the earlier
medieval history (1273-1334) J. E. Kopp's Geschichte der eidge-
nossischen Bunde (5 vols., Leipzig, Lucerne and Basel, 1845-1882)
is a perfect storehouse of information, while the medieval
political Swiss system in relation to the empire has been
very clearly described by W. Oechsli in his article (published
in vol. v., 1890, of Hilty's Politisches Jahrbuch) " Die Bezieh-
ungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft zum Reiche bis zum
Schwabenkrieg, 1499," while the same writer's article (pub-
lished in vol. xiii., 1888, of the Jahrbuch fur schweizerische
Geschichte) " Orte und Zugewandte," gives an admirable account
of the relations of many small districts and towns to the Swiss Con-
federation, as "allies," from the earliest times to 1798. The two
following works trace certain phenomena throughout Swiss history
— P. Schweizer, Geschichte der schweizerischen Neutralildt (Frauen-
feld, 1895), and J. Schollenberger, Geschichte der schweizer. Politik
(2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1906 and 1908). As to the more recent history
of Switzerland (since 1798) see, besides various articles in Hilty's
Jahrbuch, C. Hilty, Offentliche Vorlesungen iiber die Helvetik (Bern,
1878); W. Oechsli, Geschichte der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert
(vol. i., Leipzig, 1903, extends from 1798 to 1813); F. Burckhardt,
Die schweizerische Emigration, 1798-1901 (Basel, 1908) ; B. van
Muyden, La Suisse sous le pacte de 1815 (2 vols., 1815-1838,
Lausanne, 1890—1891) ; G. H. Dufour, Der Sonderbunds-Krieg und die
Ereignisse von 1856 in Neuenburg (Basel, 1876; also in French, Paris,
1876); G. Grote, Seven Letters concerning the Politics of Switzerland
(1847, enlarged ed., London, 1876); T. Curti, Die schweizerischen
Volksrechte, 1848-1900 (Bern, 1900); J. Schollenberger, Die Schweiz
sett 1848 (Berlin, 1908); and the blue-book (London, 1848) entitled
Correspondence Relative to the Affairs of Switzerland, with the
following volumes of memoirs by Swiss statesmen: A. P. Segesser,
Fiinf und vierzig Jahre im luzernischen Staatsdienst, 1841-1887
(Bern, 1887) ; J. C. Kern, Souvenirs politiques, 1838-1883 (Bern, 1887) ;
and Numa Droz, Etudes et portraits politiques (Geneva, 1895), as well
as lives of others. For the history of Switzerland in the igth century
see T. Curti, Geschichte der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert (Neuchatel,
1902), and the work entitled La Suisse au xixme siecle (3 vols.,
Lausanne, 1899—1900; also issued in German).
The following works are very useful for various departments of
Swiss history: Genealogisches Handbuch zur schweizer Geschichte
(in course of publication since 1900 at Zurich) ; P. GanZ> Geschichte
der heraldischen Kunst in der Schweiz im xii. and xiii. Jahrhundert
(Frauenfeld, 1899); E. Schulthess, Die Stddle- und Landes-Siegel
der Schweiz (Zurich, 1853); P. Kupfer's Armorial des miles suisses
(120 shields, Basel, 1885) ; A. Gautier, Les Armoiries et les couleurs de
la confederation et des cantons suisses (2nd ed., Geneva and Basel,
1879); and L. Tobler's Schweizerische Volkslieder (2 vols., Frauen-
feld, 1882-1884; many historical ballads, texts with introductions).
The best historical atlas is the Historisch-geographischer Atlas der
Schweiz by J. C. Vogelin, G. Meyer yon Knonau and G. von Wyss
(new ed., Zurich, 1870), while L. Poirier-Delay and F. Mullhaupt's
Historischer Atlas der Schweiz (Bern, 1898), and J. S. Gerster's
small maps (Zurich, 1886) are also useful. There is a set of small
Swiss historical maps in one sheet (No. 25) in Droysen's Allgemeiner
hislorischer Atlas (Bielefeld, 1886), and a single general one (No.
44) in R. L. Poole's Historical Atlas of Modern Europe (Oxfprd,i9O2).
For the pre-1798 constitution of Switzerland see J. Simler, De
Helvetiae republicd (Zurich 1576; also in German and French),
and Abraham Stanyan's An Account of Switzerland (London, 1714).
The best and most recent works on the existing Swiss constitution
of 1874 and its history are the large volume by W. Burckhardt,
Kommentar der schweiz. Bundesverfassung von 1874 (Bern, 1905),
and the smaller one by J. Schollenberger, Bundesverfassung der
Schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft. Kommentar mil Einleitung (Berlin,
1905), while the same author's Das Bundesstaatsrecht der schweiz.
Geschichte und System (Berlin, 1902) and his Grundriss der Staats-
und Verwaltungsrechts der schweiz. Kantone (2 vols., Zurich, 1898-
1899) are clear, and, especially the last-named, very useful as to
cantonal matters. In English there is nothing better than J. M.
Vincent's Government in Switzerland (New York and London, 1900),
for the work by F. O. Adams and C. D. Cunningham is not very
satisfactory, though better in its French edition (Basel and Geneva,
1890) than in its original English shape (London, 1889). The
decisions of the Swiss Federal Tribunal as to Swiss constitutional
law are collected (up to the end of 1902) in L. R. von Salis's
Schweizerisches Bundesrecht (2nd ed., 5 vols., Bern, 1903-1904), while
H. Ryffel's Die schweizer. Lands gemeinden (Zurich, 1904) and T.
Curti s Die schweizer. Volksrechte (Bern, 1900) touch on special sides
of the subject. See, too, COMMUNE (Swiss) and REFERENDUM AND
INITIATIVE. Many of the older works are still worth consulting,
such as those by Snell (1839-1844), Stettler (1847), Ullmer (1862-
1866), Pfaff (1870), Bluntschli (2nd ed., 1875), Meyer (1875-1878),
Dubs (1878), Orelli (1885), and Blumer (latest ed., vol. i.,
1891 ; vols. ii. and iii., 1880-1887). There are also useful articles
in Furrer's and Reichesberg's dictionaries. J. J. Blumer's Staats-
und Rechtsgeschichte der schweiz. Demokratieen (2 vols., St Gall, 1850-
1858) deals collectively with the old democratic cantons — Uri,
Schwyz, Unterwalden, Glarus, Zug and Appenzell — and is still
very useful for local history ; the special works as to the constitutional
history of other cantons are mentioned in the articles relating to
them. A general theoretical work on federal constitutions in
general is L. le Fur's Etat Federal et Confederation d'etats (Paris,
1896), vol. i. of a new German edition of which (prepared by the
author with the help of P. Posener) appeared at Breslau in 1902;
this is more up to date than E. A. Freeman's Federal Government
(new ed. of vol. i., London, 1893), or than J. B. Westerkamp's
Staatenbund und Bundesstaat (Leipzig, 1900).
There is no really satisfactory general ecclesiastical history of
Switzerland before the Reformation, though monographs abound,
and much material has been collected in the Zeilschrift fur Schweizer-
ische Kirchengeschichte (Stans, from 1907). E. E. Gelpke's Kirchen-
geschichte der Schweiz (2 vols., Bern, 1856-1861) is now out of date,
and only includes the early portion of the period (it is written
from a Protestant standpoint), while vol. ii. of B. Fleischlin's
Studien und Beitrage zur schweizer. Kirchengeschichte (Lucerne,
1902-1903) includes the period 800 to 1520, but is written
from a strong Romanist point of view. As to the early
history consult E. Egli's Die christlichen Inschriften der Schweiz
von iv-ix. Jahrhundert (Zurich, 1895), and his Kirchengeschichte
der Schweiz bis auf Karl den Grossen (Zurich, 1893); S. Guyer,
Die ckristlichen Denkmdler des ersten Jahrtausends in der Schweiz
(Leipzig, 1907); A. Lutolf, Die Glaubensboten der Schweiz
vor St Callus (Lucerne, 1871); and E. F. Gelpke, Die christliche
Sagengeschichte der Schweiz (Bern, 1862). As to the medieval
saints in Switzerland see E. A. Stuckelberg, Geschichte der Reliquien
in der Schweiz (2 vols., Zurich and Basel, 1902 and 1908), and his
Die schweiz. Heiligen des Miltelalters (Zurich, 1903), and J. Genoud's
Les Saints de la Suisse franc,aise (new ed., 2 vols., Fribourg, 1897).
For the documentary history of some of the medieval Swiss dioceses
see Regesta episcoporum constanliensium, edited by P. Ladewig
and T. Mtiller (2 vols., from 596 to 1383, as yet published, Innsbruck,
1895 and 1905); M. Besson, Recherches sur les origines des eveches
de Geneve, Lausanne, el Sion (Fribourg, 1906), and L. Stouff, Le
Pouvoir temporal des eveques de Bale (2 vols., Paris, 1891). E. E.
von Mulinen's Helvetia sacra (2 vols., Bern, 1858 and 1861) gives
the succession of the various bishops, abbots, provosts, &c., but
requires bringing up to date. For the medieval Swiss monasteries
we have Die Regesten der Archive in der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft
(edited by T. von Mohr; 2 vols., Coire, 1851-1854), though it refers
only to a few monasteries, for which it is indispensable, while Arnold
Niischeler's Die Gotteshauser der Schweiz (3 pts., Zurich, 1864—1873,
continued by the author and others in the Geschichtsfreund and
Argovia, complete index issued as an appendix to the Anzeiger fur
schweizerische Geschichte, 1900) is most valuable and useful. Some
of the great monasteries have histories of their own, such as Einsie-
deln (q.v.), Engelberg (?.».), and Muri, the last by Pater M. Kiem,
Geschichte der Benediciiner-Abtei Muri (2 vols., Stans, 1888 and 1891).
Two monographs may be mentioned: R. G. Bindschedler, Kirch-
liches Asylrecht und Freistdtten in der Schweiz (Stuttgart, 1906), and
Augusta Steinberg, Studien zur Geschichte der Juden in der Schweiz
wdhrend des Mittelalters (Zurich, 1903). For the Reformation and
later times consult (on the Protestant side), besides biographies, &c.,
of Calvin and Zwingli (qq. v.), E. Bloesch, Geschichte der schweizerisch-
reformierten Kirchen (2 vols., Bern, 1898-1899); and W. Hadorn,
Geschichte des Pietismus in der schweiz. reform. Kirchen (Constance,
1901), and the same author's Kirchengeschichte der reformierten
Schweiz (since 1906). F. Meyer's work, Die evangelische Gemeinde
in Locarno (2 vols., Zurich, 1836), treats of an important event of
that period. The Romanist standpoint is presented in vols. iii.
and iv. (1904 sqq.) of Fleischlin's work mentioned above, and also
in J. G. Mayers Das Conzil von Trient und die Gegenreformation
in der Schweiz (2 vols., Stans, 1901 and 1903).
For more modern days the best book, especially from the consti-
tutional side, is C. Gareis and P. Zorn, Stoat und Kirche inder Schweiz
(2 vols., Zurich, 1877-1878), which tells the story down to the date
of publication. Special subjects are treated of in M. Kothing, Die
Bisthumsverhandlungen der schweizerisch-konstanzischen Diozesan-
stdnde von 1803-1862 (Schwyz, 1863); F. Troxler, Der Kulturkampf
von 1863-1888 (Bienne, 1889); Ch. Woeste, Histoire du Culturkampf
en Suisse, 1871-1886 (Brussels, 1887, Romanist work); and P.
Gschwind, Geschichte der Entstehung der christkatholischen Kirche
der Schweiz (vol. i. appeared at Basel in 1904). The work by A.
Buchi entitled Die katholische Kirche in der Schweiz (Munich, 1902)
gives a full and authorized account of the present state of the
Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland.
SWOLD, BATTLE OF— SWORD
c. Literature. — For the Swiss medieval Minnesingers see Kar
Bartsch, Die schweizer Minnesanger (Frauenfeld, 1887, texts, wit
introductions) ; and for popular ballads, historical or not, L. Tobler
Schweizerische Volkslieder (2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1882-1884, texts
with notes and introductions). In general consult J. Bachtold
Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1892)
E. H. Gaullieur, Etudes sur I'histoire litteraire de la Suisse franc.aise
particulierement dans la seconde moitie du xmii"' siecle (Paris, 1856)
P. Godet, Histoire litteraire de la Suisse romande (2nd ed., Neuchate
and Paris, 1895); H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung der deutschen
Schweiz (Bern, 1905) ; J. C. Morikofer, Die schweizerische Literatu
des xviii. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1861); F. Rausch, Geschichte de
Literatur des rhato-romanischen Volkes (Frankfort-on-the-Main
1870) ; Virgile Rosscl, Histoire litteraire de la Suisse romande (2 vols.
Geneva and Paris, 1889-1891); R. Weber, Die poetische National
literatur der deutschen Schweiz (3 vols., Glarus, 1866-1867). For th
more recent Swiss writers see the literary sections of the work
entitled La Suisse au xixm> siecle, vol. ii. ch. 4 (Lausanne, 1889-
1900), and the biographers of the several writers noted under the
separate articles. (W. A. B. C.)
SWOLD (or SWOLD), BATTLE OF, the most famous of the
sea-fights of the ancient Norsemen. It took place on the g
of September 1000. The place cannot now be identified, as the
formation of the Baltic coast has been much modified in the
course of subsequent centuries, partly by the gradual silting up
of the sea, and partly by the storms of the I4th century. Swold
was an island probably on the North German coast, near Riigen.
The battle was fought between Olaf Trygvesson, king of Norway,
and a coalition of his enemies — Eric Hakonson, his cousin and
rival; Olaf, the king of Sweden; and Sweyn Forkbeard, king oi
Denmark. The poets, and the poetically minded authors of the
sagas, who are the only authorities, have told the story with
many circumstances of romance. But when the picturesque
details, which also have no doubt at least a foundation of truth,
are taken at their true value, the account of the battle still
presents a very trustworthy picture of the sea-fighting of the
Norsemen. Olaf had been during the summer in the eastern
Baltic. The allies lay in wait for him at the island of Swold on
his way home. The Norse king had with him seventy-one
vessels, but part of them belonged to an associate, Sigwald, a
chief of the Jomsburg vikings, who was an agent of his enemies,
and who deserted him. Olaf's own ships went past the anchor-
age of Eric Hakonson and his allies in a long column without
order, as no attack was expected. The king was in the rear of
the whole of his best vessels. The allies allowed the bulk of the
Norse ships to pass, and then stood out to attack Olaf. He
might have run past them by the use of sail and oar to escape,
but with the true spirit of a Norse warrior he refused to flee,
and turned to give battle with the eleven ships immediately
about him. The disposition adopted was one which is found
recurring in many sea-fights of the middle ages where a fleet
had to fight on the defensive. Olaf lashed his ships side to side,
his own — the "Long Serpent," the finest war-vessel as yet built
in the north — being in the middle of the line, where her bows
projected beyond the others. The advantage of this arrange-
ment was that it left all hands free to fight, a barrier could be
formed with the oars and yards, and the enemy's chance of
making use of his superior numbers to attack on both sides
would be, as far as possible, limited — a great point when all
fighting was with the sword, or with such feeble missile weapons
as bows and javelins. The Norse long ships were high in the
bulwark — or, as the Greeks would have said, " cataphract."
Olaf, in fact, turned his eleven ships into a floating fort. The
Norse writers, who are the only authorities, gave all the credit
to their own countrymen, and according to them all the intelli-
gence of Olaf's enemies, and most of their valour, were to be
found in Eric Hakonson. They say that the Danes and Swedes
rushed at the front of Olaf's line without success. Eric Hakon-
son attacked the flank. His vessel, the " Iron Ram," was
" bearded," that is to say, strengthened across the bows by
bands of iron, and he forced her between the last and last but
one of Olaf's line. In this way the Norse ships were carried one
by one, till the " Long Serpent " alone was left. At last she
too was overpowered. Olaf leapt into the sea holding his
shield edgeways, so that he sank at once and the weight of his
hauberk dragged him down. A legend of later days has it that
269
at the last moment a sudden blaze of light surrounded the king,
and when it cleared away he had disappeared. King Olaf is
one of the same company as Charlemagne, King Arthur and
Sebastian of Portugal— the legendary heroic figures in whose death
the people would not beljeve, and whose return was looked for
SeetheHeims-Kringla, in the Saga Library, trans, by W. Morris
and E. Magmusson (1893) and the Saga of King Olaf Trygtnvason
trans, by J. Sephton (1895). (ft. H.)
SWORD (O. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European
root meaning to wound), a general term for a hand weapon of
metal, characterized by a longish blade, and thus distinct from
all missile weapons on the one hand, and on the other hand from
staff weapons— the pike, bill, halberd and the like— in which
the metal head or blade occupies only a fraction of the effective
length. The handle of a sword provides a grip for the hand that '
wields it, or sometimes for two hands; it may add protection,
and in most patterns does so to a greater or less extent.
Still it is altogether subordinate to the blade. For want of a
metal-headed lance or axe, which indeed were of later invention,
a sharpened pole or a thin-edged paddle will serve the turn.
But a sword-handle without a blade is naught ; and no true sword-
blade can be made save of metal capable of taking an edge or point,
i. Historical. — There are so-called swords of wood and even
stone to be found in collections of savage weapons. But these
are really flattened clubs; and the present writer Origins and
agrees with the late General Pitt-Rivers in not Early
believing that such modifications of the club have Fona*-
had any appreciable influence on the form or use of true swords.
On this last point, however, the opinions of competent archaeo-
logists have been much divided. We will only remark that the
occurrence in objects of human handiwork of a form, or even
a series of forms, intermediate between two types is not conclu-
sive evidence that those forms are historical links between the
different types, or that there is any historical connexion at all.
In the absence of dates fixed by external evidence this kind of
comparison will seldom take us beyond plausible conjecture.
A traveller who had never seen velocipedes might naturally
suppose, on a first inspection, that the tricycle was a modification
of the old four-wheeled velocipede, and the bicycle a still later
invention; but we know that in fact the order of development
was quite different.
It is more difficult as a matter of verbal definition to distinguish
the sword from smaller hand weapons. Thus an ordinary
sword is four or five times as long as^an ordinary dagger: but
:here are long daggers and short swords; neither will the form of
slade or handle afford any certain test. The real difference lies
in the intended use of the weapon; we associate the sword with
open combat, the dagger with a secret attack or the sudden
defence opposed to it. One might say that a weapon too large
to be concealed about the person cannot be called a dagger.
Again, there are large knives, such as those used by the Afridis
and Afghans, which can be distinguished from swords only by
the greater breadth of the blade as compared with its length.
Again, there are special types of arms, of which the yataghan
s a good example, which in their usual forms do not look much
ike swords, but in others that occur must be classed as varieties
of the sword, unless we keep them separate by a more or less
-irtificial theory, referring the type as a whole to a different origin.
Of the actual origin of swords we have no direct evidence.
Neither does the English word nor, so far as we are aware, any
of the equivalent words in other languages, Aryan or otherwise,
hrow any light on the matter. Daggers shaped from reindeer
antlers occur among the earliest relics of man, and there are
lint daggers of the Neolithic period, which may be supposed
o have been the model for the first hand weapons made of
opper. Bronze took the place cf copper about 2000 B.C., and
he transition from bronze to iron is assigned to the period from
ooo to 700 B.C.1 Whatever may be the further discoveries of
rchaeologists, we know that swords are found from the earliest
' As to the overlapping of the bronze and iron ages in the
iomenc poems, see Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete (1907),
>. 214. As co Britain, O. Montelius in Archaeologia, 61, pp. 155-6-
Cowper, Art of Attack, 124 sqq. (Ulverston, 1906).
270
SWORD
times of which we have any record among all people who have
acquired any skill in metal-work. There are two very ancient
types, which we may call the straight-edged and the leaf-
shaped. Assyrian monuments represent a straight and narrow
sword, better fitted for thrusting than cutting. Bronze swords
of this form have been found in many parts of Europe, at
Mycenae, side by side with leaf-shaped specimens, and more
lately in Crete.1 We have also from Mycenae some very curious
and elaborately wrought blades, so broad and short that they
must be called ornamental daggers rather tnan swords. The
leaf-shaped blade is common everywhere among the remains
of men in the " Bronze Period " of civilization, and this was the
shape used by the Greeks in historical times, and is the shape
, familiar to us in Greek works of art. It is impossible, however,
to say whether the Homeric heroes were conceived by the poet
as wearing the leaf-shaped sword, as we see it, for example, on
the Mausoleum sculptures, or a narrow straight-edged blade of
the Minoan and Mycenaean pattern. In any case, the sword
holds a quite inferior position with Greek warriors of all times.
(1-5, from Gerhard's Griechische Vasenbitder; 6-15, from Lindenschmit , Trachl und
Bewajfnung des romischen Heeres wdhrend der Kaiserzeit, Brunswick, 1882.)
FIG. i.
1-5, Greek Swords of the classical type; 6-15 Roman Swords.
6, So-called " sword of Tiberius" 9, Cavalry (monumentat Mainz),
from Mainz (Brit. Mus.). 10, Cavalry (monument at
7, Bonn (private collection), Worms).
length 765 mm. 12, 13, Sword handles (Kiel and
8, Legionary (monument at Mainz).
Wiesbaden). n, 14, 15, From Trajan's column.
The relation of the Minoan long sword to the Greek leaf-shaped
blade is obscure. It is conceivable that the leaf-shape was
modified from a longer straight blade for the sake of handiness
and cutting power, but not less so that the leaf-shape was
1 The Cretan finds are fully described by Arthur J. Evans, " The
Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos," (Archaeologia (1905), 59, pt. 2; also
separately published (1906). There are long (91-95 cm., 34-1 in.-
37-1 in.) and short (50-61 cm., 20-24-2 in.), swords, daggers and
bronze knives. A fine original specimen and several facsimiles
(Mycenaean as well as Minoan) may be seen in the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford. Bronze daggers preceded both swords and spear-
heads (Greenwell and Brewis, in Archaeologia, 61, pp. 443, 453).
independently produced by imitation in metal of flint daggers.
Independence appears, on the whole, slightly more probable;
the existence of specimens which might belong to an intermediate
type is only an ambiguous fact without a more exact chronology
than we have as yet, as it may be due to experiment or imitation
after both types were in use. Strange as it is to a modern
swordsman, representations in Minoan art seem to show that
not only the bronze daggers but the long swords were used with
an overhand stabbing action like a modern Asiatic dagger.2 The
handles are too short for any but a rigid grip without finger-play.
Before about 1500 B.C. the rapier type was the prevailing one;
but there is no evidence of historical connexion between the
Assyrian and the Minoan rapiers. It is thought that the leaf-
shaped blade came to the Mediterranean countries from the
north. So far as we know from works of art, it was mostly used
with a downright cutting blow, regardless of the consequent
exposure of the swordsman's body; this, however, matters little
when defence is left to a shield or armour, or both. Attic vases
also show warriors giving, point, though less often. The use
of the sword as a weapon of combined offence and defence —
swordsmanship as we now understand it — is quite modern. If
the sword was developed from a spearhead or dagger, it would
naturally have been (and it seems in fact to have been) a thrusting
weapon before it was a cutting one. But when we come to
historical times we find that uncivilized people use only the edge,
and that the effective use of the point is a mark of advanced
skill and superior civilization. The Romans paid special
attention to it, and Tacitus tells us how Agricola's legionaries
made short work of the clumsy and pointless arms of the Britons
when battle was fairly joined.3 The tradition was preserved
at least as late as the time of Vegetius, who, as a technical
writer, gives details of the Roman soldier's sword exercise.
Asiatics to this day treat the sword merely as a cutting weapon,
and most Asiatic swords cannot be handled in any other way.
The normal types of swords which we meet with in historical
times, and from which all forms now in use among civilized nations
are derived, may be broadly classified as straight-
edged or curved. In the straight-edged type, in itself Types.
a very ancient one, either thrusting or cutting
qualities may predominate, and the blade may be double-edged or
single-edged. The double-edged form was prevalent in Europe
down to the i?th century. The single-edged blade, or back-
sword as it was called in England, is well exemplified among the
Scottish weapons commonly but improperly known as claymores
(the real claymore, i.e. great sword, claidheamh m6r, is an earlier
medieval form), and is now all but exclusively employed for
military weapons. But these, with few exceptions, have been
more or less influenced by the curved Oriental sabre. Among
early double-edged swords the Roman pattern (Radius, the
thrusting sword, contrasted with the barbarian ensis) stands out
as a workmanlike and formidable weapon for close fight. In
the middle ages the Roman tradition disappeared, and a new
start was made from the clumsy barbarian arm which the
Romans had despised. Gradually the broad and all but pointless
blade was lightened and tapered, and the thrust, although its
real power was unknown, was more or less practised from the
1 2th century onwards. St Louis anticipated Napoleon in
calling on his men to use the point; and the heroes of dismounted
combats in the Morte d' Arthur are described as " foining " at
one another. In the first half of the i6th century a well-
proportioned and well-mounted cut-and-thrust sword was in
general use, and great artistic ingenuity was expended, for those
who could afford it, on the mounting and adornment. The
growth and variations of the different parts of the hilt, curiously
resembling those of a living species, would alone be matter
enough for an archaeological study. One peculiar form, that of
the Scottish basket-hilt, derived from the Venetian pattern
known as schiawne, has persisted without material change.
2 As the spear still was in historical times (Furtwangler-Reichhold,
Gr. Vasenmalerei, iii. 122).
8 Agric. 36: " Britannorum gladii sine mucrone complexum
armorum et in aperto pugnam non tolerabant." The short Roman
infantry sword, however, dates only from the Second Punic War.
SWORD
271
Quite different from the European models is the crescent-
shaped Asiatic sabre, commonly called scimitar. We are not
acquainted with any distinct evidence as to the origin of this
in time or place. Dr R. Forrcr thinks the whole family of
curved swords was developed from bronze knives. The Prankish
scramasax would then represent an intermediate type. How-
ever that may be, the fame of the Damascus manufacture of
sword-blades is of great antiquity, as is also that of Khorasan,
still the centre of the best Eastern work of this kind. Who-
ever first made these blades had conceived a very definite idea
— that of gaining a maximum of cutting power regardless of
loss in other qualities — and executed it in a manner not to be
improved upon. The action of the curved edge in delivering
a blow is to present an oblique and therefore highly acute-angled
section of the blade to the object struck, so that in effect the
cut is given with a finer edge than could safely be put on the
blade in its direct transverse section. In a well-made sabre
the setting of the blade with regard to the handle (" leading
forward ") is likewise ordered with a view to this result. And
the cutting power of a weapon so shaped and mounted is un-
doubtedly v.ery great. But the use of the point is abandoned,
10
(Reproduced by permission from Egerton's Illustrated Handbook of Indian Arms,
published by the India Office, 1880, new ed. s.t. Indian and Oriental Armour, 1806.)
FIG. 2. — Oriental Swords.
1,2, Decorated Persian arms. 6, Persian talwar.
3, Gauntlet sword. 8, Kukri (Nepal).
4, Common type of talwar (North- 7, 9, ip, Mahratta, showing tran-
West Provinces). sition to gauntlet sword.
5, Yataghan type.
and the capacities of defensive use (to which Orientals pay little
or no attention) much diminished. These drawbacks have
caused the scimitar type, after being in fashion for European
light cavalry during the period of Napoleon's wars and some-
what longer, to be discarded in our own time. But, as long as
Easterns adhere to their rigid grasp of a small handle and sweep-
ing cut delivered from the shoulder, the Persian scimitar or
Indian talwar will remain the natural weapon of the eastern
horseman. Indian and Persian swords are often richly adorned;
but their appropriate beauty is in the texture of the steel itself,
the " damascening " or " watering " which distinguishes a
superior from a common specimen.
There are special Asiatic varieties of curved blades of which
the origin is more or less uncertain. Among these the most
remarkable is perhaps the yataghan, a weapon pretty much
coextensive with the Mahommedan world, though it is reported
to be not common in Persia. It was imported from Africa,
through a French imitation, as the model of the sword-bayonets
which were common for about a generation in European armies;
probably the French authorities caught at it to satisfy the
sentiment, which lingered in continental armies long after it
had disappeared in England, that even the infantry soldier after
the invention of the bayonet must have some kind of sword.
A compact and formidable hand weapon was thus turned into
a clumsy and top-heavy pike. If we try to make a bayonet
that will cut cabbages, we may or may not get a useful chopper,
but we shall certainly get a very bad bayonet. The modern
short sword-bayonet is a reversion to the original dagger type,
and not open to this objection. The double curve of the yata-
ghan is substantially identical with that of the Gurkha knife
(kukri), though the latter is so much broader as to be more like
a woodman's than a soldier's instrument. It is doubtful,
however, whether there is any historical connexion. Similar
needs are often capable of giving rise to similar inventions
without imitation or communication. There are yet other
varieties, belonging to widely spread families of weapons, which
have acquired a strong individuality. Such are the swords
of Japan, which are the highly perfected working out of a general
Indo-Chinese type; they are powerful weapons and often
beautifully made, but a European swordsman would find them
ill-balanced, and the Japanese style of sword-play, being two-
handed, has little to teach us.
Other sorts of weapons, again, are so peculiar in form or
historical derivation, or both, as to refuse to be referred to any
of the normal divisions. The long straight gauntlet-hilled
sword (paid, fig. 3) found both among the Mahrattas in the
south of India and among the Sikhs and Rajputs in the north,
is an elongated form of the broad-bladed dagger with a cross-bar
handle (kaldr, figs. 9, 10), as is shown by a transitional form, much
resembling in shape and size of blade the medieval English
anlace, and furnished with a guard for the back of the hand.
This last-mentioned pattern seems, however, to be limited to
a comparatively small region. When once the combination
of a long blade with the gauntlet hilt was arrived at, any straight
blade might be so mounted; and many appear on examination
to be of European workmanship — German, Spanish or Italian.
There are various other Oriental arms, notably in the Malay
group, as to which it is not easy to say whether they are properly
swords or not. The Malay " parang latok " is a kind of elongated
chopper sharpened by being bevelled off to an edge on one side,
and thus capable of cutting only in one direction. The anlace
incidentally mentioned above seems to be merely an overgrown
dagger; the name occurs only in English and Welsh; in which
language first, or whence the name or thing came, is unknown.
In the course of the i6th century the straight two-edged
sword of all work was lengthened, narrowed, and more finely
pointed, till it became the Italian and Spanish Later Euro-
rapier, a weapon still furnished with cutting edges, pe**> De-
but used chiefly for thrusting. We cannot say how vel°Pmeat*-
far this transition was influenced by the estoc or Panzer stecher,1
a late medieval thrusting weapon carried by horsemen rather
as an auxiliary lance than as a sword. The Roman preference
of the point was rediscovered under new conditions, and fencing
became an art. Its progress was from pedantic complication
to lucidity and simplicity, and the fashion of the weapon was
1 Probably this was the kind of sword called Brock in 14th-century
English (Eyre of Kent, Selden Soc., 1910, p. 100).
272
SWORD
simplified also. Early in the i8th century, the use of the edge
having been finally abandoned in rapier-play, the two-edged
blade was supplanted by the bayonet-shaped French duelling
sword, on which no improvement has since been made except in
giving it a still simpler guard. The name of rapier was often
but wrongly given to this by English writers. About the same
time, or a little earlier, the primacy of the art passed from Italy
to France. There is still a distinct Italian school, but the rest
of the world learns from French masters. It is unnecessary
here to consider the history of fencing (q.v.) ; Mr Egerton Castle's
book on the subject will be found a trustworthy guide, and almost
indispensable for those who wish really to understand the
passages relating to sword-play in our Elizabethan literature,
of which the fencing scene in Hamlet is the most famous and
obvious example.
(Reproduced by permission from Mr Egerton Castle's Schools and Masters of Pence.)
FIG. 3. — Typical European Swords, i6th-i8th centuries.
1, Early i6th century.
2, German, c. 1550.
3, Italian rapier, third quarter
l6th century.
4, Spanish rapier, late 1 6th
century.
5, Italian, same period.
6, English, same period.
7, English musketeer's sword,
early 1 7th century.
8, Spanish broadsword, early
1 7th century.
9, Venetian, c. 1550.
10, Italian, late l6th century.
11, English, time of Common-
wealth.
12, French rapier, c. 1650.
13, German flamberg, early i;th
century.
14, 15, Small-swords, 1700-1750.
Meanwhile a stouter and broader pattern, with sundry minor
varieties, continued in use for military purposes, and gradually
the single-edged form or broadsword prevailed. The well-
known name of Ferrara, peculiarly associated with Scottish
blades, appears to have originally belonged to a Venetian maker,
or family of makers, towards the end of the i6th century. The
Spanish blades made at Toledo had by that time acquired a
renown which still continues. Somewhat later Oriental examples,
imported probably by way of Hungary, induced the curvature
found in most recent military sabres, which, however, is now
kept within such bounds as not to interfere with the effective
use of the point. An eccentric specialized variety — we may call
it a " sport ': — of the sabre is the narrow and flexible " Schlager "
with which German students fight their duels (for the most
part not arising out of any quarrel, but set trials of skill), under
highly conventional rules almost identical with those of the old
English " backswording " practised within living memory, in
which, however, the swords were represented by sticks. These
" Schlager " duels cause much effusion of blood, but not often
serious danger to life or limb.
There are plenty of modern books on sabre-play, but com-
paratively little attention has been given to its scientific treat-
ment. It is said that the Italian school is better than the
French, and the modern German and Austrian the best of all.
Some of the English cavalry regiments have good traditions,
enriched by the application of a knowledge of fencing derived
from eminent French masters.
The following description, written for the Qth edition of this
work from personal inspection, applies to the process used by the
best private makers till near the end of the ipth Manufacture
century, and is purposely left unchanged. The of Swords by
present method of making army swords is separately Mal"lmwork-
described below. Mechanical invention has not been able
to supersede or equal hand-work in the production of good
sword-blades. The swordsmith's craft is still, no less than it
was in the middle ages, essentially a handicraft, and it requires
a high order of skill. His rough material is a bar of cast and
hammered steel tapering from the centre to the ends; when this
is cut in two each half is made into a sword. The "tang"
which fits into the handle is not part of the blade, but a piece
of wrought iron welded on to its base. From this first stage to
the finishing of the point it is all hammer and anvil work. Special
tools are used to form grooves in the blade according to the
regulation or other pattern desired, but the shape and weight
of the blade are fixed wholly by the skilled hand and eye of the
smith. [Machine forging in the early stages is now common, and
there is no difficulty in making the blade and tang of the same
metal.] Measuring tools are at hand, but are little used. Great
care is necessary to avoid overheating the metal, which would
produce a brittle crystalline grain, and to keep the surface
free from oxide, which would be injurious if hammered in.
In tempering the blade the workman judges of the proper heat
by the colour. Water is preferred to oil by the best makers,
notwithstanding that tempering in oil is much easier. With
oil there is not the same risk of the blade coming out distorted
and having to be forged straight again (a risk, however, which the
expert swordsmith can generally avoid); but the steel is only
surface-hardened, and the blade therefore remains liable to bend.
[This is disputed.] Machinery comes into play only for grinding
and polishing, and to some extent in the manufacture of hilts and
appurtenances. The finished blade is proved by being caused
to strike a violent blow on a solid block with the two sides flat,
with the edge, and lastly with the back; after this the blade is
bent flatwise in both directions by hand, and finally the point is
driven through a steel plate about an eighth of an inch thick.
In spite of all the care that can be used both in choice of material
and in workmanship, about 40% of the blades thus tried [now
only about io%] fail to stand the proof, and are rejected. The
process we have briefly described is that of making a really good
sword; of course, plenty of cheaper and commoner weapons are
in the market, but they are hardly fit to trust a man's life to.
It is an interesting fact that the peculiar skill of the swordsmith
is in England so far hereditary that it can be traced back in the
same families for several generations.
The best Eastern blades are justly celebrated, but they are not
better than the best European ones; in fact, European swords are
often met with in Asiatic hands, remounted in Eastern fashion.
SWORD
273
The " damascening " or " watering " of choice Persian and
Indian arms is not a secret of workmanship, but is due to the
peculiar manner of making the Indian steel itself, in which a
crystallizing process is set up; when metal of this texture is
forged out, the result is a more or less regular wavy pattern
running through it. There were early medieval damascened
(in German called wurmbunte) blades. No difference is made by
this in the practical qualities of the blade. (F. Po.)
3
FIG.
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8. '
FIG. 9.
(Fios. 6, 8, 9, Messrs Wilkins & Co. FIG. 7, H.M. War Office.)
Fig.
Length of
Blade from
hilt to point.
Weight
without
Scabbard.
Material
of
Scabbard.
4
French cavalry sword (men),
Inches.
Ib. oz.
pattern 1898
35
2 6
5
German cavalry sword (men),
pattern 1889
32*
2 8i
Steel
6
British cavalry sword (officers)
35
2 O
. with
7
8
British cavalry sword (men),
pattern 1908 (two sizes)
British infantry sword (officers)
} 35I&34I {
3*1
„ 2 I3t
& 2 I5J
2 3
wood
lining.
9
British general officer's sword .
32*
I 12
2. Modern Military Swords. — The present military swords
are descended from the straight " back-sword " and the Eastern
scimitar or talwar. The difference between the curved " sabre "
and straight " sword " has been preserved abroad, not only
in fact but in name (e.g. in German, Degen stands for the straight,
and Sabel for the curved, sword), though in English the single
word " sword " covers both varieties. The shape of the sword
has varied considerably at different times; this is due to the fact
that it is practically impossible to decide by trial whether a
straight or a curved sword is the better under all circumstances.
The trooper can use his sword in three different ways — to
cut, to guard and to point; and his success depends upon the
training of his horse, his skill in horsemanship, and, above
all, upon the dexterity and methods of his adversary. Thus
the effect the cavalryman can produce in combat depends
upon much besides his arm or arms, and those other con-
ditions cannot be reproduced accurately enough to
make trustworthy tests. The result is that changes
have often been made in cavalry armament under the
erroneous impression that the arm used has been the
main cause of success. The Ottoman cavalry up to
the end of the i8th century was regarded as one of
the best in Europe, and so much was it dreaded that
the Austrians and Russians in their wars with Turkey
at that time often carried " chevaux-de-frise " to
protect their infantry against these redoubtable horse-
men. The curved European cavalry sabre so long in
use may undoubtedly be traced to this cause, the
superiority of the Turks being put down to their
curved scimitars, though there can be no doubt that
horsemanship and dash were really the dominating
factors.
The shape of the sword to be chosen depends obviously
on the purpose for which it is mainly intended. If for
cutting a curved blade, and for thrusting a straight and
pointed one, will be adopted. The question naturally
arises as to which is the better plan to adopt, and it is
improbable that a definite answer can ever be given to it.
The French, for instance, in 1822 adopted a curved blade
for a short time for all their cavalry, and in 1882 again for
a short time a straight blade, and in 1 898 again a straight
blade. In this much-debated matter the facts appear to
be as follows: A determined thrust, especially when
delivered by a horseman at full speed, is difficult to parry:
if it gets home, it will probably kill the recipient outright
or disable him for the rest of the campaign. That this
is the case is borne out by the very large proportion of
killed as compared with wounded in the British cavalry
when engaged with that of the French in the Peninsular
War, the French making much use of the point, and their
heavy cavalry being armed with a long straight sword.
On the other hand, to deliver a bold thrust, while dis-
regarding the uplifted sword of the adversary, and leaving
one's own body and head open to an impending blow,
demands complete confidence that the thrust will get
home before the blow can descend, or that the adversary's
cut will probably be weakened by a momentary uncer-
tainty as to whether it would not be better to convert the
intended cut into a parry. Such confidence, it is argued
with much truth, can only be the fruit of long training,
especially as it is the natural tendency of all men to cut
when excited ; therefore, as the trooper in modern armies
will often be a reservist who has not been able to keep up
his swordsmanship, or a young soldier liable to lose his
head and forget the lessons of peace in the excitement of
the mUee, it is considered by many most unwise to adopt
a sword with which a powerful cut cannot be delivered
as well as an effective thrust. The swords recently
adopted by most nations have represented a compromise.
They have blades which are nearly straight, but of suffi-
cient weight towards their points to enable an efficient
cut to be delivered with them. France, however, in 1898
decided on a long straight sword designed wholly for
thrusting (see fig. i), practically identical with that which
was in use about a century ago. The following year
Great Britain introduced a slightly curved weapon, but
in 1908 a new sword was adopted which has a long
straight blade and is intended to be used chiefly for
thrusting.
As regards the swords worn by officers and men of corps
other than cavalry, no remarks are necessary. As long as
they are worn they should be efficient ; but with the officer
the sword is largely a badge of rank. From 1901 to 1908 the sword
was worn only for ceremonial purposes by British infantry officers,
but in the latter year it was again ordered to be worn on active
service and at manoeuvres. Mounted men in general wear cavalry
swords, and swords are also worn by warrant officers and by certain
staff-sergeants of dismounted arms and branches.
A good sword should be elastic, so as to stand bending or a heavy
blow without breaking or permanent deformation, and yet stiff
enough to deliver a powerful thrust without yielding too readily
from the straight ; it must also be as light as is possible consistently
274
SWORDFISH
with strength, and well balanced. All four desiderata are met in
the main by the use of a suitable steel, properly treated and disposed,
but balance is also dependent on the weight and form of the hilt.
As regards the effect of disposition, grooving or " fullering " the
flats of the blade reduces weight without impairing strength, and
is now very largely adopted.
The operations of manufacture, as carried out at the Royal Small
Arms Factory at Enfield, may be described briefly as follows,
the weapon being the pattern 1899 cavalry sword, which was slightly
curved : —
The steel blank, about ly'Xii'Xi', is heated and drawn out
to about double its length under a mechanical hammer; it is then
reheated and rolled out between rolls suitably shaped, and the
fullers formed ; the tang (to which the hilt and grips are ultimately
attached) is then formed by stamping under a machine hammer,
and the blade is cut to length and roughly pointed. The blade,
though approximately in its finished form, is now straight; the fins
are ground off, the tang annealed, the blade set for grinding, and
afterwards rough-ground. It is heated and set to curve in a press,
then reheated and hardened by being plunged into a bath of oil
kept cool by a water jet. On removal from the bath the blade
is dead hard and so brittle that it can be broken by a slight blow,
and consequently has to be let down by tempering. This is accom-
plished by heating in a bath of molten lead until the steel assumes
a particular colour, at which stage, while hot, the blade is adjusted
for straightness and curve, this being a delicate operation, as it must
be performed while the blade retains its temper and heat before
finally cooling. It is now ground to size, and the tang, which, though
not hardened purposely, is harder than is desired {or machining, is
softened by cooling, and machined to the required form. The blade
is then ground, reheated to spring temper and set, then tested as
follows: When tempered and set before polishing it is fixed in a
machine and caused to strike an oak block with a blow of 120 ft
with both its edge and back, and with similar blows, but with a
force of 60 lb, with both flats. These tests detect flaws, and over
or under tempering, by the breakage or distortion of the blade,
the blows by the flat being particularly searching tests. If the
blade passes the above tests, it is then placed vertically in a machine
and shortened 5 in. by bending towards each flat, and must recover
perfect straightness; it is then shortened I in., and must recover
itself when supporting a weight of 35 lb bearing on its tang. This
tests the elasticity of the blade. After polishing it is again tested
for stiffness as above, and must recover perfect straightness, but only
under 32 ft, and for elasticity by a further shortening of 5 in.,
but towards one flat only.
The introduction of the system described above has greatly
simplified and cheapened the process of manufacture, while the
greater excellence of the product and the severe and certain tests
applied to it by mechanical means have increased the standard
of efficiency of the swords in the hands of the troops. It is
certainly true that, of old, excellent blades were occasionally
turned out by hand, but they were exceedingly costly, and
the average merit of sword-blades when turned out in numbers
by hand was poor. It must not, however, be supposed that
the regular methods described have eliminated 'the necessity
for personal skill. The steel can still be spoilt by over- or under-
heating, whether for rolling or hardening; tempering and setting
require much experience and skill, and blades can be easily injured
both in form and temper by unskilful grinding. Sword-making,
therefore, though not the somewhat uncertain art it once was,
still requires skilled craftsmen for its successful accomplishment.
(H. W. B.;F. Po.)
AUTHORITIES. — The following list of works is intended to guide
the reader, if desired, to fuller acquaintance with the literature and
authorities of the subject : —
A rchaeology and General History. — R. Forrer, " Der Werdegang von
Dolch und Schwert," introduction to Die Schwerter und Schwert-
knaufe der Sammlung Carl von Schwerzenbach (Leipzig, 1905), the best
monograph ; Dr Julius Naue, Die vorromischen Schwerter aus Kupfer,
Bronze und Risen (Munich, 1903), with atlas of illustrations, a
standard work for the prehistoric periods (neither of these authors
has been able to use the Cretan materials); R. F. Burton,
The Book of the Sword (only I vol. published; London, 1884);
Colonel Lane Fox (afterwards Major-General Pitt-Rivers),
Catalogue of Anthropological Collection, South Kensington Museum
(London, 1874) ; " Primitive Warfare," in Journal of the Royal
United Service Institution (1867, 1868, 1869). For special regions
and periods, see Lord Egerton of Tatton, Indian and Oriental
Armour (London, 1896); Lmdenschmit, Tracht und Bewaffnung des
romischen Heeres wdhrend der Kaiserzeit (Brunswick, 1882); Drum-
mond and Anderson, Ancient Scottish Weapons (Edinburgh and
London, 1881). The general treatises and handbooks on arms and
armour, such as Grose, Meyrick, Hewitt, Lacombeand Demmin, may
be consulted with advantage, but with caution in details. The
same may be said of published catalogues of museums and private
collections. W. Boeheim, Handbuch der Waffenkunde (Leipzig,
1900); R. C. Clephan, The Defensive Armour and the Weapons and
Engines of War of Medieval Times and of the Renaissance (London,
1900); Ashdown, British and Foreign Arms and Armour (London,
1909) ; and G. F. Laking, The Armour of Windsor Castle (European
section; London, 1904), are trustworthy guides. " The Forms and
History of the Sword," in Proceedings of the Royal Institution (1883),
by the present writer, reprinted in Oxford Lectures, &c. (London,
1890), gives further references and citations on various points.
Swordsmanship. — Egerton Castle, Schools and Masters of Fence
from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century (including a critical
bibliography; London, 1892); Carl A. Thimm, Bibliography of
Fencing and Duelling (London, 1896). For the beginnings of the
art in Italy, Flos duellatorum (a MS. of 1410 edited by Francesco
Novati, with critical introduction and notes, Bergamo, 1902).
Vigeant, Bibliographic de I'escrime ancienne et moderne (Paris, 1882) ;
Gomard (assumed name of Possellier), Theorie de I'escrime (histori-
cal introduction; Paris, 1845). Grisier, Les Armes et le duel (preface
by A. Dumas; Paris, 1847).
Technology. — Wilkinson, Engines of War (London, 1841) ; Latham,
" The Shape of Sword-Blades," Journal of the Royal U.S. Institu-
tion (1862); Marey, Memoire sur les armes blanches (Strassburg,
1841 ; trans, by Lieut.-Colonel Maxwell, London, 1860).
For the technique of Japanese swords, see A. Dobree, " Japanese
Sword Blades," Archaeol. Journal, Ixii. I, 218 (London, 1905); as
to export of European blades to India, Lord Dillon, " Arms and
Armour Abroad," ibid. 67, 69-72. (F Po.)
SWORDFISH, the name given to a small family of spiny-
rayed fishes (Xiphiidae), the principal characteristic of which
consists in the prolongation of the upper jaw into a long pointed
sword-like weapon. The " sword " is formed by the coalescence
of the intermaxillary and maxillary bones, which possess an
extremely hard texture; it has the shape of a much elongated
cone, more or less flattened throughout its whole length; the
end is sharply pointed. It is smooth above and on the upper
part of the sides, and rough below owing to the presence of
innumerable rudimentary teeth, which have no function.
The general form of the body is well proportioned, somewhat
elongate, and such as is always found in fishes with great power
Swordfish (Histiophorus pulchellus).
of swimming, as, for instance, in the mackerel and tunny, and
the tail terminates in a powerful bilobed caudal fin. A long fin
occupies nearly the whole length of the back, whilst the anal
fin is generally interrupted in the middle and consequently
appears to be double. The skin is very firm, partly naked,
partly with small lanceolate scales deeply embedded in the skin.
The teeth of the lower jaw are, like those of the upper, merely
rudimentary structures, which render the surface of the bone
rough without possessing any special function.
Swordfishes have been divided into three generic groups: —
a. Histiophorus, with a high dorsal fin which can be spread out
like a sail, and with ventral fins which are reduced to a pair of
long styliform appendages.
b. Tetrapturus, with a dorsal fin of which the anterior rays only
are elongate, the remainder of the fin being low or partly obsolete,
and with styliform ventral fins as in the preceding genus.
c. Xiphias, with the dorsal fin shaped as in Tetrapturus, but
without ventral fins.
Swordfishes are truly pelagic fishes, which either singly or in
pairs or in smaller or larger companies roam over the oceans of
the tropical and subtropical zones of both hemispheres. Some
species wander regularly or stray far into the temperate seas.
Some of the tropical forms are the largest of Acanthopterygian
fishes, and not exceeded in size by any other Teleostean; such
species attain to a length of from 12 to 15 ft., and swords have
been preserved more than 3 ft. long and with a diameter of at
least 3 in. at the base. The Histiophori, which inhabit chiefly
the Indo-Pacific Ocean, but occur also in the Atlantic, seem to
possess in their high dorsal fin an additional aid for locomotion.
During the rapid movements, of the fish this fin is folded down-
wards on the back, as it would impede the velocity of progress
by the resistance it offers to the water; but, when the fish is
swimming in a leisurely way, it is frequently seen with the fin
SWYNFORD— SYBEL
275
erected, and projecting out of the water, and when quietly
floating on the surface it can sail by the aid of the fin before the
wind, like a boat.
The food of the swordfishes is the same as that of tunnies,
and consists of smaller fish, and probably also in great measure
of pelagic cuttle-fishes. It has been ascertained by actual
observation that swordfishes procure their food by dashing
into a school of fishes, piercing and killing a number of them with
their swords; and this kind of weapon would seem to be also
particularly serviceable in killing large cuttle-fish, like the saw
of sawfishes, which is used for the same purpose. But the
swords of the large species of Histiophorus and Tetrapturus are,
besides, most formidable weapons of aggression. These fishes
never hesitate to attack whales and other large cetaceans, and,
by repeatedly stabbing them, generally retire from the combat
victorious. That they combine in these attacks with the
thresher-shark is an often-repeated story which is discredited
by some naturalists on the ground that the dentition of the
thresher-shark is much too weak to make an impression on the
skin of any cetacean. The cause which excites swordfishes
to such attacks is unknown; but they follow the instinct so
blindly that they not rarely assail boats and ships in a similar
manner, evidently mistaking them for cetaceans. They easily
pierce the light canoes of the natives of the Pacific islands and
the heavier boats of the professional swordfish fishermen, often
dangerously wounding the persons sitting in them. Attacks
by swordfishes on ocean-going ships are so common as to be
included among sea-risks: they are known to have driven their
weapon through copper-sheathing, oak-plank and timber to a
depth of nearly 10 in., part of the sword projecting into the inside
of the ship; and the force required to produce such an effect
has 'been described by Sir R. Owen in a court of law as equal
to "the accumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers,"
and the velocity as " equal to that of a swivel-shot " and " as
dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile." Among
the specimens of planking pierced by swordfishes which are
preserved in the British Museum there is one less than a foot
square which encloses the broken ends of three swords, as if the
fishes had had the object of concentrating their attack on the
same vulnerable point of their supposed enemy. The part of
the sword which penetrates a ship's side is almost always broken
off and remains in the wood, as the fish is unable to execute
sufficiently powerful backward movements to free itself by
extracting the sword. •
In the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of the United
States the capture of swordfishes forms a regular branch of the
fishing industry. The object of the fishery in the Mediterranean
is the common European swordfish (Xiphias gladius), the aver-
age weight of which is about i cwt., and which is abundant
off the Sicilian coasts and on the opposite coast of Calabria.
Two methods are employed — that by harpoons, chiefly used for
larger fish, and that by peculiarly constructed nets called
palamitare. This fishery is very productive: a company of
fishermen frequently capture from twenty to fifty fish in a single
day, and the average annual catch in Sicily and Calabria is
reported to be 140,000 kilogrammes (138 tons). The products
of the fishery are consumed principally in a fresh state, but a
portion is preserved in salt or oil. The flesh of the swordfish is
much preferred to that of the tunny, and always commands a high
price. This species is occasionally captured on the British coast.
On the coast of the United States a different species, Histio-
phorus gladius, occurs; it is a larger fish than the Mediterranean
swordfish, attaining to a length of from 7 to 12 ft. and an
average weight of 300 or 400 Ib. It is captured only by the use
of the harpoon. From forty to fifty vessels, schooners of some
50 tons, are annually engaged in this fishery, with an aggregate
catch amounting annually to about 3400 swordfishes, of a value
of $45,000. The flesh of this species is inferior in flavour to that
of the Mediterranean species, and is principally consumed after
having been preserved in salt or brine.
Useful and detailed information on the swordfish fishery can be
obtained from A. T. Tozzetti, " La Pesca nei mari d'ltalia e la
pesca all' esterp esercitata da Italian!," in Catalogo esposizione
irtiernazionale di pesca in Berlino (1880) ; also from La Pesca del
pesce-spada nello Stretto di Messina (Messina, 1880), and from
G. Brown Goode, " Materials for a History of the Sword-fish," in
Report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, pt. viii.
(Washington, 1883). (A. C. G.)
SWYNFORD, CATHERINE (c. 1350-1403), wife of John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, was a daughter of Sir Payne Roelt,
a knight who came to England from Hainault in the train of
Edward III.'s queen, Philippa. About 1367 she married Sir
Hugh Swynford (1340-1372), a Lincolnshire man, by whom she
had a son, Thomas (c. 1368-1433), who was a friend and com-
panion of Henry IV. both before and after he came to the English
throne. Soon after her husband's death in 1372 Catherine became
the mistress of John of Gaunt, and in 1396, nearly two years
after the duke had become a widower for the second time, she
was married to him at Lincoln. She died at Lincoln on the loth
of May 1403. By John of Gaunt Catherine had four children,
all of whom were born before their marriage. They were
declared legitimate in 1397 and took the name of Beaufort
from one of their father's castles in Anjou (see BEAOTORT).
SYAGRIUS (d. 487), the last of the independent Roman
administrators of Gaul, was the son of Aegidius, who had seized
Gaul while Ricimer was master of Italy. P'rom 464 to 486 he
governed that part of Gaul which lies between the Maas, the
Scheldt and the Seine, and was termed " king of the Romans "
by the German invaders, Franks, Burgundians and Visigoths,
who already occupied the rest of Gaul. Defeated in 486 by
Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, at the battle of Soissons,
Syagrius fled, leaving his land at the mercy of the Franks.
He sought refuge with Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, at
Toulouse, but Alaric imprisoned him instead of granting him
refuge, and delivered him up to Clovis. He was executed in
487, secretly and by the sword, according to Gregory of Tours.
S7BARIS, a city of Magna Graecia, on the Gulf of Tarentum,
between the rivers Crathis (Crati) and Sybaris (Coscile), which
now meet 3 m. from the sea, but in ancient times had independent
mouths, was the oldest Greek colony in this region. It was
an Achaean colony founded by Isus of Helice (about 720 B.C.),
but had among its settlers many Troezenians, who were ultimately
expelled. Placed in a very fertile, though now most unhealthy,
region, and following a liberal policy in the admission of citizens
from all quarters, the city became great and opulent, with a vast
subject territory and divers daughter colonies even on the
Tyrrhenian Sea (Posidonia, Laus, Scidrus). For magnificence
and luxury the Sybarites were proverbial throughout Greece,
and in the 6th century probably no Hellenic city could compare
with its wealth and splendour. At length contests between
the democrats and oligarchs, in which many of the latter were
expelled and took refuge at Crotona, led to a war with that
city, and the Crotoniats with very inferior forces were com-
pletely victorious. They razed Sybaris to the ground and turned
the waters of Crathis to flow over its ruins (510 B.C.). Explora-
tions undertaken by the Italian government in 1879 and 1887
failed to lead to a precise knowledge of the site. The only
discoveries made were (i) that of an extensive necropolis, some
8 m. to the west of the confluence of the two rivers, of the
end of the first Iron age, known as that of Torre Mordillo, the
contents of which are now preserved at Potenza; (2) that of
a necropolis of about 400 B.C. — the period of the greatest
prosperity of Thurii (q.v.) — consisting of tombs covered by
tumuli (called locally timpani), in some of which were found
fine gold plates with mystic inscriptions in Greek characters;
one of these tumuli was over 90 ft. in diameter at the base
with a single burial in a sarcophagus in the centre.
See F. Lenormant, La Grande-Grece, i. 325 seq. (Paris, 1881);
F. S. Cavallari, in Notizie degli Scavi (1879, passim; 1880, 68, 152);
A. Pasqui, ibid. (1888), 239, 462, 575, 648; P. Orsi, in Atti del con-
gresso di scienze storiche, v. 195 sqq. (Rome, 1904) (T. As.)
SYBEL. HEINRICH VON (1817-1895), German historian,
sprang from a Protestant family which had long been established
at Soest, in Westphalia. He was born on the 2nd of December
1817 at Diisseldorf, where his father held important posts in
276
SYCOPHANT
the public service both under the French and the Prussians;
in 1831 he had been raised to the hereditary nobility. His
home was one of the centres of the vigorous literary and artistic
life for which at that time Dusseldorf was renowned. Sybel
was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and then
at the university of Berlin, where he came under the influence
of Savigny and of Ranke, whose most distinguished pupil he
was to become. After taking his degree, he settled down in
1841 as Privatdozent in history at the university of Bonn. He
had already made himself known by critical studies on the
history of the middle ages, of which the most important was his
Geschichte des erslen Kreuzzuges (Diisseldorf, 1841; new ed.,
Leipzig, 1881), a work which, besides its merit as a valuable
piece of historical investigation, according to the critical methods
which he had learnt from Ranke, was also of some significance
as a protest against the vaguely enthusiastic attitude towards
the middle ages encouraged by the Romantic school. Lady
Duff-Gordon published in 1861 an English translation of part
of this book, to which are added lectures on the crusades
delivered in Munich in 1858, under the title History and
Literature of the Crusades. This was followed by a study on
the growth of German kingship (Die Entstehung des deutschen
Konigtums, Frankfort, 1844, and again 1881), after which he was
appointed professor.
In the same year (1844) Sybel came forward prominently
as an opponent of the Ultramontane party. The exhibition
of the Holy Coat at Trier had attracted enormous numbers of
pilgrims, and so, indignant at what appeared to him an imposture,
he assisted to publish an investigation into the authenticity
of the celebrated relic. From this time he began to take an
active part in contemporary politics and in controversy as a
strong though moderate Liberal. In 1846 he was appointed
professor at Marburg, and though this small university offered
little scope for his activities as a teacher, a seat in the Hessian
Landtag gave him his first experience of political affairs. In
1848 he was present at Frankfort, but he did not succeed in
winning a seat for the National Assembly. His opposition to
the extreme democratic and revolutionary party made him
unpopular with the mob, who broke his windows, as his liberalism
made him suspected at court. He sat in the Erfurt parliament
of 1850, and was attached to the Gotha party, which hoped
for the regeneration of Germany through the ascendancy of
Prussia. During the years that followed all political activity
was impossible, but he was fully occupied with his great work
Geschichte der Revolutionszeit 1879-1800, for which he had made
prolonged studies in the archives of Paris and other countries.
The later editions of the earlier volumes are much enlarged and
altered, and a new edition was published at Stuttgart in 1882.
The first three volumes have been translated into English by
W. C. Perry (1867-1869). In this work he for the first time
showed the connexion between the internal and external history
of France; he was also the first, by a systematic study of the
records, to check and correct the traditional account of many
episodes in the internal history. His demonstration that
letters attributed to Marie Antoinette were not genuine roused
much interest in France. For the history of German thought
itiwas of the greatest importance that a Liberal from the Rhine,
by a systematic history of the Revolution, attempted to over-
throw the influence which the revolutionary legend, as expounded
by French writers, had acquired over the German mind; and
the book was an essential part of the influences which led to
the formation of a National Liberal school of thought. Sybel
had been much influenced by Burke, on whom he had published
two essays. The work was in fact the first attempt to substitute
for the popular representations of Thiers and Lamartine the
critical investigation which has been carried on with such
brilliance by Taine and Sorel.
In 1856, on the recommendation of Ranke, Sybel accepted
the post of professor at Munich, where King Maximilian II.
of Bavaria, a wise and generous patron of learning, hoped to
establish a school of history. He found here a fruitful field for
his activity. Besides continuing his work on the Revolution
and on the middle ages, he was occupied with the Historical
Seminar which he instituted; with the Historische Zeitschrift
which he founded, the original and model of the numerous
technical historical publications which now exist; and as
secretary of the new historical commission. Political differences
soon interfered with his work; as an adherent of Prussia
and a Protestant, especially as a militant champion against
the Ultramontanes, he was from the first an object of sus-
picion to the Clerical party. In the political excitement which
followed the war of 1859 he found that he could not hope for
the unreserved support of the king, and therefore in 1861 he
accepted a professorship at Bonn, which he held till 1875.
He was at once elected a member of the Prussian Lower House,
and during the next three years was one of the most active
members of that assembly: in several important debates he
led the attack on the government, and opposed the policy of
Bismarck, not only on financial but also on the Polish and
Danish affairs. In 1864 he did not stand for re-election, owing
to an affection of the eyes, but in 1866 he was one of the first
to point out the way to a reconciliation between Bismarck
and his former opponents. He had a seat in the Constituent
Assembly of 1867, and while he joined the National Liberals he
distinguished himself by his opposition to the introduction of
universal suffrage, the effects of which he, as did many other
Liberals, much distrusted. In 1874 he again accepted a seat in
the Prussian parliament, in order to support the government
in their conflict with the Clericals, and after 1878 with the
Socialists. In two pamphlets, by an analysis of the teaching
of the Socialists and a survey of Clerical policy during the igth
century, he explained and justified his opinions. In 1880 he
retired, like so many other Liberals, disheartened by the change
in political life, which':he attributed to universal suffrage.
In 1875 he had been appointed by Bismarck to the post of
director of the Prussian archives. Under his superintendence
was begun the great series of publications, besides that of the
correspondence of Frederick the Great, in the editing of which he
himself took part. His last years were occupied on his great
work, Die Begriindung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I.
(Munich, 1889-1894), a work of great importance, for he was
allowed to use the Prussian state papers, and was therefore
enabled to write a history of the greatest events of his own
time with full access to the most secret sources of information.
As a history of Prussian policy from 1860 to 1866 it is therefore
of incomparable value. After the fall of Bismarck the per-
mission to use the secret papers was withdrawn, and therefore
vols. vi. and vii., which deal with the years 1866 to 1870, are of
less importance. This work has been translated into English
as The Founding of the German Empire, by M. L. Perrin and
G. Bradford (New York, 1890-1891). Sybel did not live to write
the account of the war with France, dying at Marburg on the
ist of August 1895. His other writings include Die deutsche
Nation und das Kaiserreich (1862) and a large number of
historical articles.
Sybel left two sons, one of whom became an officer in the
Prussian army; the other, Ludwig von Sybel (b. 1846), pro-
fessor of archaeology in the university of Marburg, is the author
of several works dealing with Greek archaeology.
Some of Sybel's numerous historical and political essays have
been collected in Kleine historische Schriften (3 vols., 1863, 1869,
1881; new ed., 1897); Vortrage und Aufsatze (Berlin, 1874); and
Vortrage und Abhandlungen, published after his death with a
biographical introduction by C. Varrentrapp (Munich, 1897).
SYCOPHANT (Gr. avKo<t>avTris) , in ancient Greece the counter-
part of the Roman delator (q.v.), a public informer. According
to ancient authorities, the word (derived by them from OVKOV,
" fig, "and <j>aivti.v, " to show ") meant one who informed against
another for exporting figs (which was forbidden by law)
or for stealing the fruit of the sacred fig-trees, whether in time
of famine or on any other occasion. Another old explanation
was that fines and taxes were at one time paid in figs, wine and
oil, and those who collected such payments in kind were called
sycophants because they " presented," publicly handed them
SYDENHAM, IST BARON— SYDENH AM, T.
277
over to the state. Bockh suggested that the word signified one
who laid an information in reference to an object of trifling value,
such as a fig (cf. " I don't care a fig about it "), but there seems
no authority for such a use of avuov in Greek. According to
C. Sittl (Die Gebiirden der Griechen und Romer, Leipzig, 1890),
the word refers to an obscene gesture of phallic significance
(see also A. B. Cook in Classical Review, August 1907), called
" showing the fig " (faire lafiguejar lafica or lefiche), originally
prophylactic in character. Such gesture, directed towards an
inoffensive person, became an insult, and the word sycophant
might imply one who insulted another by bringing a frivolous
or malicious accusation against him. According to S. Reinach
(Revue dcs etudes grecques, xix., 1906), who draws special attention
to the similar formation " hierophant, " the sycophant was an
official connected with the cult of the Phytalidae, whose epony-
mus Phytalus was rewarded with a fig-tree by the wandering
Demeter in return for his hospitality. The final act of the cult,
the " exaltation " of the fig, with which Reinach compares the
" exaltation " of the ear of corn by the hierophant at the
Eleusinian mysteries, was performed by the sycophant.
Again, like the hierophant, the sycophant publicly pronounced
the formula 'of exclusion of certain unworthy persons from the
celebration of the mysteries of the fig. As the cult of the
Phytalidae sank into insignificance beside the greater mysteries,
the term sycophant survived in popular language in the
sense of an informer or denouncer, whose charges deserved
but little consideration. L. Shadwell suggests that the real
meaning is " fig-discoverer," not " fig-informer," referring to
the blackmailer who discovers the " figs " (that is, the money)
of the rich man and forces him to hand it over by the threat
of bringing a criminal accusation against him. It .must be
remembered that any Athenian citizen was at liberty to accuse
another of a public offence, and the danger of such a privilege
being abused is sufficiently obvious. The people naturally
looked upon all persons of wealth and position with suspicion,
and were ready to believe any charge brought against them.
Such prosecutions also put money into the pockets of the judges,
and, if successful, into the public treasury. In many cases the
accused persons, in order to avoid the indignity of a public
trial, bought off their accusers, who found in this a fruitful source
of revenue. Certain legal remedies, intended to prevent the
abuses of the system, undoubtedly existed. Persons found
guilty of bringing false charges, of blackmail, or of suborning false
witnesses, were liable to criminal prosecution by the state and
a fine on conviction. Penalties were also inflicted if an accuser
failed to carry the prosecution through or to obtain a fifth part
of the votes. But these remedies were rather simple deterrents,
and instances of informers being actually brought to trial are
rare. Sycophants were an inseparable accompaniment of the
democracy, and the profession, at least from a political point of
view, was not regarded as in any way dishonourable. The idea
of encouraging the citizens to assist in the detection of crime
or treason against the state was commendable; it was not the
use, but the abuse of the privilege that was so injurious. Allu-
sions to the sycophants are frequent in Aristophanes and the
Attic orators. The word is now generally used in the sense of
a clinging flatterer of the great.
See Meier and Schomann, Der attische Process (ed. J. H. Lipsius,
1883-1887); article by C. R. Kennedy and H. Holden, in Smith's
Dictionary of Antiquities (yd ed., 1891).
SYDENHAM, CHARLES EDWARD POULETT-THOMSON,
ist BARON(i799-i84i), British statesman, was born on the I3th
of September 1799, being the son of John Buncombe- Poulett-
Thomson, a London merchant. After some years spent in his
father's business in Russia and in London he was returned to
the House of Commons for Dover in 1826. In 1830 he joined
Lord Grey's ministry as vice-president of the board of trade
and treasurer of the navy. A free-trader and an expert in
financial matters he was elected M.P. for Manchester in 1832,
a seat which he occupied for many years. He was continuously
occupied with negotiations affecting international commerce
until 1839, when he accepted the governor-generalship of Canada,
where it fell to his lot to establish the union of Upper and Lower
Canada. His services in establishing the Canadian constitution
were recognized in 1840 by a K.C.B. and a peerage. He took
the title of Baron Sydenham of Sydenham in Kent and Toronto
in Canada. He died unmarried on the 4th of September 1841,
when his peerage became extinct.
His Memoirs were published by his brother, G. J. Poulett Scrope,
in 1843.
SYDENHAM, THOMAS (1624-1689), English physician, was
born on the loth of September 1624 at Wynford Eagle in Dorset,
where his father was a gentleman of property and good pedigree.
At the age of eighteen he was entered at Magdalen Hall, Oxford;
after a short period his college studies appear to have been
interrupted, and he served for a time as an officer in the army
of the parliament. He completed his Oxford course in 1648,
graduating as bachelor of medicine, and about the same time
he was elected a fellow of All Souls College. It was not until
nearly thirty years later (1676) that he graduated as M.D., not
at Oxford, but at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where his eldest
son was then an undergraduate. After 1648 be seems to have
spent some time studying medicine at Oxford, but be was soon
again engaged in military service, and in 1654 he received the
sum of £600, as a result of a petition he addressed to Cromwell,
setting forth that various arrears were due to two of his brothers
who had been killed and that he himself had faithfully served
the parliament with the loss of much blood. In 1655 be resigned
his fellowship at All Souls and married, and probably a few
years later went to study medicine at Montpellier. In 1663 he
passed the examinations of the College of Physicians for their
licence to practice in Westminster and 6 m. round; but it is
probable that he had been settled in London for some time before
that. This minimum qualification to practise was the single
bond between Sydenham and the College of Physicians through-
out the whole of his career. He seems to have been distrusted
by some members of the faculty because he was an innovator
and something of a plain-dealer. In his letter to John Mapletoft
he refers to a class of detractors " qui vitio statim vertunt si
quis novi aliquid, ab illis non prius dictum vel etiam inauditum,
in medium proferat "; and in a letter to Robert Boyle, written
the year before his death (and the only authentic specimen of
his English composition that remains), he says, " I have the
happiness of curing my patients, at least of having it said con-
cerning me that few miscarry under me; but [I] cannot brag
of my correspondency with some other of my faculty ....
Though yet, in taken fire at my attempts to reduce practice
to a greater easiness, plainness, and in the meantime letting the
mountebank at Charing Cross pass unrailed at, they contradict
themselves, and would make the world believe I may prove
more considerable than they would have me." Sydenham
attracted to him in warm friendship some of the most discriminat-
ing men of his time, such as John Locke and Robert Boyle. His
first book, Methodus curandi febres, was published in 1666;
a second edition, with an additional chapter on the plague,
in 1668; and a third edition, much enlarged and bearing the
better-known title of Observaliones medicae, in 1676. His next
publication was in 1680 in the form of two Epistolae respon-
soriae, the one, " On Epidemics, " addressed to Robert Brady,
regius professor of physic at Cambridge, and the other " On
the Lues venerea, " to Henry Paman, public orator at Cambridge
and Gresham professor in London. In 1682 be issued another
Dissertatio epistolaris, on the treatment of confluent small-pox
and on hysteria, addressed to Dr William Cole of Worcester.
The Tractatus de podagra et hydrope came out in 1683, and the
Schedula monitoria de novae febris ingressu in 1686. His last com-
pleted work, Processus integri, is an outline sketch of pathology
and practice; twenty copies of it were printed in 1692, and,
being a compendium, it has been more often republished both
in England and in other countries than any other of his writings
separately. A fragment on pulmonary consumption was found
among his papers. His collected writings occupy about 600
pages 8vo, in the Latin, though whether that or English was the
language in which they were originally written is disputed.
278
SYDENHAM— SYDNEY
Hardly anything is known of Sydenham's personal history
in London. He died in London on the 2pth of December 1689
and was buried in the church of St James's, Piccadilly, where
a mural slab was put up by the College of Physicians in 1810.
Although Sydenham was a highly successful practitioner and
saw, besides foreign reprints, more than one new edition of his
various tractates called for in his lifetime, his fame as the father of
English medicine, or the English Hippocrates, was decidedly
posthumous. For a long time he was held in vague esteem for the
success of his cooling (or rather expectant) treatment of small-pox,
for his laudanum (the first form of a tincture of opium), and for his
advocacy of the use of Peruvian bark in quartan agues. There
were, however, those among his contemporaries who understood
something of Sydenham's importance in larger matters than details
of treatment and pharmacy, chief among them being the talented
Richard Morton. But the attitude of the academical medicine of
the day is doubtless indicated in Martin Lister's use of the term
" sectaries " for Sydenham and his admirers, at a time (1694) when
the leader had been dead five years. If there were any doubt
that the opposition to him was quite other than political, it would
be set at rest by the testimony of Dr Andrew Brown,1 who went
from Scotland to inquire into Sydenham's practice and has
incidentally revealed what was commonly thought of it at the time,
in his Vindicatory Schedule concerning the New Cure of Fevers. In
the series of Harveian orations at the College of Physicians, Syden-
ham is first mentioned in the oration of Dr John Arbuthnot (1727),
who styles him " aemulus Hippocratis." H. Boerhaaye, the Leyden
professor, was wont to speak of him in his class (which had always
some pupils from England and Scotland) as " Angliae lumen, artis
Phoebum, veram Hippocratici viri speciem." A. von Haller also
marked one of the epochs in his scheme of medical progress with the
name of Sydenham. He is indeed famous because he inaugurated
a new method and a better ethics of practice, the worth and diffusive
influence of which did not become obvious (except to those who
were on the same line with himself, such as Morton) until a good
many years afterwards. It remains to consider briefly what his
innovations were.
First and foremost he did the best he could for his patients, and
made as little as possible of the mysteries and traditional dogmas
of the craft. All the stories told of him are characteristic. Called
to a gentleman who had been subjected to the lowering treatment,
and finding him in a pitiful state of hysterical upset, he "conceived
that this was occasioned partly by his long illness, partly by the
previous evacuations, and partly by emptiness. I therefore ordered
him a roast chicken and a pint of canary." A gentleman of
fortune who was a victim to hypochondria was at length told
by Sydenham that he could do no more for him, but that there
was living at Inverness a certain Dr Robertson who had great
skill in cases like his; the patient journeyed to Inverness full of
hope, and, finding no doctor of the name there, came back to London
full of rage, but cured withal of his complaint. Of a piece with
this is his famous advice to Sir Richard Blackmore. When Black-
more first engaged in the study of physic he inquired of Dr Sydenham
what authors he should read, and was directed by that physician to
Don Quixote, " which," said he, " is a very good book; I read it
still." There were cases, he tells us, in his practice where " I have
consulted my patient's safety and my own reputation most effectu-
ally by doing nothing at all." It was in the treatment of small-
pox that his startling innovations in that direction made most stir.
It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that Sydenham wrote
no long prescriptions, after the fashion of the time, or was entirely
free from theoretical bias. Doctrines of disease he had, as every
practitioner must have ; but he was too much alive to the multi-
plicity of new facts and to the infinite variety of individual con-
stitutions to aim at symmetry in his theoretical views or at con-
sistency between his practice and his doctrines; and his treatment
was what he found to answer best, whether it were secundum artem
or not. His fundamental idea was to take diseases as they pre-
sented themselves in nature and to draw up a complete picture
(" Krankheitsbild " of the Germans) of the objective characters of
each. Most forms of ill-health, he insisted, had a definite type,
comparable to the types of animal and vegetable species. The con-
formity of type in the symptoms and course of a malady was due
to the uniformity of the cause. The causes that he dwelt upon
were the " evident and conjunct causes," or, in other words, the
morbid phenomena ; the remote causes he thought it vain to seek
after. Acute diseases, such as fevers and inflammations, he regarded
as a wholesome conservative effort or reaction of the organism to
meet the blow of some injurious influence operating from without;
in this he followed the Hippocratic teaching closely as well as the
Hippocratic practice of watching and aiding the natural crises.
Chronic diseases, on the other hand, were a depraved state of the
humours, mostly due to errors of diet and general manner of life, for
which we ourselves were directly accountable. Hence his famous
dictum: " acutos dico, qui ut plurimum Deum habent authorem,
1 See Dr John Brown's Horae subsecivae, art. " Dr Andrew Brown
and Sydenham."
sicut chronici ipsos nos." Sydenham's nosological method is
essentially the modern one, except that it wanted the morbid
anatomy part, which was first introduced into the " natural history
of disease " by Morgagni nearly a century later. In both depart-
ments of nosology, the acute and the chronic, Sydenham con-
tributed largely to the natural history by his own accurate observa-
tion and philosophical comparison of case with case and type with
type. The Observationes medico* and the first Epistola responsoria
contain evidence of a close study of the various fevers, fluxes and
other acute maladies of London over a series of years, their differ-
ences from year to year and from season to season, together with
references to the prevailing weather — the whole body of observa-
tions being used to illustrate the doctrine of the " epidemic con-
stitution " of the year or season, which he considered to depend
often upon inscrutable telluric causes. The type of the acute
disease varied, he found, according to the year and season, and
the right treatment could not be adopted until the type was known.
There had been nothing quite like this in medical literature since
the Hippocratic treatise, Hfpl iepwc, uS&ruv, T&WUIV; and there are
probably some germs of truth in it still undeveloped, although the
modern science of epidemiology has introduced a whole new set of
considerations. Among other things Sydenham is credited with
the first diagnosis of scarlatina and with the modern definition of
chorea (in Sched. monit.). After small-pox, the diseases to which
he refers most are hysteria and gout, his description of the latter
(from the symptoms in his own person) being one of the classical
pieces of medical writing. While Sydenham's " natural history "
method has doubtless been the chief ground of his great post-
humous fame, there can be no question that another reason for the
admiration of posterity was that which is indicated by R. G.
Latham, when he says, " I believe that the moral element of a
liberal and candid spirit went hand in hand with the intellectual
qualifications of observation, analysis and comparison."
Among the lives of Sydenham are one (anonymous) by Samuel
Johnson in John Swan's translation of his works (London, 1742),
another by C. G. Ktihn in his edition of his works (Leipzig, 1827), and
a third by Dr R. G. Latham in his translation of his works published
in London by the Sydenham Society in 1848. See also Fre'de'ric
Picard, Sydenham, sa vie, ses asuvres (Paris, 1889), and J. F. Payne,
T. Sydenham (London, 1900). Dr John Brown's " Locke and
Sydenham," in Horae subsecivae^ (Edinburgh, 1858), is of the nature
of eulogy. Many collected editions of his works have been pub-
lished, as well as translations into English, German, French and
Italian. Dr W. A. Greenhill's Latin text (London, 1844, Syd. Soc.)
is a model of editing and indexing. The most interesting summary
of doctrine and practice by the author himself is the introduction
to the 3rd edition of Observationes medicae (1676).
SYDENHAM, a large residential district in the south of
London, England, partly within the metropolitan borough of
Lewisham (?.».). The Crystal Palace (q.v.) is in this district.
SYDNEY, the capital of New South Wales, Australia, in
Cumberland county, on the east coast of the continent, situated
on the south shore of Port Jackson (q.v.), in 33° 15' 44" S., 151°
12' 23" E. Few capitals in the world can rival Sydney in natural
advantages and beauty of site. It stands on undulating and
easily drained ground, upon a bed of sandstone rock, on a
peninsula jutting into one of the deepest, safest and most
beautiful harbours in the world; and in addition it lies in the
centre of a great carboniferous area. The metropolitan area of
Sydney consists of a peninsula, about 13 m. in length, lying
between the Parramatta and George's rivers. The sea frontage
of this area stretches for 12 m. from the South Head of Port
Jackson to the North Head of Botany Bay; it consists of bold
cliffs alternating with beautiful beaches, of which some are
connected with the city by tramway, and form favourite
places of resort. The city proper occupies two indented tongues
of land, having a water frontage on Port Jackson, and extending
:rom Rushcutter's Bay on the east to Blackwattle Bay on the
west, a distance of 8 m., nearly two miles of which is occupied
jy the Domain and the botanical gardens. The business
quarter is a limited area lying between Darling Harbour and the
Domain. The streets are irregular in width, some of them narrow
and close together, while those leading down to Darling Harbour
lave a steep incline. Sydney has in consequence more than
usually the appearance of an old-world town.
The main street of the city, George Street, is 2 m. long,
running from north to south; it contains the town-hall, the post
office and the Anglican cathedral. The post office is a hand-
some sandstone building in Renaissance style; it is colonnaded
on two sides with polished granite columns and surmounted by
a clock tower, containing a peal of bells. The town-hall, a large
A
1. Botanical Garden* 7. St. Mary's Cathedral
2. Cook Park & Philip Park 8. Post Office
3. Hyde Park 9. Town Hall
4. Belmore Park 10. University
5. Victoria Park 11. flal/ona/ *rf Gallery
6. St.Andreur's Cathedral 12. Got/er;imef»(
D.= DARLINGTON
o
D
SYDNEY
279
florid building of Classic order, stands on an eminence, and its
clock tower forms a landmark; it contains the spacious Centennial
Hall (commemorating the first Australian colonization here in
1787), and has one of the finest organs in the world. Opposite
are the Queen Victoria Markets, a striking Byzantine erection,
capped by numerous turrets and domes. Adjoining the town hall
is the Anglican cathedral of St Andrew, in the Perpendicular style;
it has two towers at the west end and a low central tower above
the intersection of the nave and transepts, with a very handsome
chapter house. Second in importance to George Street is Pitt
Street, which runs parallel to it from the Circular Quay to the rail-
way station; Macquarie Street runs alongside the Domain and
contains a number of public buildings, including the treasury, the
office of public works, the houses of parliament and the mint.
In Bridge Street, behind the office of public works, are the ex-
change and the crown lands office. All these government offices
are in classical style. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St
Mary lies on the north-east side of Hyde Park; it is a splendid
Gothic structure, the finest in Australia. This cathedral has
been twice destroyed by fire, and the existing building, from the
designs of Mr W. W. Wardell, was consecrated in 1905. Govern-
ment House, the residence of the governor-general, an excellent
Tudor building erected in 1837, and several times enlarged, is
delightfully situated in the Domain, overlooking Farm Cove.
The residence of the state governor is at Rose Bay, east of the
city. At the top of King Street there is a statue of Queen
Victoria and close by a statue of Prince Albert, at the
entrance to Hyde Park, in which the most elevated spot
is occupied by a statue of Captain Cook. The university
stands in its own grounds on the site of Grose Farm, the
scene of one of the earliest attempts at government farm-
ing. Like most of the buildings at Sydney, the university is
built of the excellent sandstone from the quarries of Pyrmont;
it is 15th-century Gothic in style and stands at the top of a
gentle slope, surrounded by gardens. Around it lie three Gothic
colleges in the 14th-century style, affiliated to the university
and known as St Paul's, St John's and St Andrew's. They are
residential colleges belonging respectively to the Anglicans,
Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The university provides
instruction and grants degrees in arts, law, medicine, science
and engineering; instruction in theology, however, is given,
not by the university, but by the different affiliated colleges.
To compensate for the narrowness of its streets and its lack
of fine promenades Sydney possesses a number of grand parks,
surpassed in few other capitals. Hyde Park is a plateau almost
in the centre of the city, which in the early days of Sydney was
used as a race-course. Adjoining are two smaller parks, Cook
Park and Philip Park, while north of these stretches the
Domain and the botanical gardens. The Domain embraces
138 acres, extending along one side of Woolloomooloo Bay and
surrounding Farm Cove, in which the warships belonging to
the Australian station are usually anchored; in this charming
expanse of park land are the governor's residence and the
National Art Gallery, which houses a splendid collection of
pictures by modern artists, statuary, pottery and other objects
of art. The botanical gardens on the southern shores of Farm
Cove are the finest in the Commonwealth and are distinguished
for their immense collection of exotics. On the south-east of
the city lie Moore Park, 600 acres in extent, containing two
fine cricket grounds and the show grounds of the agricultural
society, and Centennial Park, formerly a water reserve of 768
acres. Adjoining Moore Park is the metropolitan race-course
of Randwick. There are numerous other and smaller parks,
of which the chief are Wentworth Park laid out on the site
of Blackwattle Swamp, Prince Alfred Park, Belmore Park and
Victoria Park adjoining the university grounds.
Sydney harbour is divided into a number of inlets by pro-
jecting headlands. The head of Woolloomooloo Bay, Sydney
Cove, the shallow bay between Dawes and Millers Point, and
Darling Harbour, are lined with wharves. The Circular Quay
at the head of Sydney Cove is 1300 ft. long, and here all the
great ocean liners from Europe, China and Japan are berthed,
while to the great wharf in Woolloomooloo Bay, 3000 ft. in length,
the American liners and the majority of the small coasting
vessels come to discharge their cargoes. The whole of the eastern
side of Darling Harbour is occupied by a succession of wharves
and piers, there being in all 4000 ft. of wharfage. Connected
with the main railway system of the colony is the Darling
Harbour Wharf 1260 ft. long and equipped with electric light,
stationary and travelling hydraulic cranes, machinery for meat
freezing, and large sheds for storing corn and wool. In addition
to these there are wharves at Pyrmont and Blackwattle Bay,
respectively 3500 ft. and 1400 ft. long. These harbours on the
eastern side of Sydney are mainly frequented by cargo boats
trading in coal, corn, frozen meat, wool, hides and various ores.
The total length of quays and wharves belonging to the .port
amounts to some 23 m. The dock accommodation is extensive.
On Cockatoo Island, a few miles west of the city, the government
have two large dry docks, the Fitzroy dock, 450 ft. long, and the
Sutherland dock, 630 ft. Mort's dock, another large dry dock,
is at Mort's Bay, Balmain, while there are five floating docks
with a combined lifting power of 3895 tons, and the three patent
slips in Mort's Bay can raise between them 3040 tons. Prior to
1899 the jurisdiction of the port was in the hands of a marine
board, three members of which were elected by the shipping
interest, and the remaining four nominated by the government,
but in that year the board was replaced by a single official,
known as the superintendent of the department of navigation
and responsible to the colonial secretary.
Sydney has a great number of learned, educational and charit-
able institutions; it possesses a Royal Society, a Linnean Society
and a Geographical Society, a women's college affiliated to the
university, an astronomical observatory, a technical college, a
school of art with library attached, a bacteriological institute,
at Rose Bay, a museum and a free public library. Standing in
the centre of a great coal-bearing basin, Sydney is naturally
the seat of numerous manufactures, to the prosperity of which
the abundance and cheapness of coal has been highly conducive.
In addition to the industries connected with the shipping, large
numbers of hands are employed in the government railway
works, where the locomotives and rolling stock used by the state
railways are manufactured. There are several large tobacco
factories, flour mills, boot factories, sugar refineries, tanneries,
tallow works, meat-preserving, glue and kerosene-oil factories
and soap works. Clothing, carriages, pottery, glass, paper and
furniture are made, and there are numerous minor industries.
Sydney is governed municipally by a city council. The gas and
electric lighting is in the hands of private firms. The adminis-
tration of the park, the city improvements and the water and
sewerage departments have been handed over to boards and
trusts. The control of the traffic is in the hands of the police,
who, with the wharves and the tramways, are directed by the
state government. The whole district between Sydney and
Parramatta on each side of the railway is practically one con-
tinuous town, the more fashionable suburbs lying on the east
of the city while the business extension is to the westward and
the southern quarters are largely devoted to manufacturing.
The suburbs comprise the following distinct municipalities,
Alexandria, with a population in 1901 of 9341; Annandale,
8349; Ashfield, 14,329; Balmain, 30,076; Bexley, 3079; Botany,
3383; North Botany, 3772; Burwood, 7521; Camperdown, 7931;
Canterbury, 4226; Concord, 2818; Darlington, 3784; Drum-
moyne, 4244; Enfield, 2497; Erskineville, 6059; Glebe, 19,220;
Hunter's Hill, 4232; Hurstville, 4019; Kogarah, 3892; Lane
Cove, 1918; Leichhardt, 17,454; Manly, 5035; Marrickville,
18,775; Eastwood, 713; Mosman, 5691; Newtown, 22,598;
North Sydney, 22,040; Paddington, 21,984; Petersham, 15,307;
Randwick, 9753; Redfern, 24,219; Rockdale, 7857; Ryde, 3222;
St Peter's, 5906; Vaucluse, 1152; Waterloo, 9609; Waverley,
12,342; Willoughby, 6004; Woollahra, 12,351. These suburbs
are connected with the city, some by railway, some by steam,
cable and electric tramways, and others by ferry across Port
Jackson. The tramway system is owned by the government.
There are numerous places of resort for the citizens. Many
280
SYDNEY — SYLBURG
of the bays in the harbour are largely visited on Sundays and
holidays. The most popular resorts are Manly Beach, Chowder
Bay and Watson's Bay, in the harbour; Cabarita, on the Parra-
matta river; Middle Harbour; and Coogee Bay and Bondi, on
the ocean beach; Botany, Lady Robinson's Beach, Sandringham
and Sans Souci on Botany Bay. Besides these there are two
splendid national reserves, an hour's journey by rail from
Sydney, viz. National Park, comprising an area of 36,810 acres,
surrounding the picturesque bay of Port Hacking; and Kurringai
Chase, with an area of 35,300 acres.
The two principal cemeteries are at Waverley and Rookwood.
The former is most picturesquely situated on the cliff overlooking
the Pacific Ocean.
The climate of Sydney is mild and equable; in summer sea
breezes blow from the north-east, which, while they temper the
heat, make the air exceedingly humid; in winter the winds blow
from the west and the climate is dry and bracing. The mean
average temperature is 63° Fahr., and the rainfall 49-66 in.
The population has increased with marvellous rapidity. In
1861 it was (city and suburbs inclusive) 95,000; in 1881, 237,300;
in 1891, 399,270; and in 1901, 487,900. The proportion of city
dwellers to suburban is as follows: in 1901 — city, 112,137;
suburbs, 369,693; total, 487,900. The incorporated area of the
metropolitan district is about 142 sq. m., or 91,220 acres, so that
the average density of population was 5-35 persons per acre,
some of the more immediate suburbs being more densely popu-
lated than the city itself.
SYDNEY, the chief town of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia,
on a good harbour, the eastern terminus of the Intercolonial
railway. Pop. (1891), 2427, (1901), 9900. Formerly a quiet
country town, it became between 1891 and 1901 the chief
shipping port of the Dominion Coal Company, and the site of the
large works of the Dominion Iron and Steel Company. On the
opposite side of the harbour are the flourishing towns of North
Sydney and of Sydney Mines. It is the starting point for the
line of steamers to the Bras d'Or lakes, and a favourite summer
resort.
SYENITE, a name first used by Pliny to designate rocks of
the same type as the hornblendic granite of Syene (Assouan)
in Upper Egypt, so extensively used in ancient times for archi-
tectural work and monuments. Transferred by Werner to a rock
of much the same appearance, though not identical in mineral-
ogical character with the Egyptian granite, from the Plauen 'scher
Grund near Dresden, it is now used as the group name
of a class of holo-crystalline plutonic rocks composed essentially
of an alkali felspar and a ferromagnesian mineral. The structure
and appearance are very much the same as that of a hornblendic
granite; from which it is difficult to distinguish these rocks in
hand specimens. The important difference, however, is the
absence or scarcity of quartz in the syenites. Their essential
components are orthoclase, often with some albite, and augite,
hornblende or biotite. The orthoclase is white or pink, and
forms nearly one half of the rock. It may be veined with albite
(microperthite) and small crystals of plagioclase (mostly andesine
and oligoclase) often are present, usually having better crystal-
line forms than the potash felspar. The prevalent hornblende
is green, but brown hornblende and dark blue hornblende, of
strong pleochroism, occur in some syenites which are rich in
apatite, zircon, magnetite and pyrites; quartz as above stated
is rarely absent but should never be abundant, otherwise the
rock becomes a granite. Nepheline and sodalite occur only
in those rocks which show transitions to the nepheline-syenites.
The structure of syenites is almost exactly the same as that of
the granites; varieties with porphyritic felspar are known but none
of these rocks are evenly granular. The apatite, zircon and magne-
tite crystallize first, and occur as small well-shaped crystals enclosed
in the other minerals. Sphene also is of early formation; then
follow augite, biotite and hornblende, the pyroxene usually taking
precedence, but regular intergrowths due to simultaneous crystalliza-
tion of these three minerals are common. The plagioclase felspar
succeeds the ferromagnesian minerals, and the alkali felspar is last
to crystallize with the exception of the small amount of quartz
and of micropegmatite, if these are present. Exceptions to this rule
occur, as for example when part of the soda-lime felspar has sepa-
rated out of the magma before the ferric minerals have ceased to
grow, and is consequently enclosed in them in ophitic fashion.
Some syenites have a fluxion or even " augen " structure, due to
movements during consolidation; orbicular structure may also
occur but is very rare.
Although syenites are by no means common rocks and are not
of equal importance with granites and diorites from a geological
standpoint, they exhibit many varieties which are of interest. Transi-
tional forms between syenite and granite are common as these rocks
very frequently occur in the same mass and can hardly be separated
from one another in the field. These syenites, comparatively rich
in quartz, have been called syenite-granites. Many of the rocks
known to the older geologists and shown on the early maps as
" syenite " are of this type; others are hornblendic granites in which
quartz is not abundant or conspicuous. Another variety of quartz-
syenite, very rich in pink alkali felspar (microperthite), is known as
nordmarkite; it occurs in Norway, Sweden and Scotland, and con-
tains usually only a small amount of brown biotite and green
augite.
The more normal syenites (with only small percentages of quartz)
may be divided into augite-, hornblende- and biotite-syenites,
according to their prevalent ferric mineral, but usually the rock
contains two or even three of the dark-coloured bisilicates. Augite-
syenites occur in Saxony and in Norway. In the latter country
the most abundant type is laurvikite. These rocks may be red or
grey in colour and very largely consist of a perthitic or crypto-
perthitic alkali felspar having a beautiful shimmering dull metallic
reflection or play of colours. They are coarse-grained rocks, and
their great freshness and iridescent appearance when polished
make them favourite ornamental stones for facades and pillars.
The large felspars have often an elongated elliptical form and are
arranged in sub-parallel fashion apparently by fluxion movements.
Quartz is usually absent and plagioclase is still more uncommon,
but the occasional presence of nepheline and sodalite indicates
that these rocks are connected with the nepheline-syenites of the
laurvikite type. The ferromagnesian minerals show a great variety
and include diopside, aegirine-augite, biotite, brown hornblende,
hypersthene and olivine. Zircon is often abundant (zircon-syenite).
Rocks very similar to the laurvikites of Norway are known in
the Sawtooth Mountains of Texas. These augite-syenites which
have plagioclase and orthoclase felspar in nearly equal quantity
are called nonzonites. Hornblende-syenites are regarded as
being the typical members of the group, hence the best-known
syenite, the original rock which Werner described, is of this kind;
they are not very common, but occur in Germany, Piedmont and
other places, usually with hornblende-granites and diorites. Biotite-
syenites also are not frequent, being usually accompanied by granites
of which they represent modifications poor in quartz. Most of the
rocks formerly known as mica-syenites are now grouped with the
lamprophyres as minettes. The following analyses show the chemical
composition of a few of the principal types of syenite. They are
characterized by a moderate amount of silica, relatively high
alkalis (with potash usually preponderating) and alumina, while
lime and magnesia are more variable but never in great amount.
(J. S. F.)
SiO2.
A12O3.
Fe2O3.
FeO.
MgO.
CaO.
Na2O.
K2O.
I. Hornblende-syenite (Plauen 'scher Grund, Dresden)
II. Laurvikite (Laurvik, Norway)
III. Nordmarkite (Christiania)
59-83
58-88
59-88
16-85
20-30
17-87
3-63
2-67
7-01
2-58
1-50
2-61
0-79
1-04
4-43
3-03
2-01
2-44
5-73
7-96
6-57
4-50
5-69
alkalis. The augite is usually pale green and may be in perthitic
intergrowth with the hornblende. The mica is always of brown
colour, as muscovite is not known to occur in these rocks. In
the alkali syenites dark green soda augites may be present;
other syenites contain a violet augite which has the lamella
Structure of diallage.
The accessory minerals include sphene (very frequent),
SYLBURG, FRIEDRICH (1536-1596), German classical
scholar, son of a farmer, was born at Wetter near Marburg.
He studied at Marburg, Jena, Geneva, and, lastly, Paris, where
his teacher was Henry Estienne (Stephanus), to whose great
Greek Thesaurus Sylburg afterwards made important contribu-
tions. Returning to Germany, he held educational posts at Neu-
haus near Worms and at Lich near Giessen, where he edited a
SYLHET— SYLLABUS
281
useful edition of the Institutions in graecam linguam (1580) of
Nicolaus Clenardus (Cleynaerts, 1405-1 542). In 1 583 he resigned
his post at Lich and moved to Frankfort-on-the-Main to act as
corrector and editor of Greek texts for the enterprising publisher
Johann Wechel. To his Frankfort period belong the editions of
Pausanias, Herodotus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus (one of his best
pieces of work and highly praised by Niebuhr), Aristotle, the
Greek and Latin sources for the history of the Roman emperors
and the Ilepi <rvvra!-fus of Apollonius Dyscolus. In 1591
he removed to Heidelberg, where he became librarian to the
elector palatine. The Wechel series was continued by Hierony-
mus Commelinus of Heidelberg, for whom Sylburg edited
Clement of Alexander, Justin Martyr, the Etymologicum magnum,
the Scriptores de re ruslica, the Greek gnomic poets, Xenophon,
Nonnus and other works. All Sylburg's editions show great
critical power and indefatigable industry. He died on the
i yth of February 1596, a victim of over- work.
See F. Koldewey, in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; K. W. Justi,
in Strieder's Hessische Gelehrten-Geschichle, xviii. (Marburg, 1819);
C. Bursian, Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland
(1883) ; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol., ii. (1908), p. 270.
SYLHET, a town and district of British India, in the Surma
valley division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is on
the right bank of the river Surma, on rising ground, embowered
in groves. Pop. (1901), 13,893. There are manufactures of
mats, carved ivory and shells, and furniture. There is an
unaided college, founded in 1892, which is mainly supported by
a native gentleman. There are two dispensaries and an
English church. The great earthquake of the i2th of June
1897 destroyed every substantial building, but caused very
little loss of life. Sylhet is the largest town in Assam, but is
steadily decaying, being 30 m. from a railway and inaccessible
to steamers during the dry season.
The DISTRICT OF SYLHET has an area of 5388 sq. m. It
consists of the lower valley of the Surma or Barak river, and for
the most part is a uniform level broken only by scattered clusters
of sandy hillocks called tilas, and intersected by a network of
rivers and drainage channels. It is a broad and densely-
cultivated plain, except in the extreme north, where the enormous
rainfall converts many square miles of land into one huge lake
during the rains, and in the south, where eight low ranges of
hills, spurs of the Tippera mountains, run out into the plain,
the highest range being about 1 500 ft. above sea-level. There
is also a small detached group in the centre of the district called
the Ita hills. The district is watered by the branches of the
Surma (<?.».) which are navigable by large boats, and support
a busy traffic. The climate is extremely damp and the rainfall
is heavy, reaching an annual average of over 150 hi.; the rainy
season generally lasts from April to October.
In 1901 the population was 2,241,848, showing an increase
of 4% in the decade. More than half are Mahommedans. Tea
cultrvation is a flourishing industry in the southern hills. The
Assam-Bengal railway crosses the district, but trade is still
largely river-borne. Great damage was done by the earthquake
of June 1897, which was followed by an outbreak of malarial
fever.
Sylhet passed into the hands of the British in 1765, with the
rest of Bengal, of which it formed an integral part until 1874,
being included in the Dacca division. In that year it was
annexed, together with the adjoining district of Cachar, to the
chief-commissionership of Assam which was amalgamated with
eastern Bengal in 1905.
See Sylhet District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905).
SYLLABUS (from Gr. av\\a.nftaveiv, to take together, cf.
" syllable "), literally something taken together, a collection
(Late Lat. syllabus), hence a compendium, table or abstract
giving the heads, outline or scheme of a course of lectures,
teaching, &c. The word in the sense of a list or catalogue is
used of a collection of eighty condemned propositions, addressed
by order of Pius IX. to all the Catholic episcopate, under
the date of the 8th of December 1864. The official title is:
" A collection (syllabus) containing the principal errors of our
times as noted in the Allocutions, Encyclicals and other Apostolic
Letters of our Holy Father Pope Pius IX." This collection
has a rather curious history. As early as 1849, the council
of Spoleto asked the pope for a collective condemnation of all
errors concerning the Church, her authority and property.
In 1851 the Civilta catlolica proposed that this should be drawn
up in connexion with the definition of the Immaculate Concep-
tion of Mary. In 1852, Cardinal Fornari wrote by order of
the pope to a certain number of bishops and laymen asking for
their assistance in the study of the errors most prevalent in
modern society. The answers are unknown; but after the
definition of the Immaculate Conception (December 8, 1854), the
commission of theologians charged with the preparatory investi-
gations was entrusted with the further mission of studying
modern errors. For six years it gave no outward signs of
activity; but in 1860 Mgr Gerbet, bishop of Perpignan, pub-
lished his Instruction pastorale sur diverses erreurs du temps
present; in it he enumerated 85 erroneous propositions, grouped
under eleven heads. Pius IX. was much impressed by this
work; he had it printed, and communicated it to the commission,
to which he added a few new members, desiring them to take it
as a fresh basis for their researches. In 1861 the commission had
various meetings, at which the principal propositions were
chosen and formulated in Latin, and the theological censure
which they incurred applied to them. The result was a collection
first of 70, and later of 61 propositions, of which only 27 have the
note haeretica; Mgr Gerbet's divisions, and frequently his text,
are adhered to. This Syllabus, which was excellently drawn
up, was not promulgated, owing to an indiscretion. On the
occasion of the festivals of the canonization of the Japanese
martyrs, Pius IX. had gathered around him three hundred
bishops from all parts of the world; he had the projected
Syllabus communicated to each of them, under the seal of secrecy
for the purpose of asking their opinion on it; each bishop was
also, still under the seal of secrecy, empowered to consult a
theologian selected by himself. But in October 1862, the
Turin Mediatore published the catalogue in full, and Mgr
Bourget, bishop of Montreal, thinking that it had been published
in Rome, officially promulgated it for his diocese in December
1863. Pius IX. then modified his plans: a new commission
was appointed to extract from the Allocutions, Encyclicals and
papal Letters the chief errors dealt with in them. This work
lasted about a year; the result of it was the Syllabus, in eighty
propositions, arranged under the distinct heads; the propositions
are not accompanied by any theological censure, but simply
by a reference to the Allocution, Encyclical or Letter from which
each had been more or less textually extracted. This was
addressed to the episcopate together with a letter from Cardinal
Antonelli, and dated the 8th of December 1864, the same date
as the Encyclical Quanta cura, from which, however, it remains
quite distinct. Its publication aroused the most violent polemics;
what was then called the Ultramontane party was loud in its
praise; while the liberals treated it as a declaration of war made
by the Church on modern society and civilization. Napoleon
III.'s government forbade its publication, and suspended the
newspaper I'Univers for having published it. Controversies
were equally numerous as to the theological value of the Sylla-
bus. Most Catholics saw in it as many infallible definitions as
condemned propositions; others observed that the pope had
neither personally signed nor promulgated the collection, but
had intentionally separated it from the Encyclical by sending it
merely under cover of a letter from his secretary of state; they
said that it was hastily, and sometimes unfortunately drawn up
(cf. prop. 61); they saw in it an act of the pontifical authority,
but without any of the marks required in the case of dogmatic
definitions; they concluded, therefore, that each proposition
was to be appreciated separately, and in consequence that each
was open to theological comment. That such is the true view
is proved by the fact that Rome never censured the theologians
who, like Newman, took up this position.
The errors enumerated in the Syllabus are grouped under the
ten following heads: (i) Pantheism, naturalism and absolute
282
SYLLOGISM
rationalism; (2) Moderate rationalism; (3) Indifferentism, lati-
tudinarianism; (4) Socialism, communism, secret societies, Bible
societies, clerico-liberal societies; (5) Errors regarding the Church
and her rights; (6) Errors regarding civil society both in itself
and in its relations with the Church; (7) Errors regarding
Christian and natural morality; (8) Errors regarding Christian
marriage ; (9) Errors concerning the temporal power of the pope ;
(10) Errors relative to modern Liberalism. It was paragraphs
5, 6 and 10 which especially gave rise to discussion. In reality,
however, the Syllabus did not contain a new doctrine: the
Church was defending- her traditional doctrine against the
progressive invasion of what were called modern ideas of
liberty, i.e. the independence of religious authority shown by
secular societies, liberty of conscience, equality of all religious
confessions before the state, &c. She upheld her theoretical
position as in the time of Philip the Fair or of the Reformation,
and the Syllabus goes no further in this respect than the En-
cyclical Quanta cura of the same date, or that of Gregory XVI.,
Mirari vos, of the isth of August 1832. But the unusual form
of the document should be considered: instead of an exposition
of doctrine it enumerates the errors in the form of bare proposi-
tions, without any qualification, and with no variation in the
degree of condemnation; the result being that many people
on both sides were misled.
The name Syllabus has sometimes also been given to the
collection of 65 " modernist " propositions condemned by the
decree Lamentabili of the Holy Office, dated the 3rd of July
1907; but this name is in no wise official.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The documents from which the propositions
of the Syllabus were borrowed have been collected together in the
Recueil des allocutions consistoriales, &c. citees dans I'cncycligue et
le syllabus (Paris, 1865). For the history of the Syllabus: P.
Hpurat, Le Syllabus, etude documentaire (Paris, 1904) ; and P.
Rinaldi, // Valore del sillabo (Rome, 1888). For its theological
value: Newman, A Letter Addressed to his Grace the Duke of Norfolk
(London, 1875); P. Viollet, L'lnfallibilite du pape et le syllabus
(Paris, 1904); L. Choupin, Valeur des decisions doctrinales et dis-
ciplinaires du Saint Siege (Paris, 1907). See also Mgr. Dupanloup,
La Convention du 15 septembre et I'encyclique du 8 decembre (Paris,
1865); and for the opposite view, see Trarieux, Le Syllabus et la
declaration des droits de I'homme (Paris, 1902). (A. Bo.*)
SYLLOGISM (Gr. <TuXXoytcr;u6s, from aiiv, and Xixyos, an
argument resulting from combination, i.e. of premises), in logic,
an argument consisting of premises and a conclusion. Aris-
totle's definition is (Anal. Pr. a. i. 24 b 18; cf. Top. a i. 100
a 25): (TuXXcxyioTxos ion Xoyos kv $ reOivTiav TIVUV frepov rt TUV
KCinivuv «£ di'o/yKTjs ovuPaivei. T<£ ravra elvai, " a syllogism
is an argument in which, certain things being posited (the
premises), something other than the premises necessarily
results from their being true." This definition, though it
contains the really important facts, is too wide in two
respects, (i) Aristotle himself and subsequent logicians restrict
the term to arguments in which there are but two premises.
(2) In point of fact, all logicians further confine the syllogism
to arguments in which the terms are related as subject and
predicate (or attribute in the widest sense) . A fortiori arguments,
for example, wherein relations of quantity are brought together,
though syllogistic in type, are generally excluded. Owing
largely to the simplicity and symmetry of the syllogism it
has been a commonplace of logic to make the syllogistic form
the type of all thought. Modern logicians (cf. especially F. H.
Bradley in his Logic) have, however, shown that in practice its
importance is greatly exaggerated.
A. The Deductive Syllogism. — This argument is the simplest
form of " mediate " inference, i.e. an argument in which two
terms are brought into a necessary relation by the aid of a
" middle " term which serves as a bridge. It requires, therefore,
two propositions known as premises J (also spelled premisses,
as being more in accordance with the Lat. praemissae [pro-
positiones sententiae], things put or posited in advance) which
'Aristotle Trpordueis, originally translated propositiones; prae-
missae dates from 12th century Latin translations of Arabic versions
of Aristotle. The term " premises " (a house, &c.), is derived
loosely from the legal phase denoting that which has already been
mentioned in a document, and is etymologically th<: same.
contain one common term and one other term each. In the
conclusion the middle term disappears and the other two are
brought together. The premises are assumed: whether true
or false, the conclusion follows necessarily. If the premises are
true, the conclusion must be true: if they are false the great
probability is that the conclusion is false. The predicate of the
conclusion is called the major term, the subject the minor term;
the term which is common to the premises and disappears in
the conclusion is the middle term. Hence the premise which
contains the major term is called the major premise: that
which contains the minor, the minor premise. The form of the
syllogism is therefore: — "
A is B Major premise
CisA Minor ,,
.'. CisB Conclusion
Syllogisms differ in (a) " figure " and (b) " mood." (a)
Difference of figure depends on the order of the terms in the
premises. The above is the scheme of figure I. If the middle
term is the predicate in both premises, the syllogism is in
figure II.: if the subject in both, figure III. These are the only
figures recognized by Aristotle, though he points out that
the premises in figure I. may justify a conclusion in which the
predicate is not, as normally, the major term, but the minor.
This possibility, according to Averroes, led to the adoption by
the physician Galen of the so-called fourth figure, in which the
middle term is predicate of the major and subject of the minor.
This, however, destroys the appropriateness of the phrases
major and minor term which are specially chosen because in
fact the major term does imply the more comprehensive notion.
The conclusion is an artificial proposition which would be stated
naturally in the converse.
b. The distinction of moods is according to the quantity or
quality of the propositions of the syllogism (universal, particular,
affirmative, negative, in all the possible combinations). So
far as mere form goes, each mocd may occur in every figure,
though in many cases the conclusion apparently yielded from
the premises is invalid. A simple calculation shows that
formally there are 64 possible moods. Investigation shows
that of these nineteen 2 only are valid, and rules have been
formulated which give the reasons for the invalidity of the
remaining 45.
The rules which govern syllogistic arguments thus described
are: —
i. A syllogism must contain three and three terms only.
(a) Four terms would mean the absence of any connecting
link, (b) If the middle term is ambiguous there are really
four not three terms. The violation of (a) is the fallacy
" Quaternio terminorum "; of (b) " ambiguous middle."
ii. The middle teira must be distributed in one premise at
least, i.e. it must be taken universally, as including all the
particulars over which it extends (see EXTENSION). Violation
of this is the fallacy of " undistributed middle."
iii. No inference can be made from two negative premises.
iv. If either premise is negative, the conclusion is negative.
v. The conclusion cannot be negative, if both premises are
affirmative.
vi. No term may be distributed in this conclusion which was
not distributed in the premise in which it occurs. Violation of
this rule is called an " illicit process of the major (or the minor)
term."
vii. From two particular premises nothing can be inferred.3
viii. If either premise is particular, the conclusion must be
particular.3
2 The following mnemonic hexameter verses are generally given
(first apparently in Aldrich's Artis logicae rudimenta) to aid in
remembering these moods. The vowels in the words, A, E, I, O,
show the quantity and quality of the premises : —
Barbara Celarent Darii Ferioque prioris;
Cesare Camestres Festino Baroco secundi ;
Tertia Darapti Disarms Datisi Felapton
Bocardo Ferison habet : quarta insuper addit
Bramantip Camenes Dimaris Fesapo Fresison.
3 These latter are corollaries of previous rules.
SYLPH— SYLVANITE
283
The general criticism of the syllogism as a means of discovering
truth is that it is a petitio principii, or begging of the question.
This accusation is based to some extent on the Aristotelian
" Dictum de omni et nullo " (Anal. Pri. a i. 24, b 26-30),
generally stated as " That which is affirmed or denied of any
whole may be affirmed or denied of anything contained within
(or ' any part of ') that whole." To take a concrete instance
of a valid mood: all men are mortal, all Frenchmen are men,
therefore all Frenchmen are mortal (the mood Barbara). It is
argued that either there is here no real discovery (i.e. new truth)
or the major premise is improperly used (begs the question)
inasmuch as unless we knew that all Frenchmen are mortal
we could not state that all men are mortal. The problem raised
is a real one, and has been discussed by all logicians, from the
time of Mill especially. In brief, the solution depends upon the
view we take of the major premise, "all men are mortal." If
that judgment is taken as a mere enumeration of particulars,
i.e. in extension, as meaning that all men have been investigated
and found to be mortal, clearly it could not be used to make the
new discovery that a particular group of men are mortal; the
syllogism so understood is a petitio principii. If, however, we
take the true view of the major premise, namely, that it is not
a mere summary of observed particulars but the enunciation
of a necessary connexion between two concepts or universals,
then the conclusion assumes a different character. The " whole "
(omne) of the dictum, the major term, ceases to be taken in
extension, and becomes intensive or connotative, and the infer-
ence consists in subsuming the minor under (bringing it into
connexion with) the major. This is the true view of the scientific
or inductive universal (as opposed to that of nominalism or pure
empiricism). It remains true that in fact the conclusion is
contained in the premises — this is essential to the validity of
the syllogism — but the inference is a real one because it brings
out and shows the necessity of a conclusion which was not before
in our minds.
Hypothetical and Disjunctive Syllogisms. — The term syllogism
has been extended to cover certain forms of ratiocination which
are not based on categorical propositions. The propriety of this
extended use is open to question and is denied by some logicians.
a. Hypothetical " Syllogisms " are those in which one premise
is a hypothetical proposition, the other a categorical. Two forms
are possible (i.) modus ponens (which establishes the consequent
set clown in the major premise) : if A is B, it is C (or C is D) ; A is
B; therefore A is C (or C is E>), and (ii.) modus tollens (which dis-
proves the antecedent) : if A is B, it is C (or C is D) ; A is not C
(or C is not D) ; therefore it is not B (or A is not B). In (i.) a valid
conclusio.n follows from the affirmation of the antecedent: in
(ii.) from denying the consequent, but in neither case conversely.
The distinction is of greater importance than would appear when
one realizes how obvious the facts really are, and in practice it
happens frequently that speakers claim with success to disprove
a proposition by disproving the fact alleged in support of it, or
to establish a hypothesis by showing that facts agree with its
consequences.
b. Disjunctive " Syllogisms " are those in which one premise is
a disjunctive proposition, the other a categorical proposition which
states or denies one of the two alternatives set forth. Again two
forms occur: (i.) modus ponendo tollens which by the affirmation
of one alternative denies the other (A is either B or C; A is B;
therefore it is not C : or either A is B, or C is D ; A is B ; therefore
C is not D : or either A or B is C ; A is C ; therefore B is not C) ;
(ii.) modus tollendo ponens which by the denial of the one, establishes
the validity of the other alternative (A is either B or C ; A is not B ;
therefore it is C : or either A or B is C ; A is not C ; therefore B is
C : or either A is B, or C is D ; A is not B ; therefore C is D). The
validity of such arguments depends upon the sense in which we
understand the disjunctive proposition: we must assume that the
alternatives are mutually exclusive.1
Sorites. — Finally it is necessary to mention a complex syllogistic
argument known as the Sorites (Gr. <rap6s, heap). It has been de-
fined as a syllogism in Fig. I (see above) having many middle
terms; it is really a series of syllogisms (a polysyllogism), each one
proving a premise of another, the intermediate conclusions being
suppressed. Its form is A is B, B is C, C is D . . . . Y is Z, there-
fore A is Z. Each syllogism of the series is called a " prosyllpgism " 2
in relation to the one that succeeds, and an " episyllogism " in
'For a dilemma which includes both hypothetical and dis-
junjtive reasoning see DILEMMA.
2 Where one premise of a prosyllogism is omitted (see ENTHY-
MEME), this argument is sometimes called an " epicheirema."
relation to its predecessors. Resolution of the sorites into its con-
stituent elements gives the rules (o) that no premise except the first
may be particular and (/3) that no premise except the last may be
negative.
B. The Inductive Syllogism, like the deductive, is first
systematized by Aristotle, who described it as d «£ kiraydrfijs
<™X\o7i<7ju6s. Unlike the deductive it consists in establishing a
conclusion from particular premises, i.e. of referring the major
term to the middle by means of the minor. The form is " A B C D,
&c., are P; A B C D are all M; thus all M are P." This so-called
syllogism has been much criticized by modern logicians on
various grounds (see LOGIC).
Discussions of the syllogism will be found in all textbooks on
Logic, and the more elaborate syllogistic forms are discussed in the
article LOGIC.
SYLPH, an imaginary spirit of the air; according to Paracel-
sus, the first modern writer who uses the word, an air-elemental,
coming between material and immaterial beings. In current
.usage, the term is applied to a feminine spirit or fairy, and is
often used in a figurative sense of a graceful, slender girl or
young woman. The form of the word points to a Greek origin,
and Aristotle's <riX$ij, a kind of beetle (Hist. anim. 8. 17. 8),
has usually been taken as the source. Similarly, the earth-
elementals or earth-spirits were in Paracelsus's nomenclature,
" gnomes " (Gr. 'yvt^firj, intelligence, yiyv&aKuv, to know) as
being the spirits that gave the secrets of the earth to mortals.
Littre, however, takes the word to be Old Celtic, and meaning
" genius," and states that it occurs in such forms as sulfi, sylfi,
&c., in inscriptions, or latinized as sulevae or suleviae.
SYLT (probably from the O. Fris. Silendi, i.e. sealand), the
largest German island in the North Sea, being about 38 sq. m.
in area and nearly 23 m. long. It is, however, very narrow,
being generally about half a mile in width, except in the middle,
where it sends out a peninsula to the east 7 m. across. It belongs
to the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, and lies from
7 to 12 m. from the Schleswig coast. The central peninsula
contains some marshland and moorland pasture, on which a few
thousand sheep graze; but the rest of the island consists merely
of dunes or sandhills. These attain at places a height of from
100 to 150 ft., and are continually shifting to the westward.
The inhabitants (3500) are of Frisian origin, and the official
language is German, though in the extreme north of the island,
known as List, Danish is spoken. Their occupations are fishing,
oyster-dredging, seafaring and wild-duck catching. The chief
places are Keitum, Tinnum, Morsum, Rantum and Westerland.
Westerland, one of the most frequented sea-bathing places of
Germany, lies on the west side of the island, separated from the
sea, which is seldom perfectly calm, by a chain of sand dunes,
across which board walks lead to the beach. The island is
reached by a regular steamboat service from Hoyer on the main-
land to Munkmarsch, which is connected by a steam tram with
Westerland. Another line of steamers runs from Hamburg to
Sylt via Heligoland. During the Danish War of 1864, after
suffering severely at the hands of the Danes, the island was
occupied by the Prussians on the I3th of July (see FRISIAN
ISLANDS).
See P. Knuth, Botanische Wanderungen auf der Insel Sylt
(Tondern, 1890); C. P. Hansen, Das Nordseebad Westerland auf
Sylt (Carding, 1891); Meyn, Geologische Beschreibune der Insel
Sylt (Berlin, 1876); and Kepp, Wegweiser auf Sylt (Tondern, 1885).
SYLVANITE, a mineral consisting of gold and silver telluride,
AuAgTe4, containing gold 24-2 and silver 13-3 %; an im-
portant ore of gold. Crystals are monoclinic and often very
rich in faces; they are frequently twinned, giving rise to branch-
ing forms resembling written characters; on this account the
mineral was early known as " graphic gold " or " graphic
tellurium " (Ger. Schrifierz). It was also known as " white
gold," the colour being tin-white with a brilliant metallic lustre.
The hardness is 2 and the specific gravity 8-2. It occurs with
native gold in veins traversing porphyry at Offenbanya and
Nagyag, near Deva in Transylvania (from which country it takes
its name); also at several places in Boulder county, Colorado,
and at Kalgoorlie in Western Australia. Sylvanite may be
284
SYLVESTER, J. J.— SYMBOL
readily distinguished from calaverite (AuTej) by its perfect
cleavage in one direction (parallel to the plane of symmetry),
but in this character it resembles the very rare orthorhombic
mineral krennerite ([Au, Ag]Te2). (L. J. S.)
SYLVESTER, JAMES JOSEPH (1814-1897), English mathe-
matician, was born in London on the 3rd of September 1814.
He went to school first at Highgate and then at Liverpool, and
in 1831 entered St John's College, Cambridge. In his Tripos
examination, which through illness he was prevented from taking
till 1837, he was placed as second wrangler, but being a Jew and
unwilling to sign the Thirty-nine Articles, he could not compete
for one of the Smith's prizes and was ineligible for a fellowship,
nor could he even take a degree: this last, however, he obtained
at Trinity College, Dublin, where religious restrictions were no
longer in force. After leaving Cambridge he was appointed
to the chair of natural philosophy at University College, London,
where his friend A. De Morgan was one of his colleagues, but
he resigned in 1840 in order to become professor of mathematics
in the university of Virginia. There, however, he remained only
six months, for certain views on slavery, strongly held and
injudiciously expressed, entailed unpleasant consequences, and
necessitated his return to England, where he obtained in 1844
the post of actuary to the Legal and Equitable Life Assurance
Company. In the course of the ensuing ten years he published
a large amount of original work, much of it dealing with the
theory of invariants, which marked him as one of the foremost
mathematicians of the time. But he failed to obtain either of
two posts — the professorships of mathematics at the Royal
Military Academy and of geometry in Gresham College — for
which he applied in 1854, though he was elected to the former in
the following year on the death of his successful competitor.
At Woolwich he remained until 1870, and although he was not
a great success as an elementary teacher, that period of his life
was very rich in mathematical work, which included remarkable
advances in the theory of the partition of numbers and further
contributions to that of invariants, together with an important
research which yielded a proof, hitherto lacking, of Newton's
rule for the discovery of imaginary roots for algebraical equations
up to and including the fifth degree. In 1874 he produced
several papers suggested by A. Peaucellier's discovery of the
straight line link motion associated with his name, and he also
invented the skew pentagraph. Three years later he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, Baltimore, stipulating for an annual salary of $5000,
to be paid in gold. At Baltimore he gave an enormous impetus
to the study of the higher mathematics in America, and during
the time he was there he contributed to the American Journal
of Mathematics, of which he was the first editor, no less than
thirty papers, some of great length, dealing mainly with
modern algebra, the theory of numbers, theory of partitions
and universal algebra. In 1883 he was chosen to succeed Henry
Smith in the Savilian chair of geometry at Oxford, and there he
produced his theory of reciprocants, largely by the aid of his
" method of infinitesimal variation." In 1803 loss of health
and failing eyesight obliged him to give up the active duties of
his chair, and a deputy professor being appointed, he went to
live in London, where he died on the isth of March 1897.
Sylvester's work suffered from a certain lack of steadiness and
method in his character. For long periods he was mathemati-
cally unproductive, but then sudden inspiration would come
upon him and his ideas and theories poured forth far more quickly
than he could record them. All the same his output of work
was as large as it was valuable. The scope of his researches was
described by Arthur Cayley, his friend and fellow worker,
in the following words: " They relate chiefly to finite analysis,
and cover by their subjects a large part of it — algebra, deter-
minants, elimination, the theory of equations, partitions, tactic,
the theory of forms, matrices, reciprocants, the Hamiltonian
numbers, &c.; analytical and pure geometry occupy a less
prominent position; and mechanics, optics and astronomy are
not absent." Sylvester was a good linguist, and a diligent com-
poser of verse, both in English and Latin, but the opinion he
cherished that his poems were on a level with his mathematical
achievements has not met with general acceptance.
The first volume of his Collected Mathematical Papers, edited by
H. F. Baker, appeared in 1904.
SYLVESTER, JOSHUA (1563-1618), English poet, the son of
a Kentish clothier, was born in 1563. In his tenth year he was
sent to school at Southampton, where he gained a knowledge of
French. After about three years at school he appears to have
been put to business, and in 1591 the title-page of his Yvry states
that he was in the service of the Merchant Adventurers' Company.
He was for a short time a land steward, and in 1606 Prince
Henry gave him a small pension as a kind of court poet. In
1613 he obtained a position as secretary to the Merchant Adven-
turers. He was stationed at Middelburg, in the Low Countries,
where he died on the 28th of September 1618. He translated
into English heroic couplets the scriptural epic of Guillaume
du Bartas. His Essay of the Second Week was published in 1598;
and in 1604 The Divine Weeks of the World's Birth. The ornate
style of the original offered no difficulty to Sylvester, who was
himself a disciple of the Euphuists and added many adornments
of his own invention. The Sepmaines of Du Bartas appealed
most to his English and German co-religionists, and the trans-
lation was immensely popular. It has often been suggested that
Milton owed something in the conception of Paradise Lost to
Sylvester's translation. His popularity ceased with the Restora-
tion, and Dryden called his verse " abominable fustian."
His works were reprinted by Dr A. B. Grosart (1880) in the
" Chertsey Worthies Library." See also C. Dunster's Considerations
on Milton's early Reading (1800).
SYLVITE, a mineral consisting of potassium chloride (KC1),
first observed in 1823, as an encrustation on Vesuvian lava.
Well-formed crystals were subsequently found in the salt deposits
of Stassfurt in Prussia and Kalusz in Austrian Galicia. It
crystallizes in the cubic system with the form of cubes and cubo-
octahedra and possesses perfect cleavages parallel to the faces
of the cube. Although the crystals are very similar in appear-
ance to crystals of common salt, they are proved by etching
experiments to possess a different degree of symmetry, namely
plagihedral-cubic, there being no planes of symmetry but the
full number of axes of symmetry. Crystals are colourless
(sometimes bright blue) and transparent; the hardness is 2 and
the specific gravity 1*98. Like salt, it is highly diathermanous.
The name sylvite or sylvine is from the old pharmaceutical
name, sal digestivus sylvii, for this salt. (L. J. S.)
SYMBOL (Gr. av/j.@o\ov, a sign), the term given to a visible
object representing to the mind the semblance of something
which is not shown but realized by association with it. This
is conveyed by the ideas usually associated with the symbol;
thus the palm branch is the symbol of victory and the anchor
of hope. Much of early Christian symbolism owes its origin
to pagan sources, the interpretations of the symbols having a
different meaning; thus " the Good Shepherd with the lamb "
is thought by some to have been derived from the figure of
Hermes (Mercury) carrying the goat to sacrifice, and " Orpheus
charming the wild beasts," which, when painted in the cata-
combs, was probably intended as the representation of a type
of Christ. One of the earh'est symbols of the Saviour, the fish,
was derived from an acrostic of the Greek word lx.6vs, the
component letters of which were the initials of the five words
'iTjcroOs Xptoros, 9eoO Ties, SCOTIJP, Jesus Christ, Son of God,
Saviour. The ship, another early symbol, represented the Church
in which the faithful are carried over the sea of life. Other
symbols are those which were represented by animals, real or
fabulous, and were derived from Scripture: thus the lamb
typified Christ from St John's Gospel (i. 29 and 36), and the lion
from the Book of Revelations, in which Christ is called the
" Lion of the tribe of Judah." The peacock stood for immortality;
the phoenix for the Resurrection; the dragon or the serpent for
Satan ; and the stag for the soul thirsting for baptism. The sacred
monogram Chi Rho, -£ supposed to have been the celestial
sign seen by the emperor Constantine on the eve of the defeat
of Maxentius, represents the two first letters of the Greek word
SYME— SYMMACHUS
285
Xpioros which Constantine figured on his labarum, or standard,
and is found on early Christian coins, bearing also the favourite
decoration of the Byzantine sarcophagi. The four evangelical
symbols are taken from the book of Ezekiel and from the Book
of Revelations; thus the winged man is St Matthew, the winged
lion St Mark, the winged ox St Luke and the eagle St John;
and these four symbols became the favourite subject for repre-
sentation in the Church. Besides these the other evangelists
and the saints carry emblems by which they may be recognized ;
thus St Andrew by the cross, St Peter by the keys, St Paul
by the sword, St Edward by a cup and dagger, St Mary
Magdalene by a box or vase, St Lawrence by a gridiron, St
Faith also by a gridiron, &c.
SYME, JAMES (1799-1870), Scottish surgeon, was born at
Edinburgh on the 7th of November 1799. His father was a
writer to the signet and a landowner in Fife and Kinross, who
lost most of his fortune in attempting to develop the mineral
resources of his property. James was sent to the high school
at the age of nine, and remained until he was fifteen, when he
entered the university. For two years he frequented the arts
classes (including botany), and in 1817 began the medical curri-
culum, devoting himself with particular keenness to chemistry.
His chemical experiments led him to the discovery that "a
valuable substance is obtainable from coal tar which has the
property of dissolving india-rubber," and could be used for
waterproofing silk and other textile fabrics — an idea which was
patented a few months afterwards by Charles Mackintosh, of
Glasgow. In the session 1818-1819 Syme became assistant and
demonstrator of the dissecting room of Robert Listen, who had
started as an extra-mural teacher of anatomy in competition
with his old master, Dr John Barclay; in those years he held
also resident appointments in the infirmary and the fever
hospital, and spent some time in Paris practising dissection and
operative surgery. In 1823 Liston handed over to him the whole
charge of his anatomy classes, retaining his interest in the school
as a pecuniary venture; the arrangement did not work smoothly,
and a feud with Liston arose, which did not terminate until
twenty years later, when the latter was settled in London. In
1824-1825 he started the Brown Square school of medicine, but
again disagreed with his partners in the venture. Announcing
his intention to practise surgery only, Syme started a surgical
hospital of his own, Minto House hospital, which he carried on
from May 1829 to September 1833, with great success as a
surgical charity and school of clinical instruction. It was here
that he first put into practice his method of clinical teaching,
which consisted in having the patients to be operated or prelected
upon brought from the ward into a lecture-room or theatre
where the students were seated conveniently for seeing and
taking notes. His private practice had become very consider-
able, his position having been assured ever since his amputation
at the hip joint in 1823, the first operation of the kind in Scotland.
In 1833 he succeeded James Russell as professor of clinical
surgery in the university. Syme's accession to the clinical
chair was marked by two important changes in the conditions
of it: the first was that the professor should have the care of
surgical patients in the infirmary in right of his professorship,
and the second, that attendance on his course should be obliga-
tory on all candidates for the medical degree. When Liston
removed to London in 1835 Syme became the leading consulting
surgeon in Scotland. On Listen's death in 1847 Syme was
offered his vacant chair of clinical surgery at University College,
London, and accepted it. He began practice in London in
February 1848; but early in May the same year difficulties with
two of his colleagues at Gower Street and a desire to " escape
from animosity and contention " led him to throw up his
appointment. He returned to Edinburgh in July, and was
reinstated in his old chair, to which the crown authority had
meanwhile found a difficulty in appointing. The judgment of
his friends was that " he was always right in the matter, but
often wrong in the manner, of his quarrels." In 1849 he
broached the subject of medical reform in a letter to the lord
advocate; in 1854 and 1857 he addressed open letters on the
same subject to Lord Palmerston; and in 1858 a Medical Act
was passed which largely followed the lines laid down by him-
self. As a member of the general medical council called into
existence by the act, he made considerable stir in 1868 by an
uncompromising statement of doctrines on medical education,
which were thought by many to be reactionary; they were,
however, merely an attempt to recommend the methods that had
been characteristic of Edinburgh teaching since William Cullen's
time — namely, a constant reference of facts to principles, the
subordination (but not the sacrifice) of technical details to
generalities, and the preference of large professional classes and
the " magnetism of numbers " to the tutorial system, which he
identified with "cramming." In April 1869 he had a paralytic
seizure, and at once resigned his chair; he never recovered his
powers, and died near Edinburgh on the 26th of June 1870.
Syme's surgical writings were numerous, although the terseness
of his style and directness of his method saved them from being
bulky. In 1831 he published A Treatise on the Excision of Diseased
Joints (the celebrated ankle-joint amputation is known by his name).
His Principles of Surgery (often reprinted) came out a few months
later; Diseases of the Rectum in 1838; Stricture of the Urethra and
Fistula in Perinea in 1849; and Excision of the Scapula in 1864.
In 1848 he collected into a volume, 'under the title of Contributions
to the Pathology and Practice of Surgery, thirty-one original memoirs
published in periodicals from time to time; and in 1861 he issued
another volume _ of Observations in Clinical Surgery. Syme's
character is not inaptly summed up in the dedication to him by
his old pupil, Dr John Brown, of the series of essays Locke and
Sydenham: " Verax, capax, perspicax, sagax, efficax, tenax."
See Memorials of the Life of James Syme, by R. Paterson, M.D..
with portraits (Edinburgh, 1874).
SYMEON METAPHRASTES,1 the most renowned of the
Byzantine hagiographcrs. Scholars have been very much
divided as to the period in which he lived, dates ranging from the
9th century to the I4th having been suggested; but it is
now generally agreed that he flourished in the second half
of the loth century. Still greater divergences of opinion have
existed as to the lives of saints coming from his pen, and here
again the solution of the problem has been attained by studying
the composition of the great Greek menologies. The menology
of Metaphrastes is a collection of lives of saints for the twelve
months of the year, easily recognizable among analogous
collections, and consisting of about 150 distinct pieces, some of
which are taken bodily from older collections, while others have
been subjected to a new recension (/ierdi^paau). Among
other works attributed (though with some uncertainty) to
Symeon are a Chronicle, a canonical collection, some letters and
poems, and other writings of less importance. Symeon's great
popularity is due more particularly to his collection of lives of
saints. About his life we know only very few details. The
Greeks honour him as a saint on the 28th of November, and an
office has been composed in his honour.
See L. Allatius, De Symeonum scriptis dialriba (Paris, 1664);
F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien, pp. 303-355 (Leipzig, 1876);
A. Ehrhard, Die Legendensammlung des Symeon Metaphrastes
(Rome, 1897) ; and in Romische Quartalschrift (1897), pp. 67-205
and 531-553; H. Delehaye, La Vie de S. Paul le jeune et la chrono-
logie de Melaphraste (1893); Analecta Bollandiana, xvi. 312-327
and xvii. 448-452. (H. DE.)
SYMMACHUS, pope from 498 to 514, had Anastasius II. for
his_ predecessor and was himself followed by Hormisdas. He
was a native of Sardinia, apparently a convert from paganism,
and was in deacon's orders at the time of his election. The
choice was not unanimous, another candidate, Laurentius,
having the support of a strong Byzantine party; and both
competitors were consecrated by their friends, the one in the
Lateran Church and the other in that of St Mary, on the 2 and
of November 498. A decision was not long afterwards obtained
in favour of Symmachus from Theodoric, to whom the dispute
had been referred; but peace was not established until s°S or
506, when the Gothic king ordered the Laurentian party to
surrender the churches of which they had taken possession.
An important incident in the protracted controversy was the
1 The surname is based on the title, Metaphrasis, of some of
his works.
286
SYMMACHUS— SYMONDS, J. A.
decision of the " palmary synod." The remainder of the pontifi-
cate of Symmachus was uneventful; history speaks of various
churches in Rome as having been built or beautified by him.
SYMHACHUS, the name of a celebrated Roman family of the
4th to 6th centuries of our era. It belonged to the gens Aurelia
and can be traced back to Aurelius Julianus Symmachus,
proconsul of Achaea (according to others, vicar or vice-prefect
of Macedonia) in the year 319. Lucius Aurelius Avianius
Symmachus, presumably his son, was prefect of Rome in the
year 364, and had also other important posts. He was cele-
brated for his virtues and the senate awarded him in 377 a
gilded statue.
QUINTUS AURELIUS SYMMACHUS (c. 345-410), son of the last-
named, was one of the most brilliant representatives in public
life and in the literature of 4th-century paganism in Rome. He
was educated in Gaul, and, having discharged the functions of
praetor and quaestor, rose to higher offices, and in 373 was pro-
consul of Africa (for his official career see C.I.L. vi. 1699). His
public dignities, which included that of pontifex maximus, his
great wealth and high character, added to' his reputation for
eloquence, marked him out as the champion of the pagan senate
against the measures which the Christian emperors directed
against the old state religion of Rome. In 382 he was banished
from Rome by Gratian for his protest against the removal of the
statue and altar of Victory from the senate-house (see Gibbon,
Decline and Fall, ch. 28), and in 384, when he was prefect of the
city, he addressed to Valentinian II. a letter praying for the
restoration of these symbols. This is the most interesting of his
literary remains, and called forth two replies from St Ambrose,
as well as a poetical refutation from Prudentius. After this
Symmachus was involved in the rebellion of Maximus, but
obtained his pardon from Theodosius, and appears to have
continued in public life up to his death. In 391 he was Consul
ordinarius. His honesty, both in public and in private affairs,
and his amiability made him very popular. The only reproach
that could be made against this last valiant defender of paganism
is a certain aristocratic conservativeness, and an exaggerated
love of the past. As his letters do not extend beyond the year
402, he probably died soon after that date.
Of his writings we possess: (i) Panegyrics, written in his youth in
a very artificial style, two on Valentinian I. and one on the youthful
Gratian. (2) Nine books of Epistles, and two from the tenth book,
published after his death by his son. The model followed by the
writer is Pliny the Younger, and from a reference in the Saturnalia
of Macrobius (bk. v., i. § 7), in which Symmachus is introduced as
one of the interlocutors, it appears that his contemporaries deemed
him second to none of the ancients in the " rich and florid " style.
• We find them vapid and tedious. (3) Fragments of Complimentary
Orations, five from a palimpsest (also containing the Panegyrics),
of which part is at Milan and part in the Vatican, discovered by
Mai, who published the Milan fragments in 1815, the Roman in
his Scriptorum veterum nova cottectio, vol. i. (1825), and the whole
in 1846. (4) The Relationes, which contain an interesting account
of public life in Rome, composed for the emperor. In these official
writings (reports as prefect of the city), Symmachus is not preoccu-
pied by style and becomes somstimes eloquent ; especially so in his
remarkable report on the altar of Victory.
His son, QUINTUS FABIUS MEMMIUS SYMMACHUS, was pro-
consul of Africa (415) and prefect of the city (418). He was
probably the father of the Symmachus who was consul in 446,
and whose son was QUINTUS AURELIUS MEMMIUS SYMMACHUS
(d. 525), patrician, one of the most cultivated noblemen of Rome
of the beginning of the 6th century, editor (e.g. of Macrobius,
Somnium Scipionis) and historian, and especially celebrated
for his building activity. He was consul in 485. Theodoric
charged him with the restoration of the theatre of Pompey.
He was father-in-law of Boetius (q.v.), and was involved in
his fate, being disgraced and finally put to death by Tbeodoric
in 525.
See E. Morin, Etudes sur Symmaque (1847); G. Boissier, La Fin
du paganisme (1891), vol. ii. ; T. R. Glover, Life and Letters in the
Fourth Century (1901); S. Dill, Roman Society in the last century
of the Western Empire (1898); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders,
(1880^-1899) vol. hi. (on the Boetius "conspiracy"); M. Schanz,
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (1904), vol. iv. pt. i ; and Teuffel-
Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), pp. 425, 477, 4.
All editions of the works of Symmachus are nov superseded by that
of O. Seeck in Monumenta Germanise historica. Auctores antiquis-
simi (i 883) , vi. i , with introductions on his life, works and chronology,
and a genealogical table of the family.
SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON (1840-189^), English critic
and poet, was born at Bristol, on the 5th of October 1840. He
was the only son of John Addington Symonds, M.D. (1807-
1871), the author of an essay on Criminal Responsibility (1869),
The Principles of Beauty (1857) and Sleep and Dreams (2nd ed.,
1857). His mother, Harriet Symonds, was the eldest daughter
of James Sykes of Leatherhead. He was a delicate boy,
and at Harrow, where he was entered in 1854, took no part in
school games and showed no particular promise as a scholar.
In 1858 he proceeded to Balliol as a commoner, but was elected
to an exhibition in the following year. The Oxford training
and association with the brilliant set of men then at Balliol
called out the latent faculties in Symonds, and his university
career was one of continual distinction. In 1860 he took a
first in " Mods," and won the Newdigate with a poem on The
Escorial; in 1862 he was placed in the first class in Literae
Humaniores, and in the following year was winner of the Chan-
cellor's English Essay. In 1862 he had been elected to an open
fellowship at Magdalen. The strain of study unfortunately
proved too great for him, and, immediately after his election to a
fellowship, his health broke down, and he was obliged to seek
rest in Switzerland. There he met Janet Catherine North,
whom, after a romantic betrothal in the mountains, he married
at Hastings on the loth of November 1864. He then attempted
to settle in London and study law, but his health again broke
down and obliged him to travel. Returning to Clifton, he lectured
there, both at the college and to ladies' schools, and the fruits
of his work in this direction remain in his Introduction to the
Study of Dante (1872) and his admirably vivid Studies of the
Greek Poets (1873-1876). Meanwhile he was occupied upon
the work to which his talents and sympathies were especially
attracted, his Renaissance in Italy, which appeared in seven
volumes at intervals between 1875 and 1886. The Renaissance
had been the subject of Symonds' prize essay at Oxford, and
the study which he had then given to the theme aroused in him
a desire to produce something like a complete picture of the
reawakening of art and literature in Europe. His work, how-
ever, was again interrupted by illness, and this time in a more
serious form. In 1877 his life was in acute danger, and upon
his removal to Davos Platz and subsequent recovery there it
was felt that this was the only place where he was likely to be
able to enjoy life. From that time onward he practically
made his home at Davos, and a charming picture of his life there
will be found in Our Life in the Swiss Highlands (1891). Symonds,
indeed, became in no common sense a citizen of the town; he
took part in its municipal business, made friends with the
peasants, and shared their interests. There he wrote most of his
books: biographies of Shelley (1878), Sir Philip Sidney (1886),
Ben Jonson (1886), and Michelangelo (1893), several volumes of
poetry and of essays, and a fine translation of the Autobiography
of Benvenuto Cellini (1887). There, too, he completed his
study of the Renaissance, the work by which he will be longest
remembered. He was assiduously, feverishly active through-
out the whole of his life, and the amount of work which he
achieved was wonderful when the uncertainty of his health is
remembered. He had a passion for Italy, and for many years
resided during the autumn in the house of his friend, Horatio
F. Brown, on the Zattare, in Venice. He died at Rome on the
igth of April 1893, and was buried close to Shelley.
He left his papers and his autobiography in the hands of Mr
Brown, who published in 1895 an excellent and comprehensive
biography. Two works from his pen, a volume of essays, In
the Key of Blue, and a monograph on Walt Whitman, were pub-
lished in the year of his death. His activity was unbroken to
the last. In life Symonds was morbidly introspective, a Hamlet
among modern men of letters, but with a capacity for action
which Hamlet was denied. Robert Louis Stevenson described
him, in the Opalstein of Talks and Talkers, as " the best of talkers,
SYMONDS, W. S.— SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
287
singing the praises of the earth and the arts, flowers and jewels,
wine and music, in a moonlight, serenading manner, as to the
light guitar." But under his excellent good-fellowship lurked
a haunting melancholy. Full of ardour and ambition, sym-
pathy and desire, be was perpetually tormented by the riddles
of existence; through life he was always a seeker, ardent but
unsatisfied. This side of his nature stands revealed in his
gnomic poetiy, and particularly in the sonnets of his Animi
Figura (1882), where he has portrayed his own character with
great subtlety. His poetry is perhaps rather that of the student
than of the inspired singer, but it has moments of deep thought
and emotion. It is, indeed, in passages and extracts that
Symonds appears at his best. Rich in description, full of
" purple patches," his work has not that harmony and unity
that are essential to the conduct of philosophical argument.
He saw the part more clearly than the whole; but his view,
if partial, is always vivid and concentrated. His translations
are among the finest in the language; here his subject was
found for him, and he was able to lavish on it the wealth of
colour and quick sympathy which were his characteristics.
He was a lover of beauty, a poet and a philosopher; but in his
life and his work alike he missed that absolute harmony of
conviction and concentration under which alone the highest
kind of literature is produced. (A. WA.)
SYMONDS, WILLIAM SAMUEL (1818-1887), was born in
Hereford in 1818. He was educated at Cheltenham and Christ's
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1842. Having
taken holy orders he was appointed curate of Offenham, near
Evesham in 1843, and two years later he was presented to the
living of Pendock in Worcestershire, where he remained until
1877. While at Offenham he became acquainted with H. E.
Strickland and imbibed from him such an interest in natural
history and geology, that his leisure was henceforth devoted to
these subjects. He was one of the founders of the Woolhope
Naturalists' Field Club (1851) and of the Malvern Naturalists'
Field Club (1853), and was an active member of the Cottes-
wold Field Club and other local societies. In 1858 he edited
an edition of Hugh Miller's Cruise of the " Betsey." He was
the author of numerous essays on the geology of the Malvern
country, notably of a paper " On the passage-beds from the
Upper Silurian rocks into the Lower Old Red Sandstone at
Ledbury " (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1860). His principal work
was Records of the Rocks (1872). He was author of Stones of the
Valley (1857), Old Bones, or Notes for Young Naturalists (1859,
2nd ed. 1864), and other popular works. He died at Cheltenham
on the isth of September 1887.
See A Sketch of the Life of the Rev. W. S. Symonds, by the Rev.
J. D. La Touche.
SYMOND'S YAT, one of the most famous view points on the
river Wye, England. At a point 9 m. above Monmouth and 1 2 m.
below Ross by water, the Wye makes a sweep of nearly 5 m.
round a peninsula whose neck is only some 600 yds. across.
The peninsula is occupied by the limestone acclivity of Hunts-
ham Hill. Caverns are seen in the limestone on both precipitous
banks of the river. The Yat or Gate is situated on the west
side of the neck, which reaches an elevation over 500 ft., and a
road from the east drops to a ferry, which was of early im-
portance as a highway between England and Wales. The
boundary between Herefordshire and Gloucestershire crosses
the neck; the Yat is in the county first named, but the railway
station, on the east side (left bank) is in Gloucestershire. It
is on the Ross-Monmouth line of the Great Western railway.
There are here groups of cottages and several inns on both
banks, while opposite the Yat itself is the hamlet of New Weir,
and a little above it the village of Whitchurch. The river banks
are densely wooded, except where they become sheer cliffs,
as at the Coldwell rocks above the station. The surrounding
country is hilly and rich, and the views from the Yat are superb,
embracing the Forest of Dean to the south and east, and backed
by the mountains of the Welsh border in the west.
SYMONS, ARTHUR (1865- ), English poet and critic,
was born in Wales on the 28th of February 1865, of Cornish
parents. He was educated privately, spending much of his time
in France and Italy. In 1884-1886 he edited four of Quaritch's
Shakespeare Quarto Facsimiles, and in 1888-1889 seven plays of
the " Henry Irving " Shakespeare. He became a member of
the staff of the Athenaeum in 1891, and of the Saturday Review
in 1894. His first volume of verse, Days and Nights (1889),
consisted of dramatic monologues. His later verse is influenced
by a close study of modern French writers, of Baudelaire and
especially of Verlaine. He reflects French tendencies both in
the subject-matter and style of his poems, in their eroticism
and their vividness of description. His volumes of verse are:
Silhouettes (1892), London Nights (1895), Amoris victima (1897),
Images of Good and Evil (1899), A Book of Twenty Songs (1905).
In 1902 he made a selection from his earlier verse, published as
Poems (2 vols.). He translated from the Italian of Gabriele
d'Annunzio The Dead City (1900) and The Child of Pleasure
(1898), and from the French of Emile Verhaeren The Dauti
(1898). To The Poems of Ernest Dowson (1905) he prefixed an
essay on the deceased poet, who was a kind of English Verlaine
and had many attractions for Mr Symons. Among his volumes
of collected essays are: Studies in Two Literatures (1897),
The Symbolist School in Literature (1899), Cities (1903), word-
pictures of Rome, Venice, Naples, Seville, &c., Plays, Acting
and Music (1903), Studies in Prose and Verse (1904), Spiritual
Adventures (1905), Studies in Seven Arts (1906).
SYMONS, GEORGE JAMES (1838-1900), English meteorologist,
was born in Pimlico, London, on the 6th of August 1838. In
1860 he obtained a post in the meteorological department of
the Board of Trade under Admiral Robert Fitzroy, who was
then deeply interested in the subject of storm-warnings, and in
the same year he published the first annual volume of British
Rainfall, which contained records from 168 stations in England
and Wales, but none from Scotland or Ireland. Three years
later he resigned his appointment at the Board of Trade,
where his rainfall inquiries were not appreciated — at least
not as a prior study of storm-warnings — and devoted his whole
energies to the organization of a band of volunteer observers
for the collection of particulars of rainfall throughout the British
Isles. So successful was he in this object that by 1866 he was
able to show results which gave a fair representation of the
distribution of rainfall, arid the number of recorders gradually
increased until the last volume of British Rainfall which he lived
to edit (that for 1890) contained figures from 3528 stations —
2894 in England and Wales, 446 in Scotland, and 188 in Ireland.
Apart from their scientific interest, these annual reports are of
great practical importance, since they afford engineers and others
engaged in water supply much-needed data for their calculations,
the former absence of which had on some occasions given rise
to grave mistakes. Symons himself devoted special study not
only to rainfall, but also to the evaporation and percolation of
water as affecting underground streams, and his extensive
knowledge rendered him a valuable witness before parliamentary
committees. In other branches of meteorology also he took
a keen interest, and he was particularly indefatigable, though
consistently unsuccessful, in the quest of a genuine thunderbolt.
The history of the science too attracted his attention, and he
possessed a fine library of meteorological works, which passed
to the Meteorological Society at his death. Of that society he
became a member when only eighteen, and he retained his
connexion with it in various official capacities up to the end of
his life. He served as its president in 1880, and in view of the
celebration of its jubilee was re-elected to that office in 1900, but
the illness that caused his death prevented him from acting.
He died in London on the loth of March 1900.
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM, in physiology. By the "sym-
pathetic system " is understood a set of nerves and ganglia
more or less sharply marked off from the cerebro-spinal, both
functionally and anatomically. (For anatomy see NERVOUS
SYSTEM.) Formerly it was thought more independent from the
rest of the general nervous system than recent discoveries have
found it actually to be. It used to be supposed that the ganglia
of the sympathetic system were analogous in function to the
288
SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
great central nervous masses forming the brain and spinal cord.
These latter masses, as now becomes more and more evident,
are the only structures in which occurs the work of transmuting
afferent-nerve impulses into efferent-nerve impulses with all
the accompanying changes in intensity, rhythm; &c., which
make up reflex action. Such functions, it is now known, are
not attributable to sympathetic ganglia. These last are
structures in which one neurone makes communication with other
neurones. To that extent, therefore, redistribution of nervous
impulses does occur in them, impulses arriving by a few neurones
being distributed so as to affect many. But the sympathetic
ganglia are not the seat of reflex action. The sympathetic
system is now known to consist entirely of conducting paths
which, like the nerve-trunks of the cerebro-spinal system, merely
conduct nerve impulses either toward the great nervous centres
of the spinal cord and brain, or, on the other hand, away from
those great centres. In the cerebro-spinal nerves the pre-
ponderance of the conduction is toward the centres, in the
sympathetic system the preponderance of conduction is away
from the centres.
More is known of the sympathetic system from its efferent
aspect than its afferent, and we shall consider the former first.
One great difference between the efferent paths of the sym-
pathetic and those of the ordinary cerebro-spinal system is that
the former carry nervous impulses not only to muscular tissue but
to secreting glands, whereas the latter convey them to muscle
only, indeed only to muscle of the striated kind. Another
difference is that the efferent path which the sympathetic affords
from the great central nervous centres to its muscles and glands
consists always of two nerve-cells or neurones, whereas the
efferent path afforded by the cerebro-spinal motor nerves con-
sists of one neurone only. The two neurones forming the
sympathetic path are so arranged that one of them whose cell-
body lies in the spinal cord has a long axone-process passing
out from the cord in the motor spinal root, and this extends
to a group of nerve-cells, a sympathetic ganglion, quite distant
from the spinal cord and somewhere on the way to the distant
organ which is to be innervated. In this ganglion the first
sympathetic neurone ends, forming functional connexion
with ganglion cells there. These ganglion cells extend each of
them an axone process which attains the organ (muscular cell
or gland cell), which it is the office of the sympathetic path to
reach and influence. The axone-process of the first nerve
cell is a myelinated nerve-fibre extending from the spinal cord
to the ganglion; it constitutes the pre-ganglionic fibre of the
conduction chain. The axone-process of the second nerve-
cell, that is the neurone whose cell-body lies in the ganglion,
is usually non-myelinate and constitutes the post-ganglionic
fibre of the chain.
This construction, characteristic as it is of the sympathetic
efferent path, has been found also in certain other efferent paths
outside the sympathetic proper. And as these other efferent
paths convey impulses to the same kind of organs and tissues
as do those of the sympathetic itself, it has been proposed to
embrace them and the sympathetic under one name, the auto-
nomic system. This term includes all the efferent paths of
the entire body excepting only those leading to the voluntary
muscles.
That the term " autonomic system " is not merely a conveni-
ence of nomenclature, but really represents a physiological entity,
seems indicated by the action of nicotin. This drug acts
selectively on the autonomic ganglia and not on the cerebro-
spinal. In the former it paralyses the nexus between pre-
ganglionic and post-ganglionic fibre. It is by taking advantage
of this property that many of the recent researches which have
done so much to elucidate the sympathetic have been executed.
The term " autonomic system " must not be taken to imply
that this system is independent of the central nervous system.
As mentioned above in regard to the sympathetic, that is not
the case. The autonomic system is closely connected with the
central nervous system through the ordinary channel of the
nerve-roots, spinal and cranial. It may, in fact, be regarded as
an appendage of the cranial and spinal roots, or rather of certain
of them, for with a considerable proportion of their number it
is not connected.
The sympathetic is that part of the autonomic system which
is connected with the spinal roots from the second thoracic
to the second lumbar inclusive (man). Its ganglia are divided
by anatomists into the vertebral, those which lie as a double
chain on the ventral face of the vertebral column, and those
which lie scattered at various distances among the viscera,
the pre-vertebral. Langley has shown that there is no essential
difference between these except that the vertebral send some
of their post-ganglionic fibres into the spinal nerves, whereas
the latter send all their fibres to the viscera. The sympathetic
sends its post-ganglionic fibres —
1. To the muscular coats of the whole of the alimentary
canal from the mouth to the rectum; to the glands opening into
the canal from the salivary glands in front back to the intes-
tinal glands; to the bloodvessels of the whole of the canal frcm
mouth to anus inclusive.
2. To the generative organs, external and internal, and to
the muscular coats of the urinary bladder.
3. To the skin; (a) to its blood vessels, (b) to its cutaneous
glands, (c) to unstriated muscle in the skin, e.g. the erectors of
the hairs.
4. To the iris muscles and blood vessels of the eyeball.
The sympathetic nervous system is sometimes called the
visceral. It will be seen from the above that this term is not well
suited in some respects, because the sympathetic supplies many
structures which are not visceral. Another objection is that
a great deal of important nerve-supply to the viscera is fur-
nished by parts of the autonomic system other than sympathetic.
That the sympathetic does, however, of itself constitute a more
or less homogeneous entity is indicated by a curious fact. The
substance adrenalin, which is the active constituent of extracts
of the adrenal gland, has the property when introduced into
the circulation of exciting all over the body just those actions
which stimulation of the efferent fibres of the sympathetic
causes, and no others. It is possible that when a nerve is
stimulated some body at the nerve ending is set free, and this by
combining with another chemical substance induces activity
in the end organ (gland or muscle). It may be that when a
sympathetic nerve is excited adrenalin is set free and combines
with some substance which induces activity.
The rest of the autonomic system consists of two portions,
a cranial and a sacral, so called from their proceeding from
cranial and sacral nerve-roots respectively. The cranial portion
is subdivided into a part belonging to the mid-brain and a part
belonging to the hind-brain. The ciliary ganglion belonging to
the eyeball is the ganglion of the former part, and its post-
ganglionic fibres innervate the iris and the ciliary muscles.
The hind-brain portion gives pre-ganglionic fibres to the facial
(intermedius) glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves; its post-
ganglionic distribution is to the blood vessels of the mucous
membrane of the mouth and throat, to the musculature of the
digestive tube from the oesophagus to the colon, to the heart,
and to the musculature of the windpipe and lungs.
The sacral part of the autonomic system issues from the
spinal cord with the three foremost sacral nerves. Its ganglia
are scattered in the neighbourhood of the pelvic organs, which
they innervate. The distribution of its post-ganglionic fibres
is to the arteries of rectum, anus and external genitalia, to the
musculature of colon, rectum, anus and the urinary bladder,
and to that of the external genitalia.
The part played by the sympathetic and the rest of the
autonomic system in the economy of the body is best con-
sidered by following broad divisions of organic functions.
Movements of the Digestive Tube. — It is those movements of
alimentation not usually within range of our consciousness
which the autonomic system regulates and controls. Nor
is its control over them apparently essential or very complete.
For instance, the pendular and peristaltic movements of the
intestine still go forward when all nerves reaching the viscus
SYMPHONIA— SYMPHONIC POEM
289
have been severed. Extirpation of the abdominal sympathetic
has not led to obvious disturbance of digestion or nutrition in
the dog. It is noteworthy that the sympathetic inhibits con-
traction of the musculature of the stomach and intestine, while
the other, the vagus, portion of the autonomic system excites it.
The actions of these two components of the system are, therefore,
mutually opposed on the viscera innervated by both.
Action on the Circulation. — The blood supply of most organs
is under the control of vaso-constfictor nerves. All vaso-con-
strictor nerves are sympathetic. Organs to which vaso-con-
strictor nerves are supplied either poorly or not at all are the
lungs, heart, liver, brain and probably the skeletal muscles.
The blood vessels of certain parts of the body have, in addition
to vaso-constrictor nerves, nerves which relax their muscular
wall, vaso-dilatator nerves. The latter are never furnished by
the sympathetic, they are in the mucous membranes and glands
at the oral end of the body furnished by the cranial portion of
the autonomic system. In regions at the aboral end of the
body they are furnished by the sacral portion of the autonomic
system. Elsewhere the vaso-dilatators when present are derived
from the nerve-cells of the spinal ganglia (Bayliss).
The control of the calibre of the blood vessels by the autonomic
system is of importance in several well-ascertained respects.
By constricting the blood' vessels of the viscera the system is
able to favour an increase of blood supply to the brain. A
noteworthy instance of such an action occurs when the erect
attitude is assumed after a recumbent posture. Were it not for
vaso-constriction in the abdominal organs the blood would then,
under the action of gravity, sink into the more dependent parts
of the body and the brain would be relatively emptied of its
supply, and fainting and unconsciousness result. Again, it is
essential to the normal functioning of the organs of warm-
blooded animals that their temperature, except in the surface
layer of the skin, should be kept constant. Part of the regula-
tive mechanism for this lies in nervous control of the quantity
of blood flowing through the surface sheet of the skin. That
sheet is a cool zone through which a greater or smaller quantity
of blood may, as required, be led and cooled. By the sym-
pathetic vaso-constrictors the capacity of these vessels in the
cool zone can be reduced, and thus the loss of heat from the body
through that channel lessened. In cold weather the vaso-
constrictors brace up these skin vessels and lessen the loss of
heat from the body's surface. In hot weather the tonus of
these nerves is relaxed and the skin vessels dilate; a greater
proportion of the blood then circulates through the compara-
tively cool skin-zone.
The heart itself is but a specialized part of the blood-vascular
tubing, and its musculature, like th»t of the arteries, receives
motor nerves from the sympathetic. These nerves to the
heart from the sympathetic are known as the accelerators, since
they quicken and augment the beating of the cardiac muscle.
The heart receives also nerves from the cranial part of the
autonomic system, and the influence of these nerves is antago-
nistic to that of the sympathetic supply. The cranial autonomic
nerves to the heart pass via the vagus nerves and lessen the
beating of the heart both as to rate and force. These inhibitory
nerves of the heart are analogous to the dilatator nerves to the
blood vessels, which, as mentioned above, come not from
the sympathetic, but from the cranial and sacral portions of
the autonomic system.
Skin-glands. — In close connexion with the temperature
regulating function of the sympathetic stands its influence on
the sweat secreting glands of the skin. Secretory nerves to
the sweat glands are furnished apparently exclusively by the
sympathetic.
Pilomotor Nerves. — The skin in many places contains muscle
of the unstriped kind. Contraction of this cutaneous muscular
tissue causes knotting of the skin as in " goose-skin, " and
erection of the hairs as in the cat, or of the quills as in
the hedgehog and porcupine. The efferent nerve-fibres to the
unstriped muscles of the skin are always furnished by the sympa-
thetic (pilomotor nerves, &c.). In this case the sympathetic
XXVI. 10
contributes to emotional reactions and perhaps further to the
regulation of temperature, as by ruffling the fur or feathers in
animals exposed to the cold.
The Respiratory Tube. — The windpipe and the air passages of
the lungs contain in their walls much unstriped muscular tissue,
arranged so as to control the calibre of the lumen. The
nerve-supply to this muscular tissue is furnished by the cranial
autonomic system via the vagus nerves.
Eyeball. — An important office of the sympathetic is the con-
trolling of the brightness of the visual image by controlling the
size of the pupil. The sympathetic sends efferent fibres to the
dilatator muscle of the pupil. In this case, as in others noted
above, the cranial part of the autonomic system sends nerves of
antagonistic effect to those of the sympathetic, first through the
third cranial nerves from the efferent fibres to the constrictor
muscle of the pupil. This same part of the cranial autonomic
system supplies also motor fibres to the ciliary muscle, thus
effecting the N accommodation of the lens for focusing clearly
objects within the range of what is termed near-vision.
Of the afferent fibres of the sympathetic little is known save
that they are, relatively to the efferent, few in number, and that
they, like the afferents of the cerebro-spinal system, are axones
of nerve-cells seated in the spinal ganglia. (C. S. S.)
SYMPHONIA (Gr. avpfaivia.) , a much discussed word, applied
at different times (i) to the bagpipe, (2) to the drum, (3)
to the hurdy-gurdy, and finally (4) to a kind of clavichord.
The sixth of the musical instruments enumerated in Dan.
iii. s, 10, 15, erroneously translated "dulcimer," in all proba-
bility refers to the bagpipe (q.v.). Symphonia, signifying
drum, occurs in the writings of Isidor of Seville. " Tym-
panum est pellis vel corium ligno ex una parte extentum.
Est enim pars media symphoniae in simUitudinem cribri.
Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et mar-
garitum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia
ad virgulam percutitur." The reference comparing the tympa-
num (kettledrum) to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny (Nat.
hist. IX. 35, 23). Symphonia or Chifonie was applied during the
1 3th and I4th centuries, in the Latin countries more especially,
to the hurdy-gurdy. Symphonia is applied by Praetorius1 to
an instrument which he classed with the clavichord, spinet,
regals and virginal, but without giving any clue to its distinctive
characteristics. (K. S.)
SYMPHONIC POEM (Symphonische Dichlung, Tondichtung,
Poeme symphonique, &c.). This term covers the experiments in
a new style of instrumental music which first showed a co-
herent method in the twelve Symphonische Dichlungen of Liszt.
The term at present implies a large orchestral composition which,
whatever its length and changes of tempo, is not broken up
into separate movements, and which, moreover, illustrates a
definite poetic train of thought that can be expressed in litera-
ture, whether it is actually so expressed or not. Thus the form of
the symphonic poem is the form dictated by its written pro-
gramme or unwritten poetic idea; and so it is not every piece of
" programme music " that can be called a symphonic poem.
Beethoven's sonata Les Adieux, and his Pastoral Symphony,
are, for instance, works in which the poetic idea does not
interfere with the normal development of sonata style required
by the musical nature of Beethoven's material.
Great disturbances in musical art have always been accom-
panied by constant appeals to external literary ideas; and there
is nothing peculiarly modern in the present tendency to attack
and defend the rising style of large indivisible schemes of instru-
mental music by unprofitable metaphysical discussions as to
the claims of " absolute music " against " music embodying
poetic ideas." New art-forms are not born mature, and in their
infancy their parent arts naturally invite other arts to stand
godfather. If the rise of the sonata style was not accompanied
by as much "programme music" as the new art of the present
day (and as a matter of fact it was accompanied by a good deal),
it at all events coincided with highly Wagnerian discussions
1 See " Syntagm. mus." pt. ii., De organographia, pp. 72, 73, 178
(Wolfenbuttel, 1618).
5
290
SYMPHONY
of dramatic music on literary grounds. What is certain is,
firstly, that no amount of theorizing can prevent a musician
from developing his musical ideas; secondly, that musical
ideas are just as likely to be inspired by literature and other
arts as by any other kind of experience; and lastly, that, as
musicians attain greater mastery in the handling of their ideas,
their musical readiness soon outstrips their powers or inclina-
tion for literary analysis, at all events while they are working
at the music. Hence the frequent ability of great composers
to set inferior words to music which is not only great but
evidently based upon those words. Hence the digust of great
composers at even the cleverest unauthorized literary inter-
pretations of their works. Hence, on the other hand, the
absence of any general classical attitude of vigorous protest
against the use of music to convey external ideas. Be this
as it may, we believe the importance of the symphonic poem
to lie not in its illustrative capacity, but in its evident tendency
towards a new kind of instrumental art.
It is not mere convention and prejudice that has delayed
the ripening of this art. Every classical art-form is made by
the greatest artists to be a natural thing in every individual
case, no matter how artificial the conditions of the form become
in ordinary hands. In the highest classical art not even a
thousand examples identical in form would really be examples
of an art-form set up like a mould for the material to be shovelled
into it. In each case, however much the artist may have been
helped by custom, his material would have taken that shape
by its own nature. A sufficient number of sufficiently similar
cases of this kind may conveniently, though dangerously, be
regarded as establishing an art-form; and most art -forms coin-
cide to a striking degree with practical and local limitations, for
in these a great artist can almost always find suggestions for the
character of his material instead of mere hindrances to its develop-
ment. Thus art-forms become the vehicle for perfectly natural
works in the hands of great artists, even when in the abstract they
are highly artificial and conventional. But there is probably no
case of an important art-form (and still less of a whole style
of art) remaining productive in so artificial a condition when the
facts which made that condition natural are changed. The
great works in such forms remain, and are thoroughly natural,
for they express their environment so perfectly as to recall it.
It makes singularly little difference to the value of a great work
of art, in the [long run, whether its vividness is in the light it
throws on a remote and forgotten past, or on a living and actual
present. When Alcinous welcomes Odysseus, on hearing that
he is an honourable pirate and not one of those disreputable
merchants, our pleasure at the realistic glimpse of Homeric
social distinctions differs from the pleasure of the Homeric
audience only in so far as our point of view is more romantic.
But new art must, if it is to live, be produced, like the classics,
on conditions which the artist himself understands; and it is
improbable that these conditions (if they admit of healthy art
at all) will be of a less common-sense character than those of
older art.
In the absence of musical criteria for a future art, perhaps the
analogy of drama may be useful here. The chorus of Greek
tragedy can by no stretch of imagination be said to behave like a
corresponding group of persons in real life. Yet the Greek chorus
becomes natural enough when we realize the necessary material
circumstances of Greek drama; indeed in the best examples
it becomes the only natural (or even, in a certain religious
aspect, realistic) treatment of a natural set of materials. In the
same way we are taught that Shakespeare's dramatic technique
becomes perfectly natural when we realize his equally natural
type of stage, which was so constructed and situated in regard
to the audience that scenery would obstruct the view just as
it would in a circus. But with the modern conception of a stage
as a kind of magnified peep-show, with the audience looking into
a painted box, realistic scenery is inevitable; and with realistic
scenery comes speech so realistic that the use of verse and other
classical resources is attended with dangers hitherto unknown.
At the same time the condition of the modern stage obviously
approximates far more closely to such an idea of the art of imita-
ting human life by human speech and action, as would most
naturally occur to a common-sense mind at any period. And it
is probable that the final condition of an art will always tend
to approximate to such an idea. In the same way it cannot be
doubted that the sonata form, with its subtle balance between
independence of form and interdependence of contrast, is far
too artificial to be such a final form of instrumental music as
would commend itself in the,abstract to ordinary common sense.
And we may look forward to a time, perhaps by the middle of
the century, when the new and single continuous forms now
adumbrated by the symphonic poems shall be the greatest
forms of instrumental music, and shall need no literary crutches
to make them intelligible. The pioneers of these forms at the
present day frequently and sometimes justifiably claim that their
music is intelligible apart from its " programme," but this is
far from being so constantly the case that the symphonic poem
can as yet be regarded as a mature kind of art. But when the
mature art it foreshadows shall appear, then critics will need to
face the fact that its genuine achievements will outwardly
resemble the immature efforts which led to them, while the
spiritual resemblance to classical music will lie too deep for the
recognition of any but those who have the courage to make
the new art their own. The symphonies of Mozart are in texture
and phraseology far more like those of Philipp Emanuel Bach
than they are like the great works of John Sebastian Bach ; and
if we try the experiment of reading one of John Sebastian's
motets after a long course of Palestrina, we may realize that a
lover of the Palestrina style living during the monodic revolu-
tion would really have had no means of telling the difference
between Bach's art and the squalid sensational impressionism
of Gesualdo, the prince of Venosa. Yet the impassable gulf
is In all cases that between the great art and the crude efforts
that foreshadow it, while the universal spirit of mature art
remains the same whether the age or style be called " classical,"
" romantic," or " secessionist."
See also PROGRAMME Music and SONATA FORMS (ad fin.).
(D. F. T.)
SYMPHONY in music, i . The term ovn<t>uivia was used by
the Greeks, firstly, to denote the general conception of concord,
both between successive sounds and in the unison of simul-
taneous sounds; secondly, in the special sense of concordant
pairs of successive sounds (i.e. the " perfect intervals " of modern
music; the 4th, sth and octave); and thirdly as dealing with
76 avricfruvov, the concord of the octave, thus meaning the art
of singing in octaves, or magadizing, as opposed to dfjuxfxavia, or
singing and playing in unison. In Roman times the word appears
in the general sense which still survives in poetry, viz. as har-
monious concourse of voices and instruments. It also appears
to mean a concert. In St Luke xv. 25, it is distinguished from
xopot, and the passage is appropriately translated in the English
Bible as " music and dancing." Polybius and others seem to
use it as the name of a musical instrument.
2. In the I7th century the term is used, like " concerto,"
for certain vocal compositions accompanied by instruments,
e.g. the Kleine geislliche Concerte and Symphoniae sacrae of
Schiitz. Most of Schiitz's works of this class are for from one
to three solo voices in various combinations with instruments.
The Geistliche Concerte are generally accompanied by figured
bass and are to German texts; and the voices may in many cases
be choral. The Symphoniae sacrae are to Latin texts and are
written for various combinations of instruments, while the
voice parts are evidently for solo singers. The word sym-
phony is sometimes used for the instrumental ritornello of
songs and vocal movements in aria form. In this sense it already
appears in No. 28 of the second book of Schiitz's Geistliche
Concerte.
3. The principal modern meaning of the word is a sonata
for orchestra (see SONATA FORMS) . The orchestral symphony
originated in the operatic overture (<?.».), which in the middle
of the i Sth century began to assimilate the essentials of the
sonata style. At first such sonata-style overtures consisted of
SYMPHOSIUS— SYNAGOGUE
291
three movements, viz. a moderately quick binary movement,
a short slow movement, and a lively finale. Thus Mozart,
at the age of twelve, used his 7th symphony as the overture to
La Finta semplice, and Haydn's maturest symphonies are still
called overtures in some early editions. La Finta giardiniera,
written by Mozart in his eighteenth year, marks the differentia-
tion of the opera overture from the independent symphony,
since it contains the usual first movement and slow move-
ment, but the curtain rises with what sounds like the beginning,
of the finale.
The sonata style was not at first invariably associated with
what we now call sonata form, nor indeed was that form at first
the most favourable to the dramatic expression desirable for
operatic music. Hence the overtures of Gluck are generally in
forms based on the contrast of loosely knit passages of various
textures; forms which he probably learned from San Martini,
and which may be found in the concertos of Vivaldi, so many
of which were freely transcribed by Sebastian Bach. These
methods are no less evident in the symphonies of Philipp Em-
manuel Bach, which thus occupy an analogous place, away from
the normal line of the sonata style. The differentiation between
symphony and overture was of immense importance in raising
the dignity of the symphony; but the style was more essential
than the form; and in Mozart's and Haydn's mature works we
find the sonata form as firmly established in the overture as
in the symphony, while nevertheless the styles and scope of the
two forms are quite distinct. Mozart's most elaborate over-
ture, that of Die Zauberflote, could not possibly be the first
movement of one of his later symphonies; nor could the finale
of his " Jupiter " symphony (which has often been compared with
that overture because of its use of fugato) conceivably be used
as the prelude to an opera.
See also Music; SONATA FORMS; INSTRUMENTATION; OVERTURE;
SCHERZO; VARIATIONS. (D. F. T.)
SYMPHOSIUS, or SYMPOSIUS, the name given to the author
of a collection of 100 riddles of uncertain date, but probably
composed in the 4th or sth century A.D. They have been
attributed to Lactantius, and identified with his Symposium,
but this view is not generally accepted. The style and versifica-
tion of the riddles, each of which consists of three hexameter
lines, are good. They were written to form part of the enter-
tainment at the Saturnalia.
Text in E. Bahrens, Poetae latini tninores, vol. iv. ; there is a good
French metrical version by E. F. Corpet (1868) ; monograph by
W. T. Paul (Berlin, 1854) ; see also Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature,
449 (Eng. trans., 1900).
SYMPOSIUM (Gr. ffviMTrtxnov, a drinking party, from <Tv/j.mvtw,
to drink together, avv, with, and irivtiv, to drink, root iro, cf.
Lat. polar -e, to drink, poculum, cup), the convivial drinking
which took place alter a great banquet, accompanied by intel-
lectual or witty conversation, and by music or dancing performed
by slaves or attendants. The term has been applied in modern
usage, due to Plato's Symposium, to a collection of opinions of
different writers on a given subject.
SYNAGOGUE (vvvaywyfi) , literally " assemblage," is the term
employed to denote either a congregation of Jews, i.e. a local
circle accustomed to meet together for worship and religious
instruction, or the building in which the congregation met.
In the first sense the word is a translation of HOJD, keneseth
(assemblage), in the second of noini rra, beth hakkeneseth (house
of assemblage). Further the term is often used to denote the
system of Judaism, as when the " Synagogue " is contrasted
to the " Church." The germ of the synagogue, that is, of
religious assemblages dissociated from the ancient ritual of the
altar, may be found in the circle of the prophets and their
disciples (see especially Isa. viii. 16 seq.); but the synagogue as
an institution characteristic of Judaism arose after the work of
Ezra, and is closely connected with the development of Judaism,
to which his reformation gave definite shape. From the time
of Ezra downwards it was the business of every Jew to know the
law; the school (beth hammidrash) trained scholars, but the syna-
gogue, where the law was read every Sabbath (Acts xv. 21), was
the means of popular instruction. Such synagogues existed
in all parts of Judaea in the time of Ps. Ixxiv. 8 (probably a
psalm of the Persian period); in Acts xv. 21 it appears that
they had existed for many generations " in every city." This
held good not only for Palestine, but for the Dispersion; in
post-Talmudic times the rule was that a synagogue must be
built wherever there were ten Jews. In the Dispersion the
synagogue filled a greater place in the communal life, for on
Palestinian soil the Temple enjoyed a predominant position.
In this sense the synagogue is a child of the Dispersion, but this
does not imply that it was a product of the Hellenic diaspora.
For the Aramaic papyri discovered at Assuan show that in the
Sth century B.C. the Egyptian Jews had their place of worship in
Syene long before Greek influences had begun to make them-
selves felt. The fact that the Books of the Maccabees never
refer to synagogues is not evidence that synagogues were un-
known in Judaea in the Maccabean period. These books refer
mostly to a time of war, when assemblages in the cities were
impossible; their interest, moreover, is concentrated in the
Temple and the restoration of its services. During Lhe second
Temple there is no doubt but that public worship was organized
in the provinces as well as in the Jewish settlements outside the
Holy Land. And though the name " synagogue " varies with
irpocreuxi? ("place of prayer"), it appears that everywhere the
assemblage was primarily one for instruction in the law; the
synagogue, as Philo puts it, was a StSaaKakflov. Prayer, in
the more restricted sense, invariably accompanied the instruc-
tion, and several parts of the extant liturgy go back to the 3rd
century B.C. A formed institution of this sort required some
organization: he general order of the service was directed by one
or more "rulers of the synagogue" (apxiffwd-yoryoi, Lukexiii. 14;
Acts xiii. 15), who called on fit persons to read, pray and
preach; alms were collected by two or more " collectors "
(gabbae $eddqa) ; and a " minister " (hazzan, wn/penjs, Luke iv.
20) had charge of the sacred books (preserved in an " ark ")
and of other ministerial functions, including the teaching of
children to read. The discipline of the congregation was enforced
by excommunication (her em) or temporary exclusion (niddiii),
and also by the minor punishment of scourging (Matt. x. 17),
inflicted by the hazzan. The disciplinary power was in the
hands of a senate of elders (irpeafSurepoi, yepovala), the chief
members of which were apxovres. The principal service of the
synagogue was held on Sabbath morning, and included, accord-
ing to the Mishnah, the recitation of the shema' (Deut. vi. 4-9,
xi. 13-21; Num. xv. 37-41), prayer, lessons from the law and
prophets with Aramaic translation, a sermon (derashah) based
on the lesson (Acts xiii. 15), and finally a blessing pronounced
by the priest or invoked by a layman. On Sabbath afternoon
and on Monday and Thursday there was a service without a
lesson from the prophets; there were also services for all feast-
days. Synagogues were built by preference beside water, in
order to avoid proximity to the idol temples, rather than, as
some think, for the convenience of the ceremonial ablutions
(cf. Acts xvi. 13). Remains of very ancient buildings of this
class exist in several parts of Galilee; they generally lie north
and south, and seem to have had three doors to the south, and
sometimes to have been divided by columns into a nave and
two aisles.
Modern synagogues are mostly built of oblong shape, with a
gallery for women. Since the middle ages, Renaissance and
Moorish types of decoration have been generally favoured, but
there is nowadays a great variety of types. The ancient syna-
gogue of Alexandria (destroyed by Trajan) was a basilica. A
number of recent synagogues have been built in octagonal form.
The main interior features of the synagogue are the " ark "
(a cupboard containing the scrolls of the law, &c.) and the
almemar (or reading-desk, from the Arabic al-minbar, pulpit).
This is sometimes in the centre, sometimes at the eastern end
of the building. The Talmud prescribed an elevated site for the
synagogue, but this rule has been impossible of fulfilment in
modern times. The synagogues are theoretically " orientated "
— i.e. the ark (which worshippers face during the principal prayer)
292
SYNAGOGUE, UNITED— SYNCRETISM
is on the eastern side. But this rule, too, is often ignored under
the stress of architectural difficulties.
Jewish tradition has a great deal to say about a body called
" the great synagogue," which is supposed to have been the
supreme religious authority from the cessation of prophecy to
the time of the high priest Simeon the Just, and is even said to
have fixed the Old Testament canon (cf. v. 3 seq.). But
Kuenen in his essay " Over de Mannen der Groote Synagoge "
(Verslagen of the ^Amsterdam Academy, 1876) has powerfully
argued that these traditions are fiction, and that the name
keneselh haggadola originally denoted, not a standing authority,
but the great convocation of Neh. viii.-x. Some more recent
scholars are, however, more willing to attach credence to the
older tradition.
Compare, in general, Schiirer, Geschichte des iudischen Volkes,
§ 27, where the older literature is catalogued. For some uncon-
ventional views the reader may refer to M. Friedlander, Synagoge
und Kirche in ihren Anfangen (Berlin, 1908). For the usages of
the synagogue in more recent times, see Buxtorf, Synagoga judaica
(Basel, 1641). On the history of synagogue services the works of
Zunz are the chief authorities; there is also a good article on Liturgy
in the Jewish Encyclopedia. Useful summaries in English are to
be found in Dembitz, Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home
(Philadelphia, 1898); and Oesterley and Box, The Religion and
Worship of the Synagogue (London, 1907). Thearticle" Synagogue "
in the Jewish Encyclopedia is illustrated with numerous pictures of
buildings and plans.
SYNAGOGUE, UNITED, an organization of London Jews,
founded, with the sanction of an act of parliament, in 1870.
It is confined, in its direct work, to the metropolis, but it exer-
cises, indirectly, considerable influence over the Jews of the
British Empire. It is governed by an elected council represent-
ing the constituent congregations. In religious and ritual
matters it is under the jurisdiction of the chief rabbi, who is,
to a certain extent, recognized throughout the empire. The
president of the United Synagogue in 1910 was Lord Rothschild.
Besides providing the worship of some twenty congregations,
the United Synagogue directs and supports educational and
charitable work. The title " chief rabbi " is not found in the
pre-expulsion records, though, before the Jews were banished
in 1290, there was an official named " presbyter omnium Judae-
orum Angliae." The functions of this official cannot be proved
to have been ecclesiastical. The title " chief rabbi " has
become well known through the eminence of recent occupants
of the position such as Solomon Hirschell (1762-1842). He
was succeeded by Dr Nathan Marcus Adler (1803-1890), who
was followed by his son, Hermann Adler, who raised the position
to one of much dignity and importance. Dr Hermann Adler
was born in Hanover in 1839, graduated at Leipzig, and received
honorary degrees from Scotch and English universities, includ-
ing Oxford. In 1909 he received the order of M.V.O. Dr Adler
was elected chief rabbi in 1891. Besides several essays in
the Nineteenth Century, Dr Adler has written extensively on
topics of Anglo-Jewish History and published two volumes
of sermons. (I. A.)
SYNANTHY (Gr. <ria>, with, and avdos, a flower), a botanical
term for the adhesion of two or more flowers.
SYNAXARIUM (Gr. avva^dpiov, from avvor^tiv, to bring
together), the name given in the Greek Church to a compilation
corresponding very closely to the martyrology (q.v.) of the
Roman Church. There are two kinds of synaxaria — simple
synaxaria, which are merely lists of the saints arranged in
the order of their anniversaries, e.g. the calendar of Morcelli;
and historical synaxaria, which give biographical notices
besides, e.g. the menology of Basil and the synaxarium of
Sirmond. The notices given in the historical synaxaria are
summaries of those in the great menologies, or collections of
lives of saints, for the twelve months of the year. The oldest
historical synaxaria apparently go back to the tenth century.
The heterodox Eastern churches also have their synaxaria.
The publication of the Arabic text of the synaxarium of the Church
of Alexandria was started simultaneously by J. Forget in the
Corp. script, orient, and by R. Basset in the Patrologia orient.,
and that of the Ethiopian synaxarium was begun by 1. Guidi in
the Patrologia orient. The Armenian synaxarium, called the
synaxarium of Ter Israel was published at Constantinople in
1834.
See S. A. Morcelli, Kalendarium ecclesiae Constantinopolilanae
(Rome, 1788) ; H. Delehaye, " Le Synaxaire de Sirmond," inAnalecta
bollandiana, xiv. 396-434, where the terminology is explained;
idem, Synaxarium ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae e codice Sirmondiano
(Brussels, 1902), forming the volume Propylaeum ad acta sanctorum
novembris. (H. DE.)
SYNCELLUS, a hybrid word (Gr. ain>, Lat. cello),* meaning
literally " one who shares his cell with another." In ecclesiastical
usage it refers to the very early custom of a priest or deacon living
continually with a bishop, propter testimonium ecclesiasticum;
thus Leo III. speaks of Augustine as having been the syncellus
of Gregory the Great. The term came into use in the Eastern
Church, where the syncelli were the chaplains of metropolitans
and patriarchs. At Constantinople they formed a corporation,
and the protosyncellus took precedence of metropolitans and
ranked next to the patriarch, to whose office he generally
succeeded.
SYNCOPE (Gr. tnrfKoirri, a cutting up or short, from K&JTTUV, to
cut), a term used in grammar for the elision of a letter or syllable
in the middle of a word (e.g. " ne'er " for " never ") ; and in
medicine for the condition of fainting or shock (q.v.); and so
occasionally in a general sense for a suspension or cessation of
function. " Syncopate " and " syncopation " are analogous
derivatives; and in music a syncopation is the rhythmic method
of tying C"^) two beats of the same note into one tone in such
a way as to displace the accent.
SYNCRETISM (Gr. avy/cpTjTtff/uos, from avv and Kepavvvfii, mingle
or blend, or, according to Plutarch, from aiiv and Kpr)Tiffu>, to
combine against a common enemy after the manner of the cities
of Crete), the act or system of blending, combining or reconciling
inharmonious elements. The term is used technically in politics,
as by Plutarch, of those who agree to forget dissensions and
to unite in the face of common danger, as the Cretans were said
to have done; in philosophy, of the efforts of Cardinal Bessarion
and others in the i6th century to reconcile the philosophies of
Plato and Aristotle; and in theology, of a plan to harmonize the
hostile factions of the Church in the i7th century, advocated by
Georg Calixtus, a Lutheran professor of theology at Helmstadt.
Its most frequent use, however, is in connexion with the religious
development of antiquity, when it denotes the tendency,
especially prominent from the 2nd to the 4th centuries of the
Christian era, to simplify and unify the various pagan religions.
During this period, as a result of the intimate knowledge of the
world's religions made possible by the gathering of every known
cult of importance into the religious system of the Roman Empire,
belief in the identity of many deities which resembled each other,
and indeed in the essential identity of all, received a special
impulse. Not only were various forms of the same deity, such
as, for example, Jupiter Capitolinus and Jup'iter Latiaris, recog-
nized as being really ¥the same under different aspects, but even
the gods of different nations were seen to be manifestations of a
single great being. Roman Jupiter, Greek Zeus, Persian Mithras
and Phrygian Attis were one. The Great Mother, Isis, Ceres,
Demeter, Ops, Rhea, Tellus, were the same great mother deity
under different masks (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS).
Venus and Cupid, Aphrodite and Adonis, the Great Mother and
Attis, Astarte and Baal, Demeter and Dionysus, Isis and Serapis,
were essentially the same pair. Syncretism even went so far as
to blend the deities of paganism and Christianity. Christ was
compared with Attis and Mithras, Isis with the Virgin Mary, &c.
Isis, perhaps more than any other deity, came to be regarded as
the great maternal goddess of the universe whose essence was
worshipped under many different names. This fact, with the
spirit of syncretism in general, is well illustrated by Apuleius
(Metamorph. xi. 2 and 5). Lucius invokes Isis: " Queen of
Heaven, whether thou art the genial Ceres, the prime parent of
fruits, who, joyous at the discovery of thy daughter, didst
banish the savage nutriment of the ancient acorn, and, pointing
out a better food, dost now till the Eleusinian soil ; or whether
thou art celestial Venus, who, in the first origin of things, didst
1 Apollinaris Sidonius uses the pure Latin term concellus.
SYNDERESIS— SYNECHISM
293
associate the different sexes, through the creation of mutual love,
and having propagated an eternal offspring in the human race,
art now worshipped in the sea-girt shrine of Paphos; or whether
thou art the sister of Phoebus, who, by relieving the pangs of
women in travail by soothing remedies, hast brought into the
world multitudes so innumerable, and art now venerated in the
far-famed shrines of Ephesus; or whether thou art Proserpine,
terrific with midnight bowlings ... by whatever name, by
whatever ceremonies, and under whatever form it is lawful to
invoke thee; do thou graciously, &c. " The goddess replies:
" Behold me ... I, who am Nature, the parent of all things,
the mistress of all the elements, the primordial offspring of time,
the supreme among divinities, the queen of departed spirits, the
first of the celestials, and the uniform manifestation of the gods
and goddesses; who govern by my nod the luminous heights of
heaven, the salubrious breezes of the ocean, and the anguished
silent realms of the shades below; whose one sole divinity the
whole orb of the earth venerates under a manifold form, with
different rites, and under a variety of appellations. Hence the
Phrygians, that primeval race, call me Pessinuntica, the Mother
of the Gods; the Aborigines of Attica, Cecropian Minerva; the
Cyprians, in their sea-girt isle, Paphian Venus; the arrow-
bearing Cretans, Diana Dictynna; the three- tongued Sicilians,
Stygian Proserpine; and the Eleusinians, the ancient goddess
Ceres. Some call me Juno, others Bellona, others Hecate,
others Rhamnusia. But those who are illumined by the
earliest rays of that divinity, the Sun, when he rises, the
Aethopians, the Arii, and the Egyptians, so skilled in ancient
learning, worshipping me with ceremonies quite appropriate,
call me by my true name, Queen Isis. Behold, then, &c. "
(Trans. Bonn's Lib.).
Naturally, the influence of Greek philosophy was very pro-
nounced in the growth of syncretism. Plutarch and Maximus
of Tyre affirmed that the gods of the different nations were only
different aspects of the same deity, a supreme intelligence and
providence which ruled the world. The Neoplatonists, how-
ever, were the first school to formulate the underlying philosophy
of syncretism: " There is only one real God, the divine, and the
subordinate deities are nothing else than abstractions personified,
or celestial bodies with spirits; the traditional gods are only
demons, that is, being intermediate between God and man . . .
All, like every other created being, are emanations from the
absolute God " (Jean Reville, La Religion a Rome sous les
Siveres). Care must be taken, however, not to place too much
emphasis upon syncretism as a conscious system. The move-
ment which it represented was not new in the and century A.D.
The identification of Latin with Etruscan gods in the earliest
days of Rome, and then of Greek with Italian, and finally of
Oriental with the Graeco-Roman, were all alike syncretistic
movements, though not all conscious and reasoned. The ideal
of the common people, who were unreflecting, as well as of
philosophers who reflected, was " to grasp the religious verity,
one and constant, under the multiplex forms with which legend
and tradition had enveloped it " (Reville). The advent of Greek
philosophy only hastened the movement by conscious and
systematic effort.
Syncretic, being a movement toward monotheism, was the
converse of the tendency, so prominent in the early history of
Rome, to increase the number of deities by worshipping the
same god under special aspects according to special activities.
In the hands of the Neoplatonists it was instrumental in retard-
ing somewhat the fall of paganism for the time, but in the end
contributed to the success of Christianity by familiarizing men
with the belief in one supreme deity. The triumph of Christi-
anity itself represented a result of syncretism, the Church being
a blending of the beliefs and practices of both the new and old
religions.
See Jean Reville, op. cit., especially pages 104-127, 159-174,
284-295. For other examples of syncretism, cf. that of Buddhism
Zoroastrianism in the state religion of the Indo-Scythian king-
dom of Kanishka (see PERSIA: Ancient History, vii.; The Parthian
Empire, § 2) ; see articles on almost all the religions of the East,
e.g. MITHRAS; ZOROASTER. (G. SN.)
SYNDERESIS, a term in scholastic philosophy applied to the
inborn moral consciousness which distinguishes between good
and evil. The word is really synteresis (Gr. OWTI^HJO-IJ, from
avvrtipeiv, to look after, take care of), but synderesis is the
commoner form. Diogenes Laertius in his account of the Stoics
(vii.Ss, rf/v 51 irpurtiv bpni\v <t>aai rf> fcpov la-xfiv iirl r6 r^pitv lavrti)
uses the phrase Tt\p€(.v tavrb to describe the instinct for
self-preservation, the inward harmony of Chrysippus, the recog-
nition of which is avvfldijais. The term synderesis, however,
is not found till Jerome, who in dealing with Ezek. i. 4-15, says
the fourth of the " living creatures " of the vision is what the
Greeks call OWT^PTJOIS, i.e. scintilla conscientiae the " spark of
conscience." Here apparently synderesis and conscience
(oweiSTjcrts) are equivalent. By the schoolmen, however, the
terms were differentiated, conscience being the practical envisag-
ing of good and evil actions; synderesis being, so to speak, the
tendency toward good in thought and action. The exact relation
between the two was, however, a matter of controversy, Aquinas
and Duns Scotus holding that both are practical reason, while
Bonaventura narrows synderesis to the volitional tendency to
good actions.
SYNDIC (Late Lat. syndicus, Gr. avvdixos, one who helps in a
court of justice, an advocate, representative, <ruv, with, and Siia],
justice), a term applied in certain countries to an officer of govern-
ment with varying powers, and secondly to a representative or
delegate of a university, institution or other corporation, entrusted
with special functions or powers. The meaning which underlies
both applications is that of representative or delegate. Du
Cange (Gloss, s.v. Syndicus), after defining the word asdefensor,
patronus, advocatus, proceeds " Syndici maxime appellantur
Actores universitatum, collegiorum, societatum et aliorum
corporum, per quos, tanquam in republica quod communiter
agi fierive oportet, agitur et fit," and gives several examples from
the i3th century of the use of the term. The most familiar
use of " syndic " in the first sense is that of the Italian sindico,
who is the head of the administration of a commune, answering
to a " mayor "; he is a government official but is elected by the
communal council from their own members by secret ballot.
Nearly all the companies, gilds, and the university of Paris
had representative bodies the members of which were termed
syndici. Similarly in England, the senate of the university of
Cambridge, which is the legislative body, delegates certain
functions to special committees of its members, appointed from
time to time by Grace, i.e. a proposal offered to the senate and
confirmed by it; these committees are termed " syndicates " and
are permanent or occasional, and the members are styled " the
syndics " of the particular committee or of the institution which
they administer; thus there are the syndics of the Fitzwilliam
Museum, of the University Press, of the Observatory, of local
examinations and lectures, of the Antiquarian Committee, &c.
SYNDICATE, a term originally meaning a body of syndics.
In this sense it is still sometimes used, as at the university of
Cambridge, for the body of members or committee responsible
for the management of the University Press. In commerce, a
syndicate is a body of persons who combine to carry through
some financial transaction, or who undertake a common adven-
ture. Syndicates are very often formed to acquire or take over
some undertaking, held it for a short time, and then resell it to a
company. The profits are then distributed and the syndicate
dissolves. Sometimes syndicates are formed under agree-
ments which constitute them mere partnerships, the members
being therefore individually responsible, but they are now more
generally incorporated under the Companies Acts.
The more usual cases in which syndicates are commonly formed
will be found in F. B. Palmer's Company Precedents, loth ed., vol. i.
pp. 129 seq.
SYNECHISM (from Gr. owexfc, continuous, from <rvv, ?x«"»
to hold together), a philosophical term proposed by C. S. Peirce
(Monisl, ii. 534) to express the general theory that the essential
feature in philosophic speculation is continuity. It is specially
directed to the question of hypothesis, and holds that a hypothesis
is justifiable only on the ground that it provides an explanation.
SYNEDRIUM— SYNOD
All understanding of facts consists in generalizing concerning
them. The fact that some things are ultimate may be recognized
by the synechist without abandoning his standpoint, since
synechism is a normative or regulative principle, not a theory
of existence. The adjective " synechological " is used in the
same general sense; " synechology " is a theory of continuity or
universal causation; " synechia " is a term in ophthalmology
for a morbid union of parts.
SYNEDRIUM (avvtdpiov) , a Greek word which means
" assembly " and is especially used of judicial or representative
assemblies, is the name by which (or by its Hebrew transcription ,
j-nnjo, sanhedrin, sanhedrim) that Jewish body is known which
in its origin was the municipal council of Jerusalem, but acquired
extended functions and no small authority and influence over
the Jews at large (see xiii. 424 seq.). In the Mishnah it is
called " the sanhedrin," " the great sanhedrin," " the sanhedrin
of seventy-one [members] " and " the great court of justice "
(beth din haggdddl). The oldest testimony to the existence and
constitution of the synedrium of Jerusalem is probably to be
found in 2 Chron. xix. 8; for the priests, Levites and hereditary
heads of houses there spoken of as sitting at Jerusalem as a court
of appeal from the local judicatories does not correspond with
anything mentioned in the old history, and it is the practice of
the chronicler to refer the institutions of his own time to an
origin in ancient Israel. And just such an aristocratic council
is what seems to be meant by the gerousia or senate of " elders "
repeatedly mentioned in the history of the Jews, both under the
Greeks from the time of Antiochus the Great (Jos. Ant. xii. 3, 3)
and under the Hasmonean high priests and princes. The high
priest as the head of the state was doubtless also the head of the
senate, which, according to Eastern usage, exercised both judicial
and administrative or political functions (cf. i Mace. xii. 6, xiv.
20). The exact measure of its authority must have varied from
time to time at first with the measure of autonomy left to the
nation by its foreign lords and afterwards with the more or less
autocratic power claimed by the native sovereigns.
The original aristocratic constitution of the senate began to
be modified under the later Hasmoneans by the inevitable intro-
duction of representatives of the rising party of the Pharisees,
and this new element gained strength under Herod the Great,
the bitter enemy of the priestly aristocracy. Finally under the
Roman procurators the synedrium was left under the presidency
of the chief priest as the highest native tribunal, though without
the power of life and death (John xviii. 31). The aristocratic
and Sadducean element now again preponderated, as appears
from Josephus and from the New Testament, in which " chief
priests " and " rulers " are synonymous expressions. But with
these there sat also " scribes " or trained legal doctors of the
Pharisees and other notables, who are simply called " elders "
(Mark xv. i). The Jewish tradition which regards the synedrium
as entirely composed of rabbins sitting under the presidency and
vice-presidency of a pair of chief doctors, the nasl and db beth din,
is inconsistent with the evidence of Josephus and the New Testa-
ment. It is generally held that it was after the fall of the state
that a merely rabbinical beth din sat at Jabneh and afterwards at
Tiberias, and gave legal responses to those who chose to admit
a judicature not recognized by the civil power. Dr A. Biichler has
sought to reconcile the various accounts by the theory that there
were two great tribunals in Jerusalem, one wielding religious, the
other civil authority (Das Synedrion in Jerusalem, Vienna, 1^02).
The council chamber (fiov\rj) where the synedrium usually sat
was between the Xystus and the Temple, probably on the Temple-
hill, the Mishnah states that the meetings were held within the
inner court. The meeting in the palace of the high priest which
condemned Jesus was exceptional. The proceedings also on
this occasion were highly irregular, if measured by the rules
of procedure which, according to Jewish tradition, were laid
down to secure order and a fair trial for the accused.
Of the older literature of the subject it is enough to cite Selden,
De synedriis. The most important critical discussion is that of Kuenen
in the Verslagen, &c., of the Amsterdam Academy (1866), p. 131 seq.
A good summary is given by Schiirer, Geschichte des judischen Volkes,
4th ed., § 23. Cf. also G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (1907), vol. i. ch. 9.
SYNESIUS (c. 373-c. 414), bishop of Ptolemais in the Libyan
Pentapolis after 410, was born of wealthy parents, who claimed
descent from Spartan kings, at Cyrene between 370 and 375.
While still a youth (393) he went with his brother Euoptius to
Alexandria, where he became an enthusiastic Neoplatonist and
disciple of Hypatia (<?.».). On returning to his native place about
the year 397 he was chosen to head an embassy from the cities
of the Pentapolis to the imperial court to ask for remission of
taxation and other relief. His address to Arcadius (De regno)
is full of advice as to the studies of a wise ruler in such perilous
times. His three years' stay in Constantinople was wearisome
and otherwise disagreeable; the leisure it forced upon him he
devoted in part to literary composition. The Aegyplus sine de
providentia is an allegory in which the good Osiris and the evil
Typhon, who represent Aurelian and the Goth Gainas (ministers
under Arcadius), strive for mastery; and the question of the
divine permission of evil is handled. After the successful Aure-
lian had granted the petition of the embassy, Synesius returned
to Cyrene in 400, and spent the next ten years partly in that city,
when unavoidable business called him there, but chiefly on an
estate in the interior of the province, where in his own words
" books and the chase " made up his life. His marriage took
place at Alexandria in 403; in the previous year he had visited
Athens. In 409 or 410 Synesius, whose Christianity had until
then been by no means very pronounced, was popularly chosen
to be bishop of Ptolemais, and, after long hesitation on personal
and doctrinal grounds, he ultimately accepted the office thus
thrust upon him, being consecrated by Theophilus at Alexandria.
One personal difficulty at least was obviated by his being allowed
to retain his wife, to whom he was much attached ; but as regarded
orthodoxy he expressly stipulated for personal freedom to dissent
on the questions of the soul's creation, a literal resurrection, and
the final destruction of the world, while at the same time he
agreed to make some concession to popular views in his public
teaching (TO. filv OLKOL <t>i.\oao<t>&v, TO. 5' t£co <t>i\ofi.v6Siv) . His
tenure of the bishopric was troubled not only by domestic bereave-
ments but also by barbaric invasions of the country (in repelling
which he proved himself a capable military organizer) and by
conflicts with the prefect Andronicus, whom be excommunicated
for interfering with the Church's right of asylum. The date
of his death is unknown; it is usually given as c. 414. His
many-sided activity, as shown especially in his letters, and
his loosely mediating position between Neoplatonism and
Christianity, make him a subject of fascinating interest. His
scientific interests are attested by his letter to Hypatia in which
occurs the earliest known reference to areometry, and by a work
on alchemy in the form of a commentary on pseudo-Democritus.
He was a man of the highest personal character.
His extant works are — (i) a speech before Arcadius, De regno;
(2) Dio, sive de suo ipsius institute, in which he signifies his purpose
to devote himself to true philosophy ; (3) Encomium calvitii (he was
himself bald), a literary jeu d' esprit, suggested by Dio Chrysostom's
Praise of Hair ; (4) De providentia, in two books ; (5) De insomniis ;
(6) 157 Epislolae; (7) 12 Hymni, of a contemplative, Neoplatonic
character; and several homilies and occasional speeches. The editio
princeps is that of Turnebus (Paris, 1553) ; it was followed by that
of Morell, with Latin translation by Petavius (1612; greatly enlarged
and improved, 1633; reprinted, inaccurately, by Migne, 1859). The
Epistolae, which for the modern reader greatly exceed his other
works in interest, have been edited by Demetriades (Vienna, 1792)
and by Glukus (Venice, 1812), the Calvitii encomium by Krabinger
(Stuttgart, 1834), the De providentia by Krabinger (Sulzbach, 1835),
the De regno by Krabinger (Munich, 1825), and the Hymns by Flach
(Tubingen, 1875).
See Clausen, De Synesio philosopho (Copenhagen, 1831); R.
Volkmann, Synesius von Cyrene (Berlin, 1869); A. Gardner's mono-
graph in " The Fathers for English Readers " (London, 1886) ; and a
life by W. S. Crawford (London, 1901).
SYNOD (Gr. cwoSos), a term denoting an assembly of ecclesi-
astical officials legally convoked to discuss and decide points of
faith, discipline and morals. It is practically synonymous with
the word council (q.v.); concilium is used in the same technical
sense by Tertullian c. 200, and criivodos a century or so later in the
Apostolic canons. In time, however, the word council came to
be restricted to oecumenical gatherings, while synod was applied
to meetings of the eastern or western branches of the Church
SYNODIC PERIOD— SYRA
295
(the first council of Constantinople was originally a mere council
or synod of the East), or to councils of the Reformed churches,
e.g. the Synod of Dort. Provincial synods were held in the 2nd
century, and were not completely organized before the advent of
oecumenical councils. The two terms are still used side by side;
thus there are patriarchal, national and primatial councils, as
well as provincial councils (under the metropolitan of a province)
and diocesan synods, consisting of the clergy of a diocese and
presided over by the bishop (or the vicar-general). The
supreme governing body in the Russian branch of the Orthodox
Eastern Church (q.v.) is known as the Holy Synod. In the Pres-
byterian churches (see PRESBYTERIANISM) a synod is an assembly
containing representatives of several presbyteries and inter-
mediate between these and the General Assembly; similarly in
the Wesleyan and other Methodist churches the synod is the
meeting of the district which links the circuits with the conference.
The term is not in use in self-governing churches like the Congre-
gationalists and Baptists, though these from time to time hold
councils or assemblies (national and international), for conference
and fellowship without any legislative power.
SYNODIC PERIOD, in astronomy, the apparent period of a
planet or satellite when its revolution is referred to the line
passing through the earth or the sun. In the case of the planets
it is the period between successive conjunctions of the same kind,
inferior or superior, with the sun. In the case of the satellites
it is the period relative to the radius vector from the sun.
SYNTHESIS (Gr. avvOecns, from avvriBtvai, to put together),
a term used both generally and technically, with the fundamental
meaning of composition, opposed to analysis (q.v.), the breaking
up of a whole into its component parts. In teaching, for example,
when a new fact is brought into connexion with already acquired
knowledge and the learner puts them together (" synthesizes "),
the result is " synthetic " and the process is " synthesis." The
reverse process is analysis, as in grammar when a child breaks
up a sentence into subject, verb, object, &c. Thus all inductive
reasoning is synthetic in character. The term " synthesis " is
much used in philosophy. Thus Kant makes a distinction,
fundamental to his theory of knowledge, between analytic and
synthetic judgments, the latter being those judgments which
are not derivable from the nature of the subject, but in which the
predicate is obtained rather by experience or by the operation
of the mind (the " synthetic judgment a priori "; see KANT).
Perhaps the most famous use of the term is in Herbert Spencer's
" Synthetic Philosophy," the name given to the several treatises
which contain his philosophic system — the " unification of
knowledge " from the data of the separate sciences.
SYNTIPAS, the Greek form of Sindibad or Sendabar, an Indian
philosopher supposed to have lived about 100 B.C., and the re-
puted author of a collection of tales known generally in Europe
as the story of the Seven Wise Masters. They enjoyed immense
popularity, and appeared in many Oriental and Western languages.
A Greek translation (probably from a Syriac version), the
earliest specimen of Romaic prose (nth century), is extant under
the title of The most pleasing Story of Synlipas the Philosopher.
It is preceded by an introduction in iambic verse by a certain
Michael Andreopulos, who states that it was executed by order
of Michael, probably the duke of Melitene in Armenia. The
translator is evidently a Christian, although he has generally
preserved the Oriental colouring. The main outline is the same
in the different versions, although they vary in detail and include
different stories. A certain prince, who had taken a vow of
silence for a time on the advice of his tutor, was tempted by his
stepmother. Her advances having been rejected, she accused
him to his father, who decided to put him to death. The device
of the Arabian Nights is introduced by the wise men of the court,
who in turn relate stories to dissuade the king from over-hasty
punishment, each story being answered by the queen, who desires
instant action to be taken. When the period of silence is over
the prince speaks and establishes his innocence. In the Greek
version the king is a king of Persia, named Cyrus, and Syntipas
himself is the prince's tutor (text in A. Eberhard, Fabulae
Romanenses, i., 1872, " Teubner Series").
For a discussion of the whole subject, see D. Comparetti, Ricerche
intorno al libra di Sindibad (1869; Eng. trans, by H. C. Coote, Folk-
Lore Society, 1882); W. A. Clouston, The Book of Sindibad (from the
Persian and Arabic, 1884; from the Syriac, by H. Gollancz, 1897);
I. C. Dunlop, Hist, of Prose Fiction (new ed., 1888), vol. ii.; C.
Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litt. (and ed., 18197).
Sixty-two Aesopic fables, also translated from Syriac into
Greek, are attributed to this same Syntipas (ed. C. F. Matthai,
1781).
SYRA, or SYROS (anc. Svpos, perhaps Homeric SU/HTJ), a
Greek island in the middle of the Cyclades, which in the ipth
century became the commercial centre of the Archipelago, and is
also the residence of the nomarch of the Cyclades and the seat
of the central law courts. The' length of the island is about
10 m., the breadth 5, and the area is estimated at 42$ sq. m. The
population rose to about 33,700, of whom about 20,500 were in
the chief town, Hermoupolis, but that of the town had in 1907
declined again to 18,132. Syra is also a province of the depart-
ment of the Cyclades (pop. 1907, 31,939). The importance of
the island in prehistoric times is attested by considerable remains
of early Aegean antiquities. In ancient times it was remarkably
fertile, as is to be gathered not only from the Homeric description
(Od. xv. 403), which might be of doubtful application, but also
from the remains of olive presses and peculiarities in the local
nomenclature. The destruction of its forests has led to the loss
of all its alluvial soil, and now it is for the most part a brown
and barren rock, covered at best with scanty aromatic scrub,
pastured by sheep and goats.
Hermopolis (better Hermoupolis), the chief town, is built round
the harbour on the east side of the island. It is governed by an
active municipality, whose revenue and expenditure have rapidly
increased. Among the public buildings are a spacious town-hall
in the central square, a club-house, an opera-house and a Greek
theatre. Old Syra, on a conical hill behind the port town, is
an interesting place, with its old Roman Catholic church of
St George's still crowning the summit. This was built by the
Capuchins, who in the middle ages chose Syra as the head-
quarters of a mission in the East. Louis XIII., hearing of the
dangers to which the Syra priests were exposed, took the island
under his especial protection, and since that time the Roman
Catholic bishops of Syra have been elected by the pope. About
the beginning of the igth century the inhabitants of Syra
numbered only about 1000; whenever a Turkish vessel appeared
they made off to the interior and hid themselves. On the out-
break of the war of Greek independence refugees from Chios, after
being scattered throughout Tenos, Spezia, Hydra, &c., and
rejected by the people of Ceos, took up their residence at Syra
under the protection of the French flag. Altogether about 40,000
had sought this asylum before the freedom of Greece was achieved.
The chief city was called Hermoupolis after the name of the ship
which brought the earlier settlers. Most of the immigrants
elected to stay, and, though they were long kept in alarm by
pirates, they continued to prosper. In 1875 1568 sailing ships
and 698 steamers (with a total of 740,731 tons) entered and 1588
sailing ships and 700 steamers (with a total of 756,807 tons)
cleared this port; in 1883 3379 sailing and 1126 steam vessels
(with a total of 1,056,201 tons) entered and 3276 sailing and
1 1 20 steam vessels (with a total of 960,229 tons) cleared. Most
of the sailing vessels were Greek and Turkish, and most of the
steamers were Austrian, French and Turkish.
But since the energetic development of Peiraeus, Syra has
ceased to be the chief commercial entrep6t and distributing centre
of this part of the Levant, and consequently its trade has seriously
declined. Whereas in 1890 the foreign commerce was valued at
£Ii3I3)73°> in 1900 it only amounted to £408,350. Coal, textiles
and iron and steel goods figure prominently amongst the imports,
and emery, leather, lemons, sponges, flour, valonia and iron ore
amongst the exports. Syra is the seat of several industries,
ship-building, tanneries, flour and cotton mills, rope-walks,
factories for confectionery (" Turkish delight"), hats, kerchiefs,
furniture, pottery and distilleries. The harbour, which is pro-
tected by a breakwater 273 yds. long, has a depth of 25 ft..
diminishing to 12 ft.
296
SYRACUSE
SYRACUSE (Gr. Supd/cowrai; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa),
a city of Sicily, the capital of a province of the same name,
situated on the east coast of the island, 54 m. by rail S. by E. of
Catania, and about 32 m. direct. Pop. (1881), 21,739; (1906),
23,250 (town), 35,000 (commune).
History. — Syracuse was the chief Greek city of ancient Sicily,
and one of the earliest Greek settlements in the island. Accord-
ing to Strabo (vi. 4, p. 269) Chersicrates and Archias of Corinth,
both Heraclidae, left their native city together with a band of
colonists, the former stopping with half the force at Corcyra,
where he expelled the Liburnians and occupied the island, while
Archias proceeded to Syracuse.1 Thucydides (vi. 3) gives the
Contours at Intervals of
to metres = 32-e feet
Railways
date as the year after the foundation of Naxos (i.e. 734 B c.), and
mentions that Archias expelled the Sicel inhabitants from the
island. Their presence there was definitely proved by the
discovery in 1905 of a rock-cut tomb of the beginning of the
second Sicel period (see SICILY) on the west side of the island
(Orsi in Noiizie degli Scavi, 1905, 381), while similar tombs may
be seen both on the north and south edges of the terrace of Epi-
polae, and on the peninsula of Plemmyrium. There is, on the other
hand, no conclusive evidence for the previous existence of a
1 Strabo goes on to say that Archias fell in with certain men who
had come from the Sicilian Megara, and took them with him to share
in his enterprise. But this version implies that Megara was founded
before Syracuse, which is contrary to all other authorities. The
whole question of the various tales relating to the foundation
of Syracuse is discussed by E. A. Freeman, Htstfffy of Sicily, i. 335
sqq., 572 sqq.
Phoenician settlement on the island,2'though it is certainly such
a place as Thucydides (vi. 2) describes as occupied by them for
purposes of trade with the Sicels. The name of the island,
Ortygia (O>TV£, a quail), has, again, been held to point to the
possible existence of an Aetolian settlement on the island
before Archias came. But it is more probable that the name
was given to the island owing to the establishment there by
the first settlers of a special cult of Artemis (the name Ortygia
appears in Homer, Odyssey, v. 123, as an island sacred to
Artemis, though the identification with Delos (q.v.) is not
certain), though why Corinthians should have worshipped
Artemis in preference to any other deity is not clear.
Till the beginning of
the sth century B.C. our
notices of Syracusarf hist-
ory are quite fragmentary.
Almost the only question
is whether, as some stray
notices (see Freeman,
History of Sicily, ii. 431)
might suggest, the primi-
tive kingship was retained
or renewed at Syracuse, as
it certainly was ' in some
other Greek colonies. A
king Pollis is spoken of;
but nothing is known of
his actions. It is far more
certain that Syracuse went
through the usual revolu-
tions of a Greek city. The
descendants of the original
settlers kept the land in
their own hands, and they
gradually brought the
Sicel inhabitants to a
state not unlike villenage.
Presently other settlers,
perhaps not always Greek,
gathered round the origi-
nal Syracusan people;
they formed a distinct
body, orjftos or plebs, per-
sonally free, but with an
inferior political franchise
or none at all. The old
citizens thus gradually
grew into an exclusive or
aristocratic body, called
7<x/ii6poi or landowners.
We hear incidentally of
disputes, seditions and
changes, among others
the expulsion of the
Gamori early in the sth
century B.C. (Thuc. v. 5;
Arist. Pol. v. 3, 5; 4, i).
In its external development Syracuse differed somewhat from
other Sicilian cities. Although it lagged in early times behind
both Gela and Acragas (Agrigentum), it very soon began to
aim at a combination of land and sea power.3 In 663 it founded
the settlement of Acrae, in 643 Casmenae,4 and in 598 Camarina,
of which the first was unusually far inland. The three together
secured for Syracuse a continuous dominion to the south-east
2 The origin of the name SvpArowat is quite uncertain. It has
been suggested that it may be Phoenician: and, again, the plural
form has been thought to point perhaps to " the union of two
originally distinct posts," one on the island, the other on the mainland
on the hill where the ruins of the Olympieum stand, known asi-oXixvif
— the latter being the original Syracuse.
' Netum (Noto) and Helorum, both to the S.S.W. of Syracuse,
must have been among its earliest settlements (Freeman ii. 17).
4 The site of Casmenae is uncertain ; it was to the south-west of
Syracuse, and not improbably at Spaccaforno (Freeman ii. 25).
KmtryWAlkcfK.
SYRACUSE
297
coast. They were not strictly colonies but outposts; Camarina
indeed was destroyed after a revolt against the ruling city
(Thuc. v. i). Whether the inland Sicel town of Henna was
ever a Syracusan settlement is doubtful. It is extremely pro-
bable that Acrae was not founded until after two obvious out-
posts had already been occupied — a post guarding the road to
Acrae itself, and including the sacred enclosure of Apollo, which
later, when it became a quarter of the city, acquired the name
Temenites; and another post on the road to the north, in the
upper part of the region known as Achradina. The latter was
defended on the north and east by the sea, on the west by a
long straight cutting of the rock serving as a scarp on which
the wall stood (see below), and on the south by extensive quarries
(Freeman ii. 43, 139, 144). About the middle of the 6th century
B.C.1 the island was connected with the mainland by a mole
(Freeman ii. 140, 505). At the beginning of the sth century B.C.
Syracusan history becomes far more clear. Hippocrates, tyrant
of Gela (498-491), threatened the independence of Syracuse
as well as of other cities, and it was saved only by the joint
intervention of Corinth and Corcyra and by the cession of the
vacant territory of Camarina. In 485 the Gamori, who had
been expelled by the Demos and the Sicel serfs, and had taken
refuge at Casmenae, craved help of Gelo, the successor of
Hippocrates, who took possession of Syracuse without opposition,
and made it the seat of his power. He gave citizenship both
to mercenaries and to settlers from Greece, and added to the
population the inhabitants of other cities conquered by him, so
that Syracuse became a city of mixed population, in which the
new citizens had the advantage. He then extended the city
by including within the fortifications the low ground (or at any
rate the western portion of the low ground) between Upper
Achradina and the island, and making the Agora there2; at
the same time (probably) he was able to shift the position of the
crossing to the island by making a new isthmus in the position
of the present one, the old mole being broken through so as, to
afford an outlet from the Little Harbour on the east (Lupus,
p. 91). The island thus became the inner city, the stronghold
of the ruler, so that, despite its low level, it is often spoken of
as the " acropolis." Gelo's general rule was mild, and he won
fame as the champion of Hellas by his great victory over the
Carthaginians at Himera. He is said to have been greeted
as king; but he does not seem_to have taken the title in any
formal way.
Gelo's brother and successor, Hiero(478~467) , kept up the power
of the city; he won himself a name by his encouragement of
poets, especially Aeschylus and Simonides, and philosophers;
and his Pythian and Olympian victories made him the special
subject of the songs of Pindar and Bacchylides; among the
recently discovered works of the latter are three Odes (iii.-v.)
written for him. He appeared also as a Hellenic champion in
the defence of Cumae against the Etruscans, and he attempted
after the victory to found a Syracusan colony on the island of
Aenaria, now Ischia. But his internal government, unlike that
of Gelo, was suspicious, greedy and cruel. After some family
disputes the power passed to his brother Thrasybulus, who was
driven out next year by a general rising. In this revolution
Thrasybulus and his mercenaries held the fortified quarters
of Ortygia and Achradina; the revolted people held the un walled
suburbs, already, it is plain, thickly inhabited. Thrasybulus
yielded to the common action of Siceliots and Sicels. Syracuse
thus became a democratic commonwealth. Renewed freedom
was celebrated by a colossal statue of Zeus Eleutherius and by
a yearly feast in his honour. But when the mercenaries and
other new settlers were shut out from office3 new struggles
"Holm and Cavallari (cf. Lupus, Topographic von Syrakus, 91)
make the construction of the mole and of the wall across it contem-
porary with the fortification of Achradina in the middle of the yth
century B.C. They also consider that the original west boundary
of Achradina ran down to the Little Harbour, so that the southern
boundary of Achradina was the sea itself.
1 Holm and Cavallari (see Lupus, p. 99) are inclined to attribute
to him the addition of Tyche to the city.
' Diod. xi. 72 ; cf . Arist. Pol. v. 3, IO.
arose. The mercenaries again held Ortygia and Achradina.
The people now walled in the suburb of Tyche to the west of
Achradina (Freeman iii. 306, 312, 456). The mercenaries
were at last got rid of in 461. Although we hear of attempts
to seize the tyranny and of an institution called pelalism, like
the Athenian ostracism, designed to guard against such dangers,
popular government was not seriously threatened for more than
fifty years. The part of Syracuse in general Sicilian affairs
has been traced in the article SICILY (q.v.) ; but one striking scene
is wholly local, when the defeated Ducetius took refuge in the
hostile city (451), and the common voice of the people bade
" spare the suppliant." We hear of a naval expedition to the
Etruscan coast and Corsica about 453 B.C. and of the great
military and naval preparations of Syracuse in 439 (Diod.
xii. 30). Yet all that we read of Syracusan military and naval
action during the former part of the Athenian siege shows how
Syracuse had lagged behind the cities of old Greece, constantly
practised as they were in warfare both by land and sea.
The Athenian siege (415-13) is of the deepest importance
for the topography of Syracuse, and it throws some light on
the internal politics. At first complete incredulity prevailed
as to the Athenian expedition (Thuc. vi. 32). Hermocrates,
the best of counsellors for external affairs, is suspected, and
seemingly with reason, of disloyalty to the democratic constitu-
tion. Yet he is, like Nicias and Phocion, the official man, head
of a board of fifteen generals, which he persuades the people
to cut down to three. Athenagoras, the demagogue or opposition
speaker, has an excellent exposition of democratic principles
put into his mouth by Thucydides (vi. 36-40). Through the
whole siege4 there was a treasonable party within the city,
which — for what motives we are not told — kept up a correspond-
ence with the besiegers. When the Athenian fleet under Nicias,
Alcibiades and Lamachus was at Rhegium in Italy, after the
discovery of the trick that had been played by the Segestans,
the question for the commanders was whether they should seek
to strengthen themselves by fresh alliances on the spot or strike
the blow at once. Lamachus was for immediate action, and
there can hardly be a doubt that Syracuse must have fallen
before a sudden attack by so formidable an armament in the
summer of 415. The Syracusans were neither united nor
adequately prepared for effectual defence, and it is perfectly
clear that they owed their final deliverance to extraordinary
good fortune. Athens had the prize within her grasp, and she
lost it wholly through the persistent dilatoriness and blundering
of Nicias (q.v.) . It was at his advice that the summer and
autumn of 415 were frittered away, and the siege not begun till
the spring of 414. By that time the Syracusans were both in
better spirits and better prepared; their troops were better
organized, and they had built a wall from north to south across
Epipolae, taking in Tyche and Temenites, so as to screen them
from attack on the side of Epipolae on the north-west. The
effect of this was to bar the enemy's approach and push back
his blockading lines, which had to be carried over an inconveni-
ently large extent of ground. They did not, however, occupy
Euryelus, at the western extremity of the high ground of
Epipolae, and this omission allowed the Athenians to obtain
possession of the whole plateau, and to begin the investment of
the city. The Syracusans had been at first thoroughly cowed;
but they were cowed no longer, and they even plucked up courage
to sally out and fight the enemy on the high ground of Epipolae.
They were beaten and driven back; but at the suggestion of
Hermocrates they carried a counter-work up the slope of Epipolae,
which, if completed, would cut in two the Athenian lines and
frustrate the blockade. At this point Nicias showed consider-
able military skill. The Syracusans' work was destroyed by a
prompt and well-executed attack; and a second counter-work
carried across marshy ground some distance to the south of
Epipolae and near to the Great Harbour was also demolished
after a sharp action, in which Lamachus fell, an irretrievable
loss. However, the blockade on the land side was now almost
4 The chief authorities for the siege are Thucydides (bks. vL
and vii.), Diodorus (bk. xiii.) and Plutarch, Nicias.
298
SYRACUSE
complete, and the Athenian fleet had at the same time entered
the Great Harbour. The citizens began to think of surrender,
and Nicias was so confident that he neglected to push his advan-
tages. He left a gap to the north of the circular fort which
formed the centre of the Athenian lines, the point where Epipolae
slopes down to the sea, and he omitted to occupy Euryelus.
The second act of the drama may be said to open with the
irretrievable blunder of Nicias in letting the Spartan Gylippus
first land in Sicily, and then march at the head of a small army,
partly levied on the spot, across the island, and enter Syracuse
by way of Epipolae, past Euryelus. Gylippus was felt to be
the representative of Sparta, and of the Peloponnesian Greeks
generally, and his arrival inspired the Syracusans with the fullest
confidence. Just before his arrival a few ships from Corinth
had made their way into the harbour with the news that a great
fleet was already on its way to the relief of the city. The tables
were now completely turned, and we hear of nothing but defeat
and disaster for the besiegers till their final overthrow. The
military skill of Gylippus enabled the Syracusan militia to meet
the Athenian troops on equal terms, to wrest from them their
fortified position on Plemmyrium, which Nicias had occupied
as a naval station shortly after Gylippus's arrival, and thus to
drive them to keep their ships on the low beach between their
double walls, to take Labdalum, an Athenian fort on the northern
edge of Epipolae, and make a third counter-work right along
Epipolae in a westerly direction, to the north of the circular
fort. The Athenians were thus reduced to such a plight that,
as Nicias said in his despatch towards the close of 414, they were
themselves besieged rather than besieging. The naval prepara-
tions of the Syracusans, under the advice of Hermocrates, had
led them, too, to confidence in their powers of giving battle
to the Athenian fleet. In the first sea-fight, which took place
simultaneously with the capture of Plemmyrium, they had" been
unsuccessful; but in the spring of 413 they actually won a
victory over the Athenians in their own element.
On the very next day, however, a second Athenian fleet
arrived under Demosthenes and Eurymedon, with seventy-three
ships of war and a large force of heavy infantry and light troops.
The despatch of this expedition seems to prove an almost blind
confidence in Nicias, whose request to be superseded the Athenian
people refused to grant. Demosthenes decided at once to make
a grand attack on Epipolae, with a view to recovering the
Athenian blockading lines and driving the Syracusans back
within the city walls. The assault was made by night by way
of Euryelus under the uncertain light of the moon, and this
circumstance turned what was very nearly a successful surprise
into a ruinous defeat. The affair seems to have been well
planned up to a certain point, and well executed; but the Athenian
van, flushed with a first success, their ranks broken and dis-
ordered by a pursuit of the enemy over rough ground, were
repulsed with great loss by a body of heavy-armed Boeotians,
and driven back in disorder. The confusion spread to the troops
behind them, and the action ended in wild flight and slaughter.
The army was now thoroughly out of heart, and Demosthenes
was for at once breaking up the camp, embarking the troops,
and sailing back to Athens. (It must be remembered that the
Spartans were all this time in occupation of Deceleia; see PELO-
PONNESIAN WAR.) But Nicias could not bring himself to face the
Athenian people at home, nor could he be prevailed on to retire
promptly to some position on the coast, such as Catania or
Thapsus. He dallied till the end of August, many weeks after
the defeat, when the coming of Syracusan reinforcements decided
him to depart; but on the zyth of that month was an eclipse
of the moon, on the strength of which he insisted on a delay
of almost another month. His fleet, too, lingered uselessly in
the harbour, till after a defeat in which Eurymedon perished,
though the simultaneous land attack was unsuccessful. The
Syracusans now blocked the mouth of the Great Harbour, and
the Athenian fleet, after a frantic effort to break out and a
desperate conflict, was utterly defeated and half destroyed.
The broken and demoralized army, its ranks thinned by fever
and sickness, at last began its hopeless retreat, attempting to
reach Catania by a circuitous route; but, harassed by the numer-
ous Syracusan cavalry and darters, after a few days of dreadful
suffering, it was -forced to lay down its arms. The Syracusans
sullied the glory of their triumph by putting Nicias and Demos-
thenes to death, and huddling their prisoners into their stone-
quarries — a living death, dragged out, for the allies from Greece
proper to the space of seventy days, for the Athenians themselves
and the Greeks of Sicily and Italy for six months longer. Games
called Assinarian, from the name of the river at which the final
surrender occurred, were instituted to commemorate it.
Her great deliverance and victory naturally stirred up the
energies of Syracuse at home and abroad. Syracusan. and
Selinuntine ships under Hermocrates now play a distinguished
part in the warfare between Sparta and Athens on the coast
of Asia. Under the influence of Diocles the constitution became
a still more confirmed democracy, some at least of the magistracies
being filled by lot, as at Athens (Diod. xiii. 31, 35; Arist. Pol. v.
3-6). Diocles appears also as the author of a code of laws
of great strictness, which was held in such esteem that later
lawgivers were deemed only its expounders. Under these
influences Hermocrates was banished in 409; he submitted to
the sentence, notwithstanding the wishes of his army. He went
back to Sicily, warred with Carthage on his own account, and
brought back the bones of the unburied Syracusans from
Himera, but was still so dreaded that the people banished Diocles
without restoring him. In 407 he was slain in an attempt to
enter the city, and with him was wounded one who was presently
to outstrip both rivals.
This was Dionysius (the " Elder "), son of another Hermocrates
and an adherent of the aristocratic party, but soon afterwards
a demagogue, though supported by some men of rank, among
them the historian Philistus (Diod. xiii. 91, 92). By accusing
the generals engaged at Acragas in the war against Carthage,
by obtaining the restoration of exiles (no doubt others of the
partisans of Hermocrates), by high-handed proceedings at Gela,
he secured his own election first as one of the generals, then as
sole general (or with a nominal colleague), with special powers.
He next, by another trick, procured from a military assembly
at Leontini a vote of a bodyguard; he hired mercenaries and
in 406-405 came back to Syracuse as tyrant of the city (Diod.
xiii. 91-96). Dionysius kept his power till his death thirty-
eight years later (367). But it was well-nigh overthrown before
he had fully grasped it. His defeat before Gela and his conse-
quent decision that both Gela and Camarina should be evacuated,
and left for the Carthaginians to plunder, were no doubt due
to previous arrangement with the latter. His enemies in the
army, chiefly the horsemen, reached Syracuse before him,
plundered his house, and horribly maltreated his wife. He
came and took his vengeance, slaying and driving out his enemies,
who established themselves at Aetna (Diod. xiii. 113). In
397 Syracuse had to stand a siege from the Carthaginians under
Himilco, who took up his quarters at the Olympieum, but his
troops in the marshes below suffered from pestilence, and a
masterly combined attack by land and sea by Dionysius ended
in his utter defeat. Dionysius, however, allowed him to depart
without further pressing his advantage. This revolution and
the peace with the Carthaginians confirmed Dionysius in the
possession of Syracuse, but of no great territory beyond, as
Leontini was again a separate city. It left Syracuse the one
great Hellenic city of Sicily, which, however enslaved at home,
was at least independent of the barbarian. Dionysius was able,
like Gelo, though with less success and less honour, to take up
the role of the champion of Hellas.
During the long tyranny of Dionysius the city grew greatly
in size, population and grandeur. In fact the free Greek cities
and communities, in both Sicily and southern Italy, were sacri-
ficed to Syracuse; there the greatness and glory of the Greek
world in the West were concentrated. The mass of the popula-
tion of Gela and Camarina in the disastrous year 405 had, at
the prompting of Dionysius, taken refuge at Syracuse. Gela
had in the previous year received the fugitive inhabitants
of Acragas (Agrigentum), which had been sacked by the
SYRACUSE
299
Carthaginians. Syracuse thus absorbed three of the chief Greek
cities of Sicily. It received large accessions from some of the
Greek cities of southern Italy, from Hipponium on its west and
Caulonia on its east coast, both of which Dionysius captured in
389 B.C. There had also been an influx of free citizens from
Rhegium. At the time of the Athenian siege Syracuse consisted
of two quarters — the island and the "outer city" of Thucydides,
generally known as Achradina, and bounded by the sea on the
north and east, with the adjoining suburbs of Apollo Temenites
farther inland, at the foot of the southern slopes of Epipolae
and Tyche west of the north-west corner of Achradina. Diony-
sius largely extended the fortifications. The island (Ortygia)
had been provided with its own defences, converted, in fact, into
a separate stronghold, with a fort to serve specially as a magazine
of corn, and with a citadel or acropolis which stood apart and
might be held as a last refuge. Dionysius, to make himself
perfectly safe, drove out a number of the old inhabitants and
turned the place into a barracks, he himself living in the citadel.
For any unpopularity he may have thus incurred he seems to
have made up by his great works for the defence of the city.
Profiting by the experience gained during the Athenian siege,
he included in his new lines the whole plateau of Epipolae, with
a strong fortress at Euryelus, its apex on the west; the total
length of the outer lines (excluding the fortifications of the island)
has been calculated at about 12 m. The material (limestone)
was quarried on the spot. Each quarter of the city had its own
distinct defences, and Syracuse was now the most splendid
and the best fortified of all Greek cities. Its naval power, too,
was vastly increased; the docks were enlarged; and 200 new
warships were built. Besides the triremes, or vessels with three
banks of oars, we hear of quadriremes and quinqueremes with
four and five banks of oars — larger and taller and more massive
ships than had yet been used in Greek sea warfare. The fleet
cf Dionysius was the most powerful in the Mediterranean. It
was doubtless fear and hatred of Carthage, from which city the
Greeks of Sicily had suffered so much, that urged the Syracusans
to acquiesce in the enormous expenditure which they must have
incurred under the rule of Dionysius. Much, too, was done for
the beauty of the city as well as for its strength and defence.
Several new temples were built, and gymnasia erected outside
the walls near the banks of the Anapus (Diod. xv. 13).
" Fastened by chains of adamant " was the boastful phrase
in which Dionysius described his empire; but under his son, the
younger Dionysius — an easy, good-natured, unpractical man —
a reaction set in amongst the restless citizens of Syracuse, which,
with its vast and mixed populations, must have been full of
elements of turbulence and faction. But the burdensome expendi-
ture of the late reign would be enough to account for a good deal
of discontent. A remarkable man now comes to the front — Dion,
the friend and disciple of Plato — and for a time the trusted
political adviser of his nephew Dionysius. Dion's idea seems to
have been to make Dionysius something like a constitutional
sovereign, and with this view he brought him into contact with
Plato. All went well for a time; but Dionysius had Philistus
and others about him, who were opposed to any kind of liberal
reform, and the result was the banishment of Dion from Syracuse
as a dangerous innovator. Ten years afterwards, in 357, the
exile entered Achradina a victor, welcomed by the citizens as
a deliverer both of themselves and of the Greeks of Sicily
generally. A siege and blockade, with confused fighting and
alternate victory and defeat, and all the horrors of fire and
slaughter, followed, till Dion made himself finally master of
the mainland city. Ortygia, provisions failing, was also soon
surrendered. Dion's rule lasted only three years, for he perished
in 354 by the hand of a Syracusan assassin. It was, in fact,
after all his professions, little better than a military despotism.
The tyrant's stronghold in the island was left standing.
Of what took place in Syracuse during the next ten years we
know but little. The younger Dionysius came back and from
his island fortress again oppressed the citizens; the plight of the
city, torn by faction and conflicts and plundered by foreign
troops, was so utterly wretched that all Greek life seemed on the
verge of extinction (Plato, Epist. viii.). Sicily, too, was again
menaced by Carthage. Syracuse, in its extremity, asked help
from the mother-city, Corinth; and now appears on the scene
one of the noblest figures in Greek history, Timoleon (q.v.). To
him Syracuse owed her deliverance from the younger Dionysius
and from Hicetas, who held the rest of Syracuse, and to him
both Syracuse and the Sicilian Greeks owed a decisive triumph
over Carthage and the safe possession of Sicily west of the river
Halycus, the largest portion of the island. From 343 to 337
he was supreme at Syracuse, with the hearty good will of the
citizens. The younger Dionysius had been allowed to retire
to Corinth; his island fortress was destroyed and replaced by
a court of justice. Syracuse rose again out of her desolation-
grass, it is said, grew in her streets — and, with an influx of a
multitude of new colonists from Greece and from towns of Sicily
and Italy, once more became a prosperous city. Timoleon,
having accomplished his work, accepted the position of a
private citizen, though, practically, to the end of his life he
was the ruler of the Syracusan people. After his death (337) a
splendid monument, with porticoes and gymnasia surrounding
it, known as the Timoleonteum, was raised at the public cost
to his honour.
In the interval of twenty years between the death of Timoleon
and the rise of Agathocles (q.v.) to power another revolution
at Syracuse transferred the government to an oligarchy of 600
leading citizens. All we know is the bare fact. It was shortly
after this revolution, in 317, that Agathocles with a body of
mercenaries from Campania and a host of exiles from the Greek
cities, backed up by the Carthaginian Hamilcar, who was in
friendly relations with the Syracusan oligarchy, became a tyrant
or despot of the city, assuming subsequently, on the strength
of his successes against Carthage, the title of king. Syracuse
passed through another reign of terror; the new despot pro-
claimed himself the champion of popular government, and had
the senate and the heads of the oligarchical party massacred
wholesale. He seems to have had popular manners, for a
unanimous vote of the people gave him absolute control over
the fortunes of Syracuse. His wars in Sicily and Africa left
him time to do something for the relief of the poorer citizens
at the expense of the rich, as well as to erect new fortifications
and public buildings; and under his strong government Syracuse
seems to have been at least quiet and orderly. After his death
in 289 comes another miserable and obscure period of revolution
and despotism, in which Greek life was dying cut; and but for
the brief intervention of Pyrrhus in 278 Syracuse, and indeed
all Sicily, would have fallen a prey to the Carthaginians.
A better time began under Hiero II., who had fought under
Pytrhus and who rose from the rank of general of the Syracusan
army to be tyrant — king, as he came to be soon styled — about
270. During his reign of over fifty years, ending probably
in 216, Syracuse enjoyed tranquillity, and seems to have grown
greatly in wealth and population. Hiero's rule was kindly and
enlightened, combining good order with a fair share of liberty
and self-government. His financial legislation was careful and
considerate; his laws1 as to the customs and the corn tithes
were accepted and maintained under the Roman government,
and one of the many bad acts of the notorious Verres, according
to Cicero, was to set them aside (Cic. In Verr. ii. 13, iii. 8).
It was a time, too, for great public works — works for defence at
the enhance of the Lesser Harbour between the island and
Achradina, and temples and gymnasia. Hiero through his
long reign was the stanch friend and ally of Rome in her struggles
with Carthage; but his paternal despotism, under which Greek
life and civilization at Syracuse had greatly flourished, was
unfortunately succeeded by the rule of a man who wholly
reversed his policy.
Hieronymus, the grandson of Hiero, thought fit to ally himself
with Carthage; he did not live, however, to see the mischief he
had done, for he fell in a conspiracy which he had wantonly
provoked by his arrogance and cruelty. There was a fierce
1 The laws of Hiero are often mentioned with approval in Cicero's
speeches against Verres.
300
SYRACUSE
popular outbreak and more bloodshed; the conspirators were
put to death and Hiero's family was murdered; whilst the
Carthaginian faction, under the pretence of delivering the city
from its tyrants, got the upper hand and drew the citizens into
open defiance of Rome. M. Claudius Marcellus was then in
command of the Roman army in Sicily, and he threatened the
Syracusans with attack unless they would get rid of Epicydes
and Hippocrates, the heads of the anti-Roman faction. Epicydes
did his best to stir up the citizens of Leontini against Rome and
the Roman party at Syracuse. Marcellus, therefore, struck his
first blow at Leontini, which was quickly stormed; and the tale
of the horrors of the sack was at once carried to Syracuse and
roused the anger of its population, who could not but sympathize
with their near neighbours, Greeks like themselves. The general
feeling was now against any negotiations with the Roman
general, and, putting themselves under Epicydes and Hippocrates,
they closed their gates on him. Marcellus, after an unsuccessful
attempt to negotiate, began the siege in regular form (214 B.C.)
by both land and sea, establishing a camp on Polichne, where
stood the old temple of Olympian Zeus; but he made his chief
assault on the northern side and on the defences of Tyche,
particularly at the Hexapylum, the entrance facing Megara and
Leontini. His assault seawards was made mainly on Achradina,1
but the city was defended by a numerous soldiery and by
what seems to have been still more formidable, the ingenious
contrivances of Archimedes, whose engines dealt havoc among
the Roman ships, and frustrated the attack on the fortifications
on the northern slopes of Epipolae (Liv. xxiv. 34). Marcellus
had recourse to a blockade, but Carthaginian vessels from time
to time contrived to throw in supplies. At length treachery
began to work within. Information was given him in the spring
of 212 (two years from the commencement of the siege) that
the Syracusans were celebrating a great festival to Artemis;
making use of this opportunity, he forced the Hexapylum
entrance by night and established himself in Tyche and on the
heights of Epipolae. The strong fortress of Euryelus held out
for a time, but, being now isolated, it soon had to surrender.
The " outer " and the " inner " city of Thucydides still held
out, whilst a Carthaginian fleet was moored off Achradina and
Carthaginian troops were encamped on the spot. But a pesti-
lence broke out in the autumn of 212, which swept them clean
away, and thinned the Roman ranks. The ships sailed away to
Carthage; on their way back to Syracuse with supplies they
could not get beyond Cape Pachynus owing to adverse winds,
and they were confronted by a Roman fleet. All hope for the city
being now at an end, the Syracusans threw themselves on the
mercy of Marcellus; but Achradina and the island still held out
for a brief space under the Syracusan mercenaries, till one of
their officers, a Spaniard, betrayed the latter position to the
enemy, and at the same time Achradina was carried and
taken. Marcellus gave the city up to plunder (Liv. xxv. 31),
and the art treasures in which it was so rich — many of the choicest
of them, no doubt — were conveyed to Rome. Archimedes
perished in the confusion of the sack while he was calmly
pursuing his studies (Liv. xxv. 31).
Syracuse was now simply one of the provincial cities of Rome's
empire, and its history is henceforward merged in that of Sicily.
It retained much of its Greek character and many of its finest
public buildings, even after the havoc wrought by Marcellus.
Its importance and historic associations naturally marked it
out as the residence of the Roman praetor or governor of Sicily.
Cicero often speaks of it as a particularly splendid and beautiful
city, as still in his own day the seat of art and culture (Tttsc.
v. 66; De dear. nat. iii. 81; De rep. i. 21), and in his speeches
against Verres (iv. 52, 53) he gives an elaborate description
of its four quarters (Achradina, Neapolis, Tyche, the island).
It seems to have suffered in the civil wars at the hands of Sextus
Pompeius, the son of the triumvir, who for a short time was
master of Sicily; to repair the mischief, new settlers were sent
1 This statement made by Polybius (viii. 5) is almost incredible. •
Livy's account of the siege, too, is full of topographical difficulties
(Lupus, 214 sqq.).
by Augustus in 21 B.C., and established in the island and in
the immediately adjoining part of Achradina (Strabo vi. 270).
It was he who probably constructed the amphitheatre. Tacitus,
in a passing mention of it (Ann. xiii. 49), says that permission
was granted to the Syracusans under Nero to exceed the pre-
scribed number of gladiators in their shows. Caligula restored
its decayed walls and some of its famous temples (Suetonius,
Calig. 21). In the 4th century it is named by the poet Ausonius
in his Ordo nobilium urbium, chiefly, perhaps, on the strength
of its historic memories. In 665 Heraclius Constans fixed his
capital here, but owing to his oppressive government was
assassinated in 668. Syracuse has been a place of comparatively
little importance since the year 878, when it was destroyed by
the Saracens under Ibrahim ibn Ahmad.
Archaeology. — The medieval and modern town of Syracuse
(with the exception of a new quarter which has sprung up since
the construction of the railway between the station and the
island) is confined to the island. This contains the remains
of two Doric temples. The older, belonging probably to the
beginning of the 6th century B.C., appears, from an inscription
on the uppermost step, to have been dedicated to Apollo. It
was a peripteral hexastyle, and must have had at least nineteen
columns at the sides; the portion excavated shows that its total
width is 741 ft., the width of the cella 385 ft., the lower diameter
of the columns 6| ft. The other temple, into which the cathedral
was built in A.D. 640, is to be dated after 440 B.C. It was a
peripteral hexastyle of thirty-six columns, with a total length
of i6oj ft. and a total breadth of 72 ft.; the columns have a
lower diameter of sJ ft., and the inter-columniation is 13 J ft.
It is generally regarded as the temple of Athena.
Near the west coast of the island is the famous fountain of
Arethusa.2 According to the legend, the nymph Arethusa
was changed into the fountain by Artemis to deliver her from
the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus (<?.».) ; and the spring, which
was fresh until an earthquake broke the barrier and let in the
salt water, was supposed to be actually connected with the river.
There are interesting remains of medieval architecture in the
closely built town with its narrow streets; the beautiful 14th-
century windows of the Palazzo Montalto may be especially
noticed, and also the 13th-century Castello Mainace at the
southern extremity of the island. The town also contains the
archaeological museum, which, under the direction of Pro-
fessor Orsi, is now the best arranged in the island. The dis-
coveries of recent years in the south-eastern portion of Sicily,
including especially the objects found in Sicel and Greek ceme-
teries, may be studied here. The isthmus connecting the island
with the mainland, which was defended by strong fortifications
erected by Charles V. and Philip II. (now demolished), does
not occupy the site of the mole erected in the 6th or 7th century
B.C., which may be recognized as having run due north from the
north point of the island to the mainland near the ferry of
S. Lucia.3 The Little Harbour was thus in origin merely a recess
of the Great Harbour; and it was probably Gelo who was
responsible for making it an independent port, by establishing
the crossing to the island in its present position. On the land-
ward side of the new isthmus was the Agora, in which remains
of a colonnade of the Roman period have been found. To the
west are the remains of an extensive building of the Roman
period, probably a palaestra, with a small Odeum attached.
To the W.N.W. is the so-called Piano del Fusco, an extensive
necropolis, in whiqh over six hundred tombs, mostly of the
7th and 6th centuries B.C., have been found.4 This necropolis
was included within the defensive wall of Dionysius, a portion
of which, no less than 18^ ft. thick, was found in 1886 running
diagonally across the new cemetery, and in 1903 an outwork
in front of it was discovered (P. Orsi, in Notizie degli scavi,
1903, 517). East of this point it probably followed the edge
2 The name is a widespread Greek name for a spring.
* Lupus, Topographic von Syrakus, 26, 88, 91. Near the ferry are
a row of long parallel cuttings in the rock, which must be remains
of the ancient docks, each being intended to take 'a ship.
4 It is remarkable that hardly any tombs of the 5th century B.C.
have come to light.
SYRACUSE
301
of the low terrace above the marsh (the ancient Lysimeleia) ,'
while in the other direction it ran N.N.W., making straight
for the western edge of the gorge known as the Portella del
Fusco, which was thus included within the fortifications, as it
would otherwise have afforded a means of access to the enemy.
Here the wall gained the top of the cliffs which mark the southern
edge of the plateau of Epipolae, which from this point onwards
it followed as far as Euryelus. The south wall of Epipolae,
considerable remains of which exist, shows traces of different
periods in its construction, and was probably often restored.2
It is built of rectangular blocks of limestone generally quarried
on the spot, about 53 ft. long, 2 ft. high and 2% ft. deep. The
thickness of the wall averages 10 ft., but varies 3 or 4 ft. each
way. The point where the terrace of Epipolae narrows down
to a ridge about 60 yds. wide, which is its only link with the
hills to the west, had thrice proved during the Athenian siege
to be the key to Syracuse. It now bears the ruins of a mighty
fortress, finer than that which defends the entrance to the
acropolis of Selinus — the most imposing, indeed, that has come
down to us from the Greek period — which there is no doubt is
the work of Dionysius. The total length of the works is about
440 yds. In front of the castle proper are three ditches, the
innermost of which can be reached from the interior of the
castle by a complicated system of underground passages. The
front of the castle is formed by five massive towers : behind
it are two walled courtyards, to the north of the easternmost
of which is the well-guarded main entrance to the plateau of
Epipolae (narrower minor entrances are to be seen on both
the north and the south sides) communicating by a long under-
ground passage with the inner ditch in front of the castle proper.
That this point is to be identified with Euryelus is now generally
admitted (see Lupus, 125-127; Freeman, iii. 661). Earlier
writers make this the site of Labdalum, and put Euryelus
farther west; but Labdalum must be sought somewhat farther
east, near the northern edge of the plateau, in a point not visible
from the Athenian central fort (KIIK\OS) with a view over Megara
— not therefore in the commanding position of Dionysius's fort,
with an uninterrupted view on all sides. On the north side of
Epipolae the cliffs are somewhat more abrupt; here the wall,
of a similar construction to that on the south, is also traceable:
but here it is apparently all of one period. It is, indeed,
recorded by Diodorus that Dionysius built the north wall from
Euryelus to the Hexapylon in twenty days for a length of z\ m.,
employing 60,000 peasants and 6000 yoke of oxen for the
transport of the blocks. Several smaller entrances are to be
seen in it, as in the south wall: among them one with a series of
inclined planes cut in the rock, which leads to an ancient road
running south-east to the neighbourhood of the theatre. The
Hexapylon plays an important part in the Roman siege of Syra-
cuse. It was the main entrance on the north, and no doubt
is to be identified with the so-called Scala Greca, where the
modern highroad leaves the plateau.3 This highroad, which
probably follows an ancient line, may be reasonably held to mark
the west boundary of Tyche. Five hundred yards to the east
of it an interesting postern was discovered in 1895 (Orsi, in
Notizie degli scavi, 1893, 168), at the point where the wall
leaves the edge of the plateau and begins to follow the sea-coast ;
and half a mile farther on we reach the deep gorge of S. Bonagia
(more correctly Panagia), which here forms the boundary be-
tween Tyche and Achradina. The west boundary of Achradina
is marked farther south by a perpendicular cutting in the rock,
on the top of which a wall must have run (see above) . To the east
of the gorge the wall still follows the edge of low cliffs of the
coast, and continues to do so all along the east side of Achradina
1 The date of the fragment of city wall immediately to the
north-east of the so-called palaestra is uncertain; it is therefore
doubtful whether it can belong to this system of defences (Lupus,
PP- 3°8, 330-
1 As to the question whether it was finished at the time of the
Carthaginian invasion of 397 B.C., see Freeman, iv. 55. In any case
it must have been completed by 385 B.C.
* Here are numerous caves in the rock, used for the worship of
Artemis.
as far as the Little Harbour. On this side traces of it are very
scanty, as the sea-spray has eaten away the stone.
The most important buildings of which we have any remains
are to be found in the lower part of Achradina and in Neapolis,
a quarter of which we hear first in the time of Dionysius, and
which at first was confined to the lower ground below Temenites,
but in Roman times included it and the theatre also (Lupus,
168), though it did not extend beyond the theatre to the upper-
most part of the plateau. In lower Achradina remains of
Roman private houses have been found, and it is in this
district that the early Christians4 constructed their catacombs.
Those which are entered from near the 12th-century church of
S. Giovanni, situated near an ancient temple, are extensive and
important, and include the ancient crypt of S. Marcianus, and
the type is different from that of the Roman catacombs, the
galleries being far larger (partly owing to the hardness of the
limestone in which they are excavated), and having circular
chambers at the points of junction. In Neapolis, on the other
hand, public buildings predominate. The temple of Apollo
Temenites has entirely disappeared, but the theatre, entirely
hewn in the rock, is still to be seen. It is the largest in Sicily,
being about 146 yds. in diameter, and having about sixty rows
of seats; the eleven lower tiers were originally covered with
marble. Each of the nine cunei bore a name: the inscriptions of
five of them, still preserved on the rock, are in honour of Zeus,
Heracles, King Hiero II., his wife Philistis, and his daughter-
in-law Nereis. Of the stage nothing but cuttings in the rock
for foundations are visible. The situation is well chosen, com-
manding a splendid view over the Great Harbour. Not far
off to the south-east is the amphitheatre, probably erected by
Augustus when he founded a colony at Syracuse; it is partly
cut in the rock and partly built. It is inferior in size only to
the Colosseum and the amphitheatres of Capua and Verona,
measuring about 153 by 130 yds. over all: the arena is 76 by
43 yds. To the west of the amphitheatre is the foundation of
the great altar erected by Hiero II. (Diod. xvi. 83), 217 yds.
long by 24 wide, and about 6 yds. in height. To the north-
west of the theatre a winding road ascends through the rock,
with comparatively late tomb chambers on each side of it. In
this district are seen hundreds of small niches cut in the rock,
as a rule about 2 ft. square and a few inches deep, which served
for containing inscriptions or reliefs, sometimes of a sepulchral
character, but sometimes relating to the cult of a divinity.
Many of them are also found in the quarries (Orsi, in Notizie
degli scavi, 1904, 277). Both the districts just described also
contain huge quarries, the famous Lautumiae (from Gr. Xaas,
stone, and niitiv, to cut; hence Xaroyuta, quarry) of Syracuse,
over 100 ft. deep and of great extent (though through the
collapse of the pillars supporting the undermined rock they
have become still larger than they were in ancient times). They
are now overgrown with luxuriant vegetation. The upper
plateau (Achradina, Tyche, Epipolae itself) is now largely
cultivated at the east end, less so at the west end. It is
traversed by the subterranean aqueducts by which the city was
supplied6 (see AQUEDUCTS), and by a few ancient roads, but
contains practically no remains of ancient buildings. Cuttings
in the rock for the foundations of such are numerous round the
south edge of Temenites and Achradina, and are to be seen at
various points near the city wall. But otherwise the dis-
appearance of the edifices of ancient Syracuse is most striking.
We have already seen that immediately outside Lower
Neapolis on the south the marshes of Lysimeleia begin, which
proved fatal to more than 'one besieging force. They are
traversed by the Anapus, with its tributary the Cyane, the
latter famous for the papyrus planted by the Arabs, which here
alone in Europe grows wild in the stream. To the south of the
Anapus is the hill of Polichne, on which stood the Olympieium,
attributed on stylistic grounds to 581 B.C. Its monolithic
4 St Paul tarried at Syracuse three days on his way to Rome
(Acts xxviii. 12).
* A large reservoir of the Greek period exists under the present
railway station (Notizie degli scavi, 1904, 280).
302
SYRACUSE
columns, of which two are still standing, are about 21 ft. in
height and 6 ft. in lower diameter: its length is estimated at
197 ft., its breadth at 66J ft. (Orsi, in Monumenti del Lincei,
1903, xiii. 369). The hill was frequently occupied in attacks
on Syracuse by the besieging force. It is not, however,
defensible in the rear: hence Dionysius's success against the
Carthaginians. The hill of Dascon is to be sought a trifle to
the south-east, to the south of the mouth of the Anapus, on the
edge of the Great Harbour, at the Punta Caderini. From this
point southwards the shore of the Great Harbour, previously
low and marshy, begins to rise, until the rocky promontory of
Plemmyrium is reached, which closes it on the south. Here
Sicel tombs have been found, in some of which it appears
that the Athenian dead were hastily buried (Freeman iii.
365, n. i), while a colossal tomb, attributable also to the time
of the Athenian invasion, was found there in 1899.
See A. Holm and F. S. and C. Cavallari, Topografia archeolngica
di Siracusa (Palermo, 1883), or the more handy German translation
by B. Lupus, Topographie von Syrakus (Strassburg, 1887); P. Orsi,
in Atti del congresso di scienze storiche, v. 181 (Rome, 1904), and
in Notizie degli scavi, passim; E. Mauceri, Siracusa (Palermo, 1904) ;
J. Fiihrerand V. Schultze, " DiealtchristlichenGrabstattenSiziliens,"
Jahrbuch des k. d. arch. Inst.; Erganzungsheft, vii. 17 sqq.
(Berlin, 1907). In the hills to the west of Syracuse many Sicel
villages must have existed ; cemeteries of the second and third period
have been found at Pantalica 15 m. to the north-west, with the ruins
of the habitation of the chief of the tribe, and of the second at
Cassibile, 10 m. S.S.W. (see Orsi in Monumenti dei Lincei (1899)
ix.33.i46). (E.A.F. ;T.As.)
SYRACUSE, a city and the county-seat of Onondaga county,
New York, U.S.A., situated at the southern end of Onondaga
Lake, about 75 m. E. of Rochester and about 150 m. W. of
Albany.. Pop. (1880), 51,702; (1890), 88,143; (1900), 108,374,
of whom 23,757 were foreign-born (including 7865 German,
5717 Irish, 2393 English Canadian and 2383 English) and
1034 were negroes; (1910, census), 137,249. Area (1906),
16-62 sq. m. Syracuse is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River, the West Shore, and the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western railways, by the Erie Canal and the Oswego Canal,
which joins the Erie within the city limits, and by several
electric inter-urban lines. The city is built on high ground in an
amphitheatre of hills surrounding the lake, which is a beautiful
body of clear water, 5 m. long by ij m. broad at its widest
point. Of the residential streets, James Street, in the north-
eastern part of the city, is the most attractive. Salina Street
is the principal business thoroughfare. The park system com-
prises more than fifty parks and squares, with a total area of
278 acres. The largest and most noteworthy are Burnet park
(about loo acres), on high land in the western part of the city,
Lincoln park, occupying a heavily wooded ridge in the east,
and Schiller, Kirk and Frazer parks. A boulevard runs along
the shore of the lake. A fine water-supply controlled by the
city is obtained from Skaneateles Lake, 18 m. distant, by a
gravity system which cost $5,000,000; and the city has an
intercepting sewer system.
Among the most noteworthy churches of Syracuse are the
Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception —
Syracuse became the see of a Roman Catholic bishop in 1887
— and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal, the first Presbyterian,
first Methodist Episcopal, Dutch Reformed and May Memorial
(Unitarian) churches, the last erected in memory of Samuel
Joseph May (1797-1871), a famous anti-slavery leader, pastor
of the church in 1845-1868, and author of Some Recollections
of Our Anti-Slavery Conflict (1873). Among the public build-
ings are the Federal Building, the Onondaga county court-
house, costing $1,500,000 and containing a law library of
15,000 vols., the city-hall, the Central high school, a fine
building erected at a cost of $400,000, the North high school
($300,000), and the public library (Carnegie) with 60,000
volumes in 1908 and housing the Museum of Fine Arts (1897),
also.
Among the hospitals and charitable institutions are the Syracuse
hospital (1872) for infectious diseases, the Hospital of the Good
Shepherd (1873), the Syracuse homoeopathic hospital (1895), the
Syracuse hospital for women and children (1887), St Mary's infant
and maternity hospital (1900) under the Sisters of Charity, St
Joseph's hospital (1869) under Sisters of the Third Order of St
Francis, the Syracuse home for aged women (1852), Onondaga
county orphan asylum (private; 1841), and two other orphan
asylums controlled by the Sisters of Charity, and the state institu-
tion for feeble-minded children (1896). The University block (an
office building owned by Syracuse University), the Union Building,
the Onondaga county savings bank and the Syracuse savings
bank are among the most notable business structures; and the
Onondaga, the Vanderbilt House and the Yatcs and St Cloud
hotels are the principal hotels. In Jamesville, about 6 m. south, is
the Onondaga penitentiary. Adjacent to the city is Oakwood
cemetery, overlooking the lake; and north-west of the city are the
state fair grounds, with extensive exhibition halls and barns, where
the annual fairs of the New York State Agricultural Society are held.
Six miles south of the city is the Onondaga Indian reservation,
the present capital of the " Six Nations." The city has an annual
carnival and a musical festival.
Syracuse University, whose campus (of 100 acres) in the
south-east part of the city commands a fine view of the lake, is
a co-educational institution largely under Methodist Episcopal
control, but not sectarian, which in 1908-1909 had 239 instruc-
tors and 3205 students (1336 in the college of liberal arts; 189
in the summer school; 62 in the library school; 933 in the college
of fine arts; 147 in the college of medicine; 179 in the college
of law; 401 in the college of applied science; and 78 in the
teachers' college). The university was opened in 1871, when
the faculty and students of Genesee College (1850) removed
from Lima (New York) to Syracuse — a court-ruling made it
impossible for the corporation to remove; in 1872 the Geneva
medical college (1835) removed to Syracuse and became a
college of the university. The courses in library economy
(college of liberal arts) are particularly well known. The
university library (about 80,000 bound volumes and 40,000
pamphlets) includes (since 1887) the collection of the German
historian, Leopold von Ranke. There are seventeen buildings,
among which the Holden observatory, the John Grouse memorial
college (of fine arts), the hall of languages, the Lyman Smith
college of applied science, the Lyman hall of natural history,
the Bowne hall of chemistry, and the Carnegie library, are
the most notable. There are a large gymnasium and a stadium
of re-enforced concrete for athletic contests, capable of seating
20,000 people and one of the largest athletic fields in the world.
The plant of the university in 1909 was valued at $3,193,128,
and in 1908-1909 its productive funds amounted to about
$2,000,000 and its income from all sources was about $784,000.
Other educational institutions are the Syracuse Teachers'
training school, Christian Brothers' academy (Roman Catho-
lic), St John's Catholic academy, Travis preparatory school
(non-sectarian), and at Manlius (pop. 1910, 1314), a suburb,
St John's military academy (Protestant Episcopal, 1869).
The Onondaga Historical Association was organized in 1862,
and after 21 years of inactivity was reorganized in 1892; it
occupies its own building; its committee on natural science
developed (1896) into the Onondaga academy of science.
Several educational journals are published at Syracuse. There
are three daily newspapers, the Post-Standard (Standard,
1829; Post, 1894; consolidated, 1899, Republican), Journal
(1839; daily since 1844, Republican, and Evening Herald (1877),
Independent).
The government is that of all cities of the second class in
New York state, with an elective mayor and other important
officers and a single-chambered city council.
Power from Niagara Falls is used by factories in the city, and
the manufactures are extensive and greatly diversified. In 1005
the aggregate capital of the city's manufacturing industries was
$38,740,651, and the value of its factory products was $34,823,751,
31-2% more than in 1900. The principal products in 1905 were:
men's and women's clothing ($3,527,494, of which $3,082,052
represented men's clothing), foundry and machine-shop products,
of which agricultural implements and machinery constituted the
greater part ($2,4^15,466), iron and steel products ($2,117,585),
chemicals, malt liquors ($1,960,466), typewriters and typewriting
supplies ($1,553,113), and boots and shoes ($1,253,982). Other
important products were automobiles and sewing machines,
hosiery and knit goods, candles, furniture, flour, crockery, and canned
goods (especially mince-meat).
Syracuse was long the principal seat of the salt industry in America.
SYR-DARYA
303
The Onondaga salt deposits were mentioned in the journal of the
French Jesuit Lemoyne as early as 1653, and before the War of
Independence the Indians marketed Onondaga salt at Albany and
Quebec. In 1788 the state undertook, by treaty with the Onondaga
Indians, to care for the salt springs and manage them for the benefit
of both the whites and the Indians. In 1795, by another treaty,
the state acquired for $1000, to be supplemented by an annual
payment of $700 and 150 bushels of salt, the salt springs and land
about them covering about 10 sq. m. In 1797 the state leased the
lands, the lessees paying a royalty of 4 cents per bushel and being
forbidden to charge more than 60 cents per bushel. The state sank
wells and built and maintained tanks from which brine was delivered
to lessees. During 1812-1834 a royalty of iaj cents was charged
to raise funds for building canals (a rebate being granted in the
last three years covering the entire amount of the royalty for these
years). 'During 1834-1846 the royalty was 6 cents, and between 1846
and 1898 it remained stationary at one cent. In 1898 the state
ordered the sale of the salt lands, because the revenues were less than
the expense of keeping up the works; but state ownership was main-
tained until 1908, when the last of the lands were sold and the office
of superintendent of salt lands, created in 1797, was abolished.
Until 1840 only boiled salt was manufactured; in that year the solar
process was introduced. The annual production, _ which amounted
to 100,000 bushels in 1804, reached its highest point in 1862 (9,053,874
bushels, of which 1,983,022 bushels were solar, and 7,070,852 boiled).
The development of the Michigan salt deposits and (after 1880) of the
deposits in Wyoming, Genesee and Livingston counties in New York
caused a rapid decline in the Onondaga product. In 1876 both
processes yielded together only 5,392,677 bushels, and in 1896 only
2,806,600 bushels. The salt deposits at Syracuse had, however, laid
the basis for another industry, the manufacture of soda-ash, which
has grown to important proportions. At the village of Solvay
(pop. 1905, 5196), adjoining Syracuse on the_lake shore, are the
largest works for the production of soda-ash in the world, giving
employment to more than 3000 hands.
The Syracuse region became known to Europeans through
its salt deposits. Until several years after the close of the
War of Independence, however, there was no settlement.
Ephraim Webster, who built a trading-post near the mouth
of Onondaga Creek in 1786, was the first white settler. About
1788-1789 small companies began to visit the place every
summer to work the salt deposits. In 1796-1797 there was a
permanent settlement known as Webster's Landing, and in
1797 a settlement was begun at Salina, a short distance to the
north on the lake shore. Geddes, another " salt settlement,"
was founded in 1803. In 1800 " the landing " received the name
" Bogardus's Corners," from the proprietor of a local inn.
Between 1800 and 1805 a dozen families settled here, and in the
latter year a grist mill, the first manufacturing establishment,
was built on Onondaga Creek. A sawmill was built in the
following year. In 1804 the state government, which had
assumed control of the saltfields, sold to Abraham Walton of
Albany, for $6550, some 250 acres, embracing the district now
occupied by Syracuse's business centre, to secure money for
the construction of a public road. During the succeeding years
the name of the place was frequently changed. It was called
Milan in 1809, South Salina in 1809-1814, Cossitt's Corners
in 1814-1817, and Cossitt in 1817-1824. In 1824 a post office
was established, and as there was another office of that same
name in the state, the name was again changed, the present
name being adopted. The village was incorporated in 1825,
Salina being incorporated independently at the same time.
In the meantime the settlement had been growing rapidly.
In 1818 Joshua Forman bought an interest in the Walton tract,
had the village platted, and became the " founder " of the city.
The first newspaper, the Onondaga Gazelle, was established in
1823; and in 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal opened a
new era of prosperity. In 1827 Syracuse became the county-
seat of Onondaga county. In 1847 Salina was united to
Syracuse, and the city was chartered. Geddes was annexed in
1886. Syracuse has been the meeting-place of some historically
important political conventions; that of 1847, m which occurred
the split between the " Barnburner " and " Hunker " factions of
the Democratic party, began the Free Soil movement in the
state. The strong anti-slavery sentiment here manifested
itself in 1851 in the famous " Jerry rescue," one of the most
significant episodes following the enactment of the Fugitive
Slave Law of 1850; Samuel J. May, pastor of the Unitarian
church, and seventeen others, arrested for assisting in the rescue,
were never brought to trial, although May and two others
publicly admitted that they had taken part in the rescue, and
announced that they would contest the constitutionality of the
Fugitive Slave Law, if they were tried.
See Carroll E. Smith, Pioneer Times in Onondaga County (Syracuse,
1904).
SYR-DARYA (Gr. and Lat. Jaxartes; Arab. Shash or Sihun),
a river of Asia, flowing into the Sea of Aral, and having a length
of 1500 m. and a drainage area of about 320,000 sq. m. Its
headstream is the Naryn, which rises in the heart of the Tian-
shan complex south of Lake Issyk-kul, on the southern slope
(12,000 ft.) of the Terskei Ala-tau. After its union with
another mountain stream, the Barskaun, it flows W.S.W.
at 1 1, 060 to 10,000 ft. above the sea, in a barren longitudinal
valley between the Terskei Ala-tau and the foothills of the
Kokshal-tau. On entering a wild narrow gorge in the south-
west continuation of the Terskei Ala-tau it receives the name
of Naryn. Within this gorge it descends some 4000 ft.; Fort
Narynsk, 20 m. below the confluence of the Great and the Little
Naryn, is only 6800 ft. above the sea. Here the river enters a
broad valley — formerly the bottom of an alpine lake — and flows
past the ruins of Fort Kurtka, for 90 m. westward, as a stream
some 50 yds. wide and from 3 to n ft. deep. Its waters are
utilized by the Kirghiz for irrigating their cornfields, which
contrast strangely with the barren aspect of the lofty treeless
mountains. The At-bash, a large mountain stream, joins the
Naryn at the head of this valley and the Alabuga or Arpa at
its lower end, both from the left. Before reaching the low-
lands the Naryn cuts its way through three ridges which
separate the valley of Kurtka from that of Ferghana, and
does so by a series of wild gorges and open valleys (170 m.),
representing the bottoms of old lakes; the valleys of the Toguz-
torau, 2000 ft. lower than Kurtka, and the Ketmen-tube are
both cultivated by the Kirghiz. Taking a wide sweep towards
the north, the river enters Ferghana — also the bottom of an
immense lake — where, after receiving the Kara-darya (Black
River) near Namangan, it assumes the name of Syr-darya.1
The Kara-darya is a large stream rising on the northern spurs
of the Alai Mountains. As it deflects the Naryn towards the
west, the natives look upon it as the chief branch of the Syr-
darya, but its volume is much smaller. At the confluence the
Syr is 1440 ft. above sea-level.
The waters of the Syr-darya and its tributaries are in this part of
its course largely drained away for irrigation. It is to the Syr
that Ferghana is indebted for its high, if somewhat exaggerated,
repute in Central Asia as a rich garden and granary; cities like
Khokand, Marghilan and Namangan, and more than 800,000
inhabitants of the former khanate of Khokand, subsist by its waters.
Notwithstanding this drain upon it, the Syr could be easily navigated,
were it not for the Bigoyat rapids at Irjar, at the lower end of the
valley, where the river pierces the Mogol-tau.
On issuing from this gorge the Syr enters the Aral depression, and
flows for 850 m. in a north-westerly and northerly direction before
reaching the Sea of Aral. On this section.it is navigated by steamers.
Between the Irjar rapids and Baildyr-turgai (where it bends north)
the river flows along the base of the subsidiary ranges which flank
the Chotkal Mountains on the north-west, and receives from the
longitudinal valleys of these alpine tracts a series of tributaries
(the Angren, the Chirchik, the Keles), which in their lower courses
fertilize the wide plains of loess on the right bank of the Syr.
Some 50 m. below Chinaz (770 ft. above sea-level) the Syr bends
northwards, but resumes its north-westerly course 150 m. farther
down, following with remarkable persistency the edge of the loess.
Its low banks, overgrown with reeds and rendered uninhabitable
in summer by clouds of mosquitoes, are inundated for 20 m. on both
sides when the snows begin to melt. These inundations prevent the
moving sands of the Kyzyl-kum desert from approaching the Syr;
below Perovsk, however, the steppe does gain the upper hand. Down
to Perovsk the river rolls its muddy yellow waters, at the rate
of 3 to 5 m. an hour, in a channel 300 to 600 yds. wide and 3 to 5
fathoms deep; at Perovsk its vertical section is 8220 sq. ft., and
312,500 cub. ft. of water are discharged per second. The Arys and
the Bugun are the only tributaries worthy of notice along this part of
its course; the other streams which descend from the Kara-tau fail
to reach the river. The Kirghiz rear numerous herds of cattle and
1 Syr and darya both signify " river," in two different dialects.
304
SYR-DARYA
sheep in the valley of the Arys, while lower down, as far as Julek,
the Iginchis carry on agriculture. All this applies of course only to
the right bank ; on the left the moisture is absorbed by the hot winds
which cross the Kyzyl-kum sands towards the river. The dryness
of the atmosphere has a marked effect upon the Syr when it gets
below Julek, the Kara-kum sands being then on its right. Ten miles
below Perovsk the river traverses a marshy depression (the bottom
of a lake not yet fully dried up), where it divides into two branches —
the Jaman-darya and the Kara-uzyak. The latter spreads out into
marshes and ponds, from which it again issues to join the former at
Karamakchi, after a course of 80 m. The main arm, owing to its
shallowness and sinuosity, is very difficult to navigate, and the
difficulty is increased by the rapidity of the current and the want of
fuel. Between Kazalinsk and the Sea of Aral (158 ft.) navigation
becomes somewhat easier, except for the last 10 m., where the river
divides into three shallow branches before entering the " Blue Sea."
All three have at their mouths sandy bars with only 3 ft. of
water.
Two former right-hand tributaries of the Syr — the Chu and the
Sary-su — now disappear in the sands some 60 m. before reaching it.
The Chu, which is 600 m. in length, rises in the Tian-shan south-west
of Lake Issyk-kul, and as the Kashkar flows towards Lake Issyk-kul,
but a few miles before reaching that lake turns suddenly to the north-
west, enters under the name of Chu the narrow gorge of Buam, and,
piercing the snow clad Kunghei Ala-tau, emerges on its northern
slope, having descended from 5500 ft. to less than 2000 in a distance
of not more than 50 m. In this part of its course it receives from the
right the Kebin, whose high valley equals in size that of the upper
Rhone. It then flows north-westwards through the valley of Pish-
pek, and, avoiding the Muyun-kum sands, describes a wide curve
to the north before finally taking a western direction. Numberless
streams flow towards it from the snow-clad Alexander Mountains,
but they are for the most part lost in the sands before reaching it.
The Talas, 170 m. long, formerly an affluent of the Chu, which rises
in the highest parts of that range, pierces the Cha-archa Mountains,
and, flowing past Aulie-ata on the south border of the Muyun-kum,
enters the salt lake of Kara-kul 60 m. from the Chu. The Chu ter-
minates in the Saumal-kul group of lakes, 60 m. from the Syr.
Another elongated group of lakes — the Uzun-kul — near the above,
receives the Sary-su, which has a length of nearly 570 m. and flows
rapidly in a narrow channel along the western edge of the northern
Famine Steppe (Bekpak-dala).
The delta of the Syr begins at Perovsk, whence it sends a branch
to the south-west, the Jany-darya (New River), which formerly
reached the south-eastern corner of the Sea of Aral, very near to
the mouth of the Amu-darya. The Kirghiz affirm that a canal dug
for irrigation by the Kara-kalpaks gave origin to this river. It had,
however, but a temporary existence. A dam erected by the people
of Khokand at Ak-mechet (Perovsk) caused its disappearance, and
the Russians found nothing but a dry bed in 1820. When the dam
was removed the Jany-darya again reappeared, but it failed to reach
the Sea of Aral; in 1853 it terminated in Lake Kuchka-denghiz, after
a course of 250 m. ; all traces of its bed were then lost in the sand.
Five centuries ago, in the time of Timur, the Mongol prince of Samar-
kand, the Jany-darya brought the waters of the Syr to the Daukara
lakes, close by the present mouth of the Amu. The series of old
river-beds in the Kyzyl-kum, which are still seen above Perovsk,
indicates that the Syr had a constant tendency to seek a channel
to the south-west, and that its present delta is but a vestige of what
it was once. At a still more remote period this delta probabjy
comprised all the space between the Kara-tau and the Nura-tau in
Samarkand ; and the series of elongated lakes at the base of the Nura-
tau — the Tuz-kaneh and Bogdan-ata lakes — represent an old branch
of the delta of the Syr which probably joined the Zarafshan before
reaching the Amu. The cause of this immense change is simply
the rapid desiccation of all the northern and central parts of Asia,
due to the fact that we are now living in the later phase of the
Lacustrine period, which has followed the Glacial period. The
extension of the Caspian Sea as far as the Sary-kamysh lakes during
the post-Pliocene period and the extension of the Sea of Aral at least
100 m. to the east of its present position are both proved by the
existence of post-Pliocene marine deposits. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
SYR-DARYA, or SYR-DARTINSK, a province of Russian
Turkestan, lying on both sides of the Syr-darya river, from
its embouchure in the Sea of Aral up to Khojent, where it issues
from the mountain region of the Tian-shan. The province
is bounded N. by the provinces of Turgai, Akmolinsk and
Semipalatinsk; E. by Semiryechensk; S. by Ferghana, Zarafshan,
Bokhara and Khiva; and W. by Khiva and the Sea of Aral.
Its area (166,000 sq. m.), its population (over a million and a
half) and the city of Tashkent make it the most important
province of Russian Turkestan.
The south-eastern boundary runs along the Chotkal Mountains
(14,000 ft.), which separate the river Chotkal from the river Naryn,
and join the Alexander Mountains on the east. A series of short
chains, such as the Talas-tau and Ala-tau, fringe the above
on the north-west, and occupy the south-east of the province.
The snow-clad summits of the Talas-tau reach 14,000 to 15,000 ft.
in altitude, and immense glaciers occur about Manas Mountain.
This range seems to run from west-south-west to east-
north-east; the other flanking chains have a decidedly south-
westerly direction, and are much lower, the outlying ranges
having rather the character of broad plateaus above 2000 ft.
in altitude, where the Kirghiz find excellent pasture-grounds.
Some of them, such as the Kazyk-urt, rise isolated from
the steppe. The Kara-tau is quite separate from the preceding
and runs at right angles to them — that is, from north-west to south-
east. It belongs therefore to another series of upheavals prevalent
in western Asia, to which Richthofen has given the name of the
" Kara-tau series." Its length is about 270 m., and its average
altitude about 5000 ft., rising at some points to 6000 and 7000 ft.
It separates the river Syr-darya from the river Chu, and its gentle
south-western slope contains the sources of a multitude of streams
which water the oasis around the town of Turkestan.
The mountainous tracts occupy, however, only a small part of
Syr-darya, the rest is steppe. Three different areas must be dis-
tinguished— the Kyzyl-kum, the Muyun-kum or Ak-kum, and the
Kara-kum. The Kyzyl-kum (red sands) sands stretch between the
Amu and the Syr, and have a gradual ascent from 160 ft. at the Sea
of Aral to 1500 and 2000 ft. in the south-east. They are partly
shifting, partly stationary (see KARA-KUM). In the west the sur-
face is overlaid with remains of Aral-Caspian deposits. As the
Tian-shan is approached the steppe assumes another character :
a thick sheet of loess girdles the foothills and forms the fertile soil
to which Turkestan is indebted for its productive fields and gardens.
The Kara-kum sands, situated north-east of the Sea of Aral, are
manifestly a former bottom of the lake.
In the east the steppe yields some vegetation and is visited by the
Kirghiz. The barkhans do not shift, being covered with Calligonum,
Tamarix, Holoxylon anemodendron. The Muyun-kum or Ak-kum
steppe, between the Kara-tau Mountains and the Chu River, is quite
uninhabited, except in the loess region at the northern base of the
mountains. (For the geological history of the western Tian-shan
ranges see TIAN-SHAN.) Throughout the Cretaceous and earlier
Tertiary periods the lowlands of Syr-darya were under the sea.
The character of the region during the post-Pliocene period remains
unsettled. A girdle of loess, varying in width from 30 to 50 m.,
encircles all the mountain tracts, increasing in extent in Bokhara
and at the lower end of the valley of Ferghana. It seems certain
that during the Lacustrine period the Caspian was connected by a
narrow gulf with the Aral basin, which was then much larger, while
another inland sea of great dimensions covered the present Balkash
basin, and at an earlier period may have been connected with the
Aral basin. Recent traces of these basins are found in the
steppes.
The chief river of the province is the Syr-darya (q.v.). The frontier
touches the eastern shore of the Sea of Aral, and numerous small
lakes, mostly salt, are scattered over the sandy plains. A few lakes
of alpine character occur in the valleys of the hilly tracts.
The climate of the province varies greatly in its different parts.
It is most severe in the mountain region; and in the lowlands it is
very hot and dry. As a whole, the western parts of the Tian-shan
receive but little precipitation, and are therefore very poor in forests.
In the lowlands the heat of the dry summer is almost insupportable,
the thermometer rising to III* F. in the shade ; the winter is severe
in the lower parts of the province, where the Syr remains frozen
for three months. The average yearly temperature at Tashkent
and Kazalinsk respectively is 58-3° and 46-4° (January, 29° and 12° ;
July, 77-5° and 78°).
The terraces of loess mentioned above are alone available for
cultivation, and accordingly less than I % (0-8) of the total area of
the province is under crops, the remainder being either quite barren
(57 %) °r pasture land (42 %). In the few cases where cultivation
is possible, it is carried to great perfection owing to a highly developed
system of irrigation — two crops being gathered every year. Wheat
and barley come first, then peas, millet and lentils, which are grown-
in the autumn. Rye and oats are grown only about Kazalinsk.
Cotton is cultivated. Gardening is greatly developed. Sericulture
is an important source of income. Livestock breeding is largely
pursued, not only by the nomads but by the settled population.
Fishing is prosecuted to some extent on the lower Syr. Timber and
firewood are exceedingly dear.
The population of the province was estimated in 1906 as 1,779,000.
It is comparatively dense in certain parts. The Russians number
barely 8500, if the military be left out of account. Kirghiz (50%)
and Sarts (9-8%) are the main elements of the population, with
Uzbegs (4-3%), and a few Jews, Tajiks, Tatars, Persians and
Hindus. The predominant occupations of the Sarts, Uzbegs,
Tajiks and settled Kirghiz are agriculture and gardening, but the
Kirghiz lead chiefly a nomadic pastoral life. Manufactures are
represented by cotton mills, tanneries and distilleries; but a great
variety of petty industries are practised in the towns and villages.
Syr-darya is divided into six districts, the chief towns of
which are Tashkent, Aulie-ata, Kazalinsk, Perovsk, Chimkent
and Amu-darya. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
SYRIA
305
SYRIA, the name given generally to the land lying between
the easternmost shore of the Levantine Gulf and a natural
inland boundary formed in part by the Middle Euphrates and
in part by the western edge of the Hamad or desert
steppe. The northern limit is the Tauric system of
mountains, and the southern limit the edge of the Sinaitic
desert. This long strip extends, therefore, for about 400 m.
between 38° and 31° N. lat. with a mean breadth of about
150 m. Since, however, the steppe edge on the east is
somewhat indefinite, some early Moslem and other geographers
have included all the Hamad in Syria, making of the latter
a blunt-headed triangle with a base some 700 m. long resting
on. the north Arabian Nefud. But Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy,
as well as the! better Moslem geographers, drew the eastern
only under the Graeco-Roman administration that we
find a definite district known as Syria, and that was at first
restricted to the Orontes basin. Later, all that we understand
by Syria came to be so known officially to the Romans and
Byzantines; but the only province called simply Syria, without
qualification, remained in the Orontes valley. Under the
present Ottoman distribution " Syria " is the province of Sham
or Damascus, exclusive of the vilayets of Aleppo and Beirut
and the sanjaks of Lebanon and Jerusalem, which all fall in
what is called Syria is the wider geographical sense.
Taking Syria as the strip limited by the sea, the edge of the
Hamad, the Taurus and the Sinaitic desert, we have a remark-
ably homogeneous geographical area with very obvious natural
boundaries; but these, for various reasons, have proved very
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frontier obliquely from the Gulf of Akeba to Rakka (Raqqa)
on Euphrates, and thus placed the Hamad in Arabia.
The name Syria is not found in the Hebrew original of the
Scriptures; but it was used by the Septuagint to translate Aram.
Homer knows only "Aptjuoi, but Herodotus speaks of " Syrians "
as identical with Assyrians, the latter being, he thinks, a " bar-
barian " form, and he applies the name very widely to include,
e.g. north Cappadocians (" White Syrians " of Pteria). Syria,
however, is probably the Babylonian Suri, used of a north
Euphratean district, and a word distinct from Assyria.
Generally the ethnic term, Syrians, came to mean in
antiquity the Semiti peoples domiciled outside the Meso-
potamian and Arabian areas: but neither in pre- Greek
nor in Greek times had the word Syria any very precise
geographical significance, various lands, which we include
under it, retaining their distinctive status, e.g. Commagene
(Kummukh), Cyrrhestica, Phoenicia, Palestine, &c. It is
ineffective in history, especially on the south and east. Syria
happens to lie on the line of least resistance for communication
between the early subtropic seats of civilization in the Nile
and Euphrates valleys and the civilizations of Europe. Its
eastern boundary is in great part a steppe, which breeds popula-
tion, but, unable to nourish increase, sends it over its boundaries
in a constant stream of migration. Consequently south Palestine
has been continuously " Arabized "; and indeed the whole of
Syria has been characterized by racial and religious fusions, and
by civilization of a singularly syncretic and derived kind, of
which the ancient Phoenician is a sufficient example.
The surface configuration of almost all the strip is remarkably
uniform. With the exception of the extreme north (Commagene),
which is shut off by a barrier of hills and belongs to foreign hydro-
graphic systems, the ' whole country is roughly a gable-shaped
elateau, falling north and south from a medial ridge, which crosses
yria at about its central point. This gable is tilted eastwards,
and its two long slopes are defined by bordering mountain chains
300
SYRIA
which run across its medial ridge; the main Syrian streams are those
which follow those slopes between the chains, thus running either
north or south for most of their courses, and only finding their way
to the' western sea by making sharp elbows at the last. Syrian
orography, therefore, is simple, being composed of nothing but these
two parallel systems. That on the west, which rises behind the
Mediterranean littoral, springs from Taurus in the well-afforested
Mt Ama nus (Giaour Dagh), and is continued by Jebel Bereket and
J. Akhma, over the northern end of which runs a single easy pass
(Beilan) to the north-east angle of the Levant coast (Alexandretta),
while at the southern end is a gap through which the Orontes turns
sharply to the sea. South of this, with J. Akra (the Bald Mountain,
anc. Casius) begins a further section, rounded and grassy, called
J. Ansariya, which presently springs up into a high chain of Jurassic
limestone with basaltic intrusions, whose peaks rise to 10,000 ft.
and whose passes do not fall under 6000 ft. Here it is called J.
al-Gharbi or Libnan (see LEBANON). Thereafter it broadens out
and becomes the high table-land of Galilee, Samaria and Judaea,
and gradually sinks into the plateau of north Sinai.
The eastern system springs from the Tauric offshoot (Kurd
Dagh, &c.), which shuts off the Commagenian basins, and as the
triple chain of J. al Ala, it defines the Orontes valley on the east.
Like its western parallel it springs up presently into a higher chain
and is known as J. es-Sharki, or Anti-Libanus, which culminates
in a knot on the south, to which is given the name J. es-Sheikh,
or Hermon (8000 ft.). Thereafter it loses much of its distinctive
character, but may be traced southwards in J. Hauran and the
Moabite hills to Horeb and the Midianite Mountains of the Hebrews,
which run into Arabia.
Hydrography. — Between these systems run the main rivers;
and these naturally rise near the medial ridge, in the lacustrine
district of el-Buka'a, or Coelesyria, and flow in opposite directions.
That following the northern slope is the Nahr al-'Asi (see ORONTES)
into which, when it has turned sharply towards the sea, flow some
tributary streams from the Commagenian divide on the north. The
main stream flowing south is the Jordan, which fails to reach the sea,
being absorbed into the great rift of the Ghor: but a smaller stream,
the North Litani (called Kasimiya in its lower course), whose source
lies very near that of Jordan, repeats the course of the Orontes on a
minor scale and gets through the western mountain system to the
sea near Sur (Tyre). Outside the basins of these rivers and their
bordering mountain systems there only remain to be considered
the following: (i) The Mediterranean littoral strip (the ancient
PHOENICIA), with a few torrent-like streams. (2) The shut-off
district in the extreme north, ancient Commagene, which consists
of two basins divided by a low ridge running from south to north.
These basins belong, one to the Cilician river-system, and the other
to the Euphratean. In the first lay the ancient Germanicia (mod.
Marash); in the second the ancient Samosata (mod. Samsat), whose
importance has now passed to Adiaman. The southern boundary
of both basins is a low chain which leaves the Euphrates near the
mouth of the Sajur tributary, and runs west towards Mt Amanus,
to which it is linked by a sill whereon stood the ancient fortified palace
of Samal (Sinjerli; see HITTITES). (3) A succession of oases lying
east of the eastern mountain system on the edge of the steppe, and
fed by short local streams. Of these the most important are, from
north to south, (a) the Saltpan of Jebeil, fed by the North al-Dahab ;
(b) the oases of Kinnesrin and Aleppo, fed by the North Kuwaik; and
(c) that of Sham or Damascus, fed by streams from Hermon, of which
the Barada (Abana) and the Awaj (Pharpar) are the chief.
Since these streams had in no case originally easy access to the
sea, we naturally find lakes on their course, and several of them
terminate in tracts of more or less permanent inundation. Those
which occur on the course of the principal rivers are described under
ORONTES and JORDAN. The ethers, which terminate streams, are
the Bahr el-Ateiba, which receives the waters of Damascus; the Mat,
into which the Kuwaik flows below Kinnesrin; and the Ak Deniz,
or Bahrat Antakia, the ancient Lake of Antioch, which collects the
waters of the Kara Su and Afrin, the southward from the watershed
which shuts off Commagene. The last-named lake has now been
almost entirely dried up by the cutting of a channel, which conducts
its feeders directly to the Orontes.
Geology. — Geologically, Syria belongs to two distinct regions of
the earth's crust, the northern and smaller portion lying within the
great belt of folding of southern Europe and central Asia, and the
southern and larger portion belonging to the Indo-African area,
which, though often faulted, is usually free from crumpling.
According to M. Blanrkenhorn the boundary between the two regions
runs from the Bay of Jebele along the Afrin River to Aintab, and
thence to the Euphrates above Birejik. In the southern region
which is by far the better known, the oldest rocks are granites,
crystalline schists and other rocks of Archean aspect. These are
overlaid by conglomerates, tuffs, sandstones and arkoses, which
perhaps do not all belong to the same period. In Palestine a lime-
stone containing Carboniferous fossils is found in the midst of the
sandstone series, and here the sandstone is immediately succeeded
by limestones with Hippurites and other fossils belonging to the
Upper Cretaceous. Farther north, however, Jurassic beds are met
with, but of very limited extent. Cretaceous limestones cover the
greater part of Palestine and rocks of the same period form Mt
Lebanon, the Casius Mons, &c., farther north. Nummulitic lime-
stone (Eocene) overlies the Cretaceous in Philistia, and north of
Lebanon Eocene and Miocene deposits cover the greater part of the
country. The Pliocene deposits are not very widely spread and are
generally of fresh-water origin excepting near the coast, but marine
Pliocene beds have been found at el Forklus in the Palmyra desert.
Jebel Hauran, east of the Jordan, is capped by a great sheet of
basalt; and many other basalt flows are found, especially in the
country north of Lebanon. They are mostly true felspar basalts,
but a few contain nepheline in addition to the felspar. In most
cases the eruptions appear to be of Pliocene or later date, but in the
extreme north some of the basalt seems to belong to the Miocene
period. There is historic evidence of mud eruptions in some of the
volcanic areas. The most striking feature in the structure of Syria
is the existence of long Graben, or narrow depressions formed by
faulting. The best known of these Graben is that of the Jordan,
but the upper part of the Orontes lies in a similar depression, which
is, indeed, very probably the continuation of the Jordan-Araba
trough. The faulting which formed the depressions is certainly
later than the deposition of the Cretaceous beds and probably
belongs to the later portion of the Tertiary era. Little is known
of the part of Syria which lies within the folded belt, and includes
the Amanus and Kurd mountains. The rocks do not appear to
differ very markedly from those farther south, but the Devonian
is believed to be represented. The folds are approximately parallel
to those of the Taurus, and geologically these mountains may be
said to belong to that range.1
Climate. — Within historic times the climate, and with it the pro-
ductivity of the country, cannot have greatly changed ; at most the
precipitation may have been greater, the area under wood having
been more extensive. Except for Jerusalem, we have hardly
any accurate meteorological observations; there the mean annual
temperature is about 63° F. ; in Beirut it is about 68°. The rainfall
in Jerusalem is 36-22 in., in Beirut 21-66. The heat at Damascus
and Aleppo is great, the cooling winds being kept off by the moun-
tains. Frost and snow are occasionally experienced among the
mountains and on the inland plateaus, but never along the coast.
Even the steppe exhibits great contrasts of temperature; there the
rainfall is slight and the air exceedingly exhilarating and healthy.
The sky is continuously cloudless from the beginning of May till
about the end of October; during the summer months the nights as
a rule are dewy, except in the desert. Rain is brought by the west
wind; the north-west wind, which blows often, moderates the heat.
On the other hand, an ozoneless east wind (sirocco) is occasionally
experienced — especially during the second half of May and before
the beginning of the rainy season — which has a prejudicial influence
on both animal and vegetable life. On the whole the climate of
Syria — if the Jordan valley and the moister districts are excepted —
is not unhealthy, though intermittent fevers are not uncommon in
some places.
The general character of the country, resultant on these conditions,
varies according to elevation and latitude. Owing to the high
barrier which shuts off almost all Syria from the sea, and precipitates
vapours mainly on the western slope, little of the land is highly
productive without irrigation, except the narrow littoral strip which
was the ancient Phoenicia, and the small deltas, such as that of
Latakia (Laodicea). Palestine, being less shut in and enjoying a
comparatively large general rainfall, would be still a land " flowing
with milk and honey " had its forests not been destroyed, and the
terracing, which used to hold up soil on the highlands, been main-
tained. As it is, it has very fertile patches of lowland, such as the
plains of Esdraelon and Jaffa; and the high levels, largely composed
of disintegrated igneous rock, west of Jordan, over which the sea-
wind carries the rains, offer excellent corn-land. In the extreme
south Palestine begins to be affected by the Arabian dryness. For
the rest, Syria needs irrigation ; and since neither of its larger rivers,
Orontes or Jordan, flowing as these do in deep beds, is of much
use for this purpose, all Mid-Syria, except the lacustrine oases, is a
region mainly occupied by pastures, and yielding only thin cereal
crops. Commagene, where not rocky, and the district lying along
the southward drains from its divide (anc. Cyrr hestica) , is in better
case, enjoying perennial streams which can be utilized, and the
fringe of the Tauric rainfall. The latter dies away over the plains
east and south-east of Aleppo, making them afford good spring
pasture, which has attracted the nomads from farther south: but
below the latitude of Rakka-Homs thin steppe begins, and quickly
degenerates into sheer desert broken only by a chain of poor oases,
south of a low ridge running from Anti-Lebanon to Euphrates. Of
these the principal are Kanetein and Tadmor (Palmyra), through
which passes the trade from Damascus to the east. In ancient times,
1 See O. Fraas, Aus dem Orient, pt. ii. (Stuttgart, 1878) ; C. Diener,
Libanon (Vienna, 1886) ; M. Blanckenhorn, Beitrdge zur Geologic
Syriens (Cassel, 1890, &c.), and Grundzuge der Geologic und physi-
kalischen Geographic von Nord-Syrien (Berlin, 1891). See also the
references under PALESTINE. A summary by M. Blanckenhorn
will be found in Monatsschr. f. wirtschaftl. Erschliessung Paldstinas,
pp. 289-301 (Berlin, 1904).
SYRIA
307
up to the Arab invasion, the northern part of the eastern plateau,
between Orontes and Euphrates, was made habitable and even
fertile by storage of rainfall. It supported a large number of villages
and small towns, whose remains are remarkably well preserved, and
still serve to shelter a sparse pastoral population.
Flora. — Two distinct floral regions meet in Syria, that of the
Mediterranean and that of the west Asian steppe-land. The first,
to be seen on the coast and the western slopes of the highlands,
is characterized by a number of evergreen shrubs with small leathery
leaves, and by quickly-flowering spring plants. On the lowest
levels the southern forms, the Ficus sycomorus and the date-palm,
appear, and increase in the direction of Egypt (see LEBANON and
PALESTINE). The steppe region, whose flora begins to appear east
of the western ridge, is distinguished by the variety of its species,
the dry and thorny character of its shrubs, and great poverty in
trees. Between these regions the greatly depressed valley of Jordan
shows a subtropic vegetation. Among cultivated trees, the olive
is at home throughout Syria, except on the steppe; the mulberry is
planted extensively in the lower Lebanon; and all sorts of fruit-
trees flourish in irrigated gardens, especially on the Phoenician coast,
in the Palestinian plain, in the oasis of Damascus, and in the Buka'a,
The main cereal regions are the Hauran, and the plains of Antioch
and Commagene; and the lower western slopes of the coast range
are largely devoted to the culture of tobacco. On the northern
inland downs liquorice grows wild and is collected by the peasants
and sent down to Alexandretta.
Fauna. — The mammals of Syria are rather sharply to be distin-
guished into those which range only north of Mt Carmel, and
those which pass that limit1. The first class includes the isabelline
bear, badger, pole-cat, ermine, roe and fallow deer, wild ass, Syrian
squirrel, pouched marmoset, gerbill and leopard. The second class
will be found under PALESTINE; and it includes a sub-class which
is not found outside Palestine at all. In the latter are the coney,
jerboa, several small rodents and the ibex. Only in the Jordan
valley do intrusions from the Ethiopic region appear. Elsewhere
the forms are Palaearctic with intrusions from the east; but the
length of the Syrian strip and the variety of its surface relief admit
of considerable difference in the species inhabiting different districts.
The Lebanon and the hills of north Galilee offer the greatest number
of mammals.
Population. — The actual population of Syria is over 3,000,000,
spread over a superficial area of about 600,000 sq. m., i.e. about
5j persons to the square mile. But this poor average is largely
accounted for by the inclusion of the almost uninhabited northern
steppe-land; and those parts of Syria, which are settled, show
a much higher rate. Phoenicia and the Lebanon have the
densest population, over 70 to the square mile, while Palestine, the
north part of the western plateau east of Jordan, the oases of
Damascus and Aleppo, the Orontes valley, and parts of Com-
magene, are well peopled. The bulk of the population, so far
as race goes, is of the Semitic family, and at bottom Aramaean
with a large admixture of immigrant Arabian blood, which
is constantly being reinforced, and a comparatively small strain
of Hebrew blood. The latter appears mainly in Palestine, and
has of late been considerably strengthened by immigration of
European Jews, who have almost doubled the population of
Jerusalem, and settled upon several fertile spots throughout
the Holy Land. But how far these, or the indigenous " Jews "
are of Hebrew rather than of Aramaean origin is impossible to
say. We only know that as long ago as the ist century B.C.
true Hebrew blood was becoming rare, and that a vast propor-
tion of the Jews of Roman times were Hebraized Aramaeans,
whose assimilation into the Jewish community did not date
much further back than the Maccabaean age.
Among this Semitic folk is to be observed a great variety of
immigrant stocks, settled in isolated patches, which have done
much to contaminate the masses about them. In the extreme
north (Commagene) the highlands are almost entirely held by
Kurds who entered from beyond Euphrates in comparatively
recent times. Kurds live upon the Commagenian plains here
and there, as also in the northern trans-Euphratean plains.
Among them in the Tauras and Amanus, and outnumbering
them on the plains, are Armenian communities, the remains of
the Rupenian invasion of the loth century A.D. (see ZEITUN).
These are found as far south as the plain of Antioch and the
basin of the Sajur. To the north of Aleppo and Antioch live
remnants of pre-Aramaean stocks, mixed with many half-settled
and settled Turkomans (Yuruks, Avshars, &c.) who came in
before the Mahommedan era, and here and there colonies of
recently imported Circassians. The latter are also settled
numerously to the west of Jordan. Mid-Syria shows a medley
of populations of more or less mixed origin, in large part alien,
for which see DRUSES; MARONITES and LEBANON. In the
Phoenician1 coast towns are many Greeks (to be distinguished
from Orthodox Syrians, called also Greeks on account of creed).
In the steppe-land and in the southern trans- Jordanic districts
are numbers of true Arabs, mostly belonging to the great Anazeh
family, which has been coming northwards from Nejd in detach-
ments since the i3th century. These are mainly nomadic, and
include offshoots of the great tribes of Ruala, Walad Ali, B.
Sokhr, Adwan and Bishr, the first two roaming mainly in the
north, the last two in Moab and Ammon. Ottoman Turks,
scattered gipsy communities, German settlers in north Pales-
tine, and all sorts of Europeans make up a heterogeneous and
incompatible population.
. Religion. — The religious types also are strongly divergent.
The bulk of the population is Mahommedan; the Bedouins
have not much religion of any kind, but they profess Islam.
Besides orthodox Moslems there are also Shi'ite sects, as well
as a number of religious communities whose doctrine is the out-
come of the process of fermentation that characterized the first
centuries of Islam. To this last class belong the Ismailites
(Assassins), q.v., Metawali, Nosairis, Ansarieh, and especially the
Druses (q.v.). In many cases it is obvious that the political
antipathy of the natives to the Arabs has found expression in
the formation of such sects. The Ansarieh, for instance, and
no doubt the Druses also, were originally survivals of the Syrian
population. The Jews are found mainly in the larger centres
of population. The Christians are an important element,
constituting probably as much as a fifth of the whole population ;
the majority of them belong to the Orthodox Greek Church,
which has two patriarchs in Syria, at Antioch and Jerusalem.
Catholics — United Greeks, United Syrians and Maronites — are
numerous. The mission of the American Presbyterian Church,
which has had its centre in Beirut for the last sixty years, has
done much for Syria, especially in the spread of popular educa-
tion; numerous publications issue from its press, and its medical
school has been extremely beneficial. The Catholic mission
has done very good work in what relates to schools, institutes
and the diffusion of literature. The Christians constitute the
educated portion of the Syrian people; but the spirit of rivalry
has produced stimulative effects on the Mahommedans, who had
greatly fallen away from that zeal for knowledge which charac-
terized the earlier centuries of their faith.
Language. — The language throughout southern and middle
Syria as high as Killis is Arabic, which has entirely ousted
Aramaic and Hebrew from common use, and tends to prevail
even over the speech of recent immigrants like the Circassians.
The last survivals of Aramaic are to be sought in certain remote
villages of Anti-Lebanon, and in the Syriac known to the clergy.
From the upper Sajur northwards Turkish prevails, even among
the Armenians; but many Kurdish communities retain their
own tongue.
Government. — The political status of the country is controlled
by the Ottoman Empire, of which Syria makes part, divided into
the vilayets of Aleppo, Sham or Syria (Damascus), the Lebanon
(q.v.) and Beirut, and the separate sanjaks or mutessarifliks of
Zor and Jerusalem. Ottoman control is imperfect in Lebanon,
the Houran, and over the Armenian mountain region of Zeitun
and over the eastern steppe-lands, whose nomadic populations
can withdraw themselves out of reach. But considerable
success has been achieved in inducing the Syrian Arabs to settle
and in supplying a counteracting influence to their unrest by
the establishment of agricultural colonies, e.g. those of the
Circassians in Bashan, Ammon and Moab.
Communications are still very imperfect, but have been greatly
improved of late years. Railways run from Beirut to Horns,
Hamah, Aleppo and Damascus (French), and to the latter also
from Haifa (Turkish). From the termination of the Damascus-
Mzerib railway a line (the " Mecca railway ") has been laid by
Ottoman enterprise east of Jordan to the southern limit of Syria
and beyond. From Jaffa a short line runs io Jerusalem, and a
3o8
SYRIA
steam tramway connects Beirut with Tripoli. There are carriage
roads radiating from Aleppo to the sea at Alexandretta, and to
Aintab; and Antioch is also connected with Alexandretta; Beirut
and Horns with Tripoli; Damascus with Beirut; and Nazareth with
Haifa. But carriage roads in the Ottoman dominions are seldom
completely made, and hardly ever kept in repair. The Lebanon
district is well supplied with both roads and made mule-tracks.
Commerce. — From the Egyptian and Assyno-Babylonian monu-
ments we learn that in ancient times one of the principal exports of
Syria was timber; this has now entirely ceased. _ But it continues
to export wheat. Other articles of export are silk cocoons, woo!,
hides, sponges, eggs and fruits (oranges, almonds, raisins and the
like) ; the amounts of cotton, tobacco and wine sent out of the country
are small. The only good harbours are those of Beirut and Alex-
andretta (Iskanderun). The caravan trade with the East has
almost entirely ceased, and the great trade routes from Damascus
northwards to Aleppo and eastwards through the wilderness are
quite abandoned. The traffic with Arabia has ceased to be impor-
tant, being limited to the time of the going and returning of the
great pilgrimage to Mecca, which continues to have its mustering-
place at Damascus, but leaves mainly by rail. The native industries
in silk, cotton and wool have been almost entirely destroyed by the
import trade from Europe. The land is poor in minerals, including
coal; water-power also is deficient, so that the introduction of
European industries is attended with difficulties even apart from
the insecurity of affairs, which forbids such experiments as the
improvement of agriculture by means of European capital. As
regards the cultivation of the soil Syria remains stable; but the
soil is becoming relatively poorer, the value of the imports con-
stantly gaining upon that of the exports. The latter are estimated
at some 2j millions sterling; the former at 4 millions.
History. — Rude stone monuments (circles and dolmens) and
other prehistoric remains show that Syria must have been
inhabited from a very early period. Within historic times a
great number of different nationalities have fought and settled
within its borders, the majority belonging to the Semitic stock.
This last circumstance has rendered possible a considerable
degree of fidelity in the tradition of the oldest local names. After
the Aramaeans had absorbed what remained of the earlier
population, they themselves were very powerfully influenced
by Graeco- Roman civilization, but as a people they still retained
their Aramaean speech. Of the political relations of Syria in
the most ancient times we know but little. Each town with its
surrounding district seems to have constituted a small separate
state; the conduct of affairs naturally devolved upon the noble
families. In the latter part of the i6th century B.C. all north
Syria fell under the Cappadocian Hatti domination. The south
part of Syria was known to Sargon of Akkad (Agade) as Ammon
and was visited by his armies. This is known as the Canaanite
period, succeeded about 1000 B.C. by the Aramaean. At a
very early period — as early probably as the i6th century B.C. —
Syria became the meeting-place of Egyptian and Babylonian
elements, resulting in a type of western Asiatic culture peculiar
to itself, which through the commerce of the Phoenicians was
carried to the western lands of the Mediterranean basin. Indus-
try especially attained a high state of development; rich garments
were embroidered, and glass, pastes, faience, &c., were manufac-
tured. The extant inventories of spoil carried off by the ancient
conquerors include a variety of utensils and stuffs. The influence
exercised at all times on Syrian art by the powerful neighbouring
states is abundantly confirmed by all the recent finds which,
in addition to our previous knowledge, show the action of the
Aegean culture on Phoenicia and Palestine. The Syrians were
more original in what related to religion; every place, every
tribe, had its "lord" (Ba'al) and its "lady" (Ba'alat); the
latter is generally called 'Ashlar or 'Ashtaret (i.e. Ishtar,
Astarte). Besides the local Baal there were " the god of heaven "
(El) and other deities; human sacrifices as a means of propitiat-
ing the divine wrath were not uncommon. But in the Syrian
mythology foreign influences frequently betray themselves.
Over against its want of originality must be set the fact, not
merely that Syrian culture ultimately spread extensively towards
the West, but that the Syrians (as is shown by the inscriptions
of Teima, &c.) long before the Christian era exercised over the
northern Arabs a perceptible influence which afterwards, about
the beginning of the ist century, became much stronger through
the kingdom of the Nabataeans. The art of writing was
derived by the Arabs from the Syrians.
Something about the ancient political and geographical rela-
tions of Syria can be gleaned from Egyptian sources, especially
in connexion with the campaigns of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III.
in western Asia and the administration of Amenophis (Amen-
hotep) IV. (the Tell el-Amarna Letters). The Egyptians desig-
nated their eastern neighbours collectively as 'Amu. Syria up
to and beyond the Euphrates is called more precisely §ahi (or
Zahi), and is regarded as consisting of the following parts:
(i) Rutenu, practically the same as Palestine (occasionally
Palestine with Coelesyria is called Upper Rutenu, as distin-
guished from Lower Rutenu extending to the Euphrates); (2)
the land of the Kheta (sometimes reckoned as belonging to Rutenu
with Kadesh on the Orontes as its capital in the Ramesside
period; (3) Naharina, the land on both sides of the Euphrates
(extending, strictly speaking, beyond the Syrian limits).
The Canaanites in general are called Kharu. From these lands
the Egyptian kings often derived rich booty, so that in those
days Syria must have been civilized and prosperous. Moreover,
we possess enumerations of towns in the geographical lists of
the temple of Karnak and in a hieratic papyrus dating about
200 years after Tethmosis III. Some of these names can
be readily identified, such as Aleppo, Kadesh, Sidon, and the
like, as well as many in Palestine. The Tell el-Amarna Letters
(iSth century B.C.) show Syria held in part by Egyptian viceroys,
who are much preoccupied with southward movements in the
Buka'a and the rest of the interior beyond their control, due to
pressure of Amorite peoples, and of the Mitanni and the Kheta,
whose non-Semitic blood was mingled with that of the Aramaeans
even in Palestine. On the latter in Syria, see HITTITES. It need
only be said here that this people bulked most largely in the
relations of Egypt with Syria from the i6th to the I4th cen-
turies. During the reign of Rameses II. it was centred on the
upper Orontes (Kadesh) and had comparatively free access to
Palestine and the Egyptian border. Later on we find Kheta
focused farther north, on the middle Euphrates (Carchemish),
and more or less cut off from Egypt by the Hebrew state.
They or their confederacy remained, however, the most power-
ful of the Syrian elements till the westward extension of Assyria
about 1050 B.C., under Tiglath-Pileser I. Late in the 8th cen-
tury Sargon III. took Carchemish and ended Hittite power.
With the fall of the Kheta the Aramaeans were the people
who held the most important towns of Syria, gradually advancing
until at last they occupied the whole country. Of the Aramaean
stocks named in Gen. x. 23, xxii. 21 seq., very little is known, but
it is certain that Aramaeans at an early period had their abode
close on the northern border of Palestine (in Maachah). A great
part was played in the history of Israel by the state of Aram
Dammesek, i.e. the territory of the ancient city of Damascus;
it was brought into subjection for a short time under David.
The main object of the century-long dispute between the two
kingdoms was the possession of the land to the east of the Jordan
(Hauran, and especially Gilead). Another Aramaean state often
mentioned in the Bible is that of Aram Zobah. That Zobah
was situated within Syria is certain, though how far to the west
or north of Damascus is not known; in any case it was not far
from Hamath (Hamah). Hamath in the valley of the Orontes,
at the mouth of the Buka'a valley, was from an early period one
of the most important places in Syria; according to the Bible,
its original inhabitants were Canaanites. The district belonging
to it, including amongst other places Riblah (of importance on
account of its situation), was not velry extensive. In 733 B.C.
Tiglath-Pileser II. compassed the overthrow of the kingdom of
Damascus; he also took Arpad (Tel Arfad), an important place
three hours to the north of Aleppo. Hamath was taken by
Sargon in 720. Henceforward the petty states of Syria were at
all times subject to one or other of the great world-empires, and
were still in dispute between Babylonia and Egypt as late as
Necho. Thereafter the Mesopotamian powers prevailed, even
if in some cases a certain degree of independence was preserved,
as e.g. by the Phoenician cities. These, however, in spite of
more than one revolt, continued to supply fleets to the Persians
down to the time of the Macedonia invasion (332 B.C.), and
SYRIAC LANGUAGE
309
inland Syria remained comparatively peaceful first under its
own local governors, and, after Darius, as a satrapy, till its
subjugation by Alexander. Alien domination alone has been
able to correct the tendency of this long strip of land to break
up into hostile belts.
The foundation of numerous Greek cities shortly after Alex-
ander's time was of great importance for Syria (see e.g. ANTIOCH).
The Graeco-Syrian civilization extended far to the south down
both sides of Jordan, and, but for the Maccabaean revival,
would have absorbed the Jews. The Seleucidae had severe
struggles with the Ptolemies for the possession of the southern
part of Syria.
After having been reckoned for a short time (from 83 to 69
B.C.) among the dominions of Tigranes, king of Armenia, the
country was conquered for the Romans by Pompey (64-63 B.C.).
It is impossible here to follow in detail the numerous changes
in the distribution of the territory and the gradual disappearance
of particular dynasties which maintained a footing for some time
longer in Chalcis, Abila, Emesa and Palestine; but it is of special
interest to note that the kingdom of the Arab Nabataeans
was able to keep its hold for a considerable period on the north
as far as Damascus. In the year 40 B.C. Syria had to endure a
sudden but brief invasion by the Parthians. The country soon
became one of the most important provinces of the Roman
Empire; its proconsulship was from the first regarded as the most
desirable, and this eminence became still more marked after-
wards. Antioch, adorned with many sumptuous buildings, as
the chief town of the provinces of Asia, became in point of size
the third city of the empire and an eastern Rome. The high
degree of civilization then prevailing in the country is proved
by its architectural remains dating from the early Christian
centuries; the investigations of De Vogue, Butler and others,
have shown that from the ist to the 7th century there prevailed
in north Syria and the Hauran a special style of architecture
— partly, no doubt, following Graeco-Roman models, but also
showing a great deal of originality in details.
The administrative divisions of Syria during the Roman period
varied greatly at different times. Hadrian made three provinces
of it, Syria, Syria Phoenice and Syria Palestina. At the beginning
of the sth century we find the following: (i) Syria Euphratensis,
which had for its capital Hierapolis (q.v.). (2) Syria I., or Coele-
syria, having Antioch as its capital. The name Coelesyria (1) KotXi)
Svpia), no doubt, was applied originally to the valley ("hollow")
between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, but was afterwards ex-
tended to the district stretching eastwards from the latter range.
(3) Syria II., or Syria Salutaris, with Apamea as capital. (4)
Phoenice Maritima; capital, Tyre. (5) Phoenice ad Libanum;
capital, Emesa (Horns). To this division Damascus and Palmyra
belonged; occasionally they were reckoned to Coelesyria, the
middle strip of coast being designated Syrophoenicia. (6, 7, 8)
Palestina I., II. and III. (9) Arabia (capital, Bostra), which
embraced all the region from the IJauran to the Arnon, and
skirted the Jordan valley, stretching southwards to Petrae.
Through the kingdom of the Nabataeans Roman influence pene-
trated from Syria far into northern Arabia.
In 616 Syria was subjugated for a brief period by the Persian
Choroes II.; from 622 till 628 it was again Byzantine; 636 and
the immediately following years saw its conquest by the Mahom-
medans (see CALIPHATE). Moawiya, the first Omayyad caliph,
chose Damascus for his residence; but in 750 the capital of the
-empire was removed by the Abbasids to Bagdad. Under the
early caliphs the Arabs divided Syria into the following military
districts (gonds). (i) Filistin (Palestine), consisting of Judaea,
Samaria and a portion of the territory east of Jordan; its capital
was Ramleh, Jerusalem ranking next. (2) Urdun (Jordan),
of which the capital was Tabaria (Tiberias); roughly speaking,
it consisted of the rest of Palestine as far as Tyre. (3) Damas-
cus, a district which included Baalbek, Tripoli and Beirut, and
also the IJauran. (4) Horns, including IJamath. (5) Kinnesrin,
corresponding to northern Syria; the capital at first was Kin-
nesrin (Qinnasrin) to the south of Ualeb (Aleppo), by which it
was afterwards superseded. (6) The sixth district was the
military frontier ('awdsim) bordering upon the Byzantine
dominions hi Asia Minor. During the struggles of the Mahom-
medan dynasties for the possession of Syria the country still
enjoyed a considerable degree of prosperity.
In the crusading period the kingdom of Jerusalem, whose rulers
were never able to establish a foothold to the east of the Jordan,
extended northwards to Beirut; next to it lay the countship of
Tripoli on the coast; and beyond that hi north Syria was the
principality of Antioch. Syria suffered severely from the Mongol
invasions (1260), and it never recovered its former prosperity.
In 1516 the Ottomans took it from the Egyptian Mamelukes.
For its subsequent history, see TURKEY: History. Its' medieval
importance as an intermediary of trade between Europe and the
East was greatly impaired by the opening of the Red Sea route,
and finally abolished by the Suez Canal; and Syria is at present
important mainly for the sentimental reason that it contains
the holiest places of Judaism and Christianity, and for the
strategic reason that it lies on the flank of the greatest trade-
route of the eastern hemisphere.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — General Works: C. Ritter, Erdkunde (1854-
1855), xvii. ; E. Reclus, Nouv. geog. univ., Asie anterieure (1884);
C. Baedeker and A. Socin, Handbook to Syria and Palestine (1906) ;
V. Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine (1896); D. G. Hogarth, A. E.
Shipley and H. Winckler, art. "Syria," in Ency. Bib. (1903);
L. Lortet, La Syrie d'aujourd'hui (1884).
Travels and Exploration: I. L. Burckhardt, Travels in Syria
(1822); J. L. Porter, Five Years in Damascus (1855); J. Barker,
Syria and Egypt (1876); R. F. Burton and C. F. T. Drake, Unex-
plored Syria (1872); A. von Kremer, Mittelsyrien und Damascus
(1853); W. S. and Lady A. Blunt, Bedouins of the Euphrates (1879);
M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mitlelmeer zum Persischen Golf (1900);
C. E. Sachau, Am Euphrat u. Tigris (1900); C. Humann and O.
Puchstein, Reisen in Nord-Syrien, &c. (1890); W. F. Ainsworth,
Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition (1888), and Travels,
&c. (1842) ; G. L. Bell, The Desert and the Sown (1907) ; H. C. Butler,
Amer. Arch. Exp. to Syria (1904).
History: G. Maspero, Hist. anc. des peuples del' orient dassique
(1897-1898); W. M. F. Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the Tell el-
Amarna Letters (1898).
Special Works: G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine, &c. (1896);
C. J. M. De Vogue1, Architecture, &c., Syrie centrale (1865-1877);
Zwiedinack v. Siidenhorst, Syrien u. seine Bedeutung fur den Welt-
handel (1873) ; R. E. Briinnow and A. v. Domaszewski, Die Provincia
Arabia (1905); E. Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1864-1874); G. A.
Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land (7th ed., 1900) ; G. Perrot and
C. Chipiez, Hist, de I'art dans I'antiquite (1885-1887), vols. iii.-iv. ;
H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands (1903). On coins,
see article NUMISMATICS, and Dieudonne\ Melanges numism. (Paris,
1909). On recently discovered inscriptions see Amer. Journ.
Archaeol., vols. x., xi., xii. See also works quoted s.w. PHOENICIA;
PALESTINE; LEBANON; HITTITES; CRUSADES; TURKEY; PERSIA:
Ancient History. (D. G. H.)
SYRIAC LANGUAGE. Syriac is the eastern dialect of the
Aramaic language which, during the early centuries of the
Christian era, prevailed in Mesopotamia and the adjoining
regions. Its main centres were at Edessa and Nisibis, but it was
the literary language of practically all the Christian writers
in the region east of Antioch, as well as of the Christian subjects
of the Persian empire.
All the Semitic languages1 are built up from triliteral roots:
that is, the great majority of the words are derived from a simple
verbal form, of which the essential elements are three consonants.
This form is seen in the 3rd pers. sing. perf. of the verb, e.g.
Aram, q'tal or k'tal (" he killed "), which corresponds to Heb.
qatal and Arab, qatala. The vowels play no part in differentiat-
ing the roots, for the vowels are practically the same in the
corresponding forms of every root. The form q'tal illustrates
one main peculiarity of Aramaic, as opposed to the other Semitic
languages, viz. its paucity of vowels: for where Hebrew has two
full vowels — a long and a short — in qatal, and Arabic has three
short vowels in qatala, Aramaic has only one short vowel, the
sound * between q and t being merely a half vowel which is not
indicated in Syriac writing. Another chief characteristic of
Aramaic appears in nouns, viz. the entire absence of a prefixed
definite article. Aramaic gives to the noun instead an ending a,
1 On the place of Aramaic among the Semitic languages, and of
Syriac among the various dialects, see SEMITIC LANGUAGES.
310
SYRIAC LITERATURE
making the so-called " emphatic " state. In the older Aramaic
dialects this is used exactly as the noun with prefixed article
is used in other languages; but in Syriac the emphatic state
has lost this special function of making the noun definite, and
has become simply the normal state of the noun. The main
grammatical distinction between Syriac and all the west
Aramaic dialects is that in Syriac the 3rd person of the imperfect
(singular and plural) of the verb begins with n, but in west
Aramaic, as in the other Semitic languages, it begins with y.
When, in the sth century A.D., owing to theological differences
the Syriac-using Christians became divided into Nestorians or
East Syrians and Jacobites (Monophysites) or West Syrians,
certain differences of pronunciation, chiefly in the vowels, began
to develop themselves. The East Syrians in most cases kept
the more primitive pronunciation: e.g. the old Semitic a with
them remained d, but with the Jacobites passed into o. One
very tangible difference appears in the fact that the name Jesus
was by the East Syrians written and pronounced Isho', by the
West Syrians Yeshu.
The Syriac alphabet, which derived its letters from forms
ultimately akin to those of the Old Hebrew and Phoenician
alphabets, has the same twenty-two letters as the Hebrew. And
as in Hebrew, the six letters b g d k p t are aspirated when imme-
diately preceded by any vowel sound. On the other hand, the
guttural letters affect the vowels much less than in Hebrew: their
chief effect is when final to change the preceding vowel, if other
than a or a, into a, but even this is not always the case. 1 The
vowels, which are ten in number (aaeeiioouu), were, as usual
in the Semitic languages, indicated only partially by the use of
consonants as vowel-letters2 and by means of certain diacritical
points, so long as Syriac remained a living language. But
about the time when it began to be supplanted by Arabic, two
systems of vowel-signs were invented, one for the West Syrians,
who borrowed the forms of Greek vowels, and the other more
elaborate for the East Syrians, who used combinations of dots.
Neither system completely differentiates long and short vowels;
the Nestorian scheme is the more satisfactory, though more
cumbrous.
Where the same root exists in Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew, its
fundamental consonants are usually the same in all three
languages. But letters belonging to the same group occasionally
interchange. As regards the dentals and sibilants there are one
or two rules which govern the interchange, in the manner of
a Grimm's Law. (i) Where Arabic has an ordinary dental,
Syriac and Hebrew have the same; but where Arabic has an
aspirated dental (e.g. th), Syriac has an ordinary dental t, but
Hebrew has a sibilant (sh). (2) Hebrew has one more sibilant
than Arabic or Syriac: thus, as corresponding to s (sdmek/i),
s (sin) sit in Hebrew, Arabic has only j (sin) sh, while Syriac has
a different pair 5 (sdmekh) sh. Hebrew sdmekh is represented
by Ar. sin and Syr. samekh; but Heb. sin (Syr. sdmekh) is repre-
sented by Ar. sh, while Heb. and Syr. sh is represented by Ar.
sin. As regards this crossing of i and sh, Arabic has with it
the other south Semitic language, Ethiopic: the evidence as to
the other north Semitic language, Assyrian, is conflicting.
In vowel-sounds Syriac is clearly more primitive than Hebrew
(as pointed by the Massoretes),less so than Arabic. Thus Ar.
and Syr. a is often thinned in Hebrew into i (e when accented),
as in the first syllable of Ar. qattala=Syi. go//e/=Heb. qittel.
But the second syllable of the same word shows Syriac siding
with Hebrew against Arabic. Again the primitive a of Arabic is
in the older (Nestorian) pronunciation of Syriac maintained,
while in Jacobite Syriac and in Hebrew it passes into d: thus Ar.
qdtil Nestorian qdtel = Jacobite and Hebrew qdtel. Again Syriac
1 It may indeed be remarked that Syriac, which is generally
more primitive in its sounds than Hebrew, shows a more advanced
stage of weakening as regards the gutturals: thus in a good many
forms it has substituted alef for initial he, and often shows a dislike
for the presence of two gutturals in the same word, weakening
one of them to alef. A much more advanced stage of weakening
is seen in some of the other dialects.
2 With regard to this, Syriac has one great difference from
Hebrew, viz. that final a is indicated not by he, but by alef.
maintains the diphthongs ai and au, which in Hebrew have
usually passed into e and d.
The accent plays much less part in lengthening and altering
the vowels in Syriac than in Hebrew, but there are well-marked
cases of lengthening from this cause.
A few words may now be said about the three main parts of
speech — pronouns, nouns and verbs.
1. Pronouns. — As in the other Semitic languages, these stand
almost entirely outside the system of triliteral roots, being mainly
derived from certain demonstrative letters or particles. Each of
the personal pronouns (except the 3rd plur.) exists in a longer and
a shorter form: the one is used as a nominative and is a separate
word, the other is attached to verbs and (in a slightly different form)
to nouns to express the accusative or genitive. These pronominal
suffixes are of much the same form as in Hebrew, but produce
less change in the vowels of the words to which they are attached.
Demonstrative adjectives and adverbs are formed by prefixing the
syllable ha ( = ecce, " behold ") to other pronominal elements,
and interrogatives similarly by prefixing the interrogative syllable
031; but there are other interrogative pronouns. The relative
consists only of the letter d (indeclinable) prefixed to words.
2. Nouns and Adjectives. — The Syriac noun has three states —
the absolute (used chiefly in adjectival or participial predicates,
but also with numerals and negatives, in adverbial phrases, &c.),
the construct (which, as in Hebrew, must be immediately followed
by a genitive), and the emphatic (see above). There are only two
genders and two numbers: the neuter gender is entirely wanting,
and the dual number is not recognized in Syriac grammar, though
there are plain traces of it in the language. The fern. sing, ending
is absolute a, construct ath, emphatic ta or 'tha: thus the fern.
sing. abs. is always identical in form with the masc. sing. emph.
The plural endings are — masc. abs. In, const, at, emph. e; fern.
abs. an, const, ath, emph. atha. Syriac is not, like Arabic and
Hebrew, confined to the use of the construct for the ordinary
expression of the genitive or possessive relation: for it has a pre-
position (d) which expresses " of," " belonging to." The noun
preceding this preposition may be in the emphatic state or may (as
is usually the case when the noun is definite) have a pleonastic
suffix. Thus " the son of the king " is more commonly expressed
by b'ra dh'malkd or b'reh d'malka than by bar malka, whereas
the latter type would alone be permissible in Hebrew. And a
genitive with prefixed d does not require the governing noun to
precede it immediately, as must be the case when the construct
is used. This is one of the many respects where Syriac has gained
greater flexibility in syntax than Hebrew.
3. Verbs. — The Syriac verb is remarkable for having entirely
lost the original passive forms, such as in Arabic can be formed in
every conjugation and in Hebrew are represented by the Pual and
Hophal. For these Syriac has substituted middle or reflexive
forms with prefixed eth and a change in the last vowel. The simple
active q'fal makes its passive ethq'fel; the intensive qatfcl makes
ethqaffal; and the causative aqfel makes ettaqtal. The inflexion
of the verbs is, on the whole, more regular than in Hebrew: thus,
to take one instance, the 3rd plur. fern. impf. neqflan corresponds
better to 3rd plur. masc. neqflun than does the equivalent Hebrew
form tiqlolna to yiqflu. But the most important peculiarity of
Syriac verbs is again in the sphere of syntax, and shows the same
progress towards flexibility which we found in the nouns. Whereas
the Hebrew verb is devoid of real tenses, and only expresses an
action as completed or as in process without indicating time past,
present or future, Syriac has by the help of an auxiliary verb
constructed a set of tenses. Thus we have —
Pres. qa(el, " he kills," " he is killing " (sometimes " he is about
to kill ").
Impf. qafel wa, " he was killing."
Put. neqtol, " he will kill."
Pf. or Aor. q'fal " he has killed," " he killed."
Plup. or Aor. q'fal wa, " he had killed," " he killed."
The same progress towards flexibility in syntax is seen in the
copious supply of conjunctions possessed by Syriac. No doubt
the tendency towards a more flowing construction of sentences
was helped by the influence of Greek, which has also supplied a
large stock of words to the Syriac vocabulary. (N. M.)
SYRIAC LITERATURE.3 By Syriac is denoted the dialect
of Aramaic which, during the early centuries of the Christian
era, prevailed in Mesopotamia and the adjoining regions. The
literary use of Syriac by Christians had its first centre in Edessa
(Syr. Urhai, modern Urfa), where, in all probability, the chief
Syriac versions of the Bible were made. The use of the same
dialect appears in the earliest Christian literature connected
3 The sketch of the history of Syriac literature here presented
is based on Wright's great article in the 9th edition of the Ency.
Brit., which was afterwards published separately under the title of
A Short History of Syriac Literature (London, 1894).
SYRIAC LITERATURE
with such Mesopotamia!! cities as Nisibis, Amid, Mardtn, Tagh-
rith and Seleucia-Ctesiphon, as well as west of the Euphrates
at such centres as Mabbogh (Hierapolis) and Aleppo, northwards
at Malatiah and Maiperkat and in the districts of Lake Van and
Lake Urmia, and 'to the east and south-east of the Tigris in
many places which from the 5th century onwards were centres
of Nestorian Christianity within the Sasanian Empire. In
Palestine and western Syria, the home of pre-Christian Aramaic
dialects, the vernacular Semitic speech had under Roman
dominion been replaced by Greek for official and literary pur-
poses. Apparently this state of things lasted till after the
Mahommedan conquest, for Barhebraeus1 tells us that it was
the caliph Walld I. (A.D. 705-715) who, out of hatred to
Christianity, replaced Greek by Arabic as the language of official
documents at Damascus. Probably (as Duval suggests) the use
of Syriac in these regions went hand in hand with the spread of
the monophysite doctrine, for the liturgies and formulas of the
Jacobite Church were composed in Syriac. Similarly the spread
of Nestorian doctrines throughout the western and south-
western regions of the Persian Empire was accompanied by the
ecclesiastical use of a form of Syriac which differed very slightly
indeed from that employed farther west by the Jacobites.
So far we have spoken only of the Christian use of Syriac.
Of the pagan Syriac literature which issued mainly from IJarran,
a city about one day's journey south of Edessa, not a single
example appears to have survived. From Christian writers we
learn that ijarran continued to be a seat of pagan worship and
culture down to and even later than the Mahommedan era.
A native of the city, Thabit ibn l£urra, in a passage from a
Syriac work of his (now lost) quoted by Barhebraeus, 2 speaks of
the paganism of IJarran as distinguished by its steadfast resist-
ance to Christian propaganda. " When many were subdued to
error through persecution, our fathers through God were stead-
fast and stood out manfully, and this blessed city has never been
denied by the error of Nazareth. " He goes on to attribute
the world's science and civilization to pagan inventors; but it
is not clear whether in this he is alluding specially to the culture
of his own city. Anyhow, it is much to be regretted that no
Syriac writing from Harran has survived.8
Syriac literature continued in life from the 3rd to the I4th
century A.D., but after the Arab conquest it became an increas-
ingly artificial product, for Arabic gradually killed the vernacular
use of Syriac.
In the literature as it survives many different branches of
writing are represented — homilies in prose and verse, hymns,
exposition and commentary, liturgy, apocryphal legends,
historical romance, hagiography and martyrology, monastic
history and biography, general history, dogmatics, philosophy
and science, ecclesiastical law, &c. But the whole is domi-
nated by the theological and ecclesiastical interest. All
chief writers were bishops, inferior clergy or monks, and
their readers belonged to the same classes. When we put
aside one or two exceptionally fine pieces, like the hymn of
the soul in the apocryphal Acts of Thomas, the highest degree
of excellence in style is perhaps attained in staightfor-
ward historical narrative — such as the account of the Perso-
Roman War at the beginning of the 6th century by the author
who passes under the name of Joshua the Stylite, or by romancers
like him who wrote the romance of Julian; by biographers like
some of those who have written lives of saints, martyrs and
eminent divines; and by some early writers of homilies such as
Philoxenus (in prose) and Isaac of Antioch (in verse). Nearly
all the best writers are characterized by a certain naive and
earnest piety which is attractive, and not infrequently display
a force of moral indignation which arrests attention. These
1 Chron. syr., ed. Bruns, p. 120, ed. Bedjan, p. 115; cited by
Duval, Litt. syr.3, p. 5.
2 Chron. syr., ed. Bruns, p. 176, ed. Bedjan, p. 168. Thabit was
the author of about 16 Syriac works, of which the majority sur-
vived in the I3th century, but all are now lost. Of his 150 Arabic
treatises a few at least survive; see Brockelmann, Geschichte der
arabisctien Litteratur, i. 217 seq.
* On this subject, see especially Chwolsen's Ssabier und Ssabismus.
latter qualities are even more apparent in poetry than in prose.
There are indeed but few specimens of Syriac verse which
exhibit high poetic quality; except for a fairly copious and
occasionally skilful use of simile and metaphor, there is little of
soaring imagination in Syriac poets. On the other hand there
is much effective rhetoric, and much skilful play of language.4
As was to be expected, the better qualities of style were more
often shown during the early centuries when the language was
still a living speech. After it had been supplanted by Arabic
in the ordinary intercourse of life its literary use was more and
more affected by Arabic words and constructions, and its free-
dom as a vehicle of thought was much impaired. Nevertheless,
so late as the I3th century it was still an effective instrument
in the hands of the most many-sided of Syriac authors, the
eminent Barhebraeus.
For the general history of culture the work of Syriac writers
as translators is, perhaps, as important as any of their original
contributions to literature. Beginning with the earliest versions
of the Bible, which seem to date from the 2nd century A.D.,
the series comprises a great mass of translations from Greek
originals — theological, philosophical, legendary, historical and
scientific. In a fair number of cases the Syriac version has
preserved to us the substance of a lost original text. Often,
moreover, the Syriac translation became in turn the parent of a
later Arabic version. This was notably the case with some of
the Aristotelian writings, so that in this field, as in some others,
the Syriac writers handed on the torch of Greek thought to the
Arabs, by whom it was in turn transmitted to medieval Europe.
The early Syriac translations are in many cases so literal as to
do violence to the idiom of their own language; but this makes
them all the more valuable when we have to depend on them
for reconstructing the original texts. The later translators use
greater freedom.6 It was not from Greek only that translations
were made into Syriac. Of translations from Pahlavi we have
such examples as the version of pseudo-Callisthenes' History oj
Alexander, made in the 7th century from a Pahlavi version of the
Greek original — that of Kalilah and Dimnah executed in the
6th century by the periodeutes Bodh — and that of Sindbad,
which dates from the 8th century; and in the late period of
Syriac literature, books were translated from Arabic into Syriac
as well as vice versa.
All our historical sources support the view taken above that
Edessa, the capital of the kingdom which the Greeks and
Romans called Osrhoene, was the earliest seat of Christianity in
Mesopotamia and the cradle of Syriac literature. But as
to the date and circumstances of its evangelization we have
little reliable information. The well-known legend of the
correspondence of Abgar Ukkama, king of Edessa, with
Christ and the mission of Addai to Edessa immediately
after the Ascension was accepted as true by the historian
Eusebius (t34o) on the faith of a Syriac document pre-
served in the official archives of the city. An amplified form of
the same story is furnished by the Doctrine of Addai, an original
Syriac work which survives complete in a St Petersburg MS.
of the 6th century, and is also represented by fragments in other
MSS. of the sth and 6th centuries. This work was probably
written at Edessa about the end of the 4th century. It adds
many new features to the shorter form of the story as given by
Eusebius, among which is the noteworthy promise of Christ
about the impregnability of the city — " Thy city shall be blessed
and no enemy shall ever henceforth obtain dominion over it. "
This is probably a later addition made to the legend at a time
when such facts as the capture of Edessa by Lusius
Quietus in n6andits second capture and the destruction of its
kingdom by the Romans in 216 had faded from memory.'
4 On the mechanism of Syriac verse, see Duval's admirable
section on la po6sie syriaque (Litt. syr.3, p. IO sqq.).
6 Cf. Duval, op. cit. p. 303 seq.
6 Cf. Tixeront, Origines de VEglise d'Edesse, p. 93, and Duval,
op. cit. p. 99. The above view is more probable than that taken
by F. C. Burkitt (Early Eastern Christianity, p. 14), that Eusebius
knew of Christ's promise as part of the letter to Abgar, and pur-
posely suppressed it as inconsistent with historical facts.
3I2
SYRIAC LITERATURE
But whether in its longer or its shorter form, the whole narrative
must be pronounced unhistorical. In all probability the first
king of Osrhoene to adopt Christianity was Abgar IX., son of
Ma'nu, who reigned from A.D. 179 to 214 or 216, and the legend
has confounded him with an earlier Abgar, also son of Ma'nu,
who reigned first from B.C. 4 to A.D. 7 and again from A.D. 13
to so.1 A contemporary of Abgar IX. at Edessa was the famous
Bardaisan, himself a convert from heathenism, who was of
noble birth and a habitue of the Edessene court. It was no doubt
partly under his influence — also possibly in part through im-
pressions received by Abgar during his visit to Rome about
A.D. 202— that the king's conversion took place. But
Christianity must have reached Edessa some thirty to fifty
years earlier. Our oldest native historical document in Syriac
— the account of a severe flood which visited Edessa in Nov.
A.D. 201* — mentions " the temple of the church of the Christians "
as overthrown by the flood. The form of this notice shows,
as von Gutschmid and others have remarked, that Christianity
was not yet the religion of the state; but it must for some time
have had a home in Edessa. The same thing is seen from the
fact that the heresy of the Marcionites was already showing
itself in this district, for (in Tixeront's words) " heresies, in the
first centuries at least, only spread in already constituted
Christian communities." And by a skilful piecing together of
the date furnished by the oldest Syriac versions of the Bible —
such as the derivation of the Old Testament version from the
Jews, and the almost exclusive use of Tatian's Diatessaron as the
gospel of the Syriac Church down to the beginning of the 5th
century — F. C. Burkitt has shown it to be probable that the
preaching of Christianity at Edessa reaches back to the middle
of the 2nd century or even to about the year i35.3
The Syriac versions of the Bible are treated elsewhere (see
BIBLE) and may here be dismissed with a brief summary of
facts and „ opinions. The received Syriac Bible or Vulgate
(called the Peshitta or " simple " version from the gth century
onwards4) contains all the canonical books of the Old Testa-
ment.6 In the New Testament, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude
and the Apocalypse were originally left out, but Syriac versions
were made at a later time. The Peshitta version of the Old
Testament must have been originally made mainly by Jews,
of whom we know there were colonies in Mesopotamia in the 2nd
century. The translation was executed entirely from the
Hebrew, but underwent later revision which brought it more
into conformity with the LXX — this to a greater degree _ in
some books than in others. The Peshitta New Testament —
according to the convincing theory which at present holds the
field8 — is not the oldest form of the Syriac version, at least as
regards the Gospels. From the beginning of the 3rd to the
beginning of the sth century Tatian's Harmony or Diatessaron
— whether originally compiled in Syriac, or compiled in Greek
and translated into Syriac — was the current form of gospel
in the Syriac Church. The text of the Gospels underlying it
" represents the Greek text as read in Rome about A.D. 170."
Slightly later was made the Old Syriac version of the separate
Gospels, which survives in two MSS. — the Curetonian and the
Sinaitic — in two differing forms: but this never obtained much
currency. Its text " represents, where it differs from the
Diatessaron, the Greek text as read in Antioch about A.D. 200."
Then at the beginning of the 5th century, by the efforts of the
1 See especially Lipsius, Die edessenische Abgar-Sage (1880),
and the brilliant analysis of the legend by A. von Gutschmid in
Mem. de I'acad. imper. des sciences de St Petersbourg, tome xxxv.
No. i. The above dates for the kings' reigns are taken from von
Gutschmid.
1 Incorporated in the Chronicle of Edessa (Hallier's edition,
p. 145 sqq.).
* Early Eastern Christianity, Lecture II.
4 See the explanation in Burkitt, op. cit. p. 41 seq.
6 The MSS. which contain the Syriac Massorah or tradition of
the reading of the text pass over Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah,
and in the case of the Nestorians also Esther. But all these books
are quoted by Aphraates.
• That of F. C. Burkitt. See especially his S. Ephraim's Quotations
from the Gospel (Cambridge, 1901); Evangelion da-mepharreshe
(Cambridge, 1904), and the above cited Lecture.
masterful RabbulS, who was bishop of Edessa from 411-412 to
435, a new version.or recension of the Gospels was made and
incorporated in the Peshitta or Vulgate, the use of the Diates-
saron being henceforth proscribed. Rabbula's text of the
Gospels " represents the Greek text as read in Antioch about
A.D. 400." The history of the Peshitta rendering of the Acts and
Epistles is less clear; apparently the earliest Syrian writers
used a text somewhat different from that which afterwards
became the standard.7
Of the large number of Apocryphal books existing in Syriac'
the majority have been translated from Greek, one or two
(such as Bar Slra or Ecclesiaslicus) from Hebrew, while some
(like the Doctrine of Addai above referred to) are original Syriac
documents. Special mention may be made here of the tale of
Ahikar — the wise and virtuous secretary of Sennacherib, king of
Assyria — and of his wicked nephew Nadhan. This is the Syriac
version of a narrative which has had an extraordinary vogue
in the world's literature. It is now known to have existed in
Aramaic as far back as the 5th century B.C., appearing on Jewish
papyri which were lately discovered by the German mission to
Elephantine.9 It appears to be traceable in its Greek dress in
writings of the philosopher Democritus and the dramatist
Menander; it was certainly known to the author of Tobit
and perhaps to the author of Daniel; some would trace its
influence in the New Testament, in the parable of the
wicked servant and elsewhere; it was known to Mahomet
and is referred to in the Koran; it has been included among
the tales in the Arabian Nights; and it survives in a good
many versions ancient and modern. The old Syriac version,
which is to be found in a number of MSS., was probably made
from an early Aramaic version, if not from the original itself
(which must surely have been Semitic). The Syriac has in turn
become the parent of the Arabic, Armenian and Ethiopic —
possibly also of the Greek and Slavonic versions.10
Another deeply interesting Syriac Apocryphon is the Acts oj
Judas Thomas (i.e. Judas the Twin), which is included in the
collection of A pocryphal A els of the A pasties. The A cts of Thomas
is now generally recognized to be an original Syriac work (or
"novel," as Burkitt calls it), although a Greek version also
exists. It seems to have arisen in Gnostic circles, and its ten-
dency is wholly in favour of asceticism and celibacy. Among
its peculiarities is the fact that Judas Thomas is regarded as
the twin brother of Christ. The author has incorporated in
it the finest poem to be found in all Syriac literature, the
famous Hymn of the Soul. This depicts the journey of
the soul from heaven to earth, its life in the body,
and its final return to the heavenly home, under the figure
of a Parthian prince who is sent from the court of his parents
to the land of Egypt to fetch the serpent-guarded pearl;
after a time of sloth and forgetfulness he fulfils his quest,
and returns triumphant and again puts on the heavenly robe.
According to Burkitt, the hymn must have been composed
before the fall of the Arsacids and the commencement of
the Sasanian Empire in 224. It is plainly Gnostic and
may perhaps have been composed by Bardaisan or his son
Harmonius.11
Among recent editions of Apocrypha in Syriac may be men-
tioned those of the Apocalypse of Baruch, the Epistle of Baruch,
7 For the later Monophysite versions, none of which attained
much popularity, see Wright's Syr. Lit. pp. 13-17, and for the single
Nestorian attempt at revision, ibid. p. 19.
8 See the lists in Wright, op. cit. pp. 5 seq. 25-27, and Duval,
Lilt. Syr.3 ch. viii.
9 See F. Nau, Histoire el sagesse d' Ahikar I'Assyrien (Paris,
1909), p. 288 sqq.
10 See especially The Story of Ahikar from the Syriac, Arabic,
Armenian, Ethiopic, Greek and Slavonic Versions, by F. C. Cony-
beare, J. R. Harris and A. S. Lewis (Cambridge, 1898); and Nau,
op. cit. The latter has a very full bibliography.
11 pf the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles there is the well-known
edition and translation by Wright (London, 1871) ; the Acts of Judas
were re-edited by Bedian in the 3rd volume of Acta martyrum et
sanctorum (Paris, 1892); of the Hymn of the Soul there is a fresh
edition and translation by A. A. Bevan (Cambridge, 1897). See
also Lecture VI. in Burkitt's Early Eastern Christianity.
SYRIAC LITERATURE
and the Testament of Adam by M. Kmosko (Graffin's Patrologia
Syriaca, vol. ii.).
Lives of saints and martyrs form a large group among Syriac
books. Among such documents connected with the early history
of Edessa we have, besides the Doctrine of Addai, certain martyr-
doms, those of Sharbel and Barsamya assigned to the reign of
Trajan, and those of Gurya and Shamona and of the Deacon
Habbibh under Diocletian and Licinius. All these documents,
like Addai, belong probably to the 2nd half of the 4th century,
and are quite unreliable in detail for the historian,1 though they
may throw some light on the conditions of life at Edessa under
Roman government. There are also accounts of martyrdoms
at Samosata (Assemani, Ada Mart. ii. 123-147), including
that of St Azazail recently published by Macler (Paris, 1902).
But the great bulk of the Syriac martyrdoms have their scene
farther east, within the Persian dominions.
The life and writings of Bardaisan, " the last of the gnostics,"
and in some sense the father of Syriac literature and especially
of Syriac poetry, have been treated in a separate article. The
Book of the Laws of the Countries, which embodies his teaching,
was re-edited in 1907 by F. Nau (this also in the 2nd volume of
Graffin's Patrologia).
An early Syriac document, probably of the 2nd or 3rd century,
is the Letter of Mara son of Serapion, which was edited by Cureton
in his Spicilegium Syriacum. It is almost the only exception to
the rule that all surviving Syriac literature is Christian. The
author is in sympathy with Christianity, but is himself an ad-
herent of the stoic philosophy. His home appears to have been
at Samosata.2
By the beginning of the 4th century much progress had been
made with the organization of the Christian church not only
within the Roman district of Mesopotamia, but also to the east
and south-east within the Sasanian Empire, round such centres as
Seleucia-Ctesiphon on the Tigris (near Baghdad), Karka de-Beth
Selokh (modern Kerkuk) and Beth Lapat or Gundeshabhor (in
the modern province of Luristan) .3 The adoption of Christianity
by Constantine as the official religion of the Roman Empire had
an unfortunate effect on the position of the Christians in Persia.
They were naturally suspected of sympathizing with the Roman
enemies rather than with their own Persian rulers. Accordingly
when Sapor II. (310-379) declared war on Rome about 337, there
ensued almost immediately a somewhat violent persecution of
the Persian Christians, which continued in varying degrees for
about 40 years. One result of this and later persecutions of the
same kind has been to enrich Syriac literature with a long series
of Acts of Persian Martyrs, which, although in their existing form
intermixed with much legendary matter, nevertheless throw
valuable light on the history and geography of western Persia
under Sasanian rule.4 One of the earlier martyrs was Simeon bar
Sabba'e, bishop (? catholicus) of Seleucia from about 326 to 341
in succession to Papa, who in the face of opposition from other
bishops had organized the church of Persia under the primacy of
Seleucia. The Martyrdom of Simeon exists in two recensions
which have been separately edited by M. Kmosko.6 Another
early martyr was Milles, bishop of Susa, who had distinguished
himself in the opposition to Papa.6
1 Burkitt (op. cit. p. 21 seq.) endeavours to claim a higher value
for the narratives about Gurya, Shamona and Habbibh, on the
ground that these have left more trace in the later literature; but
it is to be feared that all five martyrdoms are turned out in the
same legendary mould.
* Cf. Duval, Litt. Syr.3 p. 241 seq.
1 On the origin and early history of Persian Christianity see
especially J. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans I' empire Perse (Paris,
1904), chaps, i. and ii.
4 See many of the texts in Bedjan's Acta martyrum et sanctorum
(Paris, 1890-1896). The valuable geographical results are ex-
hibited in G. Hoffmann's Ausziige aus syrischen Akten persischer
Martyrer (Leipzig, 1880).
6 Graffin's Patrologia, ii. 661—1045. Of the epistles, hymns, &c.,
attributed to Simeon nothing appears to survive but one or two
hymns (ibid. 1048-1055). The Martyrdom had been previously
edited by Assemani and by Bedjan.
6 His history is in Assemani, Acta, mart. i. 66 sqq., and Bedjan,
ii. 260 eqq.
The two most important 4th-century writers — Aphraates and
Ephraim — are dealt with in separate articles. The importance
of the former lies in the simple cast of his, religious thought, his
independence of theological formulas, his constant adherence
to the letter of Scripture, his quaint exegesis, and the light he
throws on the circumstances of his time, especially (i) the feeling
between Jews and Christians, and (2) the position and sympathies
of the Christian subjects of Sapor II. The position and character
of Ephraim are very different. He is the typical exponent in
Syriac of unbending Catholic orthodoxy. He impressed his
countrymen more than any other single writer, partly no doubt
by his enormous fecundity in writing, but more by the stem piety
and uncompromising dogmatism which pervade his works.
In the 2nd half of the 4th century lived the monk Gregory,
who wrote a treatise on the monastic life. He spent part of his
life in Cyprus, and was a friend of Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis.
To the information given by Assemani (B.O. i. 170 seq.) we can
now add the statements of Isho'-d6nah7 that he was a Persian by
birth, and after being a merchant was led by a series of visions to
take monastic vows. After a training at Edessa, he lived for a
long time at Mt Izla in Mesopotamia, whence he proceeded to
Cyprus, but returned to Mt Izla shortly before his death. His
book on the monastic life mentioned by 'Abhdlsho' is not known
to survive; but some discourses and a letter of his are still
extant.
Before leaving the 4th century we may mention two other
writers who probably both lived on into the sth — Balai and Cyril-
lona. The former was the author of a good many poems; the
longest — which is however by some attributed to Ephraim8 — is
the work in 1 2 books on the history of Joseph, of which a complete
edition was published by Bedjan in 1901. Other poems of his
were edited by Overbeck in 5. Ephraemi Syri, &c., opera selecla,
pp. 251-336; and these have since been supplemented by
Zettersteen's edition of a large number of his religious poems or
metrical prayers (Beitrage zur Kenntniss der religiosen Dichtung
Balais, Leipzig, 1902). His favourite metre was the pentasylla-
bic. Cyriliona composed a poem on the invasion of the Huns in
395,9 and is by some regarded as identical with Ephraim 's
nephew Abhsamya, who in 403-404 " composed hymns and dis-
courses on the invasion of the Roman empire by the Huns."10
The 5th century was a time of storm and conflict in the churches
of Mesopotamia and Persia, as in other parts of the Christian
world. The teaching of Apollinarius that in Christ the Divine
Word took the place of the human rational soul, thus seeming to
do away with his possession of a true humanity, had led to
a reaction by Paul of Samosata, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, and Nestorius of Constantinople. Though'with some
points of difference, they agreed in emphasizing the perman-
ence of the two separate natures in Christ, united but not mingled
or confused, and laid stress on the reality of our Lord's human
experience. One question on which great contention arose was
as to the propriety of applying to the Divine nature attributes
which belonged to the human nature — e.g. birth from a human
mother — and vice versa. Hence the great dispute about the
application to the Virgin Mary of the epithet Oeor&Kos. It
seems to have been the objection of Nestorius to the use of this
expression which mainly led to his condemnation and deposition
at the Council of Ephesus (431) under the influence of Cyril,
when as patriarch of Constantinople (428-431) he had dis-
tinguished himself by his zeal for Nicene orthodoxy.11
At Edessa the result of the conflict between the Nestorians and
their opponents was long doubtful. When Rabbula, the fierce
anti-Nestorian and friend of Cyril, died in 435, he was succeeded
in the bishopric by Ibas, who as head of the famous " Persian
7 Book of Chastity, par. 12.
8 It is in Ephraim's -favourite metre, the heptasyllabic, and
all the MSS. but one attribute it to him.
' Chron. Edess. par. 40.
10 Ibid. par. 47.
11 New light on the theological position of Nestorius is to be ob-
tained from the long-lost Book of Heraclides, a work of his own
which has turned up in a Syriac version and has just been published
by Bedjan.
3M-
SYRIAC LITERATURE
school " in the city had done much to inculcate on his pupils the
doctrines of Theodore of Mopsuestja. But the feeling against the
Nestorian party grew in strength, till on the death of Ibas in 457
the leading Nestorian teachers were driven out of Edessa. The
Persian school continued to exist for another 32 years, but was
finally closed and destroyed by order of the emperor Zeno in 489.
The Nestorian teachers then started a great school at Nislbis
(which had been under Persian rule since Jovian's humiliating
treaty of 363). By the energetic efforts of Barsauma, bishop of
that city, practically the whole church of Persia was won over
to the Nestorian creed. Western Syria, on the contrary, had
partaken with Alexandria in the reaction from Nestorianism
which finally crystallized in the Monophysite doctrine, that spread
so widely through Egypt and Western Asia towards the end of the
5th century.
At the beginning of this century one of the most able and
influential men in the Syriac-speaking church was Marutha,
bishop of Maiperkat or Martyropolis. Without entering on the
details of his ecclesiastical activity,1 we may note that he was twice
associated with embassies from the Roman emperor to Yazde-
gerd I. (390-420); that along with Isaac, patriarch of Seleucia
(390-410), he obtained from the Persian monarch a concordat
which secured a period of religious toleration; and that he
arranged for and presided at the Council of Seleucia in 410, which
adopted the full Nicene creed and organized the hierarchy of the
Persian Church. As a writer he is chiefly known as the reputed
author of a collection of martyrologies which cover the reigns of
Sapor II., Yazdegerd I. and Bahrain V.2 By his history of the
Council of Nicaea he made a great contribution to the education
of the Persian Church in the development of Christian doctrine.
Rabbula, the powerful and energetic bishop of Edessa who
withstood the beginnings of Nestorianism, and who gave currency
to the Peshitta text of the four Gospels, abolishing the use of the
Diatessaron, is dealt with in a separate article.
The next bishop of Edessa, Ibas, who succeeded in 435 at the
death of Rabbula, proved himself a follower of the Nestorian
doctrine (see above) . Asa teacher in the Persian school of Edessa
he had translated, probably with the help of his pupils, certain
works of " the Interpreter," i.e. Theodore of Mopsuestia. Among
these may have been the commentary on St John of which the
complete Syriac version was published by Chabot in 1897. He
may possibly have translated a work of Aristotle.3 To the Nes-
torian movement in Persia he rendered useful service by his
letter to Marl of Beth Hardasher, in which he maintained the
tenets of Diodore and Theodore, while allowing that Nestorius
had erred.4 On the ground of his writings he was condemned
and deposed by the " robber synod " of Ephesus (449), but was
restored by the Council of Chalcedon (451), after he had anathe-
matized Nestorius. His death in 457 was followed by a strong
anti-Nestorian reaction at Edessa, which led to the expulsion
of many of the leading teachers.
On Isaac of Antioch, " one of the stars of Syriac literature," see
the special article. In spite of his over-diffuseness, he is one of
the most readable of Syriac authors.
A Nestorian contemporary of Isaac, Dadhisho", who was
catholicus of Seleucia from 421 to 456, composed commentaries
on Daniel, Kings and Ecclesiasticus. His chief importance in the
history of the Persian Church lies in his having induced a synod
of bishops to declare that church independent of the see of
Antioch and of the " Western Fathers " (Labourt, p. 122 sqq.).
The most powerful missionary of Nestorianism during the
and half of the 5th century was Barsauma of Nislbis, whom his
opponents called " the swimmer among the reeds," i.e. the wild
boar. Born probably between 415 and 420 he imbibed Nestorian
doctrine from Ibas at the Persian school of Edessa, but was driven
out in 457 on the death of his master, and went to be bishop of
Nislbis. In a succession of missionary journeys he succeeded,
partly by persuasion and partly (if his enemies are to be believed)
1 See Labourt, op. cit., especially pp. 87-90, 92-99.
* Some of these refer to events so late that they cannot be from
his pen.
3 See Duval, Lilt, syr.', p. 247.
4 Labourt, op. cit. p. 254 sqq.
by violence, in attaching to Nestorianism nearly all the Christian
communities of Persia, with the exception of Taghrith, which
was always strongly Monopbysite. He had many quarrels with
his ecclesiastical superior the catholicus of Seleucia, but finally
made peace with Acacius soon after the accession of the latter
in 484. Among other severities towards the Monophysites, he
persuaded the Persian king Peroz (457-484) to banish many of
them into the Roman dominions. One of his great aims was to
secure for the Nestorian clergy freedom to marry, and this was
finally sanctioned by a council at Seleucia in 486 (Labourt, op. cit.,
chap. vi.). Barsauma must have been bishop of Nislbis for
nearly 40 years, but was dead by 496. His writings seem to
have been chiefly liturgical: he gave the first set of statutes to
the school of Nislbis, which was founded during his bishopric.
His fellow-worker Narsai, whom the Jacobites called " the
leper," but the Nestorians " the harp of the Holy Spirit,"
apparently accompanied Barsauma from Edessa to Nislbis,
where according to Barhebraeus he lived for 50 years. Barsauma
appointed him head of the new school, where he taught rigidly
Nestorian doctrine. He was a copious writer, especially in
verse. Many of his poems have now been published.6 His
theological position is clearly defined in a homily on the three
doctors — Diodore, Theodore and Nestorius — published by the
Abbe Martin in the Journal asialique for July 1900.
On the less important companions of Barsauma and Narsai-
Marl, Acacius and Mlkha, see Wright (op. cit. pp. 59 seq., 63
seq.). The M'ana who accompanied them and became bishop of
Rewardasher in Persia was not, as Barhebraeus supposed, the
catholicus of Seleucia who held office in 420, but a much
younger man. Like Ibas he had been employed at Edessa in
translating the commentaries of Theodore.
Among the early Monophysites were two of the best of Syriac
writers — Jacob of Serugh and Philoxenus of Mabbogh, who have
been treated in special articles. The one wrote mainly in verse,
the other in prose. See also JOSHUA THE STYLITE.
Another early Monophysite was Simeon of Beth Arsham, who
by a series of journeys and disputations within the Persian empire
did all he could to prevent the triumph of Nestorianism among
the Persian Christians. He had considerable success at the time,
but the ground he had won was soon reconquered by his opponents,
except at Taghrith and the surrounding district. It was after a
successful disputation in presence of the Nestorian catholicus
Babhai (497-502/3) that Simeon was made bishop of Beth
Arsham, a town near Seleucia. He made several journeys to
Constantinople, where he enjoyed the favour of the empress
Theodora. It was there he died, probably about 532-533. His
biography was written by John of Asia in the collection of lives
of eastern saints which has been edited by Land (Anecd. syr.
vol. ii.). His literary productions consist only of a liturgy and
two exceedingly interesting letters. The one has for its subject
Barsauma and the other Nestorian leaders in Persia, and gives a
highly malicious account of their proceedings. The other, which
has been often edited,6 is an account of a severe persecution which
the Himyarite Christians of Najran in south-west Arabia under-
went in 523, at the hands of the king of Yemen. As Simeon
had repeatedly visited al-Hirah and was in touch with the
Arab kingdom which centred there, his letter is a document of
first-rate historical importance.
Mention should be made of two other early Monophysite
leaders who suffered persecution at the hands of the emperor
Justin I. (518-527). The one is John of Telia, author of 538
canons,7 answers to questions by the priest Sergius, a creed and
an exposition of the Trisagion. His life was written by his disciple
Elias, and also by John of Asia. The other, John bar Aphtonya,
was the founder of the famous monastery of Kenneshre, opposite
6 See Feldmann, Syrische Wechsdlieder von Narses (Leipzig,
1896); Mingana, Narsai, homiliae et carmina (2 vols., Mosul, 1905);
and other editions of which a list is given by Duval, p. 344 seq.
Four of the homilies which deal with liturgical matters have been
given in an English translation, accompanied with valuable notes,
by R. H. Connolly (Cambridge, 1909).
• The best edition is Guidi's La Lettera di Simeons Vescovo di
Beth-ArSam sopra i martiri omeriti (Rome, 1881).
7 Edited by Kuberczyk (Leipzig, 1901).
SYRIAC LITERATURE
Jerabis on the Euphrates, and wrote a commentary on the Song
of Songs, a number of hymns and a biography of Severus, the
Monophysite patriarch of Antioch (512-519).
The life of the great missionary bishop Jacob BurdS'ana1
or Baradaeus, from whom the Monophysite Church took its name
of Jacobite, belongs rather to ecclesiastical than to literary his-
tory. A native of Telia in Mesopotamia, he obtained the favour
of the empress Theodora while on a mission to Constantinople,
and resided in that city for fifteen years (528-543). At the request
of the Arab king of Ghassan he was sent on a mission to the East
after being consecrated bishop of Edessa; and the rest of his
life was spent in organizing the Monophysite Church of eastern
Syria. We possess two lives of him — one by John of Asia in his
collection of biographies, and another which may have been
written by a priest of Jacob's original monastery of Pfisilta.
Both are to be found in the 2nd volume of Laud's Anecdota
syriaca. An excellent modern biography and estimate of Jacob
has been written by Kleyn.2 A Syriac account of the removal of
his remains from Alexandria, where he died in 578, to his old
monastery of Pesllta has been edited by Kugener in the Biblio-
theque hagiographique orientale, pp. 1-26 (Paris, 1902). The
activity of his life left him little time for writing, but he was
the author of " an anaphora, sundry letters, a creed or confession
of faith, preserved in Arabic and a secondary Ethiopic trans-
lation, and a homily for the Feast of the Annunciation, also
extant only in an Arabic translation" (Wright).
A very different character from Jacob's was that of Sergius of
Ras'ain, one of the best Greek scholars and ablest translators
whom Syria has produced. Of his life little is known, and that
little not wholly creditable. He wavered curiously in his
ecclesiastical views, and ended by helping the persecutors of the
Monophysite Church, to which he himself had belonged. He
seems to have lived as a priest and physician at Ras'ain in Meso-
potamia most of his life. About 535 he travelled on various
ecclesiastical missions, and finally made a journey to Rome and
thence to Constantinople (in this latter accompanied by the
pope Agapetus). The result was to bring about the deposition
and banishment of the Monophysites from the latter city.
Sergius died almost immediately afterwards, in 536. Among the
works which he translated into Syriac and of which his versions
survive are treatises of Aristotle, Porphyry and Galen,3 the
Ars grammatica of Dionysius Thrax, the works of Dionysius the
Areopagite, and possibly two or three treatises of Plutarch.4
His own original works are less important, but include a " treatise
on logic, addressed to Theodore (of Merv), which is unfortunately
imperfect, a tract on negation and affirmation; a treatise, likewise
addressed to Theodore, On the Causes of the Universe, according
to the Views of Aristotle, showing how it is a Circle; a tract On
Genus, Species and Individuality; and a third tract addressed
to Theodore, On the Action and Influence of tlte Moon, explanatory
and illustrative of Galen's Ilepi Kpiffifiuv fjftep&i', bk. iii., with a
short appendix ' On the Motion of the Sun ' " (Wright). Accord-
ing to the historical compilation which passes under the name
of Zacharias Rhetor, he also wrote a treatise on the faith.6 Some
of his translations were revised at a later time by Honain ibn
Ishak (t873).
Another translator from Greek was Paul, Monophysite
bishop of Callinlcus or ar-Rakkah, who, being expelled from
his diocese in 519, retired to Edessa and there occupied himself
in translating into Syriac the works of Severus,'the Monophysite
1 So called " because his dress consisted of a barda'tha, or coarse
horse-cloth, which he never changed till it became quite ragged "
(Wright).
* Jacobus Baradaeus, de Stickler der syrischc monophysielische
Kerk (Leiden, 1882).
3 See the details in Wright, pp. 90 sqq. ; and cf. especially A.
Baumstark, Aristoleles bei den Syrern vont V.-VIII. Jahrhundert
(Leipzig, IQOO) ; and V. Ryssel, Vber den textkrilischen Werth der
syrischen ifebersetzungen griechischer Klassiker (Leipzig, 1880-1881).
The latter singles out the version of the pseudo-Aristotelian llepl
Kbaiiav as a model of excellence in translation.
1 On these last see Baumstark, Lucubrationes syro-graecae pp. 405
sqq. (Leipzig, 1894); and Duval, LiU. syr.3 pp. 266 seq.
* Land, A need. syr. iii. 289.
champion who was patriarch of Antioch from 512 to 519. This
version appears to be quite distinct from that used by the
compiler of the chronicle of Zacharias,6 and also from the version
of " the 6th book of the select letters of Severus " which was made
by Athanasius " presbyter of Nislbis " in 669 and has been edited
by E. W. Brooks (London, 1902-1904).
That important legal work, The Laws of the Emperors Con-
slantine, Theodosius and Leo, which was composed in Greek about
475, and " which lies at the root of all subsequent Christian
Oriental legislation in ecclesiastical, judicial and private
matters" (Wright), must have been repeatedly translated into
Syriac. The oldest form is contained in a British Museum MS.
which dates from the earlier part of the 6th century, and this
was edited by Land (Anecd. syr. i. 30-64). A latter (probably
Nestorian) recension is contained in a Paris MS., which was used
along with the other by Bruns and Sachau in their exhaustive
edition {Syrisch-romisches, Rechtsbuch, Leipzig, 1880). In
Notulae syriacae (privately printed 1887) Wright edited the
surviving fragment of a 3rd recension which is preserved in a
13th-century MS. at Cambridge. Finally Sachau has published
three new redactions of the treatise from a MS. found at Rome
in 1894 (Syrische Rechtsbucher, vol. i., Leipzig, 1907).
The last 5th-century author to be mentioned here is Ahudhem-
meh, who was Jacobite metropolitan of Taghrith from 559 till
he was martyred by Khosrau Anosharwan in 575. He wrote
various philosophical works, also a treatise on grammar which
is quoted by the later grammarian, John bar Zo'bi. A Syriac
life of him has been published by F. Nau, who appends to it the
surviving fragment of his treatise on the composition of man as
consisting of soul and body.7
We may here take note of three important anonymous works,
of which thfc first probably and the other two certainly belong to
the 6th century.
The Ml'arrath gazze or Cave of Treasures, translated and edited
by C. Bezold (Leipzig, 1883-1888), is akin (as Duval remarks) to
the Book of Jubilees. It is an imaginary history of the patri-
archs and their descendants. The work derives its name from
the picturesque story of the cave where Adam deposited the
treasure of gold, myrrh and incense which he had brought away
from paradise : the cave was used as a burying-place by him and
his descendants until the deluge. After the precious relics
together with the bones of Adam had been saved in the ark, they
were transported by Shem and Melchizedek to Golgotha under
the guidance of an angel.8
The tripartite narrative which is known as the Romance of
Julian (the Apostate) has no claim to be regarded as an historical
document. Its hero is Jovian, one of the feeblest of Roman
emperors, and Julian is everywhere exhibited in flaming colours
as the villain of the story. But as an example of Syriac prose
style it is of the best, and the author at times shows considerable
dramatic power.
A valuable historical source, though of small dimensions, is the
Chronicle of Edessa, which gives a record of events from
132-131 B.C. to A.D. 540 — at first exceedingly brief, but becoming
somewhat fuller for the later years. It appears to be thoroughly
reliable wherever it can be tested. It has been three times
edited — first by Assemani in the Bibliotheca orientalis (i. 388-
417), secondly by L. Hallier (Leipzig, 1892) with a translation,
introduction and abundant notes, and thirdly by Guidi with a
Latin version (in Chronica minora, Paris, 1903).
On John of Asia or Ephesus, the eminent Monophysite bishop
and earliest Syriac church historian, see the separate article.
An historical work of somewhat similar character to John's is
the compilation in 12 books which is generally known by the
name of Zacharias Rhetor,9 because the anonymous Syriac
compiler has incorporated the Syriac version or epitome of a lost
6 See Brooks and Hamilton's translation of the latter, p. 234.
7 Palrologia orientalis, iii. I (Paris, 1906).
8 Bezold's edition contains also an Arabic version.
9 This author has hitherto been identified with Zacharias Scholas-
ticus, who afterwards became bishop of Mitylene, but according to
M. A. Kugener, La Compilation historique de pseudo-Zacharie It
Rheteur (Paris, 1900), this identification is a mistake.
316
SYRIAC LITERATURE
Greek history written by that author. The Syriac work exists
(not quite complete) in a British Museum MS. of about the begin-
ning of the 7th century: this can be in part supplemented by an
8th-century MS. at the Vatican. From the latter Guidi published
the interesting chapter (X. 16) which contains the description
of Rome. The entire text of the London MS. was published by
Land in the third volume of his Anecdota syriaca; and there is now
an English translation by Hamilton and Brooks (London, 1899),
and a German one by Ahrens and Krttger (Leipzig, 1899).
Of the other 6th-century Jacobite writers we need mention
only Moses of Aggel (fl. c. 550-570) who translated into Syriac
some of the writings of Cyril, and Peter of Callinlcus, Jacobite
patriarch of Antioch 578-591, who wrote a huge controversial
treatise in 4 books, each of 25 chapters, against Damian, patri-
arch of Alexandria, as well as other less important works.
The Nestorian writers of the 6th century were numerous,
but as yet we know little of their works, beyond what 'Abhdi-
sho' tells us in his Catalogue. It will be sufficient to mention
one or two. Joseph Huzaya (i.e. of al-Ahwaz or Khuzistan),
who came third in succession to Narsai as head of the school of
Nisibis, was the first Syriac grammarian and invented various
signs of interpunction. Marutha, who was Nestorian catho-
licus of Seleucia from about 540 to 552 1 and a man of exceptional
energy, made the only known attempt, which was, however,
unsuccessful, to provide the Nestorians with a Bible version of
their own. He was the author of many commentaries, homilies,
epistles, canons and hymns. Paul the Persian, a courtier of
Khosrau Anosharwan, dedicated to the king a treatise on
logic which has been published from a London MS. by Land
in the 4th volume of his Anecdota. Bodh the periodeutes is
credited with a philosophical work which has perished, but is
best known as the author of the old Syriac version of the col-
lection of Indian tales called Kalilah and Dimnah. He made
it doubtless from a Pahlavl version. His translation, which
was edited by Bickell with an introduction by Benfey, must
be distinguished from the much later Syriac translation made
from the secondary Arabic version and edited by Wright in
1884." Hannana of Hedhaiyabh, who nearly produced a dis-
ruption of the Nestorian Church by his attempt to bridge over the
interval which separated the Nestorians from Catholic ortho-
doxy, was the author of many commentaries and other writ-
ings, in some of which he attacked the teaching of Theodore of
Mopsuestia. An account of his theological position, derived
from the treatise of Babhai De unione, will be found in Labourt,
op. cit. pp. 279 sqq. One of his followers, Joseph Hazzaya, was
also a prolific writer.
" With the 7th century," as Wright remarks, " begins the
slow decay of the native literature of the Syrians, to which
the frightful sufferings of the people during the great war with
the Persians in its first quarter largely contributed." The same
process of decay was greatly promoted by the Arab conquest
of Persia, achieved through the victory of ICadisiya in 636-637.
The gradual replacement of Syriac by Arabic as the vernacular
language of Mesopotamia by degrees transformed the Syriac
from a living to a dead language. Apart from a few leading
writers — such as Jacob of Edessa, the anonymous historian
whose work has passed under the name of Dionysius of Tell-
Mahre, Thomas of Marga., Dionysius Bar Salibi, and Barhe-
braeus3 — there are not enough names of interest to make it
worth while to continue our chronological catalogue. It will
be sufficient to group the more important contributors to each
of the chief branches of literature.
i. Theology. — Here we may first mention George, Bishop of
the Arabs (t724), who wrote commentaries on Scripture, and
tracts and homilies on church sacraments, and finished the Hexae-
meron of Jacob of Edessa.4 Babhai the Elder, a leading Nestorian
1 See a full account of his career in Labourt, Le Christianisme
dans I'empire perse, pp. 163-191.
2 Of this there is an English translation by Keith Falconer
(Oxford, 1884).
8 These have all been dealt with in separate articles.
'George's part has been translated into German by V. Ryssel
(Leipzig, 1891).
in the beginning of the 7th century and a prolific author, wrote
many commentaries and theological discourses. Isho'yabh III.,
Nestorian catholicus from 647 to 657/8, wrote controversial
tracts, religious discourses and liturgical works. Elias of Merv,
who belongs to the 2nd half of the 7th century, compiled a Catena
patrum on the Gospels and wrote many commentaries. Timothy I.,
catholicus 779-823, wrote synodical epistles and other works
bearing on church law.6 Moses bar Kepha (t9O3), one of the most
fertile of gth-century authors, wrote commentaries, theological
treatises and many liturgical works. Other important contributors
to this sphere of literature were Isho' bar Non (t827/8), John
bar Zo'bi (beginning of the I3th century), Jacob bar Shakko
(•(•1241), and the great Nestorian scholar 'Abhdisho' (fi3i8).
2. History. — Besides the important writers treated in separate
articles, we need mention only four. Elias bar Shinaya, who in
1008 became Nestorian bishop of Nisibis, was the author of a valuable
Chronicle, to which are prefixed numerous chronological tables,
lists of popes, patriarchs, &c., and which covers by its narrative the
period from A.D. 25 to 1018. Of this work, which exists in only
one imperfect copy, the later portion was edited by Baethgen in
1884, and the earlier by Lamy in 1888. Another important Chronicle
is that of Michael I., who was Jacobite patriarch from 1166 to
1 199. Its range extends from the Creation to the author's own day,
and it was largely used by Barhebraeus in compiling his own
Chronicle. Till recently it was known only in an abridged Armenian
version which was translated into French by V. Langlois (Venice,
1868) : but the Syriac text has now been found in a MS. belonging
to the library of the church at Edessa, and is in course of publica-
tion by J. B. Chabot. A work rather legendary than historical
is the Book of the Bee, by Solomon of al-Basrah, who lived early in
the I3th century.6 Lastly, acknowledgment must be made of
the great value of the Catalogue of Nestorian writers, by 'Abhdisho'
of Nisibis, the latest important writer in Syriac. It was edited by
Assemani in the 3rd part of his Bibliotheca orientalis, and has been
translated into English by Badger.
3. Biography, Monastic History, &c. — Besides the important
work by Thomas of Marga (q.v.) the following deserve special
mention. Sahdona, who was a monk in the Nestorian monastery
of Beth 'Abhe (the same to which Thomas of Marga belonged two
centuries later) and afterwards a bishop early in the 7th century,
wrote a biography of and a funeral sermon on his superior Mar Jacob
who founded the monastery, and also a long treatise in two parts
on the monastic life, of which all that survives has been edited
by P. Bedjan (Paris, 1902). Whilst accompanying the catholicus
Isho'yabh II. (628-644) on a mission to Heraclius, Sahdona was
converted, apparently to Catholicism,7 and thereby caused much
scandal in the East. The chief events in his life are narrated by
Isho'denah.8 Another, Nestorian who, a few years later, wrote
ecclesiastical biographies and other theological works was Sabhrisho'
Rustam, who lived at Mount Izla and other monasteries In the
beginning of the 8th century David of Beth Rabban, also a Nestorian
monk, wrote, besides a geographical work, " a monastic history,
called The Little Paradise, which is frequently cited by Thomas of
Marga." A more important work is The Book of Chastity, by
Isho'denah, who according to •Abhdisho* was bishop of Kasrii —
but read Basra — about the end of the 8th century. This work is
a collection of lives of holy men who founded monasteries in the
East, and is a valuable historical source. The work itself, or an
abridgment of it, was discovered and published for the first time
by J. B. Chabot (Rome, 1896).' As the last under this head we
may mention a late anonymous biography, that of the catholicus
Yabhalaha III. (1281-1317), which throws much light on the re-
lations of the early Mongol kings with the heads of the church in
their dominions. Among other interesting features it contains
information about the Nestorian Church of China in the I3th century
— Yabhalaha was a native of Peking — an account of a journey
through Central Asia, and a description of a visit to Europe by
Rabban Sauma, the friend of the catholicus.1"
_4. Philosophy and Science. — Special mention may be made of
'Ananisho' of Hedhaiyabh (middle of 7th century) well known as
the author of a new recension of the Paradise of Palladius, and also
the author of a volume on philosophical divisions and definitions;
Romanus the physician (t8g6), who wrote a medical compilation,
a commentary on the Book of Hierotheus, a collection of Pytha-
gorean maxims and other works; Moses bar Kepha, the voluminous
writer above referred to; the famous physician Honain ibn
6 See O. Braun's article in Oriens christianus, i. 138-152; and
Labourt, De Timotheo I. Nestorianorum patriarcha (Paris, 1904).
6 Text and translation, by E. A. W. Budge (Oxford, 1886).
7 See H. Goussen, Martyrim-Sahdonas Leben und Werke (Leipzig,
1897).
8 Le Livre de la chastete (ed. Chabot, pp. 67 sqq.).
9 A fresh edition by Bedjan forms an appendix to his edition of
Thomas of Marga (Paris, 1901).
"The text has been twice edited by Bedjan (Pans, 1888 and
1895), and there is a French translation, with copious notes, by
Chabot (Paris, 1895); cf. also Journ. As. (1889), pp. 313 sqq., and
Eng. Hist. Rev. xiv. 299 sqq.
SYRIANUS— SYZYGY
317
(t873), who wrote chiefly in Arabic, but deserves mention here
by his services to Syriac grammar and lexicography, and still
more by his translations of Greek philosophical and scientific
works into Syriac ' and from Syriac into Arabic, becoming in a
sense the founder of a school of translators; and Jacob bar Shakko,
whose work called the Dialogues treats of grammar, rhetoric,
poetry, logic, philosophy and science.
5. Grammar and Lexicography. — Several of the 'authors in this
department have already been mentioned. The more important,
besides Jacob of Edessa and Barhebraeus, are 'Ananisho' of fted-
haiyabh, Honain ibn Ishak, his pupil Bar 'All, Bar Saroshwai
(early loth century), Bar Bahlul (middle of loth century), Elias
of Tlrhan (fio49), Elias bar Shinaya (above), John Bar Zo'bi
(beginning of Ijth century) and Jacob bar Shakko.
Apart from the numerous editions of Syriac texts by M. Paul
Bedjan, most of which have been cited above, nearly all the texts
recently edited are included in one or other of three comprehensive
series now running — viz. (i) Palrologia syriaca (Paris, 1894);
(2) Corpus scriptonim christianorum orientalium — scriptores syriaci
(Paris, 1907) ; (3) Palrologia orientalis (Paris, 1907). (N. M.)
SYRIANUS, a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher, and head of
the school at Athens in succession to P*lutarch. He is im-
portant as the teacher of Proclus, and, like Plutarch and Proclus,
as a commentator on Plato and Aristotle. His best-known
extant work is a commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle.
He is said to have written also on the De coelo and the De
interpretations of Aristotle and on Plato's Timaeus. A treatise
on the Staseis of Hermogenes was published under his name by
Walz in 1833. His views were identical with those of Proclus,
who regarded him with great affection and left orders that
he should be buried in the same tomb.
SYRINGE (Gr. o-vpif!;, reed, pipe), a hydraulic instrument,
based on the principle of the pump, for the drawing up and
ejecting of liquids. The ordinary form is that of a glass or
metal tube ending in a pointed nozzle and fitted with an air-
tight piston-rod and handle. The nozzle is inserted in the
liquid, which enters the cylinder by atmospheric pressure
when the piston-rod is drawn up. On pushing back the piston
the fluid is ejected in a jet through the nozzle. In sizes varying
from the needle-pointed hypodermic syringe to the abdominal
syringe, it is a common surgical implement used for the injection
of fluids into the body or for the washing of wounds and cavities.
The smaller syringes are made of glass, the larger of metal;
the most common medical syringes consist of a length of india-
rubber tubing, one end terminating in a nozzle of ivory or other
easily cleaned material, in the centre is a bulb or ball which
under pressure draws up the liquid through the free end of
the tube which is placed in the vessel containing it. There
are a very large number of different types of syringe used
in surgical practice. A larger syringe of metal, with a flat
perforated nozzle is used as a garden implement for watering
plants.
SYRINX (<rDpi7£), the Greek name for the pan-pipes. The
principle on which it works is that of the stopped pipe, but it is
blown in the same manner as the ancient Egyptian nay or
oblique flute. The pipes composing it were stopped at one
end, so that the sound waves had to travel twice the length of
the pipe, giving out a note nearly an octave lower than that
produced by an open pipe of equal length. The breath
directed horizontally across the open end, impinged against
the sharp inner edge of the pipes, creating the regular series
of pulses which generate the sound waves within the tubes.
The syrinx consisted of a varying number of reeds, having their
open ends or embouchures in a horizontal line and their stopped
ends, formed by the knots in the reed, gradually decreasing
in length from left to right. Each pipe gave out one note,
but by overblowing, i.e. increased pressure of breath and
tension of lips, harmonies could be obtained.
The syrinx or pan pipes owes its double name to ancient
Greek tradition, ascribing its invention to Pan in connection with
a well-known legend of the Arcadian water-nymph "Syrinx."2
The exact form of the instrument and the number of pipes
(10) at the beginning of the third century B.C. is shown in one of
1 The Syriac versions made by him and his successors have un-
fortunately perished (see Wright, p. 213).
* See Serv. ad Virgil, Ecloga, ii. 31 ; and Ovid, Metam. i. 691, &c.
the Idyllia figurata,' in which the legend is repeated. The pan-
dean pipes continued in favour with the rustic populations of
the West long after the organ evolved from it had eclipsed
this humble prototype. The syrinx was in use during the middle
ages, and was known in France as freslel or frdtiau, in medieval
Latin as fistula panis, and in Germany as Pansflote or Hirten-
pfeife(now Papagenoflote) . At the beginning of the igth century
a revival of the popularity of this instrument took place, and
quartets were played on four sets of pipes of different sizes and
pitch. The modern mouth-organ is the representative of the
syrinx, although blown by means of a free reed.
SYRUP (O. Fr. ysserop, mod. sirop, Span, xarope, for axarope,
Arab, al, the, and sharab, drink; cf. " Sherbet " and " Shrub "),
the name given to a thick, viscid liquid, containing much dis-
solved (generally crystalline) matter, but showing little tendency
to deposit crystals. The " syrup " employed for medicinal
purposes consists of a concentrated or saturated solution of
refined sugar in distilled water. The simple " syrup" of the
British Pharmacopoeia is prepared by adding 1000 grams (or
5 Ib) of refined sugar to 500 cubic centimetres (or two pints)
of boiling distilled water, heating until it is dissolved and sub-
sequently adding boiling distilled water until the weight of the
whole is 1500 grams (or -j\ Ib). The specific gravity of the
syrup should be 1*33. Flavoured syrups are made by adding
flavouring matter to a simple syrup. For instance, syrupui
aromaticus is prepared by adding certain quantities of orange
and cinnamon water to simple syrup. Similarly, medicated
syrups are prepared by adding medicaments to, or dissolving
them in, the simple syrup. Golden syrup is the uncrystallizable
fluid drained off in the process of obtaining refined crystallized
sugar. Treacle and molasses are syrups obtained in the earlier
stages of refining. Technically and scientifically the term syrup
is also employed to denote viscid, generally residual, liquids,
containing substances other than sugar in solution.
SYRYENIANS (also Sirianian, Syrjenian, Zyrenian, Zirianian,
Zyrian and Zirian), a tribe belonging to the Permian division
of the eastern Finns. They are said to number about 85,000
on the west side of the Urals in the governments of Perm,
Vologda and Archangel, and there are also about 1000 on the
Siberian side of the lower Ob. Their headquarters are at Ust-
Ishma, at the junction of the Ishma and Pechora. Formerly
they spread farther to the west. They are of moderate stature,
blond, and grey-eyed, and more energetic and inclined to trade
than most of the allied tribes. They were converted to Christi-
anity about 1350 and their language was reduced to writing.
They call themselves Komi and are not sharply distinguished
from the tribes known as Permian, the languages being mutually
intelligible. The archaeological remains in the governments
of Perm and Vatyka called Chudish by Russians are probably
Syryenian. A grammar of the language was published by
Castren, and linguistic and other notices of the tribe are contained
in the Journal de la sociitt finno-ougrienne, especially for 1903.
(See FINNO-UGRIAN.)
SYSTYLE (Gr. <rvv, together with, and o-rOXos, a column),
in architecture, a term meaning having columns rather thickly
set — an intercolumniation to which two diameters are assigned.
SYZRAN, a town of Russia, in the government of Simbirsk,
156 m. E. of the town of Penza, and a short distance from the
Volga. Pop. (1882), 24,500; (1900), 33,046. Syzran originated
in a fort, erected in 1683, to protect the district from the Tatars
and Circassians. Most of its inhabitants are engaged in garden-
ing and tillage. In the large villages of the surrounding district
various petty trades are carried on. The town has long been
in repute for its tanneries and its manufactures of leather.
Several flour-mills and other factories have recently sprung up.
Much grain is exported; timber is brought from the upper
Volga, and manufactured wares from Nizhniy Novgorod.
SYZYGY (Gr. trv^vyla, a yoking together, from o~vv, together,
and root firy-, yoke), in astronomy, either of the points at which
:he moon is most nearly in a line with the sun. The moon passes
icr syzygies, or is in a syzygy, at new and full moon.
'Theocritus, Brunck, Analecta veto. poet, grace, i. 304.
SZABADKA— SZE-CH'UEN
SZABADKA (Ger. Maria-Theresiopel), a town of Hungary,
in the county of Bics-Bodrog, 109 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (.19°°) i 81,464. It is situated in the great Hungarian
plain between the Danube and the Theiss, and is the centre of
an immense agricultural district. To the town belongs a large
territory (369 sq. m.) of the adjoining Puszta Telecska, where
targe herds of cattle are reared. In this territory is situated
Lake Palics, a favourite watering-place and summer resort.
SZABO VON SZENTMIKL6S, JOZSEF (1822-1894), Hungarian
geologist, was born at Kalocsa, on the i4th of March 1822.
His first contribution to science was an essay on metallurgy,
in which subject he had received special training. Afterwards
he settled at Budapest and investigated the geology of the district,
the results of which were published in a geological map (1858).
In 1859 he joined the staff of the Austrian Geological Survey,
as a volunteer member, and paid attention to the economic
as well as to the purely scientific aspects of the work. He also
arranged for surveys having special reference to agricultural
geology to be undertaken by the Hungarian Geological Institute.
In 1862 he became professor of geology and mineralogy in the
university of Budapest. In later years he devoted himself
largely to petrology, and published memoirs on the trachytes
of Hungary and Transylvania; on a new method of determining
the species of felspars in rocks, depending on fusibility and flame-
coloration; on the geology and petrology of the district of
Schemnitz; and on Santorin Island. He died at Budapest on
the I2th of April 1894.
He was author of Geologic mil besonderer Rucksicht auf die Petro-
graphie, den Vulkanismus u. die Hydrographie (1883).
SZALAY, LADISLAS (1813-1864), Hungarian statesman and
historian, was born at Buda on the i8th of April 1813. After
the completion of his studies, he became a member of the
Hungarian parliament, and in 1848 he represented Hungary
in the German national parliament at Frankfort. He took part
in the revolution of 1848-49, and was obliged to seek refuge
in Switzerland, where he wrote his history of Hungary. This
important work, published at Budapest (1856-1860), extends
to 1707. Szalay also wrote remarkable studies on Pitt, Fox,
Mirabeau and other statesmen, and contributed very con-
siderably to the codification of Magyar law. In later life he
returned to Hungary, but he died at Salzburg on the i7th of
July 1864.
See Alexander Flegler, L. von Szalay (Leipzig, 1866).
SZfcCHENYI, ISTVAN, COUNT (1791-1860), Hungarian
statesman, the son of Ferencz Szechenyi and the countess
Juliana Festetics, was born at Vienna on the 2ist of September
1791. Very carefully educated at home till his seventeenth
year, when he entered the army, he fought with distinction at the
battle of Raab (June 14, 1809), and on the igth of July brought
about the subsequent junction of the two Austrian armies by
conveying a message across the Danube to General J. G. Chasteler
at the risk of his life. Equally memorable was his famous ride,
through the enemy's lines on the night of the i6th-i7th of October
1813, to convey to Bliicher and Bernadotte the wishes of the
two emperors that they should participate in the battle of
Leipzig on the following day, at a given time and place. In
May 1815 he was transferred to Italy, and at the battle of
Tolentino scattered Murat's bodyguard by a dashing cavalry
charge. From September 1815 to 1821 he visited France,
England, Italy, Greece and the Levant, carefully studying the
institutions of the countries through which he passed, and every-
where winning admirers and friends. A second — scientific —
tour with his friend, Baron Miklos Wesselenyi, taught him much
about trade and industry, which knowledge he subsequently
applied to his country's needs. In 1825, when he went to France
in the suite of Prince Pal Esterhazy, to attend the coronation
of Charles X., the canal du Midi especially attracted his attention
and suggested to him the idea of regulating the rivers Danube
and Theiss. At the Diet of 1825, when the motion for founding
a Hungarian academy was made by Pal Nagy, who bitterly
reproached the Magyar nobles for so long neglecting their
mother-tongue, Szechenyi offered to contribute a whole year's
income (60,000 florins) towards it. His example was followed
by three other magnates who contributed between them 58,000
florins more. A commission was thereupon appointed to settle
the details, and on the i8th of August the project received the
royal assent. Another of his great projects was the opening
up of the Danube for trade from Buda to the Black Sea. He
satisfied himself of the practicability of the scheme by a person-
ally conducted naval expedition from Pest to Constantinople.
The Palatine Joseph was then won over, and on the 2oth of
June 1833 a Danube Navigation Committee was formed which
completed its work in ten years. Szechenyi was also the first
to start steamboats on the Theiss, the Danube and the lake of
Balaton. It was now, too, that he published his famous work
Stadium, suggesting a whole series of useful and indeed indis-
pensable reforms (1833), which was followed by Hunnia (1834),
which advocated the extension and beautifying of Budapest
so as to make it the worthy capital of a future great power. His
A Few Words on Horse-racing, a sport which he did so much to
introduce and ennoble, appeared in 1839.
All this time Szechenyi had been following, with some anxiety,
the political course of Kossuth. He sincerely believed that the
exaggeration and exaltation of the popular editor of the P esli
Hirlap would cast the nation back into the old evil conditions
from which it had only just been raised, mainly by Szechenyi's
own extraordinary efforts, and in Kelet ntpe, which is also an
autobiography, he prophetically hinted at an approaching
revolution. " Trample on me without ceremony," he wrote
to Kossuth on this occasion, " but for God's sake don't use the
nimbus of your popularity to plunge Hungary into chaos."
On this very point of reform the nation was already divided into
two parties, though only the minority held with Szechenyi. But
neither this fact nor the gradual loss of his popularity restrained
Szechenyi, both in the Diet and at county meetings, from
fulminating conscientiously against the extreme demands of
Kossuth. His views at this period are expounded in the
pamphlet Politikai programm ioredekek (" Fragments of a
Political Programme "). He held the portfolio of ways and
communications in the first responsible Magyar administration
(March 23, 1848) under Batthyany, but his increasing appre-
hension of a revolution, with its inevitable corollaries of civil
war and a rupture with the dynasty, finally affected his mind,
and on the 5th of September he was removed to an asylum.
Here he remained for many years, but recovered sufficiently
to correspond with his friends and even to meditate writing
fresh books. In 1859 he published the pamphlet Ein Blick
in which he implored his countrymen to accept the Bach system
as the best constitution attainable in the circumstances. The
sudden death, of his old friend Baron Samuel Josika and the once
more darkening political horizon led him, in a moment of despair,
to take his own life (April 8, 1860). He richly deserved the
epithet " the greatest of the Magyars " bestowed upon him by
his political antagonist Kossuth.
Most of his numerous works on political and economical subjects
have been translated into German. The best complete edition
of his writings has been published, in nine volumes, by the Hungarian
Academy (Pest, 1884-1896). See Life of Szechenyi, by Zsigmond
Kemdny (Hung.; Pest, 1870); Aurel Kecskem^thy, The Last
Years and Death of Count Szechenyi (Hung.; Pest, 1866); Menyhert
Lonyai, Count Szechenyi and his Posthumous Writings (Hung.;
Budapest, 1875); Max Falk, " Der Graf Stephen Szechenyi und
seine Zeit " (in the Oesterreichische Revue, Vienna, 1867); Antil
Zichy, Count Szechenyi as a Pedagogue (Hung.; Budapest, 1876);
Pal Gyulai, Szechenyi as a Writer (Hung.; Budapest, 1892); Antal
Zichy, Biographical Sketch of Count Stephen Szechenyi (Hung.;
2 vols., Budapest, 1896-1897). (R. N. B.)
SZE-CH'UEN (Four Rivers), a western province of China,
bounded N. by Kokonor, Kan-suh and Shen-si, E. by Hu-peh
and Hu-nan, S. by Kwei-chow and Yun-nan, and W. by Tibet.
Estimates of its population vary from 45,000,000 to 68,000,000;
estimates of its area from 185,000 to 218,000 sq. m. It is
considerably larger than any other province of China, Yun-nan,
which comes next in size, covering less than 150,000 sq. m.
Sze-ch'uen contains twelve prefectual cities, inclusive of Ch'eng-
tu Fu, the provincial capital. The western portion forms part
SZEGED
of the mountain-lands of Central Asia and much of it is over
10,000 ft. high, while heights of 16,000 to 19,000 ft. occur. The
northern portion is also mountainous, but the east central part
of Sze-ch'uen consists of a red sandstone table-land (see CHINA,
§ i). Towards the north-east end of this plateau, commonly
known as " the red basin, " is Ch'eng-tu Fu (pop. 450,000-
500,000), the provincial capital. The plain in which the city
stands is about 70 m. long and 30 wide, and is noted for the
density of its population (about 5,000,000), its wealth, and its
splendid irrigation works.
The fauna includes bears, yaks, various kinds of antelope,
monkeys and parrots. The flora includes magnificent yews,
a great variety of bamboos, tallow, varnish, soap, and wax
trees, rhododendrons and giant azaleas. The ethnological and
commercial boundaries are sharply defined by the physical
features. The mountain districts are poorly cultivated, and
are inhabited by Ijin or barbarians, who are distinguished
under the tribal names of Si-fan, Lo-lo and Man-tsze, and
who maintain a semi-independence. Tibetans are also scattered
over the western region and are numerous in the district of
Pa-tang. The table-land is inhabited by Chinese, and is one
of the most thriving and populous regions in the empire.
These Chinese exhibit great diversity of type, due in part to
immigration from other provinces in the i7th century —
three fourths of the inhabitants having, it is said, been exter-
minated towards the close of the Ming dynasty.
Through the southern portion of Sze-ch'uen runs the Yangtsze-
kiang, which is there navigable throughout the year, while the
province is traversed by three large rivers, the Min-kiang, the
Fu-sung-ho and the Kialing-kiang, all of which take their rise
in the mountains on its north-west border, and empty into the
Yangtsze-kiang at Su-chow Fu, Lu Chow and Chung-k'ing Fu
respectively. A series of rapids disturb the waters of the
Yangtsze-kiang between I-ch'ang and Chung-k'ing, a distance
of about 500 m. According to the native authorities there
are 13 big rapids and 72 smaller ones on these waters. In
ordinary circumstances it takes about six weeks to traverse
the distance. In 1898 Mr A. Little took a steamer, which had
been built for the purpose, up the rapids, and since then one or
more of these boats have ascended them. The province is
intersected by numerous but difficult roads. The Ta-pei-lu,
or great north road, leads from Ch'eng-tu Fu to Peking. From
the same centre there branch roads to Chung-k'ing Fu, to Pao-
ning Fu and to Ya-chow Fu, while another road connects
Chung-k'ing Fu with Kwei-chow Fu on the Yangtsze-kiang
and beyond with I-ch'ang Fu in Hu-peh. From Ya-chow Fu,
again, start two important roads, one leading into Tibet by way
of Yung-king, Ts'ing-k'i Hien, Ta-chien-lu, Li-tang, Pa-tang
and Chiamdo, and the other to Western Yun-nan via Ts'ing-k'i
Hien, Ning-yuen Fu, and Yen-yuen Hien to Ta-li Fu. From
Ta-li Fu this road continues through Momein to Bhamo in
Burma. Another road connects Pa-tang and Li-kiang Fu with
Ta-li Fu, and yet another crosses the southernmost corner of
the province connecting Tung-ch'uen Fu in Yun-nan with Ta-li
Fu in the same province. In 1910 a loan of £6,000,000 was
arranged for the construction of a railway from Hankow through
the provinces of Hu-peh and Sze-ch'uen to Ch'eng-tu Fu.
The products of Sze-ch'uen include silk, tea,, rice, sugar,
hemp, vegetable wax, tobacco, timber and oranges. A larger
quantity of silk is produced in eastern Sze-ch'uen than in any
other province of the empire. Large quantities are exported
to Shen-si, Shan-si, Kan-suh, Peking, Yun-nan, Tibet, Kwei-
chow, Kwang-si, Hu-nan and Hu-peh.
White wax is another valuable article of the Sze-ch'uen trade. It is
made exclusively in the department of Kia-ting Fu, the climate of
Wax. ' wnich appears to favour the propagation of the disease
among the insects which is said by the natives to be the cause
of the plentiful secretion of wax. This belief is borne out by the fact,
that in the districts where the insects breed only a small quantity of
wax is produced, and experience has taught the natives the advantage
of breeding the insects in one district and producing the wax in
another. The region of Kien-chang in the south of the province
has been found most suitable for breeding purposes, and it is there,
therefore, on the insect trees, which are evergreens with large and
pointed ovate leaves, that the breeding processes are carried on.
At the end of April the producers start each with a load of the eggs
of the insects for the district of Kia-ting Fu, a journey which on
foot occupies about a fortnight. The road between the two dis-
tricts is very mountainous, and as exposure to the heat of the sun
would hatch the eggs too rapidly, the travellers journey only during
the night. At Kia-ting Fu the eggs are eagerly bought up, and
are at once put upon the wax tree. Baron von Richthofen thus
describes the subsequent process: —
" When the egg balls are procured they are folded up, six or seven
together in a bag of palm leaf. These bags are suspended on the
twigs of the trees. This is all the human labour required. After
a few days the insects commence coming out. They spread as
a brownish film over the twigs, but do not touch the leaves. The
Chinese describe them as having neither shape, nor head, nor eyes,
nor feet. It is known that the insect is a species of coccus. Gradu-
ally, while the insect is growing, the surface of the twigs becomes
encrustated with a white substance, this is the wax. No care
whatever is required. The insect has no enemy, and is not even
touched by ants. In the latter half of August the twigs are cut
off and boiled in water, when the wax rises to the surface. It is
then melted and poured into deep pans. It cools down to a trans-
lucent and highly crystalline substance."
Tobacco is grown very generally throughout the province,
and is exported in large quantites to Si-fan, Tibet, Yun-nan,
Hu-nan, and the export to Hankow alone is estimated at
6J million Ib annually. The best is grown in the district
of P'i Hien; the next quality is said to come from Kin-t'ang
Hien, and the third quality from Shih-fang Hien, all these
districts being in the plain of Ch'eng-tu Fu. The habit, which
is unknown in other provinces, of smoking the tobacco leaves
rolled up in the shape of cigars obtains largely in Sze-ch'uen.
Salt is also produced in Sze-ch'uen in large quantities from brine,
which is raised from wells. Tsze-liu-tsing, in Tsze Chow,
Wu-tung-kiao, hear Kia-ting Fu, Pao-ning Fu, and T'ung-
ch'uen Fu, are the districts where the wells are most abundant.
The brine is raised from the well with long bamboo tubes and
bamboo ropes, and is then led to large pans for evaporation.
In the district of Tsze-liu-tsing petroleum is struck at a depth
of from 1800 to 2000 ft., and is used for evaporating the brine.
Coal, iron and copper are found in many parts. The only coal
worked is of an inferior quality, and the iron is smelted with
wood alone. Ning-yuen Fu is the principal district from which
the copper is produced. Wheat, barley, beans, rice, Indian
corn, potatoes, &c., are among the other products of Sze-ch'uen.
Chung -K'ing Fu(pop. about 600,000) is the principal treaty
port. It imports textiles, aniline dyes, metals, soap, petroleum
&c., and exports silk, wax, tobacco, sugar, oil, musk, medicinal
plants, &c. By the terms of the Mackay Treaty, signed at
Shanghai in 1902, the port of Wan Hien (pop. 140,000), which
is situated on the Yangtsze-kiang, 200 m. below Chung-K'ing
Fu, was opened to trade in 1905. Both Protestant and Roman
Catholic missions are at work in the province; the Protestants
opening their first mission station, at Chung-K'ing, in 1877.
See L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire,
pp. 104-119 and the authorities there cited (Shanghai, 1908); also
' The Province of Sze-ch'uen," in The Chinese Empire (M. Broom-
hall ed. ; London, 1907); and Colonel C. C. Manifold, "Recent
Exploration and Economic Development in Central and Western
China," in Geog. Journ. (1904), vol. xxiii.
SZEGED (Ger., Szegcdin), the capital of the county of Csongrad
in Hungary, 118 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),
100,270. It is situated on both banks of the Theiss just below
the confluence of the Maros, and contains the inner town and
four suburbs. It is the second town in Hungary as regards
population, and since the disastrous inundation of the Theiss
on the night of the nth of March 1879, which almost completely
destroyed it, Szeged has been rebuilt. It is now one of the
handsomest towns of Hungary, and has several large squares,
broad avenues, boulevards and many palatial buildings. It
has also been encircled with a strong dam in order to protect
it from floods. Among the principal buildings are a Franciscan
convent, with a rich library and an interesting collection of
antiquities and ecclesiastical objects; a P-arist and a Minorite
convent; a handsome new town-hall; and a natural history
and historical museum to which is attached a public library.
Szeged is the chief seat of the manufacture of paprica, a kind of
320
SZEKESFEHERVAR— SZOMBATHELY
red pepper largely used in Hungary, and of a pastry called
tarhonya; and has factories of soap, leather, boots, saw-mills
and distilleries. Szeged is the centre of the commerce and in-
dustry of the great Hungarian Alfold, being an important railway
junction and the principal port on the Theiss.
Since the isth century Szeged has been one of the most
prominent cities in Hungary. From 1541 till 1686 it was in
possession of the Turks, who fortified it. It is also notorious
for its many witchcraft trials. In 1848 it sent strong detach-
ments to the national Hungarian army. In July 1849 the seat
of the government was transferred hither for a short time.
SZEKESFEHERVAR (Ger., Stuhlweissenburg, Lat., Alba
Regalis or Alba Regia), a town of Hungary, capital of the county
of Fejer, 41 m. S.W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 30,451.
It is situated in a marshy plain and is a well-built and prosperous
town. Szekesfeh6rvar is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric,
one of the oldest in the country, and was formerly a town of
great importance, being the coronation and burial place of the
Hungarian kings from the loth to the i6th century. Amongst
its principal buildings are the cathedral, the episcopal palace,
several convents, of which the most noteworthy is the Jesuit
convent, now a Cistercian secondary school with a handsome
church, and the county hall. The town carries on a brisk trade
in wine, fruit and horses, and is one of the principal centres of
horse-breeding in Hungary. Szekesfehervar is one of the
oldest towns of Hungary, in which St Stephen, the first king
of Hungary, built a church, which served as the coronation
church for the Hungarian kings. In the same church some
fifteen kings were buried. In 1543 it fell into the hands of the
Turks, under whom it remained until 1686. Before evacuat-
ing it, the Turks plundered the tombs of the kings, destroyed
the old church and several other buildings, and burnt the
archives. Several sarcophagi of the kings, and the foundations
of the old church, have been found by excavation beneath
the cathedral.
SZEKLERS, or SZEKELS (Szekely, Lat. Siculi), a Finno-Ugrian
people of Transylvania, akin to the Magyars. They form a
compact mass of rather more than 450,000, extending from
near Kronstadt on the south to Maros-Vasarhely and Gyerg6
St Mikl6s on the north. Their origin is unknown and has been
the subject of much learned debate. Their own ancient tradi-
tion affirms their] descent from Attila's Huns. According to
Procopius (De hello gothico, iv. 18) 3000 Huns entered Transyl-
vania (Erdeleu, i.e. the Magyar Erdely) after their defeat " calling
themselves, not Hungarians, but Zekul," and the Szeklers were
the descendants of the Huns who stayed in Transylvania till
the return of their kinsmen under Arpad; the anonymous scribe
of King Bela speaks of them as " formerly Attila's folk." Von
Rethy (Ung. Rev. vii. 812) suggests that they were originally
a band of Black Ugrians who sought refuge in Transylvania
after their defeat by the Pechenegs. Timon, however (Magyar
Alkotmdny es Jogtortenet, p. 75), points out that their language
proves that their separation from the main Magyar stock must
have taken place after the Magyar tongue had been fully deve-
loped (see also Hunfalvy, Magyarorszag Ethnographiaja, 200).
According to another theory they were Magyars transplanted
by St Ladislaus to Transylvania in order to form a permanent
frontier guard. Some such origin would, indeed, seem to be
implied by the name Szekel, if this be derived, as Czetneki
surmises (" Die Szeklerfrage," Ung. Rev. i. 411-428), from
szek, seat, i.e. an administrative district (cf. the Stuhl of the
Transylvanian Saxons); Szekely would thus mean simply
" frontier-guards."
SZIGLIGETI, EDE (1814-1878), Hungarian dramatist, whose
original name was Jozsef Szathmary, was born at Nagyvarad-
Olaszi, on the 8th of March 1814. His parents would have
made him a priest; he wanted to be a great doctor; finally he
entered the office of an engineer. But his heart was already
devoted to the drama and, on the isth of August 1834, despite
the prohibition of his tyrannical father, he actually appeared
upon the stage at Budapest. His father thereupon forbade
him to bear his name in future, and the younger Szathmary
henceforth adopted instead the name of Ede Szigligeti, the
hero of one of Sandor Kisfaludy's romances. He supported
himself for the next few years precariously enough, earning as
he did little more than twelve florins a month, but at the same
time he sedulously devoted himself to the theatre and sketched
several plays, which differed so completely from the "original"
plays then in vogue (The Played-out Trick actually appeared
upon the boards) that they attracted the attention of such
connoisseurs as Vorosmarty and Bajza, who warmly encouraged
the young writer. In 1840 the newly founded Hungarian
Academy crowned his five-act drama Rosa, the title-role of
which was brilliantly acted by Rosa Laborfalvy, the great actress,
who subsequently married Maurus J6kai. Szigligeti was now
a celebrity. In 1840 he was elected a member of the Academy
and in 1845 a member of the Kisfaludy Society. He was now
the leading Hungarian dramatist. Three of his plays were
crowned by the National Theatre and sixteen by the Academy.
His verdict on all dramatic subjects was for years regarded as
final, and he was the mentor of all the rising young dramatists
of the 'sixties. During the half-century of his dramatic career
Szigligeti wrote no fewer than a hundred original pieces, all of
them remarkable for the inexhaustible ingenuity of their plots,
their up-to-date technique and the consummate skill with which
the author used striking and unexpected effects to produce
his denouement. He wrote, perhaps, no work of genius, but he
amused and enthralled the Magyar playgoing public for a
generation and a half. Szigligeti's most successful tragedies
were Gritti (1844), Paul Beldi (1856), Light's Shadows (1865),
Struensee (1871), Valeria and The Pretender (1868). His tragedies,
as a rule, lack pathos and sublimity. Much more remarkable
are his comedies. He is a perfect master of the art of weaving
complications, and he prefers to select his subjects from the
daily life of the upper and upper-middle classes. The best of
these comedies are The Three Commands of Matrimony (1850),
Tuneful Stevey (1855), Mamma (1857), The Reign of Woman
(1862), and especially the farce Young Lilly (1849). He also
translated Goethe's Egmont and Shakespeare's Richard III.,
and wrote a dramaturgical work entitled The Drama and its
Varieties. A few of his plays have appeared in German.
See P. Rakodczay, Edward Szigligeti's Life and Works (Hung.;
Pressburg, 1901); Pal Gyulai, Memorial Speeches (Hung.; Buda-
pest, 1879 and 1890). (R. N. B.)
SZOMBATHELY (Ger., Steinamanger) , the capital of the
Hungarian county of Vas, 162 m. W. of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 23,309. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
and possesses a beautiful cathedral (1797-1821) with two towers,
180 ft. high. Other buildings are the episcopal palace, to which
is attached a museum of Roman antiquities, the county hall,
the convent of the Dominicans and the seminary for Roman
Catholic priests. Szombathely is an important railway and
industrial centre, and has a state railway workshop, manu-
factories for agricultural machinery, foundries and steam mills.
About 5 m. south of Szombathely lies the small village of Jaak,
with a Dominican convent from the nth century, which has
a remarkably beautiful church, one of the best specimens of
Romanesque architecture in the country. About 16 m. by rail
south of the town is Kormend (pop. 6171), with a beautiful
castle belonging to Count Bathyanyi. About 16 m. by rail,
west of Kormend is the small town of Szent Gotthard (pop.,
2055, mostly Germans), with a Cistercian abbey, founded by
King Bela III. in 1183, where General Montecucculi gained a
decisive victory over the Turks in 1664.
Szombathely occupies the site of the Roman town Sabaria
Sanaria), which was the capital of Pannonia. Here in A.D. 193
Septimius Severus was proclaimed emperor by his legions.
Many remains from the Roman period have been excavated,
such as traces of an amphitheatre, a triumphal arch, the old
fortifications, an aqueduct, &c. The remains are preserved partly
in the museum at Budapest, and partly in the municipal museum.
The bishopric was created in 1777.
X— TAAFFE
321
Tthe last letter in the Semitic alphabet, where, however,
its form in the earliest inscriptions is that of a St
Andrew's Cross X. In both Greek and Latin, however,
although the upright and cross stroke are frequently not
exactly at right angles and the upright often projects beyond the
cross stroke, the forms approach more nearly to the modern than
to the Semitic shape. The name Taw was taken over in the Greek
rav. The sound was that of the unvoiced dental stop. The
English /, however, is not dental but alveolar, being pronounced,
as d also, not by putting the tongue against the teeth but against
their sockets. This difference is marked in the phonetic
differentiation of the dental and the alveolar / by writing them
respectively t and /. The alveolar sound is frequent also in
the languages of India, which possess both this and the dental
sound. The Indian t, however, is probably produced still farther
from the teeth than is the English sound. In the middle of
words when / precedes a palatal sound like i (y) which is not
syllabic, it coalesces with it into the sound of sh as in position,
nation, &c. The change to a sibilant in these cases took place
in late Latin, but in Middle English the i following the t was
still pronounced as a separate syllable. A later change is that
which is seen in the pronunciation of nature as neitf. This
arises from the pronunciation of u as yu, and does not affect
the English dialects which have not thus modified the u sound.
Similar changes had taken place in some of the loqal dialects
of Italy before the Christian era. At the end of words the
English t is really aspirated, a breath being audible after the t
in words like bit, hit, pit. This is the sound that in ancient
Greek was represented by 0. In medieval and modern Greek,
however, this has become the unvoiced sound represented in
English by th in thin, thick, pith. Though represented in
English by two symbols this is a single sound, which may be
either interdental or, as frequently in English, produced " by
keeping the tongue loosely behind the upper front teeth, so that
the breath escapes partly between the tongue and the teeth,
and partly, if the teeth are not very closely set, through the
interstices between them" (Jespersen). In English th repre-
sents both the unvoiced sound ]> as in thin, &c., and the voiced
sound 5, which is found initially only in pronominal words
like this, that, there, then, those, is commonest medially as in
father, bother, smother, either, and is found also finally in words
like with (the preposition), both. Early English used }> and
3 indiscriminately for both voiced and unvoiced sounds, in
Middle English 5 disappeared and ]> was gradually assimilated
in form to y, which is often found for it in early printing. It
is, however, to be regretted that English has not kept the old
symbols for sounds which are very characteristic of the language.
In modern Greek the ancient S (d) has become the voiced spirant
(8), though it is still written 5. Hence to represent D, Greek
has now to resort to the clumsy device of writing NT instead.
(P.Gi.)
TAAFFE, EDUARD FRANZ JOSEPH VON, COUNT [nth
Viscount Taaffe and Baron of Ballymote, in the peerage of
Ireland] (1833-1895), Austrian statesman, was born at Vienna
on 24th February 1833. He was the second son of Count
Ludwig Patrick Taaffe (1791-1855), a distinguished public man
who was minister of justice in 1848 and president of the court
of appeal. As a child Taaffe was one of the chosen companions
of the young archduke, afterwards emperor, Francis Joseph.
In 1852 he entered the public service; in 1867 he was Statthalter
of Upper Austria, and the emperor offered him the post of
minister of the interior in Beust's administration. In June
he became vice-president of the ministry, and at the end of
the year he entered the first ministry of the newly organized
Austrian portion of the monarchy. For the next three years
he took a very important part in the confused political changes,
and probably more than any other politician represented the
wishes of the emperor. He had entered the ministry as a
XXVI. II
German Liberal, but he soon took an intermediate position
between the Liberal majority of the Berger ministry and the
party which desired a federalistic amendment of the constitu-
tion and which was strongly supported at court. From
September 1868 to January 1870, after the retirement of Auer-
sperg, he was president of the cabinet. In 1870 the government
broke up on the question of the revision of the constitution:
Taaffe with Potocki and Berger wished to make some concessions
to the Federalists; the Liberal majority wished to preserve
undiminished the authority of the Reichsrath. The two parties
presented memoranda to the emperor, each defending their
view, and offering their resignation: after some hesitation the
emperor accepted the policy of the majority, and Taaffe with
his friends resigned. The Liberals, however, failed to carry on
the government, as the representatives of most of the territories
refused to appear in the Reichsrath: they resigned, and in
the month of April Potocki and Taaffe returned to office. The
latter failed, however, in the attempt to come to some under-
standing with the Czechs, and in their turn had to make way
for the Clerical and Federalist cabinet of Hohenwart. Taaffe
now became Statthalter of Tirol, but once more on the break-
down of the Liberal government in 1879 he was called to office.
At first he attempted to carry on the government without
change of principles, but he soon found it necessary to come
to an understanding with the Feudal and Federal parties, and
he was responsible for the conduct of the negotiations which
in the elections of this year gave a majority to the different
groups of the National and Clerical opposition. In July he
became minister president: at first he still continued to govern
with the Liberals, but this was soon made impossible, and he
was obliged to turn for support to the Conservatives. It was
his great achievement that he persuaded the Czechs to abandon
the policy of abstention and to take part in the parliament.
It was on the support of them, the Poles, and the Clericals that
his majority depended. His avowed intention was to unite
the nationalities of Austria: Germans and Slavs were, as he
said, equally integral parts of Austria; neither must be
oppressed; both must unite to form an Austrian parliament.
Notwithstanding the growing opposition of the German Liberals,
who refused to accept the equality of the nationalities, he
kept his position for thirteen years. Not a great creative
statesman, he had singular capacity for managing men; a
very poor orator, he had in private intercourse an urbanity and
quickness of humour which showed his Irish ancestry. For
the history of his administration see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,
History (Sec. II. " Austria Proper "). Beneath an apparent
cynicism and frivolity Taaffe hid a strong feeling of patriotism
to his country and loyalty to the emperor. It was no small
service to both that for so long, during very critical years in
European history, he maintained harmony between the two
parts of the monarchy and preserved constitutional government
in Austria. The necessities of the parliamentary situation
compelled him sometimes to go farther in meeting the demands
of the Conservatives and Czechs than he would probably have
wished, but he was essentially an opportunist: in no way a
party man, he recognized that the government must be carried
on, and he cared little by the aid of what party the necessary
majority was maintained. In 1893 he was defeated on a proposal
for the revision of the franchise, and resigned. He retired into
private life, and died two years later at his country residence,
Ellerschau, in Bohemia, on 2gth November 1895.
By the death of his elder brother Charles (1823-1873), a colonel
in the Austrian army, Taaffe succeeded to the Austrian and Irish
titles. He married in 1862 Countess Irma Tsaky, by whom he
left four daughters and one son, Henry. The family history
presents points of unusual interest. From the 1 3th century the
Taaffes had been one of the leading families in the north of Ireland.
In 1628 Sir John Taaffe was raised to the peerage as Baron Bally-
mote and Viscount Taaffe of Corven. He left fifteen children, of
322
TAAL— TABARIN
whom the eldest, Theobald, took a prominent part in the Civil
War, accompanied Charles II. in exile, and on the Restoration
was created earl of Carlingford. He was sent on missions to the
duke of Lorraine and to the emperor, by which was established
the connexion of his family with the house of Habsburg and
Lorraine, which has continued to this day. His eldest son was
killed in the Turkish wars. He was succeeded in the title by his
second son Nicholas, who had served in the Spanish wars and
was killed at the Boyne. The next brother, Francis, the third
earl, was one of the most celebrated men of his time: he was
brought up at Olmutz, at the imperial court, and in the service
of Duke Charles of Lorraine, whose most intimate friend he became.
He rose to the highest rank in the Austrian army, having greatly
distinguished himself at the siege of Vienna and in the other
Turkish campaigns, and was a member of the Order of the Golden
Fleece. He was sent on many important diplomatic missions, and
at the end of his life was chancellor and chief minister to the duke
of Lorraine. Notwithstanding the Jacobite connexions of his
family, his title to the earldom of Carlingford was confirmed by
William III., and the attainder and forfeiture of the estates incurred
by his brother was repealed. This favour he owed to his position
at the court of the emperor, William's most important ally. On
his death the title and estates went to his nephew Theobald, whose
father had fallen during the siege of Derry, and who himself had
served with distinction in the Austrian army. On his death the
title of earl of Carlingford became extinct; both the Austrian and
Irish estates as well as the Irish viscountcy went to a cousin
Nicholas (1677-1769). Like so many of his family, he was brought
up in Lorraine and passed into the Austrian army; he fought in
the Silesian war, rose to be field-marshal, and was made a count
of the Empire. His Irish estates were, however, claimed under
the Act of 1703 by a Protestant heir: a lawsuit followed, which
was ended by a compromise embodied in a private act of parlia-
ment, by which the estates were sold and one-third of the value
given to him. With the money he acquired the castle of Eller-
schau, in Bohemia; he had also inherited other property in the
Austrian dominions. He was naturalized in Bohemia, and left on
record that the reason for this step was that he did not wish his
descendants to be exposed to the temptation of becoming Pro-
testants so as to avoid the operation of the penal laws. His great-
grandson was the father of the subject of this article. A Com-
mittee of Privileges of the House of Lords in 1860 recognized the
right of the family to hold the Irish title.
See Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon Oesterreichs. Memoirs of
the Family of Taaffe (Vienna, 1856), privately printed; article
in the Contemporary Review (1893), by E. B. Lanin. The Prague
Politik published in December 1904 contains some interesting corre-
spondence collected from Taaffe's papers. (J. W. HE.)
TAAL, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, on the Pansipit river, opposite Lemery, with which
it is connected by a bridge, and about 50 m. S. of Manila.
Pop. of the municipality (1903) 17,525. Taal is built, chiefly
of stone, on the summit and terraced slopes of a hill overlooking
the Gulf of Balayan into which the Pansipit river flows. It
has a cool and healthy climate, is an important military station,
and a port for coastwise vessels. Extensive agricultural lands
in the vicinity produce rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane, pepper,
cacao, and cotton, but the great coffee plantations which were
formerly to be seen in its vicinity have been destroyed by
insects. The inhabitants are also engaged in raising horses
and cattle, in fishing, and in carrying on a considerable trade
in cotton goods, sugar, coffee, &c. Taal is the only town in
the Philippines where effective efforts have been made to exclude
the Chinese. The hostility of the inhabitants toward them was
such that none succeeded in establishing a residence here until
the latter days of the revolution against the American govern-
ment. The town was founded in 1754 after the destruction by
Taal volcano of an old town of the same name on Lake Taal.
The language is Tagalog.
TABACO, a town and port of entry of the province of Albay,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, on Tabaco bay, about 20 m. N.
of the town of Albay. Pop. (1903) 21,946. The men of
Tabaco are largely engaged in the cultivation of hemp; the
women in weaving cloth, baskets and mats. The town has a
deep and well-protected harbour, and its shipping is extensive.
The language is Bicol.
TABARD, a short coat, either sleeveless, or with short sleeves
or shoulder pieces, emblazoned on the front and back with
the arms of the sovereign, and worn, as their distinctive gar-
ment, by heralds and pursuivants. A similar garment with
short sleeves or without sleeves was worn in the middle ages
by knights over their armour, and was also emblazoned with
their arms or worn plain. The name was also given in earlier
days to a much humbler similar garment -of rough frieze worn"
by peasants; the ploughman wears a " tabard " in the Prologue
to the Canterbury Tales. Similarly at Queen's College, Oxford,
the scholars on the foundation were called " tabarders," from
the tabard, obviously not an emblazoned garment, which they
wore. The word itself appears in Fr. tabard or tabart, &c.,
Ital. tabarro, Ger. taphart, Med. Lat. iabbardus, tabardium, &c.
It is of doubtful origin, but has usually been connected with
" tippet," " tapestry," from Lat. tapete, hangings, painted
cloths; Gr. T&.TTTIS, carpet.
TABARl [Abu Ja'far Mahommed ibn Jarir ut-Tabari] (838-
923), Arabian historian and theologian, was born at Amol
in Tabaristan (south of the Caspian), and studied at Rei (Rai),
Bagdad, and in Syria and Egypt. Cast upon his own resources
after his father's death, he was reduced to great poverty until
he was appointed tutor to the son of the vizier 'Ubaidallah ibn
Yahya. He afterwards journeyed to Egypt, but soon returned
to Bagdad, where he remained as a teacher of tradition and
law until his death. His life was simple and dignified, and
characterized by extreme diligence. He is said to have often
refused valuable gifts. A Shafi'ite in law, he claimed the right
to criticize all schools, and ended by establishing a school of
his own, in which, however, he incurred the violent wrath of
the Hanbalites.
His works are not numerous, but two of them are very exten-
sive. The one is the Tdrlkh ur-Rusul wal-Muluk (History of the
Prophets and Kings), generally known as the Annals (cf. ARABIA,
Literature, " History "). This is a history from the Creation to
A.D. 915, and is renowned for its detail and accuracy. It has been
published under the editorship of M. J. de Goeje in three series,
comprising thirteen volumes, with two extra volumes containing
indices, introduction and glossary (Leiden, 187^-1901). A Persian
digest of this work, made in 963 by the Samanid vizier al-Bal'ami,
has been translated into French by H. Zotenberg (vo!s. i.-iv., Paris,
1867-1874). A Turkish translation of this was published at Con-
stantinople (1844). His second great work was the commentary
on the Koran, which was marked by the same fullness of detail as
the Annals. The size of the work and the independence of judg-
ment in it seem to have prevented it from having a large circula-
tion, but scholars such as Baghawl and Suyuti used it largely. It
has been published in thirty vols. (with extra index volume) at
Cairo, 1902-1903. An account of it, with brief extracts, has been
given by O. Loth in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen
Gesellschaft, vol. xxxv. (1881), pp. 588-628. Persian and Turkish
translations of the commentary exist in manuscript. A third great
work was projected by Tabari. This was to be on the traditions of
the Companions, &c., of Mahomet. It was not, however, completed.
Other smaller works are mentioned in the Fihrist, pp. 234-235.
(G. W. T.)
TABARIN (Fr. tabard, Ital. labarrino, a small cloak), the
name assumed by Jean Salomon (c. 1584-1633), a Parisian
street charlatan, who amused his audiences in the Place Dauphine
by farcical dialogue with his partner Mondor (Phillippe Girard),
with whom he reaped a golden harvest by the sale of quack
medicines. A contemporary portrait shows him in the dress
of a clown, but with a moustache and pointed beard, carrying
a wooden sword and wearing a soft grey felt hat capable of
assuming countless amusing shapes in his deft fingers. His .
regular evening antics were varied by more elaborate weekly
performances in which others appeared, notably his wife. In
these he took the part of a fat old fool, but his jokes, while
usually coarse, were frequently clever, and his extemporized
speeches were full of originality. He is said to have influ-
enced both Moliere and La Fontaine. The latter praises him,
and he is also well spoken of by Boileau and Voltaire.
He retired about 1628, and died on the i6th of August 1633.
Numerous farces and dialogues, partly or wholly his, or in
his repertoire, were credited to him, and long series of cheap
leaflets purporting to be his complete works began to appear
as early as 1622. Two rival editions, in two volumes and
one volume respectively, were published as late as 1858. The
word Tabarin, spelt with a capital, has been adopted into the
French language to designate the comic performer of a street
booth.
TABASCO— TABERNACLE
323
TABASCO, a state of Mexico, bounded N. by the Gulf of
Mexico, E. by the state of Campeche and Guatemala, S. by
Guatemala and Chiapas, and W. by Vera Cruz. Area 10,072
sq. m. Pop. (1900) 159,834. The surface is generally low and
flat, largely covered with lagoons, watercourses and swamps. In
the S. and S.E. there is an area belonging to the rough higher
formation of Chiapas. Dense forests cover the whole region,
and there are valuable fine woods and dye-woods. There are
several large lagoons on the coast, two of which are called
Sant' Ana and Tupilco bays. Two large rivers, the Grijalva
and Usumacinta, traverse its territory. The Grijalva, also called
Tabasco, the upper course of which is known as the Chiapas,
has its most distant sources in wtstern Guatemala and flows
N.W. across Chiapas to the frontier of Oaxaca, thence N. to
the frontier of Tabasco, and thence N.E. to the coast; it is
navigable for 93 m. The Usumacinta likewise has its sources in
western Guatemala. It forms the boundary between Guatemala
and Chiapas until the frontier of Tabasco is reached, where
its N.W. course turns to the N. and then N.W. to a junction
with the Grijalva — the two rivers having a common outlet.
The Usumacinta, including its head streams, is about 5°° m.
long; excluding them about 330 m. long; for about 270 m.
it is navigable, for about 180 m. for large steamers. There are
no railways and no good roads, and these rivers and the navigable
channels of the Cuxcuchopa, Soledad, Cocohital, Tular, and
Tortuguero, are the principal practical thoroughfares in the state.
The capital is San Juan Bautista (pop., 1900, 10,548), formerly
called Villa Hermosa, on the Grijalva river, about 70 m. above
its mouth. The next most important town is Frontera (pop.,
1895, 6794), a port 3 m. within the mouth of the Grijalva.
TABERNACLE (Lat. tabernaculum, a hut, tent), specifically
the name given in the English Bible to the portable sanctuary
which, according to the priestly sources of the Pentateuch, was
erected by Moses in the wilderness as the place of worship of
the Hebrew tribes (Exodus xxv. S.).
(i) The Tabernacle and Us Furniture. — The Tabernacle proper
is represented as standing within a rectangular area, measuring
too cubits by 50, approximately 150 feet by 75, which formed
the centre of the camp in the wilderness. This area, termed
the " court of the tabernacle," was fenced off from the rest of
the encampment by a series of curtains suspended from 100
pillars standing at intervals of 5 cubits, and lay east and west
with its entrance on the eastern side. Of the two squares, each
measuring 50 cubits by 50, into which the court may be divided,
the more easterly was that in which the worshippers assembled.
In the centre of this square stood the altar of burnt-offering,
a hollow chest of acacia wood overlaid with bronze. The
tabernacle itself also stood east and west, with its entrance
towards the east, on the edge of the second square. The essential
part of the structure, to which everything else was subsidiary,
was that termed in the original the mishkdn, i.e. dwelling
(Eng. Vers. tabernacle, but see Exod. xxv. 9, Rev. Vers. margin).
It was formed of ten curtains, in two sets of five, of the finest
linen with inwoven coloured figures of cherubim, the whole
making an artistic covering measuring 40 cubits by 28. Instead
of being suspended on poles after the manner of an ordinary
tent, the curtains of the dwelling were spread over a series
of open frames of acacia wood overlaid with gold, each 10 cubits
in height by 15 in breadth.1 These frames, 48 in all, were so
arranged as to form the southern, western and northern sides
of a rectangular structure, 30 cubits in length and 10 cubits in
breadth and height. Over the frames, as has been said, were
thrown the two sets of tapestry curtains above described, while
the eastern end, forming the entrance, was closed by a special
portiere suspended from five pillars. The dwelling was divided
into two parts by a second hanging, the " veil," 10 cubits from
the western end. These two parts were termed respectively
1 For the philological and other arguments in favour of open
frames in place of the traditional solid beams — the " boards ' of
the English version — as supports of the curtains, see the writer's
article " Tabernacle " in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible, iv. 659 f.,
with illustrative diagrams.
the holy place, and the most holy place or " holy of holies."
Within the latter stood, in solitary majesty, the ark of God,
in which were deposited the two stone tables of the decalogue
or " testimony." On the ark lay a solid slab of the finest gold,
the propitiatory or mercy-seat, from which rose the figures of
two golden cherubim. The propitiatory with its over-arching
cherubim formed the innermost shrine of the wilderness
sanctuary, the earthly throne of the God of heaven.
The furniture of the holy place consisted of the table of shew-
bread, the altar of incense — both, like the ark, of acacia wood
overlaid with gold — and the golden " candlestick," the latter in
reality a seven-branched lamp-stand. As a protection the delicate
and artistic curtains of the dwelling were covered by two similar
sets of goats'-hair curtains, which together measured 44 cubits by
30; these, in their turn, were protected by a double covering,
the one of rams' skins dyed red, the other made of the skins
of a Red Sea mammal, probably the dugong (Exod. xxvi. 14).
(2) The Religious Significance of the Tabernacle. — The aim
of the priestly school, to whom we owe the conception of the
tabernacle as above described, was to provide a sanctuary
and a ritual worthy of the higher conceptions of the Deity,
which had grown up as the fruit of the discipline of the exile.
The ideal relation of Jehovah (Yahweh) to the theocratic com-
munity of Israel had already been described by Ezekiel in the
words " my dwelling shall be with them, and I will be their
God, and they shall be my people " (xxxvii. 27). That this was
the religious ideal in the mind of the author of Exodus xxv. ff.
is evident from the characteristic name which he gives to the
essential part of the tabernacle, the dwelling (see above, and cf.
Exod. xxv. 8). All the arrangements of the camp and of the
tabernacle are intended to secure the presence of a holy God in
the midst of a holy people. The thought of the almost un-
approachable holiness of the Deity underlies not only the grada-
tion of the parts of the tabernacle — court, holy place and holy
of holies being each marked by an ascending degree of sanctity —
but also the careful gradation of the materials employed in its
construction. In the proportion and symmetry, which are
strongly marked features of the tabernacle, we may further
trace the earnest endeavour to reflect the harmony and perfec-
tion of the Deity whose glory filled the dwelling (Exod. xl. 34).
(3) As regards the historicity of this elaborate sanctuary
modern historical criticism has pronounced a negative judgment.
This verdict is based not so much on the many difficulties pre-
sented by the narrative itself, or suggested by the unexpected
wealth of material and artistic skill, as on the impossibility of
reconciling the picture of the tabernacle and its worship, which
is found in the middle books of the Pentateuch, with the religious
history of Israel as reflected in the older historical books. There
is absolutely no place for the tabernacle of the Priests' Code in
the history of the worship of the Hebrews before the exile.
It cannot be reconciled with the account of the historical
" tent of meeting " (Auth. Vers. tabernacle of the congregation)
of the oldest Pentateuch sources in any particular except the
common designation, and in the later history of the ark, whether
at Shiloh or at Jerusalem, the older records of Samuel and Kings
are silent as to the tabernacle.
The sections of the Pentateuch devoted to the tabernacle and
its worship, therefore, are not to be treated as history but as
the expression of a religious ideal. Building on the traditions
of the simple Mosaic " tent of meeting " (Exodus xxxiii. 7 ff.
and elsewhere), and believing that the temple of Solomon was
its replica on a larger scale and in more solid materials, the
priestly idealists followed the example of Ezekiel, and elaborated
an ideal sanctuary to serve as the model for the worship of the
theocratic community of the future. " Let them make me a
sanctuary, that I may dwell among them " (Exod. xxv. 8).
See " Tabernacle " in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. iv.,
with which may be compared the corresponding articles in Cheyne
and Black's Encycl. Biblica by Benzinger, and in the Jewish
Encyclopedia by Konig. The views of the first-named article,
summarised above, as to the framework of the Tabernacle, have
been adopted and reinforced by A. H. M'Neile in his Commentary
on The Book of Exodus (1908), pp. Ixxiii. ff. (A. R. S. K.)
324
TABERNACLE— TABERNACLES, FEAST OF
TABERNACLE, as a general term in architecture, a species
of niche or recess in which an image may be placed. In Norman
work there are but few remains, and these generally over door-
ways. They are shallow and comparatively plain, and the
figures are often only in low relief, and not detached statues.
In Early English work they are deeper, and instead of simple
arches there is often a canopy over the figure, which was placed
on a small, low pedestal. Later in the style the heads of the
tabernacles became cusped, either as trefoils [or cinquefoils,
and they are often placed in pairs side by side, or in ranges,
as at Wells cathedral. Decorated tabernacles are still deeper
and more ornamented, the heads are sometimes richly cusped
and surmounted with crocketed gables, as at York, or with
projecting canopies, very much like the arcade at Lichfield.
In this case the under side of the canopy is carved to imitate
groined ribs, and the figures stand either on high pedestals, or on
corbels. Perpendicular tabernacles possess much the same
features, but the work is generally more elaborate (see CORBEL,
CANOPY, NICHE, &c.). The word tabernacle is also often used
for the receptacle for relics, which was often made in the form
of a small house or church (see SHRINE). The term " tabernacle
work " is given, in architecture, to the richly sculptured tracery,
similar to that employed on the upper part of a tabernacle,
decorated with canopied niches which contain statues. The
Eleanor crosses in England are enriched with tabernacle work
over the niches, as also the chapels of Bishops Nicholas West
(1461-1533), and John Alcock (1430-1500) in Ely cathedral,
both dating from the beginning of the i6th century.
TABERNACLES, FEAST OF, the autumn festival of the
Israelites, beginning on the isth of Tishri and celebrated by
residing for the seven succeeding days in rustic booths (Heb.
Sukkoth, in the Vulgate Tabernacula, whence the English name
of the feast). Among the Hebrews it was the third and chief
of the three annual pilgrimage festivals connected respectively
with the harvesting of the barley (Passover), of wheat (Pentecost),
and of the vine (Tabernacles). Hence it is referred to as " the
Feast " par excellence (Heb. Hehag, cf. Arab. Hajj) even as late
as 2 Chron. vii. 9. Being of the nature of a pilgrimage feast the
booths were temporary erections for the accommodation of the
pilgrims. But in early Jewish tradition, in both Yahvist and
Elohist sources of the Pentateuch (Exod. xxxiv. 22, xxiii. 16)
it is called simply the Harvest Feast (A.V. " Feast of Ingather-
ing ") and is to be observed " at the end of the year," i.e. of
the agricultural year. In Deut. xvi. 13 seq., it is termed the
Feast of Tabernacles and is to be kept seven days after the
produce of the threshing-floor and winepress has been gathered
in. In the Holiness Code (Lev. xxiii. 39) it is to be kept for
seven days after the first, the first of which is to be " a sabbath,"
and the eighth " a sabbath " (possibly originally a lunar quarter-
day): branches of four trees are to be taken. In the Priestly
Code (Lev. xxiii. 33 seq.; Num. xxix. 12-38) the first and eighth
day are to be days of holy assembly, and in the latter passage
elaborate details are given of the sacrifices to be presented,
including a series of bullocks, thirteen on the first day, twelve
on the next, and so on down to seven on the seventh day.
Only one is to be sacrificed on the concluding feast (Heb.
%.$ereth) of the eighth day.
The higher criticism sees, in these successive enactments of
the various codes included in the Pentateuch (q.v.), a develop-
ment in the character of the festival. At first held at any of
the local shrines, such as Gilgal, Bethel, Shiloh, as well as
Jerusalem, it was held at an indefinite date during the harvest
in the fall of the year. Then with the concentration of the
cultus at Jerusalem represented by Deuteronomy, the celebra-
tion was restricted to the Judean capital, and its duration fixed
at seven days, though its date was still left indeterminate.
This was fixed in the Priestly Code at the isth of the seventh
month, and an eighth day of solemn assembly added after the
return from the exile.
Against this hypothetical reconstruction is the fact that
Solomon appears to have selected the occasion of the feast for
the dedication of the temple, and that it lasted, even in his
time, seven days (i Kings viii. 2, 65). Jeroboam arranged for
a similar feast in the northern kingdom on the isth day of
the eighth month, " like unto the feast in Judah" (ibid. xii. 32).
The determination of a fixed date must therefore have been
much earlier than Deuteronomy or the alleged period of the
Priestly Code. A pilgrimage feast must be fixed in date to
ensure the simultaneous presence of the pilgrims. There are,
besides, seeming references to the feast in the early prophets,
as Hosea xii. 9, Amos v. 21, as well as in Isaiah ix. 2 (Heb.).
The concluding feast does not seem to refer to tabernacle*
per se, but to be distinct from it, as is shown by the break in
the descending series of the sacrifices of bullocks as given in
Numbers. In Jewish practice the concluding feast is not held
in booths, and Maimonides (Moreh, iii. 42) suggests that its
object was to give opportunity for final proceedings in assembly
halls.
The existence, therefore, of much variation in the practice
of the festival in historic times is scarcely proved by the seeming
variations of the enactments concerning it in the Pentateuch.
It is possible, however, that there may have been differences
of custom in the carrying out of the feast. In Neh. xiii. 15
the trees whose branches were used for making the booths
appear to differ from those mentioned in Lev. xxiii. 40, though
in Jewish tradition the latter passage was taken to refer to the
Lulab, or a combination of twigs of willow and myrtle, with a
palm branch, which, together with a citron, are held in the
hand during processions in the synagogue. The Sadducees
and Karaites did not carry these in their hand, but used them
as decorations of the booths. In the second temple there
was a water libation every morning of the festival, and on the
evening of the first day the great golden candelabrum was
lit up and the men danced a torch dance around it (Mishnah,
Sukkah, v. 2-4). It is reported by Josephus that, when Alex-
ander Jannaeus, in the year 95 B.C., was acting as high-priest
in the temple on the Feast of Tabernacles, instead of pouring
the water libation on the altar, according to the Pharisaic
custom, he poured it at his feet, giving rise to a riot in which
6000 men are said to have lost their lives (Ant. xii., xiii., 5;
Talmud, Sukkah, 48 b).
The festival is certainly an agricultural one, and is so termed
in the Pentateuch. Whether it was derived from the Canaanites,
who had similar festivals (Judges xxix. 27), is uncertain. All
nations have similar harvest homes, especially with reference
to the vintage feasts; as, for instance, the Athenian Oschophoria.
The Syrians celebrated every three years a " Booth Festival."
At the Hindu Festival of Dasara, which lasted nine days from
the new moon of October, tents made of canvas or booths made
of branches were erected in front of the temples. The Spartans
had a nine days' festival termed Carnea, during which they
dwelt in pavilions and tents in memory of their old camp life
(Athenaeus, iv. 19). The Feast of Tabernacles is one of the
few Jewish festivals described in classical writers. Plutarch
(Symposium iv., vi. 2) compares Tabernacles with the Bacchic
rites. It was pre-eminently the period of exultation in ancient
Jewish rite, and the Mishnah declares that " He who has not
seen the joy of the libations of Tabernacles has never in bis life
witnessed joy." So much importance was attributed to this
festival that it was chosen as the occasion on which the Law
should be recited during the sabbatical year (Deut. xxxi. 9-12),
and the Messianic vision of Zecbariah xiv. 16 sees the remnant
of all the nations coming up to Jerusalem to worship the Lord
of Hosts, and to keep the Feast of Tabernacles.
In later Jewish custom the one-year cycle of reading of
sections from the Pentateuch ends on the concluding day of
Tabernacles, which is therefore known as the Rejoicing of the
Law (Simhat Torah). The custom of dwelling, for part of the
day at least, in booths, is still kept up by orthodox Jews,
who have temporary huts covered with branches erected
in their courtyards, and those who are not in possession
of a house with a backyard often go to pathetic extremes in
order to fulfil the law by making holes in roofs, across which
branches are placed. (J. JA.)
TABLE— TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
325
TABLE (Lat. tabula), a flat, oblong slab supported upon legs
or pillars; originally anything flat.1 As one of the few indis-
pensable pieces of domestic furniture, the table is of great an-
tiquity. It was known, in a small and rudimentary form, to
the Egyptians, who used wood for its construction; the Assyrians
certainly employed metal and possibly other materials in its
manufacture. Grecian tables were also often of metal, with
three or four legs and of considerable variety of form; they were
small and low. By Roman times the table had apparently
become somewhat more common. The favourite form was the
tripod, but one and four legs were also used. Already the shape
varied considerably, and in addition to wood, there were tables
of marble, ivory, bronze and the precious metals. The more
costly examples were carved, inlaid or otherwise ornamented;
cedar and the finely marked or grained woods generally were
much sought after. As in Greece the tables were low; they
were intended for reclining, rather than sitting; their legs were
those of wild beasts, or were formed of sphinxes, termini and
other figures. Some of those which remain are of extreme grace
and most delicate workmanship; to them the Empire style
is enormously indebted. In antiquity tables of any kind can
only have been the appanage of the rich. In the early middle
ages, although there was variety of form — the circular, semi-
circular, oval and oblong were all in use — tables appear, save
in rare instances, to have been portable and supported upon
trestles fixed or folding, which were cleared out of the way at
the end of a meal. The custom of serving dinner at several
small tables, which is often supposed to be a very modern
refinement, was certainly followed in the French chateaux, and
probably also in the English castles, as early as the I3th century.
For persons of high degree, fixed tables were reserved. Even
at a period when domestic furniture was of a very primitive
character and few modern conveniences had been evolved,
costly tables were by no means unknown — some dim traditions
of Rome's refinements must necessarily have filtered through
the centuries. Thus Charlemagne possessed three tables of
silver and one of gold — no doubt they were of wood covered
with plates of the precious metals. Before the i6th century
the number of tables properly so called was small; hence very
few of earlier date than the middle of that century have come
down to us. In the chapter-house of Salisbury cathedral is a
restored 13th-century example which stands practically alone.
In point of age it is most nearly approached by the famous
pair of trestle tables in the great hall at Penshurst.
When the table became a fixed and permanent piece of
furniture the word " board, " which had long connoted it, fell
into disuse save in an allusive sense, and its place was taken
by such phrases as " joyned table " and " framed table " —
that is, jointed or framed together by a joiner; sometimes
people spoke of a " standing " or " dormant " table. They
were most frequently oblong, some two feet or two feet six
inches wide, and the guests sat with their backs to the wall,
the other side of the table being left free for service. Sometimes
they were used as side-tables, or furnished with a cupboard
beneath the board; they were supported on quadrangular legs
or massive ends and feet full of Gothic feeling, and were several
inches higher than the dining-table of the 2oth century. Heavy
stretchers or foot-rails were fixed close to the floor — for the
avoidance, no doubt, of draughts. Oak was the usual material,
but elm, cherry and other woods were sometimes used. Soon
the legs became bulbous, and were gadrooned or otherwise
ornamented, and the frame began to be carved. The intro-
duction, before the i6th century closed, of the "drawing table"
marked the rapidity with which this piece oi furniture was
developed. This was the forerunner of the " extending dining-
table." Of the three leaves of which these tables were com-
posed two were below the other; they drew out and were
supported by brackets, while the slab proper dropped to the
same level. Somewhat later legs became excessively bulbous;
1 For mathematical tables see next article. This use of the
word comes from the analogy of the laying out of objects on an
ordinary table.
this ugly form gave place soon after the middle of the
century to baluster-shaped legs. Hitherto tables had, generally
speaking, been large and massive — little in the nature of what
is now called the " occasional table " seems to have been pro-
vided until some years after the Restoration. About that time
small tables of varying sizes and shapes, but still of substantial
weight, began to be made; many of them were flap-tables,
which took up little room when they were not in use. These,
however, had been known at an earlier date. Charles II. had
not long been on the throne when the idea of the flap-table
was amplified in a peculiarly graceful fashion. Two flaps were
provided instead of one, the result being the rather large oval
table of the " gate-leg " variety that has remained in use ever
since, in which the open " gate " supports the flap. Towards
the end of the reign tables began to have the graceful twisted
legs joined to the flat serpentine stretchers, which produced,
almost for the first time in English furniture, a sense of lightness
and gaiety. The walnut tables of the end of the Stuart period
were often inlaid with marquetry of great excellence. The
number and variety of the tables in well-to-do households were
now increasing rapidly, and the console-table was imported
from the Continent contemporaneously with the common use
of the mahogany side-table.
As mahogany came into general use, about the beginning of
the second quarter of the i8th century, an enormous number
of card-tables were made with plain or cabriole legs and spade
or claw and ball feet, often with lions' heads carved upon the
knees; the top folded up to half its size when open. The
Chippendale school introduced small tables with carved open-
work " galleries " round the edges (to protect china and other
small objects), and clustered legs; Gothic forms and Chinese
frets were for a time fashionable. Later in this century, so
prolific in new forms of furniture, tables were frequently made
cf rosewood and satinwood; side-tables, often highly elaborate,
adorned with swags and festoons and other classical motives,
supported by termini or richly carved legs, were gilded and
topped with marble slabs or inlaid wood. The Pembroke table,
of oblong form, with two semi-circular or oblong leaves, with
edgings of marquetry, was a characteristic feature of late i8th-
century English furniture, and still retains its popularity. Then
came the Empire period; the taper was replaced by the round
leg, rosewood grew commoner, and brass mountings the rule.
For illustrations see FURNITURE.
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL. In any table the results
tabulated are termed the " tabular results " or " respondents, "
and the corresponding numbers by which the table is entered
are termed the " arguments." A table is said to be of single
or double entry according as there are one or two arguments.
For example, a table of logarithms is a table of single entry,
the numbers being the arguments and the logarithms the tabular
results; an ordinary multipli cation table is a table of double
entry, giving xy as tabular result for x and y as arguments.
The intrinsic value of a table may be estimated by the actual
amount of time saved by consulting it; for example, a table of
square roots to ten decimals is more valuable than a table of
squares, as the extraction of the root would occupy more time
than the multiplication of the number by itself. The value of a
table does not depend upon the difficulty of calculating it;
for, once made, it is made for ever, and as far as the user is
concerned the amount of labour devoted to its original con-
struction is immaterial. In some tables the labour required
in the construction is the same as if all the tabular results had
been calculated separately; but in the majority of instances a
table can be formed by expeditious methods which are inap-
plicable to the calculation of an individual result. This is the
case with tables of a continuous quantity, which may frequently
be constructed by differences. The most striking instance
perhaps is afforded by a factor table or a table of primes; for,
if it is required to determine whether a given number is prime
or not, the only universally available method (in the absence of
tables) is to divide it by every prime less than its square root
or until one is found that divides it without remainder. But
326
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
to form a table of prime numbers the process is theoretically
simple and rapid, for we have only to range all the numbers in
a line and strike out every second number beginning from 2,
every third beginning from 3, and so on, those that remain
being primes. Even when the tabular results are constructed
separately, the method of differences or other methods con-
necting together different tabular results may afford valuable
verifications. By having recourse to tables not only does the
computer save time and labour, but he also obtains the certainty
of accuracy. •
The invention of logarithms in 1614, followed immediately
by the calculation of logarithmic tables, revolutionized all the
methods of calculation; and the original work performed by
Henry Briggs and Adrian Vlacq in calculating logarithms in
the early part of the i7th century has in effect formed a portion
of every arithmetical operation that has since been carried out
by means of logarithms. And not only has an incredible amount
of labour been saved, l but a vast number of calculations and
researches have been rendered practicable which otherwise
would have been beyond human reach. The mathematical
process that underlies the tabular method of obtaining a result
may be indirect and complicated; for example, the logarithmic
method would be quite unsuitable for the multiplication of two
numbers if the logarithms had to be calculated specially for the
purpose and were not already tabulated for use. The arrange-
ment of a table on the page and all typographical details — such
as the shape of the figures, their spacing, the thickness and
placing of the rules, the colour and quality of the paper, &c. —
are of the highest importance, as the computer has to spend hours
with his eyes fixed upon the book; and the efforts of eye and
brain required in finding the right numbers amidst a mass of
figures on a page and in taking them out accurately, when the
computer is tired as well as when he is fresh, are far more trying
than the mechanical action of simple reading. Moreover, the
trouble required by the computer to learn the use of a table need
scarcely be considered; the important matter is the time and
labour saved by it after he /(as-learned its use.
In the following descriptions of tables an attempt is made
to give an account of all those that a computer of the present
day is likely to use in carrying out arithmetical calculations.
Tables relating to ordinary arithmetical operations are first
described, and afterwards an account is given of the most useful
and least technical of the more strictly mathematical tables,
such as factorials, gamma functions, integrals, Bessel's func-
tions, &c. Nearly all modern tables are stereotyped, and in
giving their titles the accompanying date is either that of the
original stereotyping or of the tirage in question. In tables that
have passed through many editions the date given is that of the
edition described. A much fuller account of general tables
published previously to 1872, by the present writer, is contained
in the British Association Report for 1873, pp. 1-175.
Tables of Divisors (Factor Tables) and Tables of Primes. — The
existing factor tables extend to 10,000,000. In 1811 L. Chernac
published at Deventer his Cribrum arithmeticum, which gives
all the prime divisors of every number not divisible by 2, 3, or 5
up to 1,020,000. In 1814-1817 J. C. Burckhardt published at Paris
his Tables des diviseurs, giving the least divisor of every number
not divisible by 2, 3, or § up to 3,036,000. The second million
was issued in 1814, the third in 1816, and the first in 1817. The
corresponding tables for the seventh, eighth, and ninth millions
were calculated by Z. Dase and issued at Hamburg in 1862, 1863,
and 1865. Dase died suddenly in 1861 during the progress of
the work, and it was completed by H. Rosenberg. Dase's calcula-
tion was performed at the instigation of Gauss, and he began at
6,000,000 because the Berlin Academy was in possession of a manu-
script presented by Crelle extending Burckhardt's tables from
3,000,000 to 6,000,000. This manuscript was found on examina-
tion to be so inaccurate that the publication was not desirable,
and accordingly the three intervening millions were calculated
and published by James Glaisher, the Factor Table for the Fourth
1 Referring to factor tables, T. H. Lambert wrote (Supplementa
tabularum, 1798, p. xv.): " Universalis finis talium tabularum
est ut semel pro semper computetur quod saepius de novo compu-
tandum foret, et ut pro omni casu computetur quod in futurum pro
quovis casu computatum desiderabitur." This applies to all tables.
Million appearing at London in 1879, and those for the fifth
and sixth millions in 1880 and 1883 respectively (all three millions
stereotyped). The tenth million, though calculated by Dase
and Rosenberg, has not been published. The nine quarto
volumes (Tables des diviseurs, Paris, 1814-1817; Factor Tables,
London, 1879-1883; Factoren-Tafeln, Hamburg, 1862-1865) thus
form one uniform table, giving the least divisor of every number
not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, from unity to nine millions. The arrange-
ment of the results on the page, which is due to Burckhardt, is
admirable for its clearness 'and condensation, the least factors for
9000 numbers being given on each page. The tabular portion of
each million occupies 1 12 pages. The first three milfions were
issued separately, and also bound in one volume, but the other
six millions are all separate. Burckhardt began the publication of
his tables with the second million instead of the first, as Chernac's
factor table for the first million was already in existence. Burck-
hardt's first million does not supersede Chernac's, as the latter gives
all the prime divisors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to
1,020,000. It occupies 1020 pages, and Burckhardt found it very
accurate; he detected only thirty-eight errors, of which nine were
due to the author, the remaining twenty-nine having been caused
by the slipping of type in the printing. The errata thus discovered
are given in Burckhardt's first million. Other errata are contained
in Allan Cunningham's paper referred to below.
Burckhardt gives but a very brief account of the method by
which he constructed his table; and the introduction to Dase s
millions merely consists of Gauss's letter suggesting their con-
struction. The Introduction to the Fourth Million (pp. 52) con-
tains a full account of the method of construction and a history
of factor tables, with a bibliography of writings on the subject.
The Introduction (pp. 103) to the Sixth Million contains an enumera-
tion of primes and a great number of tables relating to the dis-
tribution of primes in the whole nine millions, portions of which
had been published in the Cambridge Philosophical Proceedings and
elsewhere. A complete list of errors in the nine millions was
published by J. P. Gram (Acta mathematica, 1893, r7; P- 310)-
These errors, 141 in number, and which affect principally the
second, third, eighth, and ninth millions, should be carefully cor-
rected in all the tables. In 1909 the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington published a factor table by Prof. D. N. Lehmer which gives
the least factor of all numbers not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7, up to
ten millions. This table, which covers a range of 21,000 numbers
on a single page, was reproduced by photography from a type-
written copy of the author's original manuscript. The introduction
contains a list of errata in the nine millions previously published,
completely confirming Gram's list.
The factor tables which have just been described greatly exceed
both in extent and accuracy any others of the same kind, the
largest of which only reaches 408,000. This is the limit of Anton
Felkel's Tafel alter einfachen Factoren (Vienna, 1776), a remark-
able and extremely rare book,2 nearly all the copies having been
destroyed. Georg Vega (Tabulae, 1797) gave a table showing all
the divisors of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 102,000,
followed by a list of primes from 102,000 to 400,313. In the
earlier editions of this work there are several errors in the list,
but these are no doubt corrected in J. A. Hiilsse's edition (1840).
J. Salomon (Vienna, 1827) gives the least divisor of all numbers
not divisible by 2, 3, or 5, up to 102,011, and B. Goldberg
(Primzahlen und Factoren-Tafeln, Leipzig, 1862) gives all factors
of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 251,650. H. G. Kohler
(Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch, 1848 and subsequent
editions) gives all factors of numbers not prime or divisible
by 2, 3, 5, or ii up to 21,525. Peter Barlow (Tables, 1814)
and F. Schaller (Primzahlen-Tafel, Weimar, 1855) give all factors
of all numbers up to 10,000. Barlow's work also contains a list
of primes up to 100,103. Both the factor table and the list of
primes are omitted in the stereotyped (1840) reprint. Full lists
of errata in Chernac (1811), Barlow (1814), Hiilsse's Vega (1840),
Kohler (1848), Schaller (1855), and Goldberg (1862) are contained
in a paper by Allan Cunningham (Mess, of Math., 1904, 34, p. 24;
'9°5i 35. P- 24)- V. A. Le Besgue (Tables diverse* pour la decom-
position des nombres, Paris, 1864) gives in a table of twenty pages,
the least factor of numbers not divisible by 2, 3, or 5 up to 115,500.
In Rees's Cyclopaedia (1819), article " Prime Numbers," there is a
list of primes to 217,219 arranged in decades. The Fourth Million
(1879) contains a list of primes up to 30,341. The fourth edition
of the Logarithmic Tables (London, and Ithaca, N.Y., 1893) of
G. W. Jones of Cornell University contains a table of ali the factors
of numbers not divisible by 2 or J up to 20,000. In the case of
primes the ten-place logarithm is given. This table does not occur
in the third edition (Ithaca, N.Y., 1891). On the first page of
the Second Million Burckhardt gives the first nine multiples of the
primes to 1423; and a smaller table of the same kind, extending
only to 313, occurs in Lambert's Supplementa (1798). Several
papers contain lists of high primes (i.e. beyond the range of the
2 For information about it, see a paper on " Factor Tables,"
in Camb. Phil. Proc. (1878), iii. 99-138, or the Introduction to the
Fourth Million.
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
327
factor tables). Among these may be mentioned two, by Allan
Cunningham and H. J. Woodall jointly, in the Mess, of Math.,
1902, 31, p. 165; 1905, 34, p. 72. See also the papers on factoriza-
tions of high numbers referred to under Tables relating to the Theory
of Numbers. The Vienna Academy possesses the manuscript of
an immense factor table extending to 100,000,000, constructed
many years ago by J. P. Kulik (1793-1863) (see Ency. math. Wiss.,
1900—1904, i. 952, and Lehmer's Factor Table, p. ix.).
Multiplication Tables. — A multiplication table is usually of double
entry, the two arguments being the two factors; when so arranged
it is frequently called a Pythagorean table. The largest and most
useful work is A. L. Crelle's Rechentafeln (Bremiker's edition, 1857,
stereotyped; many subsequent editions with German, French, and
English title-pages), which gives in one volume all the products
up to 1000X1000, so -arranged that all the multiples of any one
number appear on the same page. The original edition was pub-
lished in 1820 and consisted of two thick octavo volumes. The
second (stereotyped) edition is a convenient folio volume of 450
pages.1 In 1908 an entirely new edition, edited by O. Seeliger,
was published in which the multiples of 10, 20, ..., 990 (omitted
in previous editions) are included. This adds 50 pages to the
volume, but removes what has been a great drawback to the use
of the tables. Other improvements are that the tables are divided
off horizontally and vertically by lines and spaces, and that, for
calculations in which the last two figures are rejected, a mark
has been placed to show when the last figure retained should be
increased. Two other tables of the same extent (lOooXiooo), but
more condensed in arrangement, are H. C. Schmidt's Zahlenbuch
(Aschersleben, 1896), and A. Henselin's Rechentafel (Berlin, 1897).
An anonymous table, published at Oldenburg in 1860, gives products
up to 500X509, and M. Cordier, Le Mulliplicateur de trois cents
carres (Paris, 1872), gives a multiplication table to 300X300
(intended for commercial use). In both these works the product
is printed in full. The four following tables are for the multiplica-
tion of a number by a single digit, (i) A. L. Crelle, Erleichterungs-
tafel fur jeden, der zu rechnen hat (Berlin, 1836), a work extending
to 1000 pages, gives the product of a number of seven figures by a
single digit, by means of a double operation of entry. Each page
is divided into two tables: for example, to multiply 9382477 by 7
we turn to page 825, and enter the right-hand table at line 77,
column 7, where we find 77339; we then enter the left-hand table
on the same page at line 93, column 7, and find 656, so that the
product required is 65677339. (2) C. A. Bretschneider, Pro-
duktentafel (Hamburg and Gotha, 1841), is somewhat similar to
Crelle's table, but smaller, the number of figures in the multi-
plicand being five instead of seven. (3) In S. L. Laundy, A Table
of Products (London, 1865), the product of any five-figure number
by a single digit is given by a double arrangement. The extent
of the table is the same as that of Bretschneider's, as also is the
principle, but the arrangement is different, Laundy's table occupy-
ing only 10 pages and Bretschneider's 99 pages. (4) G. Diakow's
Multiplikations-Tabelle (St Petersburg, 1897) is of the same extent
as Bretschneider's table but occupies looo pages. Among tables
extending to 100X1000 (i.e. giving the products of two figures by
three) may be mentioned C. A. Milller's Multiplications-Tabellen
(Karlsruhe, 1891). The tables of L. Zimmermann (Rechentafeln,
Liebenwerda, 1896) and J. Riem (Rechentabellen fur Multiplica-
tion, Basel, 1897) extend to 100X10,000. In a folio volume of
500 pages J. Peters (Rechentafeln fur Multiplication und Division
mil ein- bis merstelligen Zahlen, Berlin, 1909) gives products of four
figures by two. The entry is by the last three figures of the multi-
plicand, and there are 2000 products on each page. Among earlier
tables, the interest of which is mainly historical, mention may be
made of C. Mutton's Table of Products and Powers of Numbers
(London, 1781), which contains a table up to looxiooo, and J. P.
Gruson's Crosses Einmaleins von Eins bis Hunderttausend (Berlin,
'799) — a table of products up to 9X10,000. The author's intention
was to extend it to 100,000, but only the first part was published.
In this book there is no condensation or double arrangement; the
pages are very large, each containing 125 lines.
Quarter- Squares. — Multiplication may be performed by means of
a table of single entry in the manner indicated by the formula —
ab = \(a+b)'i-\(a-bY.
1 Only one other multiplication table of the same extent as
Crelle's had appeared previously, viz. Herwart von Hohenburg's
Tabulae arithmetical 7rpo<r0a<£<upi<reatt universales (Munich, 1610), a
huge folio volume of more than a thousand pages. It appears
from a correspondence between Kepler and von Hohenburg, which
took place at the end of 1608, that the latter used his table when
in manuscript for the performance of multiplications in general,
and that the occurrence of the word prosthaphaeresis on the title
is due to Kepler, who pointed out that by means of the table
spherical triangles could be solved more easily than by Wittich's
prosthaphaeresis. The invention of logarithms four years later
afforded another means of performing multiplications, and von
Hohenburg's work never became generally known. On the method
of prosthaphaeresis, see NAPIER, JOHN, and on von Hohenburg's
table, see a paper " On multiplication by a Table of Single Entry,"
Phil. Mag., 1878, ser. v., 6, p. 331.
Thus with a table of quarter-squares we can multiply together
any two numbers by subtracting the quarter-square of their
difference from the quarter-square of their sum. The largest
table of quarter-squares is J. Blater's Table of Quarter-Squares oj
all whole numbers from i to 200,000 (London, 1888),' which gives
quarter-squares of every number up to 200,000 and thus yields
directly the product of any two five-figure numbers. This fine
table is well printed and arranged. Previous to its publication
the largest table was S. L. Laundy's Table of Quarter-Squares of
all numbers up to 100,000 (London, 1856), which is of only half
the extent, and therefore is only directly available when the sum
of the two numbers to be multiplied does not exceed 100,000.
Smaller works are J. J. Centnerschwer, Neuerfundene Multiplica-
tions- und Quadrat-Tafeln (Berlin, 1825), which extends to 20,000,
and J. M. Merpaut, Tables arithmonomiques (Vannes, 1832), which
extends to 40,000. In Merpaut's work the quarter-square is
termed the " arithmone." L. J. Ludolf, who published in 1690 a
table of squares to 100,000 (see next paragraph), explains in his
introduction how his table may be used to effect multiplications
by means of the above formula; but the earliest book on quarter-
squares is A. Voisin, Tables des multiplications, ou logarilhmes
des nombres entiers depuis I jusqu'a 20,000 (Paris, 1817). By a
logarithm Voisin means a quarter-square, i.e. he calls a a root
and \a? its logarithm. On the subject of quarter-squares, &c.,
see Phil. Mag. [v.] 6, p. 331.
Squares, Cubes, &c., and Square Roots and Cube Roots. — The most
convenient table for general use is P. Barlow's Tables (Useful Know-
ledge Society, London, from the stereotyped plates of 1840), which
gives squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocals to
10,000. These tables also occur in the original edition of 1814.
The largest table of squares and cubes is I. P. Kulik, Tafeln der
Quadrat- und Kubik-Zahlen (Leipzig, 1848), which gives both as
far as 100,000. Blater's table of quarter-squares already mentioned
gives squares of numbers up to 100,000 by dividing the number
by 2; and up 10*200,000 by multiplying the tabular result by 4.
Two early .tables give squares as far as 100,000, viz. Maginus,
Tabula tetragonica (Venice, 1592), and Ludolf, Tetragonometria
tabularia (Amsterdam, 1690); G. A. Jahn, Tafel der Quadrat-
und Kubikwurzeln (Leipzig, 1839), gives squares to 27,000, cubes
to 24,000, and square and cube roots to 25,500, at first to fourteen
decimals and above 1010 to five. E. Gelin (Recueil de tables
numeriques, Huy, 1894) gives square roots (to 15 places) and cube
roots (to 10 places) of numbers up to loo. C. Hutton, Tables of
Products and Powers of Numbers (London, 1781), gives squares up
to 25.400, cubes to 10,000, and the first ten powers of the first
hundred numbers. P. Barlow, Mathematical Tables (original
edition, 1814), gives the first ten powers of the first hundred
numbers. The first nine or ten powers are given in Vega, Tabulae
(1797), and in Hulsse's edition of the same (1840), in Konler, Hand-
buck (1848), and in other collections. C. F. Faa de Bruno, Calcul
des erreurs (Paris, 1869), and J. H. T. Muller, Vierstellige Loga-
rithmen (1844), give squares for use in connexion with the method
of least squares. Four-place tables of squares are frequently given
in five- and four-figure collections of tables. Small tables often
occur in books intended for engineers and practical men. S. M.
Drach (Messenger of Math., 1878, 7, p. 87) has given to 33 places
the cube roots (and the cube roots of the squares) of primes
up to 127. Small tables of powers of 2, 3, 5, 7 occur in various
collections. In Vega's Tabulae (1797, and the subsequent editions,
including Hulsse's) the powers of 2, 3, 5 as far as the 45th, 36th,
and 27th respectively are given; they also occur in Kohler's Hand-
buch (1848). The first 25 powers of 2, 3, 5, 7 are given in Salomon,
Logarithmische Tafeln (1827). W. Shanks, Rectification of the Circle
(!853), gives every I2th power of 2 up to 2ra. A very valuable
paper (" Power-tables, Errata ") published by Allan Cunningham
in the Messenger of Math., 1906, 35, p. 13, contains the results of a
careful examination of 27 tables containing powers higher than the
cube, with lists of errata found in each. Before using any power
table this list should be consulted, not only in order to correct
the errata, but for the sake of references and general information
in regard to such tables. In an appendix (p. 23) Cunningham
gives errata in the tables of squares and cubes of Barlow (1814).
Jahn (1839), and Kulik (1848).
Triangular Numbers. — E. de Joncourt, De natura el praeclaro
usu simplicissimae speciei numerorum trigonalium (The Hague,
1762), contains a table of triangular numbers up to 20,000: viz.
$n(n + l) is given for all numbers from « = l to 20,000. The table
occupies 224 pages.
Reciprocals. — P. Barlow's Tables (1814 and 1840) give reciprocals
up to 10,000 to 9 or 10 places; and a table of ten times this extent
is given by W. H. Oakes, Table of the Reciprocals of Numbers from
I to 100,000 (London, 1865). This table gives seven figures of the
reciprocal, and is arranged like a table of seven-figure logarithms,
differences being added at the side of the page. The reciprocal
2 The actual place of publication (with a German title, &c.) is
Vienna. The copies with an English title, &c., were issued by
Trilbner; and those with a French title, &c., by Gauthier-Villars.
All bear the date 1888.
328
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
of a number of five figures is therefore taken out at once, and two
more figures may be interpolated for as in logarithms. R. Picarte,
La Division reduite a une addition (Paris, 1861), gives to ten signi-
ficant figures the reciprocals of the numbers from 10,000 to 100,000,
and also the first nine multiples of these reciprocals. J. C. Houzeau
gives the reciprocals of numbers up to 100 to 20 places and their
first nine multiples to 12 places in the Bulletin of the Brussels
Academy, 1875, 40, p. 107. E. G61in (Recueil de tables numeriques,
Huy, 1894) gives reciprocals of numbers to loooto 10 places.
Tables for the Expression of Vulgar Fractions as Decimals. —
Tables of this kind have been given by Wucherer, Goodwyn and
Gauss. W. F. Wucherer, Beytrage zum allgemeinern Gebrauch der
Decimalbriiche (Carlsruhe, 1796), gives the decimal fractions (to
5 places) for all vulgar fractions whose numerator and denominator
are each less than 50 and prime to one another, arranged according
to denominators. The most extensive and elaborate tables that
have been published are contained in Henry Goodwyn's First
Centenary of Tables of all Decimal Quotients (London, 1816), A
Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients (1823), and A Table of the
Circles arising from the Division of a Unit or any other Whole Number
by all the Integers from I to 1024 (1823). The Tabular Series (1823),
which occupies 153 pages, gives to 8 places the decimal corresponding
to every vulgar fraction less than ^ whose numerator and denomi-
nator do not surpass 1000. The arguments are not arranged
according to their numerators or denominators, but according to
their magnitude, so that the tabular results exhibit a steady increase
from -ooi (=1^0) to -09989909 ( = ff1). Theauthor intended the
table to include all fractions whose numerator and denominator
were each less than 1000, but no more was ever published. The
Table of Circles (1823) gives all the periods of the circulating
decimals that can arise from the division of any integer by another
integer less than 1024. Thus for 13 we find -676923 and -153846,
which are the only periods in which a fraction whose denominator
is 13 can circulate. The table occupies 107 pages, some of the
periods being of course very long (e.g., for 1021 tfie period contains
1020 figures). The First Centenary (1816) gives the complete
periods of the reciprocals of the numbers from I to 100. Goodwyn's
tables are very scarce, but as they are nearly unique of their kind
they deserve special notice. A second edition of the First Centenary
was issued in 1818 with the addition of some of the Tabular Series,
the numerator not exceeding 50 and the denominator not exceeding
100. A posthumous table of C. F. Gauss's, entitled " Tafel zur
Verwandlung gemeiner Briiche mit Nennern aus dem ersten Tausend
in Decimalbriiche," occurs in vol. ii. pp. 412—434 of his Gesammelte
Werke (Gottingen, 1863), and resembles Goodwyn's Table of Circles.
On this subject see a paper "On Circulating Decimals, with special
reference to Henry Goodwyn's Table of Circles and Tabular Series
of Decimal Quotients," in Camb. Phil. Proc., 1878, 3, p. 185, where
is also given a table of the numbers of digits in the periods of
fractions corresponding to denominators prime to 10 from I to
1024 obtained by counting from Goodwyn's table. See also under
Circulating Decimals (below).
Sexagesimal and Sexcentenary Tables. — Originally all calculations
were sexagesimal; and the relics of the system still exist in the
division of the degree into 60 minutes and the minute into 60
seconds. To facilitate interpolation, therefore, in trigonometrical
and other tables the following large sexagesimal tables were con-
structed. John Bernoulli, A Sexcentenary Table (London, 1779),
gives at once the fourth term of any proportion of which the first
term is 600* and each of the other two is less than 600"; the table
is of double entry, and may be described as giving the value of
xy/6oo correct to tenths of a second, x and y each containing a
number of seconds less than 600. Michael Taylor, A Sexagesimal
Table (London, 1780), exhibits at sight the fourth term of any
proportion where the first term is 60 minutes, the second any
number of minutes less than 60, and the third any number of
minutes and seconds under 60 minutes; there is also another
table in which the third term is any absolute number under 1000.
Not much use seems to have been made of these tables, both of
which were published by the Commissioners of Longitude. Small
tables for the conversion of sexagesimals into centesimals and
vice versa are given in a few collections, such as Hulsse's edition
of Vega. H. Schubert's Funfstellige Tafeln und Gegentafeln (Leipzig,
1897) contains a sexagesimal table giving xy/6o for x=i to 59
and y = I to 150.
Trigonometrical Tables (Natural). — Peter Apian publishedrin 1533
a table of sines with the radius divided decimally. The first
complete canon giving all the six ratios of the sides of a right-
angled triangle is due to Rheticus (1551), who also introduced
the semiquadrantal arrangement. Rheticus's canon was calcu-
lated for every ten minutes to 7 places, and Vieta extended it to
every minute (1579). In 1554. Reinhold published a table of
tangents to every minute. The first complete canon published
in England was by Thomas Blundeville (1594), although a table
of sines had appeared four years earlier. Regiomontanus called
his table of tangents (or rather cotangents) tabula foecunda on
account of its great use; and till the introduction of the word
" tangent " by Thomas Finck (Geometriae rotundi libri XIV.,
Basel, 1583) a table of tangents was called a tabula foecunda or
canon foecundus. Besides " tangent," Finck also introduced the
word ' secant," the table of secants having previously been called
tabula benefica by Maurolycus (1558) and tabula foecundissima by
Vieta.
By far the greatest computer of pure trigonometrical tables is
George Joachim Rheticus, whose work has never been superseded.
His celebrated ten-decimal canon, the Opus palatinum, was pub-
lished by Valentine Otho at Neustadt in 1596, and in 1613 his
fifteen-decimal table of sines by Pitiscus at Frankfort under the
title Thesaurus mathematicus. The Opus palatinum contains a
complete ten-decimal trigonometrical canon for every ten seconds
of the quadrant, semiquadrantally arranged, with differences for
all the tabular results throughout. Sines, cosines, and secants are
given on the left-hand pages in columns headed respectively "Per-
pendiculum," " Basis, " Hypotenusa," and on the right-hand
pages appear tangents, cosecants, and cotangents in columns
headed respectively " Perpendiculum," " Hypotenusa," " Basis."
At his death Rheticus left the canon nearly complete, and the
trigonometry was finished and the whole edited by Valentine
Otho; it was named in honour of the elector palatine Frederick IV.,
who bore the expense of publication. The Thesaurus of 1613 gives
natural sines for every ten seconds throughout the quadrant, to
15 places, semiquadrantally arranged, with first, second, and third
differences. Natural sines are also given for every second from
0° to 1° and from 89° to 90°, to 15 places, with first and second
differences. The rescue of the manuscript of this work by Pitiscus
forms a striking episode in the history of mathematical tables.
The alterations and emendations in the earlier part of the cor-
rected edition of the Opus palatinum were made by Pitiscus, who
had his suspicions that Rheticus had himself calculated a ten-
second table of sines to 15 decimal places; but it could not be
found. Eventually the lost canon was discovered amongst the
papers of Rheticus which had passed from Otho to James Christ-
mann on the death of the former. Amongst these Pitiscus found
(i) the ten-second table of sines to 15 places, with first, second,
and third differences (printed in the Thesaurus); (2) sines for
every second of the first and last degrees of the quadrant, also
to 15 places, with first and second differences; (3) the commence-
ment of a canon of tangents and secants, to the same number of
decimal places, for every ten seconds, with first and second differ-
ences ; (4) a complete minute canon of sines, tangents, and secants,
also to 15 decimal places. This list, taken in connexion with
the Opus palatinum, gives an idea of the enormous labours under-
taken by Rheticus; his tables not only remain to this day the
ultimate authorities but formed the data from which Vlacq calcu-
lated his logarithmic canon. Pitiscus says that for twelve years
Rheticus constantly had computers at work.
A history of trigonometrical tables by Charles Hutton was pre-
fixed to all the early editions of his Tables of Logarithms, and forms
Tract xix. of his Mathematical Tracts, vol. i. p. 278, 1812. A good
deal of bibliographical information about the Opus palatinum and
earlier trigonometrical tables is given in A. De Morgan's article
" Tables " in the English Cyclopaedia. The invention of log-
arithms the year after the publication of Rheticus's volume by
Pitiscus changed all the methods of calculation; and it is worthy
of note that John Napier's original table of 1614 was a logarithmic
canon of sines and not a table of the logarithms of numbers. The
logarithmic canon at once superseded the natural canon; and
since Pitiscus's time no really extensive table of pure trigono-
metrical functions has appeared. In recent years the employment
of calculating machines has revived the use of tables of natural
trigonometrical functions, it being found convenient for some
purposes to employ such a machine in connexion with a natural
canon instead of using a logarithmic canon. A. Junge's Tafel der
wirklichen Ldnge der Sinus und Cosinus (Leipzig, 1864) was pub-
lished with this object. It gives natural sines and cosines for
every ten seconds of the quadrant to 6 places. F. M. Clouth,
Tables pour le calcul des coordonnees goniometriques (Mainz, n.d.),
gives natural sines and cosines (to 6 places) and their first nine
multiples (to 4 places) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant.
Tables of natural functions occur in many collections, the natural
and logarithmic values being sometimes given on opposite pages,
sometimes side by side on the same page.
The following works contain tables of trigonometrical functions
other than sines, cosines, and tangents. J. Pasquich, Tabulae
logarithmico-trigonometricae (Leipzig, 1817), contains a table of
sin2*, cos2*, tan2*, cot2* from *=i° to 45 d at intervals' of I ' to 5
places. J. Andrew, Astronomical and Nautical Tables (London,
1805), contains a table of " squares of natural semichords," i.e. of
sin2J* from * = o° to 120° at intervals of 10" to 7 places. This
table was greatly extended by Major-General Hannyngton in his
Haversines, Natural and Logarithmic, used in computing Lunar
Distances for the Nautical Almanac (London, 1876). The name
" haversine," frequently used in works upon navigation, is an
abbreviation of ' half versed sine"; viz., the haversine of x is
equal to f (l-cos x), that is, to s\rp%x. The table gives logarithmic
haversines for every 15* from o° to 180°, and natural haversines
for every 10* from o° to 180°, to 7 places, except near the beginnng,
where the logarithms are given to only 5 or 6 places. It occupies
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
329
327 folio pages, and was suggested by Andrew's work, a copy
of which by chance fell into Hannyngton's hands. Hannyng-
ton recomputed the whole of it by a partly mechanical method,
a combination of two arithmometers being'employed. A table
of hayersines is useful for the solution of spherical triangles when
two sides and the included angle are given, and in other problems
in spherical trigonometry. Andrew's original table seems to have
attracted very little notice. Hannyngton's was printed, on the
recommendation of the superintendent of the Nautical Almanac office,
at the public cost. Before the calculation of Hannyngton's table
R. Farley's Natural Versed Sines (London, 1856) was used in the
Nautical Almanac office in computing lunar distances. This
fine table contains natural versed sines from o° to 125° at
intervals of 10* to 7 places, with proportional parts, and log versed
sines from o° to 135° at intervals of 15* to 7 places. The argu-
ments are also given in time. The manuscript was used in the
office for twenty-five years before it was printed. Traverse tables,
which occur in most collections of navigation tables, contain
multiples of sines and cosines.
Common or Briggian Logarithms of Numbers and Trigono-
metrical Ratios. — For an account of the invention and history of
logarithms, see LOGARITHM. The following are the fundamental
works which contain the results of the original calculations of
logarithms of numbers and trigonometrical ratios: — Briggs, Arith-
metica logarithmica (London, 1624), logarithms of numbers from
I to 20,000 and from 90,000 to 100,000 to 14 places, with inter-
script differences; Vlacq, Arithmetica logarithmica (Gouda, 1628,
also an English edition, London, 1631, the tables being the same),
ten-figure logarithms of numbers from I to 100,000, with differences,
also log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quad-
rant to ip places, with interscript differences; Vlacq, Trigono-
metria artificialis (Gouda, 1633), log sines and tangents to every
ten seconds of the quadrant to 10 places, with differences, and
ten-figure logarithms of numbers up to 20,000, with differences;
Briggs, Trigonometria Brilannica (London, 1633), natural sines to
15 places, tangents and secants to 10 places, log sines to 14 places,
and tangents to IO places, at intervals of a hundredth of a degree
from o° to 45°, with interscript differences for all the functions.
In 1794 Vega reprinted at Leipzig Vlacq's two works in a single
folio volume, Thesaurus logarithmorum completus. The arrange-
ment of the table of logarithms of numbers is more compendious
than in Vlacq, being similar to that of an ordinary seven-figure
table, but it is not so convenient, as mistakes in taking out the
differences are more liable to occur. The trigonometrical canon
gives log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from o° to 2°
at intervals of one second, to 10 places, without differences, and
for the rest of the quadrant at intervals of ten seconds. The
trigonometrical canon is not wholly reprinted from the Trigono-
metria artificialis, as the logarithms for every second of the first
two degrees, which do not occur in Vlacq, were calculated for the
work by Lieutenant Dorfmund. Vega devoted great attention to
the detection of errors in Viacom's logarithms of numbers, and has
given several important errata lists. F. Lefort (Annales de I'Obser-
vatoire de Paris, vol. iv.) has given a full errata list in Vlacq's and
Vega's logarithms of numbers, obtained by comparison with the
great French manuscript Tables du cadastre (see LOGARITHM;
comp. also Monthly Notices R.A.S., 32, pp. 255, 288; 33, p. 330;
34, p. 447). Vega seems not to have bestowed on the trigono-
metrical canon anything like the care that he devoted to the log-
arithms of numbers, as Gauss1 estimates the total number of
last-figure errors at from 31,983 to 47,746, most of them only
amounting to a unit, but some to as much as 3 or 4.
A copy of Vlacq's Arithmetica logarithmica (1628 or 1631), with
the errors in numbers, logarithms, and differences corrected, is still
the best table for a calculator who has to perform work requiring
ten-figure logarithms of numbers, but the book is not easy to pro-
cure, and Vega's Thesaurus has the advantage of having log sines, &c.,
in the same volume. The latter work also has been made more
accessible by a photographic reproduction by the Italian govern-
ment (Riproduzione fotozincografica dell' Istituto Geografico Mili-
tare, Florence, 1896). In 1897 Max Edler von Leber published
tables for facilitating interpolations in Vega's Thesaurus (Tabularum
ad faciliorem et breviorem in Georgii Vegae " Thesauri logarith-
morum " magnis canonibus interpolations compulationem utilium
Trias, Vienna, 1897). The object of these tables is to take account
of second differences. Prefixed to the tables is a long list of errors
in the Thesaurus, occupying twelve pages. From an examination
of the tabular resu'ts in the trigonometrical canon corresponding
to 1060 angles von Leber estimates that out of the 90,720 tabular
results 40,396 are in eiror by ± 1,2793 by ="=2, and 191 by ±3. Thus
his estimated value or the total number of last-figure errors is 43,326,
which is in accordance with Gauss's estimate. A table of ten-figure
logarithms of numbers up to 100,009, the result of a new calcula-
tion, was published in the Report of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey for 1895-6 (appendix 12, pp. 395-722) by W. W. Duffield,
superintendent of the survey. The table was compared with Vega's
Thesaurus before publication.
S. Pineto's Tables de logarithmes vulgaires a dix decimates, con-
struites d'apres un nouveau mode (St Petersburg, 1871), though a
tract of only 80 pages, may be usefully employed when Vlacq and
Vega are unprocurable. Pineto's work consists of three tables:
the first, or auxiliary table, contains a series of factors by which
the numbers whose logarithms are required are to be multiplied
to bring them within the range of table 2; it also gives the log-
arithms of the reciprocals of these factors to 12 places. Table I
merely gives logarithms to looo to IO places. Table 2 gives
logarithms from 1,000,000 to l,pll,ooo, with proportional parts
to hundredths. The mode of using these tables is as follows. If
the logarithm cannot be taken out directly from table 2, a factor
M is found from the auxiliary table by which the number must be
multiplied to bring it within the range of table 2. Then the
logarithm can be taken out, and, to neutralize the effect of the
multiplication, so far as the result is concerned, log l/M must be
added; this quantity is therefore given in an adjoining column
to M in the auxiliary table. A similar procedure gives the number
answering to any logarithm, another factor (approximately the
reciprocal of M) being given, so that in both cases multiplication
is used. The laborious part of the work is the multiplication by
M; but this is somewhat compensated for by the ease with which,
by means of the proportional parts, the logarithm is taken out.
The factors are 300 in number, and are chosen so as to minimize
the labour, only 25 of the 300 consisting of three figures all dif-
ferent and not involving o or I. The principle of multiplying by
a factor which is subsequently cancelled by subtracting its log-
arithm is used also in a tract, containing only ten pages, published
by A. Namur and P. Mansion at Brussels in 1877 under the title
Tables de logarithmes a 12 decimales jusqu'a 434 milliards. Here
a table is given of logarithms of numbers near to 434,294, and
other numbers are brought within the range of the table by multi-
plication by one or two factors. The logarithms of the numbers
near to 434,294 are selected for tabulation because their differ-
ences commence with the figures 100 . . . and the presence of the
zeros in the difference renders the interpolation easy.
The tables of S. Gundelfinger and A. Nell (Tafeln zur Berechnung
neunstelliger Logarithmen, Darmstadt, 1891) afford an easy means
of obtaining nine-figure logarithms, though of course they are far
less convenient than a nine-figure table itself. The method in
effect consists in the use of Gaussian logarithms, viz., if N =n+p,
log N=Iog n+log (i+p/n)=log n+B where B is log (i+p/n) to
argument A = log p~\og n. The tables give log n from n=looo
to « = 10,000, and values of B for argument A.2
Until 1891, _ when the eight-decimal tables, referred to further
on, were published by the French government, the computer who
could not obtain sufficiently accurate results from seven-figure
logarithms was obliged to have recourse to ten-figure tables, for,
with only one excepiion, there existed no tables giving eight or
nine figures. This exception is John Newton's Trigonomelria
Britannica (London, 1658), which gives logarithms of numbers
to 100,000 to 8 places, and also log sines and tangents for
every centesimal minute (i.e. the nine-thousandth part of a
right angle), and also log sines and tangents for the first three
degrees of the quadrant to 5 places, the interval being the one-
thousandth part of a degree. This table is also remarkable for
giving the logarithms of the differences instead of the actual differ-
ences. The arrangement of the page now universal in seven-figure
tables — with the, fifth figures running horizontally along the top
line of the page — is due to John Newton.
As a rule seven-figure logarithms of numbers are not published
separately, most tables of logarithms containing both the logarithms
of numbers and a trigonometrical canon. Babbage's and Sang's
logarithms are exceptional and give logarithms of numbers only.
C. Babbage, Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers from
i to 108,000 (London, stereotyped in 1827; there are many tirages
of later dates), is the best for ordinary use. Great pains were
taken to get the maximum of clearness. The change of figure in
the middle of the block of numbers is marked by a change of type
in the fourth figure, which (with the sole exception of the asterisk)
is probably the best method that has been used. Copies of the
book were printed on paper of different colours — yellow, brown,
green, &c. — as it was considered that black on a white ground
was a fatiguing combination for the eye. The tables were also
issued with title-pages and introductions in other languages. In
1871 E. Sang published A New Table of Seven-place Logarithms
of all Numbers from 20,000 to 200,000 (London). In an ordinary
table extending from 10,000 to 100,000 the differences near the
beginning are so numerous that the proportional parts are either
very crowded or some of them omitted; by making the table
extend from 20,000 to 200,000 instead of from 10,000 to 100,000
the differences are halved in magnitude, while there are onlyone-
fourth as many in a page. There is also greater accuracy. A
1 See his " Einige Bemerkungen zu Vega's Thesaurus logarith-
morum," in Astronomische Nachrichten for 1851 (reprinted in his
Werke, vol. iii. pp. 257-64); also Monthly Notices R.A.S., 33, p. 440.
1 A seven-figure table of the same kind is contained in S. Gundel-
finger's Sechsstettige Gaussische und siebenstellige gemeine Logarithmen
(Leipzig, 1002).
330
further peculiarity of this table is that multiples of the differences,
instead of proportional parts, are given at the side of the page.
Typographically the table is exceptional, as there are no rules, the
numbers being separated from the logarithms by reversed commas
— a doubtful advantage. This work was to a great extent the
result of an original calculation; see Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1871,
26. Sang proposed to publish a nine-figure table from I to 1 ,000,000,
but the requisite support was not obtained. Various papers of
Sang's relating to his logarithmic calculations will be found in the
Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. subsequent to 1872. Reference should here be
made to Abraham Sharp's table of logarithms of numbers from
i to too and of primes from 100 to noo to 61 places, also of numbers
from 999,990 to 1,000,010 to 63 places. These first appeared in
Geometry Improv'd . . . by A. S. Philomath (London, 1717). They
have been republished in Sherwin's, Callet's, and the earlier editions
of Hutton's tables. H. M. Parkhurst, Astronomical Tables (New
York, 1871), gives logarithms of numbers from I to 109 to 102
places.1
In many seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers the values
of 5 and T are given at the top of the page, with V, the variation
of each, for the purpose of deducing log sines and tangents. 5 and
T denote log (sin x/x) and log (tan x/x) respectively, the argument
being the number of seconds denoted by certain numbers (some-
times only the first, sometimes every tenth) in the number column
on each page. Thus, in Callet's tables, on the page on which the
first number is 67200, 5 = log (sin 6720*76720) and r=Ioe (tan
6720*76720), while the Vs are the variations of each for 10 . To
find, for example, log sin I °52'i2*-7, or log sin 6732"-7, we have
5 = 4-6854980 and log 6732-7=3,8281893, whence, by addition, we
obtain 8-5136873; but V for 10* is - 2-29, whence the variation
for l2*-7 is -3, and the log sine required is 8-5136870. Tables
of 5 and T are frequently called, after their inventor, " Delambre's
tables."
Some seven-figure tables extend to 100,000, and others to 108,000,
the last 8000 logarithms, to 8 places, being given to ensure greater
accuracy, as near the beginning of the numbers the differences are
large and the interpolations more laborious and less exact than in
the rest of the table. The eight-figure logarithms, however, at the
end of a seven-figure table are liable to occasion error; for the
computer who is accustomed to three leading figures, common to
the block of figures, may fail to notice that in this part of the table
there are four, and so a figure (the fourth) is sometimes omitted in
taking out the logarithm. In the ordinary method of arranging a
seven-figure table the change in the fourth figure, when it occurs in
the course of the line, is a source of frequent error unless it is very
clearly indicated. In the earlier tables the change was not marked
at all, and the computer had to decide for himself, each time he took
out a logarithm, whether the third figure had to be increased. In
some tables the line is broken where the change occurs; but the
dislocation of the figures and the corresponding irregularity in the
lines are very awkward. Babbage printed the fourth figure in small
type after a change; and Bremiker placed a bar over it. The best
method seems to be that of prefixing an asterisk to the fourth figure
of each logarithm after the change, as is done in Schron's and many
other modern tables. This is beautifully clear and the asterisk at
once catches the eye. Shortrede and Sang replace o after a change
by a nokta (resembling a diamond in a pack of cards). This is very
clear in the case of the o's, but leaves unmarked the cases in which
the fourth figure is I or 2. A method which' finds favour in some
recent tables is to underline all the figures after the increase, or to
place a line over them.
Babbage printed a subscript point under the last figure of each
logarithm that had been increased. Schrpn used a bar subscript,
which, being more obtrusive, seems less satisfactory. In some tables
the increase of the last figure is only marked when the figure is
increased to a 5, and then a Roman five (v) is used in place of the
Arabic figure.
Hereditary errors in logarithmic tables are considered in two
papers " On the Progress to Accuracy of Logarithmic Tables " and
• On Logarithmic Tables," in Monthly Notices R.A.S., 33, pp. 330,
440. See also vol. 34, p. 447; and a paper by Gernerth, Ztsch. f. d.
osterr. Gymm., Heft vi. p. 407.
Passing now to the logarithmic trigonometrical canon, the first
great advance after the publication of the Trigonometria artificial
in 1633 was made in Michael Taylor's Tables of Logarithms (London,
1792), which give log sines and tangents to every second of the
quadrant to 7 places. This table contains about 450 pages with
an average number of 775O figures to the page, so that there are
altogether nearly three millions and a half of figures. The change
1 Legendre (Traite des fonctions elliptiques, vol. ii., 1826) gives
a table of natural sines to 15 places, and of log sines to 14 places,
for every 15" of the quadrant, and also a table of logarithms of
uneven numbers from 1163 to 1501, and of primes from 1501 to
10,000 to 19 places. The latter, which was extracted from the
Tables du cadastre, is a continuation of a table in W. Gardiner's
Tables of Logarithms (London, 1742; reprinted at Avignon, 1770),
which gives logarithms of all numbers to 1000, and of uneven
numbers from 1000 to 1143. Legendre's tables also appeared in
his Exercices de calcul integral, vol. iii. (1816).
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
in the leading figures, when it occurs in a column, is not marked at
all; and the table must be used with very great caution. In fact it
is advisable to go through the whole of it, and fill in with ink the
first o after the change, as well as make some mark that will catch
the eye at the head of every column containing a change. The table
was calculated by interpolation from the Trigonometria artificialis
'to 10 places and then reduced to 7, so that the last figure should
always be correct. Partly on account of the absence of a mark to
denote the change of figure in the column and partly on account of
;he size of the table and a somewhat inconvenient arrangement,
the work seems never to have come into general use. Computers
have always preferred V. Bagay's Nouvelles Tables astronomiques
et hydrographtques (Paris, 1829), which also contains a complete
logarithmic canon to every second. The change in the column is
very clearly marked by a large black nucleus, surrounded by a
circle, printed instead of O. Bagay's work having become rare and
costly was reprinted with the errors corrected. The reprint, how-
ever, bears the original title-page and date 1829, and there appears
to be no means of distinguishing it from the original work except by
turning to one of the errata in the original edition and examining
whether the correction has been made.
The only other canon to every second that has been published is
contained in R. Shortrede's Logarithmic Tables (Edinburgh). This
work was originally issued in 1844 in one volume, but Deing dis-
satisfied with it Shortrede issued a new edition in 1849 in two
volumes. The first volume contains logarithms of numbers, anti-
logarithms, &c., and the second the trigonometrical canon to every
second. The volumes are sold separately, and may be regarded as
independent works; they are not even described on their title-
pages as vol. i. and vol. ii. The trigonometrical canon is very com-
plete in every respect, the arguments being given in time as well as
in arc, full proportional parts being added, &c. The change of
figure in the column is denoted by a nokta, printed instead of o where
the change occurs. The page is crowded and the print not very
clear, so that Bagay is to be preferred for regular use.
Previous to 1891 the only important tables in which the quadrant is
divided centesimally were J. P. Hobert and L. Ideler, Nouvelles tables
trigonometriques (Berlin, 1799), and C. Borda and J. B. J. Delambre,
Tables trigonomttriques decimales (Paris, 1801). The former give,
among other t'bles, natural and log sines, cosines, tangents, and
cotangents, to 7 places, the arguments proceeding to 3° at intervals
of 10 and thence to 50° at intervals of i' (centesimal), and also
natural sines and tangents for the first hundred ten-thousandths
of a right angle to 10 places. The latter gives long sines, cosines,
tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants from o° to 3°at intervals
of 10* (with full proportional parts for every second), and thence to
50° at intervals of i' (centesimal) to 7 places. There is also a table
of log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from o' to 10' at
intervals of 10* and from o* to 50° at intervals of 10' (centesimal) to
1 1 places. Hobert and Ideler give a natural as well as a logarithmic
canon; but Borda and Delambre give only the latter. Borda and
Delambre give seven-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000, the
line being broken when a change of figure takes place in it.
The tables of Borda and Delambre having become difficult to
procure, and seven-figure tables being no longer sufficient for the
accuracy required in astronomy and geodesy, the French govern-
ment in 1891 issued an eight-figure table containing (besides log-
arithms of numbers to 120,000) log sines and tangents for every ten
seconds (centesimal) of the quadrant, the latter being extracted
from the Tables du cadastre of Prony (see LOGARITHM). The title
of this fine and handsomely printed work is Service geographique de
I'armee: Tables des logarithmes a huit decimales . . . publiees par
ordre du ministre de la guerre (Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1891).
These tables are now in common use where eight figures are required.
In Brigg's Trigonometria Britannica of 1633 the degree is divided
centesimally, and but for the appearance in the same year of Vlacq's
Trigonometria artificialis, in which the degree is divided sexagesi-
mally, this reform might have been effected. It is clear that the
most suitable time for making such a change was when the natural
canon was replaced by the logarithmic canon, and Briggs took
advantage of this opportunity. He left the degree unaltered, but
divided it centesimally instead of sexagesimally, thus ensuring the
advantages of decimal division (a saving of work in interpolations,
multiplications, &c.) with the minimum of change. The French
mathematicians at the end of the l8th century divioed the right
angle centesimally, completely changing the whole jystem, with no
appreciable advantages over Briggs's system. In act the centesimal
degree is as arbitrary a unit as the nonagesima' and it is only the
non-centesimal subdivision of the degree that gives rise to incon-
venience. Briggs's example was followed by Roe, Oughtred, and
other 17th-century writers; but the centes mal division of the
degree seemed to have entirely passed out of i.se, till it was revived
by C. Bremiker in his Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln mil fiinf
Decimalstellen (Berlin, 1872, loth ed. revised by A. Kallius, 1906).
This little book of 158 pages gives a five-figure canon to every
hundredth of a degree with proportional parts, besides logarithms
of numbers, addition and subtraction logarithms, &c.
The eight-figure table of 1891 has now made the use of a cen-
tesimal table compulsory, if this number of figures is required.
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
The Astronomische Cesellschaft are, however, publishing an eight-
figure table on the sexagesimal system, under the charge of Dr. J.
Bauschinger, the director of the k. Recheninstitut at Berlin. The
arrangement is to be in groups of three as in Bremiker's tables.
Collections of Tables. — For a computer who requires in one volume
logarithms of numbers and a ten-second logarithmic canon, perhaps
the two best books are L. Schron, Seven-Figure Logarithms (London,
1865, stereotyped, an English edition of the German work pub-
lished at Brunswick), and C. Bruhns, A New Manual of Logarithms
to Seven Places of Decimals (Leipzig, 1870). Both these works
(of which there have been numerous editions) give logarithms of
numbers and a complete ten-second canon to 7 places; Bruhns
also gives log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents to every
second up to 6° with proportional parts. Schron contains an
interpolation table, of 75 pages, giving the first loo multiples of
all numbers from 40 to 420. The logarithms of numbers extend
to 108,000 in Schron and to 100,000 m Bruhns. Almost equally
convenient is Bremiker's edition of Vega's Logarithmic Tables
(Berlin, stereotyped; the English edition was translated from
the fortieth edition of Bremiker's by W. L. F. Fischer). This
book gives a canon to every ten seconds, and for the first five
degrees to every second, with logarithms of numbers to 100,000.
Schron, Bruhns, and Bremiker all give the proportional parts for
all the differences in the logarithms of numbers. In Babbage's,
Callet's, and many other tables only every other table of pro-
portional parts is given near the beginning for want of space.
Schron, Bruhns, and most modern tables published in Germany
have title-pages and introductions in different languages. J. Dupuis,
Tables de logarithmes a sept decimales (stereotyped, third tirage,
1868, Paris), is also very convenient, containing a ten-second
canon, besides logarithms of numbers to 100,000, hyperbolic log-
arithms of numbers to 1000, to 7 places, &c. In this work negative
characteristics are printed throughout in the tables of circular
functions, the minus sign being placed above the figure; for the
mathematical calculator these are preferable to the ordinary char-
acteristics that are increased by 10. The edges of the pages con-
taining the circular functions are red, the rest being grey. Dupuis
also edited Callet's logarithms in 1862, with which this work must
not be confounded. J. Salomon, Logarithmische Tafeln (Vienna,
1827), contains a ten-second canon (the intervals being one second
for the first two degrees), logarithms of numbers to 108,000, squares,
cubes, square roots, and cube roots to 1000, a factor table to
102,011, ten-place Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers
to looo and of primes to 10,333, and many other useful tables.
The work, which is scarce, is a well-printed small quarto volume.
Of collections of general tables among the most useful and
accessible are Hutton, Callet, Vega, ana Kohler. C. Hutton's
well-known Mathematical Tables (London) was first issued in 1785,
but considerable additions were made in the fifth edition (1811).
The tables contain seven-figure logarithms to 108,000, and to 1200
to 20 places, some antilogarithms to 20 places, hyperbolic logarithms
from i to 10 at intervals of -01 and to 1200 at intervals of unity
to 7 places, logistic logarithms, log sines and tangents to every
second of the first two degrees, and natural and log sines, tangents,
secants, and versed sines for every minute of the quadrant to 7
places. The natural functions occupy the left-hand pages and
the logarithmic the right-hand. The first six editions, published
in Hutton's lifetime (d. 1823), contain Abraham Sharp's 6i-figure
logarithms of numbers. Olinthus Gregory, who brought out the
1830 and succeeding editions, omitted these tables and Hutton's
introduction, which contains a history of logarithms, the methods
of constructing them, &c. F. Callet's Tables portatives de loga-
rithmes (stereotyped, Paris) seems to have been first issued in
1783, and has since passed through a great many editions. In
that of 1853 the contents are seven-figure logarithms to 108,000,
Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms to 48 places of numbers to
loo and of primes to 1097, log sines and tangents for minutes
(centesimal) throughout the quadrant to 7 places, natural and
log sines to 15 places for every ten minutes (centesimal) of the
quadrant, log sines and tangents for every second of the first five
degrees (sexagesimal) and for every ten seconds of the quadrant
(sexagesimal) to 7 places, besides logistic logarithms, the first
hundred multiples of the modulus to 24 places and the first ten
to 70 places, and other tables. This is one of the most complete
and practically useful collections of logarithms that have been
published, and it is peculiar in giving a centesimally divided canon.
The size of the page in the editions published in the 1 9th century
is larger than that of the earlier editions, the type having been
reset. G. Vega's Tabulae logarithmo-trigonometricae was first pub-
lished in 1797 in two volumes. The first contains seven-figure
logarithms to 101,000, log sines, &c., for every tenth of a second
to i', for every second to i" 30', for every 10" to 6" 3', and thence
at intervals of a minute, also natural sines and tangents to every
minute, all to 7 places. The second volume gives simple divisors
of all numbers up to 102,000, a list of primes from 102,000 to
400,313, hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000 and of primes
to 10,000, to *8 places, e1 and logio*1 to x = io at intervals of -01
to 7 figures and 7 places respectively, the first nine powers of
the numbers from i to 100, squares and cubes to 1000, logistic
logarithms, binomial theorem coefficients, &c. Vega also published
Manuale logarithmico-trigonometricum (Leipzig, 1800), the tables
in which are identical with a portion of those contained in the
first volume of the Tabulae. The Tabulae went through many
editions, a stereotyped issue being brought out by J. A. Hulsse
(Sammlung mathematischer Tafeln, Leipzig) in one volume in 1840.
The contents are nearly the same as those of the original work,
the chief difference being that a large table of Gaussian logarithms
is added. Vega differs from Hutton and Callet in giving so many
useful non-logarithmic tables, and his collection is in many respects
complementary to theirs. J. C. Schulze, Neue und erweiterte
Sammlung logarithmischer, trigonometrischer, und anderer Tafeln
(2 vols. Berlin, 1778), is a valuable collection, and contains seven-
figure logarithms to 101,000, log sines and tangents to 2° at
intervals of a second, and natural sines, tangents, and secants
to 7 places, log sines and tangents and Napierian log sines and
tangents to 8 places, all for every ten seconds to 4° and thence
for every minute to 45°, besides squares, cubes, square roots, and
cube roots to 1000, binomial theorem coefficients, powers of e,
and other small tables. Wolfram's hyperbolic logarithms of
numbers below 10,000 to 48 places first appeared in this work.
J. H. Lambert's Supplementa tabularum logarithmicarum et Iri-
gonometricarum (Lisbon, 1798) contains a number of useful and
curious non-logarithmic tables and bears a general resemblance
to the second volume of Vega, but there arc also other small
tables of a more strictly mathematical character. A very useful
collection of non-logarithmic tables is contained in Peter Barlow's
New Mathematical Tables (London, 1814). It gives squares, cubes,
square roots, and cube roots (to 7 places), reciprocals to 9 or 10
places, and resolutions into their prime factors of all numbers from
i to 10,000, the first ten powers of numbers to 100, fourth and
fifth powers of ^numbers from 100 to 1000, prime numbers from
I to 100,103, eight-place hyperbolic logarithms to 10,000, tables
for the solution of the irreducible case in cubic equations, &c. In
the stereotyped reprint of 1840 only the squares, cubes, square
roots, cube roots, and reciprocals are retained. The first volume
of Shortrede's tables, in addition to the trigonometrical canon to
every second, contains antilogarithms and Gaussian logarithms.
F. R. Hassler, Tabulae logarithmicae et trigonometrical (New York,
1830, stereotyped), gives seven-figure logarithms to 100,000, log
sines and tangents for every second to i , and log sines, cosines,
tangents, and cotangents from i° to 3° at intervals of 10* and
thence to 45° at intervals of 30*. Every effort has been made to
reduce the size of the tables without loss of distinctness, the page
being only about 3 by 5 inches. Copies of the work were published
with the introduction and title-page in different languages. A. D.
Stanley, Tables of Logarithms (New Haven, U.S., 1860), gives
seven-figure logarithms to 100,000, and log sines, cosines, tangents,
cotangents, secants, and cosecants at intervals of ten seconds to
15° and thence at intervals of a minute to 45° to 7 places, besides
natural sines and cosines, antilogarithms, and other tables. This
collection owed its origin to the fact that Hassler's tables were
found to be inconvenient owing to the smallness of the type.
G. Luvini, Tables of Logarithms (London, 1866, stereotyped, printed
at Turin), gives seven-figure logarithms to 20,040, Briggian and
hyperbolic logarithms of primes to 1200 to 20 places, log sines and
tangents for each second to 9', at intervals of 10* to 2°, of 30* to 9°,
of i' to 45° to 7 places, besides square and cube roots up to 625.
The book, which is intended for schools, engineers, &c., has a
peculiar arrangement of the logarithms and proportional parts on
the pages. Mathematical Tables (W. & R. Chambers, Edinburgh),
containing logarithms of numbers to 100,000, and a canon to every
minute of log sines, tangents, and secants and of natural sines to
7 places, besides proportional logarithms and other small tables,
is cheap and suitable for schools, though not to be compared as
regards matter or typography to the best tables described above.
Of six-figure tables C. Bremiker's Logarithmorum VI. decimalium
nova tabula Berolinensis (Berlin 1852) is probably one of the
best. It gives logarithms of numbers to 100,000, with proportional
parts, and log sines and tangents for every second to 5°, and beyond
5° for every ten seconds, with proportional parts. J. Hantschl,
Logarithmisch-tr.igonometrisches Handbuch (Vienna, 1827), gives five-
figure logarithms to 10,000, log sines and tangents for every ten
seconds to 6 places, natural sines, tangents, secants, and versed
sines for every minute to 7 places, logarithms of primes to 15,391,
hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 11,273 to 8 places, least
divisors of numbers to 18,277, binomial theorem coefficients, &c.
R. Farley's Six-Figure Logarithms (London, stereotyped, 1840),
gives six-figure logarithms to 10,000 and log sines and tangents
for every minute to 6 places.
Coming now to five-figure tables a very convenient little book is
Tables of Logarithms (Useful Knowledge Society, London, from the
stereotyped plates of 1839), which was prepared by De Morgan,
though it has no name on the title-page. It contains five-figure
logarithms to 10,000, log sines and tangents to every minute to
S places, besides a few smaller tables. J. de Lalande's Tables de
logarithmes is a five-figure table with nearly the same contents as
De Morgan's, first published in 1805. It has since passed through
many editions, and, after being extended from 5 to 7 places, passed
332
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
through several more. J. Galbraith and S. Haughton, Manual of
Mathematical Tables (London, 1860), give five-figure logarithms to
10,000 and log sines and tangents for every minute, also a small
table of Gaussian logarithms. J. Houel, Tables de logarithmes a
cinq decimates (Paris, 1871 ; new edition 1907), is a very convenient
collection of five-figure tables; besides logarithms of numbers and
circular functions, there are Gaussian logarithms, least divisors of
numbers to 10,841, antilogarithms, &c. The work (118 pp.) is
printed on thin paper. A. Gernerth, Funfstellige gemeine Logarithmen
(Vienna, 1866), gives logarithms to 10,800 and a ten-second canon.
There are sixty lines on the page, so that the double page contains
log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents extending over a minute.
C. Bremiker, Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln mit funf Decimal-
stellen (loth edition by A. Kallius, Berlin, 1906), which has been
already referred to, gives logarithms to 10,009 and a logarithmic
canon to every hundredth of a degree (sexagesimal), in a handy
volume; the lines are divided into groups of three, an arrangement
about the convenience of which there is a difference of opinion.
H. Gravelius, Funfstellige logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln Jiir
die Decimalteilung des Quadranten (Berlin, 1886), is a well-printed
five-figure table giving logarithms to 10,009, a logarithmic canon to
every centesimal minute (i.e. ten-thousandth part of a right angle),
and an extensive table (40 pp.) for the conversion of centesimally
expressed arcs into sexagesimally expressed arcs and vice versa.
Among the other tables is a four-place table of squares from o to 10
at intervals of -ooi with proportional parts. E. Becker, Logarith-
misch-trigonometrisches Handbuch auf funf Decimalen (2nd stereo,
ed., Leipzig, 1897), gives logarithms to 10,009 and a logarithmic canon
for every tenth of a minute to 6° and thence to 45° for every minute.
There are also Gaussian logarithms. V. E. Gamborg, Logaritmetabel
(Copenhagen, 1897), is a well-printed collection of tables, which
contains a five-figure logarithmic canon to every minute, five-figure
logarithms of numbers to 10,000, and five-figure antilogarithms,
viz., five-figure numbers answering to four-figure mantissae from
•oooo to -9999 at intervals of -oooi. H. Schubert, Funfstellige
Tafeln und Gegentafeln (Leipzig, 1896), is peculiar in giving,
besides logarithms of numbers and a logarithmic and natural
canon, the three converse tables of numbers answering to
logarithms, and angles answering to logarithmic and natural
trigonometrical functions. The five-figure tables of F. G. Gauss
(Berlin, 1870) have passed through very many editions, and mention
should also be made of those of T. Wittstein (Hanover, 1859) and F.
W. Rex (Stuttgart, 1884). S. W. Holman, Computation Rules and
Logarithms (New York, 1896), contains a well-printed and convenient
set of tables including five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000
and a five-figure logarithmic canon to every minute, the actual
characteristics (with the negative sign above the number) being
printed, as in the tables of Dupuis, 1868, referred to above. There
is also a four-place trigonometrical canon and four-place anti-
logarithms, reciprocals, square and cube roots, &c. G. W. Jones,
Logarithmic Tables (4th ed., London, and Ithaca, N.Y., 1893), con-
tains a five-place natural trigonometrical canon and a six-place
logarithmic canon to every minute, six-place Gaussian and hyper-
bolic logarithms, besides a variety of four-place tables, including
squares, cubes, quarter-squares, reciprocals, &c. The factor table
has been already noticed:. It is to be observed that the fourth
edition is quite a distinct work from the third, which contained much
fewer tables. J. B. Dale, Five-figure Tables of Mathematical Func-
tions (London, 1903), is a book of 92 pages containing a number of
small five-figure tables of functions which are not elsewhere to be
found in one volume. Among the functions tabulated are elliptic
functions of the first and second kind, the gamma function, Legendre's
coefficients, Bessel's functions, sine, cosine, and exponential integrals,
&c. J. Houel's Recueil de formules et de tables numerigues (Paris,
1868) contains 19 tables, occupying 62 pages, most of them giving
results to 4 places; they relate to very varied subjects — anti-
logarithms, Gaussian logarithms, logarithms of l+x/i—x elliptic
integrals, squares for use in the method of least squares, &c. C.
Bremiker, fafel vierstelliger Logarithmen (Berlin, 1874), gives four-
figure logarithms, of numbers to 2009, log sines, cosines, tangents,
and cotangents to 8° for every hundredth of a degree, and thence to
45° for every tenth of a degree, to 4 places. There are also Gaussian
logarithms, squares from o-ooo to 13,500, antilogarithms, &c. The
book contains 60 pages. It is not worth while to give a list of four-
figure tables or other tables of small extent, which are very numerous,
but mention may be made of J. M. Peirce, Mathematical Tables
chiefly to Four Figures (Boston, U.S., 1879), 42 pp., containing also
hyperbolic functions; W. Hall, Four-figure Tables and Constants
(Cambridge, 1905), 60 pp., chiefly for nautical computation; A. du
P. Denning, Five-figure Mathematical Tables for School and Laboratory
Purposes (12 pp. of tables, large octavo) ; A. R. Hinks, Cambridge
Four-figure Mathematical Tables (12 pp.). C. M. Willich, Popular
Tables (London, 1853), is a useful book for an amateur; it gives
Briggian and hyperbolic logarithms to 1200 to 7 places, squares,
&c., to 343, &c.
Hyperbolic or Napierian or Natural Logarithms. — The logarithms
invented by Napier and explained by him in the Descriptio (1614)
were not the same as those now called natural or hyperbolic (viz.,
to base e) , and very frequently also Napierian , logarithms. Napierian
logarithms, strictly so called, have entirely passed out of use and
are of purely historic interest; it is therefore sufficient to refer to
the article LOGARITHM, where a full account is given. Apart from
the inventor's own publications, the only strictly Napierian tables of
importance are contained in Ursinus s Trigonometria (Cologne,
1624-1625) and Schulze's Sammlung (Berlin, 1778), the former being
the largest that has been constructed. Logarithms to the base e,
where e denotes 2-71828 . . ., were first published by J. Speidell, New
Logarithmes (1619).
The most copious table of hyperbolic logarithms is Z. Dase, Tafel
der natiirlichen Logarithmen (Vienna, 1850), which extends from I
to looo at intervals of unity and from 1000 to 10,500 at intervals
of • I to 7 places, with differences and proportional parts, arranged
as in an ordinary seven-figure table. By adding log ip to the results
the range is from 10,000 to 105,000 at intervals of unity. The table
formed part of the Annals of the Vienna Observatory for 1851, but
separate copies were printed. The most elaborate table of hyper-
bolic logarithms is due to Wolfram, who calculated to 48 places the
logarithms of all numbers up to 2200, and of all primes (also of a
great many composite numbers) between this limit and 10,009.
Wolfram's results first appeared in Schulze's Sammlung (1778).
Six logarithms which Wolfram had been prevented from computing by
a serious illness were supplied in the Berliner Jahrbuch, 1783, p. 191.
The complete table was reproduced in Vega's Thesaurus (1794),
where several errors were corrected. Tables of hyperbolic logarithms
are contained in the following collections: — Callet, all numbers to
100 and primes to 1097 to 48 places; Borda and Delambre (1801),
all numbers to 1200 to n places; Salomon (1827), all numbers to
1000 and primes to 10,333 to 10 places; Vega, Tabulae (including
Hulsse's edition, 1840), and Kohler (1848), all numbers to 1000 and
primes to 10,000 to 8 places; Barlow (1814), all numbers to 10,000;
Hutton, Mathematical Tables, and Willich (1853), all numbers to
1 200 to 7 places; Dupuis (1868), all numbers to 1000 to 7 places.
Hutton also gives hyperbolic logarithms from I to 10 at intervals
of -oi to 7 places. Rees's Cyclopaedia (1819), art, " Hyperbolic
Logarithms," contains a table of hyperbolic logarithms of all numbers
to 10,000 to 8 places.
Logarithms to base e are generally termed Napierian by English
writers, and natural by foreign writers. There seems no objection
to the former name, though the logarithms actually invented by
Napier depended on the base e~l, but it should be mentioned in
text-books that so-called Napierian logarithms are not identical with
those originally devised and calculated by Napier.
Tables to convert Briggian into Hyperbolic Logarithms, and vice
versa.— Such tables merely consist of the first hundred (sometimes
only the first ten) multiples of the modulus -43429 44819 . . . and
its reciprocal 2-.3O258 50929 ... to 5, 6, 8, 10, or more places.
They are generally to be found in collections of logarithmic tables,
but rarely exceed a page in extent, and are very easy to construct.
Schron and Bruhns both give the first hundred multiples of the
modulus and its reciprocal to 10 places, and Bremiker (in his edition
of Vega and in his six-figure tables) and Dupuis to 7 places. C. F.
Degen, Tabularum Enneas (Copenhagen, 1824), gives the first
hundred multiples of the modulus to 30 places.
Antilogarithms. — In the ordinary tables of logarithms the natural
numbers are integers, while the logarithms are incommensurable.
In an antilogarithmic canon the logarithms are exact quantities,
such as -ooooi, -00002, &c., and the corresponding numbers are
incommensurable. The largest and earliest work of this kind is
J. Dodson's Antilogarithmic Canon (London, 1742), which gives
numbers to II places corresponding to logarithms from o to I at
intervals of -ooooi, arranged like a seven-figure logarithmic table,
with1 interscript differences and proportional parts at the bottom
of the page. This work was the only large antilogarithmic canon
for more than a century, till in 1844 Shortrede published the first
edition of his tables; in 1849 he published the second edition, and
in the same year Filipowski's tables appeared. Both these works
contain seven-figure antilogarithms: Shortrede gives numbers to
logarithms from o to I at intervals of -ooooi, with differences and
multiples at the top of the page, and H. E. Filipowski, A Table of
Antilogarithms (London, 1849), contains a table of the same extent,
the proportional parts being given to hundredths.
Small tables of antilogarithms to 20 places occur in several
collections of tables, as Gardiner (1742), Callet, and Hutton. Four-
and five-place tables are not uncommon in recent works, as e.g. in
Houel (1871), Gamborg (1897), Schubert (1896), .Holman (1896).
Addition and Subtraction, or Gaussian Logarithms. — The object of
such tables is to give log (a =*=&) by only one entry when log a and
log b are given. Let
A =\ogx, B=log (l+r-1), C = log
Leaving out the specimen table in Z. Leonelli's Theorie des loga-
rithmes additionnels et deductifs (Bordeaux, 1803), in which the
first suggestion was made,1 the principal tables are the following:
Gauss, in Zach's Monatliche Corresponded (1812), gives B and C
for argument A from o to 2 at intervals of -ooi, thence to 3-40
1 Leonelli's original work of 1803, which'is extremely scarce, was
reprinted by J. Houel at Paris in 1875.
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
333
at intervals of -01, and to 5 at intervals of -I, all to 5 places. This
table is reprinted in Gauss's Werke, vol. iii. p. 244. E. A. Matthies-
sen, Tafel zur bequemern Berechnung (Altona, 1818), gives B
and C to 7 places for argument A from o to 2 at intervals of -oooi,
thence to 3 at intervals of -ooi, to 4 at intervals of -01, and to 5
at intervals of -I; the table is not conveniently arranged. Peter
Gray, Tables and Formulae (London, 1849, and " Addendum,"
1870), gives C for argument A from —3 to —I at intervals of -ooi
and from — I to 2 at intervals of -oooi, to 6 places, with propor-
tional parts to hundredths, and log (l — x) for argument A from — 3
to —i at intervals of -ooi and from I to -18999 at intervals of -opoi,
to 6 places, with proportional parts. J. Zech, Tafeln der Additions-
und Subtractions-Logarithmen (Leipzig, 1849), gives B for argument
A from o to 2 at intervals of -oooi, thence to 4 at intervals of
•ooi and to 6 at intervals of -01 ; also C for argument A from
o to -0003 at intervals of -ooooooi, thence to -05 at intervals of
•oooooi and to -303 at intervals of -ooooi, all to 7 places, with
proportional parts. These tables are reprinted from Hulsse's
edition of Vega (1849); the 1840 edition of Hulsse's Vega con-
tained a reprint of Gauss's original table. T. Wittstein, Loga-
rithmes de Gauss a sept decimates (Hanover, 1866), gives B Tor
argument A from 3 to 4 at intervals of -I, from 4 to 6 at intervals
of -01, from 6 to 8 at intervals of -ooi, from 8 to 10 at intervals
of -oooi, also from o to 4 at the same intervals. In this hand-
some work the arrangement is similar to that in a seven-figure
logarithmic table. Gauss's original five-place table was reprinted
in Pasquich, Tabulae (Leipzig, 1817); Kohler, Jerome de la Lande':
Tafeln (Leipzig, 1832), and Handbuch (Leipzig, 1848) ; and Galbraith
and Haughton, Manual (London, 1860). Houel, Tables de loga-
rithmes (1871), also gives a small five-place table of Gaussian
logarithms, the addition and subtraction logarithms being separated
as in Zech. Modified Gaussian logarithms are given by J. H. T.
Miiller, Vierstellige Logarithmen (Gotha, 1844), viz., a four-place
table of B and —log (l — x-1) from A =o to -03 at intervals of -oooi,
thence to -23 at intervals of -ooi, to 2 at intervals of -01, and to
4 at intervals of -i; and by Shortrede, Logarithmic Tables (vol. i.,
1849), viz., a five-place table of B and log (i+x) from A =5 to
3 at intervals of •!, from A =3 to 2-7 at intervals of -01, to 1-3 at
intervals of -ooi, to 3 at intervals of -01, and to 5 at intervals
of •!. Filipowski's Antilogarithms (1849) contains Gaussian log-
arithms arranged in a new way. The principal table gives log
(x+i) as tabular result for log x as argument from 8 to 14 at
intervals of -ooi to 5 places. Weidenbach, Tafel um den Logarith-
x-\-\
men . . . (Copenhagen, 1829), gives log j^ for argument A from
•382 to 2-002 at intervals of -ooi, to 3-6 at intervals of -01, and
to 5'5 at intervals of -I to 5 places. J. Houel's Recueil de formules
et de tables numeriques (2nd ed., Paris, 1868) contains tables of
logio(* + i), logioj-^' and logioj^ from log x = —5 to —3 at in-
tervals of -i, from log x= — 3 to — i at intervals of -01, from
log x= —I to o at intervals of -ooi. F. W. Rex (Funfstellige
Logarithmen-Tafeln, Stuttgart, 1884) gives also a five-figure table
°f '°S 'T^x' ant^ E. Hammer in his Sechsstellige Tafel der Werthe
fur jeden Wert des Arguments log x (Leipzig, 1902) gives a six-
figure table of this function from log * = f to 1-99000, and thence
to 1-999700 to 5 places. S. Gundelfinger's Sechsstellige Gaussische
und siebenstellige gemeine Logarithmen (Leipzig, 1902) contains a
table of logic (i+x) to 6 places from log x= —2 to 2 at intervals
of -OOI. G. W. Jones's Logarithmic Tables (4th ed., London, and
Ithaca, N.Y., 1893) contain 17 pages of Gaussian six-figure tables;
the principal of which give log (l +*) to argument log x from
log x= —2 -80 to o at intervals of -ooi, and thence to -1999 at
intervals of -oooi, and log (i— x~1) to argument log x from log
x = -4 to -5 at intervals of -oooi, and thence to 2-8 at intervals of
•ooi. Gaussian logarithms to 5 or 4 places occur in many collec-
tions of five-figure or four-figure tables.
Quadratic Logarithms. — In a pamphlet Saggio di tavole dei loga-
ritmi quadratici (Udine, 1885) Conte A. di Prampero has described
a method of obtaining fractional powers (positive or negative) of
any number by means of tables contained in the work. If
N, then *=log log og log a,
and
and if the logarithms are taken to be Briggian and a = lO
6 = 2, then # = logio logioN/log 2 + 10.
This quantity the author defines as the quadratic logarithm of
N and denotes by LqN. It follows from this definition that
Lq.Nr = Lq.Ar+logior/lpgio2. Thus the quadratic logarithms of
N and N' where s is any power (positive or negative) of 2 have
the same mantissa.
A subsidiary table contains the values of the constant
logio'Ylogutf for 204 fractional values of r. The main table contains
the values of _ 1000 mantissae corresponding to arguments N, JVi,
A/i, . . . (which all have the same mantissae). Among the argu-
ments are the quantities 10-0, 10-1, 10-2, . . . 99-9 (the interval
being -i) and 10-00, 10-01, . . . 10-99 (the interval being -01). As
an example, to obtain the value of 12$ we take from the first table
the constant —0-584962, which belongs to }, and entering the main
table with 12 we take out the quadratic logarithm 10-109937 which,
by applying the constant, gives 9-524975 the quadratic logarithm
of the quantity required.
An appendix (Tavola degli esponenti) gives the Briggian loga-
rithms of the first 57 numbers to the first 50 numbers as base,
viz. logxN for N = 2, 3 57 and x = 2, 3,^. . ., 50. The results
are generally given to 6 places.
Logistic and Proportional Logarithms. — In most collections of
tables of logarithms a five-place table of logistic logarithms for every
second to i° is given. Logistic tables give log 3600 — log * at inter-
vals of a second, x being expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
In Schulze (1778) and Vega (1797) the table extends to ^ = 3600'
and in Callet and Hutton to x = 5280*. Proportional logarithms for
every second to 3° (i.e. log 10,800 — log x) form part of nearly all
collections of tables relating to navigation, generally to 4 places,
sometimes to 5. Bagay, Tables (1829), gives a five-place table,
but such are not often to be found in collections of mathematical
tables. The same remark applies to tables of proportional log-
arithms for every minute to 24h, which give to 4 or 5 places the
values of log 1440 — log x. The object of a proportional or logistic
table, or a table of log o — log x, is to facilitate the calculation of
proportions in which the third term is a.
Interpolation Tables. — All tables of proportional parts may be
regarded as interpolation tables. C. Bremiker, Tafel der Pro-
portionalteile (Berlin, 1843), gives proportional parts to hundredths
of all numbers from 70 to 699. Schron, Logarithms, contains an
interpolation table giving the first hundred multiples of all numbers
from 40 to 410. Sexagesimal tables, already described, are inter-
polation tables where the denominator is 60 or 600. Tables of
the values of binomial theorem coefficients, which are required
when second and higher orders of differences are used, are described
below. W. S. B. Woolhouse, On Interpolation, Summation, and
the Adjustment of Numerical Tables (London, 1865), contains nine
pages of interpolation tables. The book consists of papers ex-
tracted from vols. n and 12 of the Assurance Magazine.
Dual Logarithms.— This term was used by Oliver Byrne in his
Dual Arithmetic, Young Dual Arithmetician, Tables of Dual Loga-
rithms, &c. (London, 1863-67). A dual number of the ascending
branch is a continued product of powers of l-l, i-oi, l-ooi, &c.,
taken in order, the powers only being expressed; thus J, 6,9,7,8
denotes (l-l)6(l-oi)9(i-ooi)7(i-oooi)«, the numbers following the |
being called dual digits. A dual number which has all but the
last digit zeros is called a dual logarithm; the author uses dual
logarithms in which there are seven ciphers between the J, and the
logarithm. Thus since 1-00601502 is equal to 1 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,599702
the whole number 599702 is the dual logarithm of the natural number
1-00601502.
A dual number of the descending branch is a continued product
of powers of -9, -99, &c. : for instance, (-9)3('99)2 is denoted by '3 '2 T-
The Tables, which occupy 112 pages, give dual numbers and log-
arithms, both of the ascending and descending branches, and the
corresponding natural numbers. The author claimed that his tables
were superior to those of common logarithms.
Constants. — In nearly all tables of logarithms there is a page
devoted to certain frequently used constants and their logarithms,
such as TT, ir"1, ir2, Vf- A specially good collection is printed in W.
Templeton's Millwright's and Engineer's Pocket Companion (cor-
rected by S. Maynard, London, 1871), which gives 58 constants
involving ir and their logarithms, generally to 30 places, and 13
others that may be properly called mathematical. A good list of
constants involving ir is given in Salomon (1827). A paper by G.
Paucker in Grunert's Archiv ( vol. i. p. 9) has a number of constants
involving IT given to a great many places, and Gauss's memoir on
the lemniscate function (Werke, vol. iii.) has e-*, e-i", e-t", &c.,
calculated to about 50 places. The quantity ir has been worked
out to 707 places (Shanks, Proc. Roy. Soc., 21, p. 319).
J. C. Adams has calculated Euler's constant to 263 places (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 27, p. 88) and the modulus -43429 ... to 272 places
(Id. 42, p. 22). The latter value is quoted in extenso under
LOGARITHM. J. Burgess on p. 23 of his paper of 1888, referred to
under Tables of e*, has given a number of constants involving r and
P (the constant -476936 . . . occurring in the Theory of Errors),
and their Briggian logarithms, to 23 places.
Tables for the Solution of Cubic Equations. — Lambert, Supplementa
(1798), gives ±(x-*3) from x = -ooi to 1-155 as intervals of -ooi to
7 places, and Barlow (1814) gives x3— x from x=i to 1-1549 at
intervals of -oooi to 8 places. Very extensive tables for the solution
of cubic equations are contained in a memoir " Beitriige zur Auflosung
hoherer Gleichungen " by J. P. Kulik in the Abh. der k. Bohm. Ges.
der Wiss. (Prague, 1860), u, pp. 1-123. The principal tables
(PP- 58-123) give to 7 (or 6) places the values of ± (x-x*) from
* =o to £ = 3-2800 at intervals of -ooi. There are also tables of the
even and uneven determinants of cubic equations, &c. Other tables
for the solution of equations are by A. S. Guldberg in the Forhand.
of the Videns-Selskab of Christiania for 1871 and 1872 (equations
of the 3rd and sth order), by S. Gundelfinger, Tafeln zur Berechnung
der reellen Wurzeln samtlicher trinomischen Gleichungen (Leipzig,
1897), which depend on the use of Gaussian logarithms, and by R.
Mehme, Schldmilch's Zeitschrift, 1898, 43, p. 80 (quadratic equations).
334
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
Binominal Theorem Coefficients. — Tables of the values of
x(x— i). x(x — i)(x— 2) x(x — i) . . . (x — 5)
1.2
1.2.3
1.2 .
.6
from * = -oi to x = i at intervals of -01 to 7 places (which are useful
in interpolation by second and higher orders of differences), occur
in Schulze (1778), Barlow (1814), Vega (1797 and succeeding editions),
Hantschl (1827), and Kohler (1848). W. Rouse, Doctrine of Chances
(London, n.d.), gives on a folding sheet (a+6)" for n = l, 2,. . .20.
H. Gylden (Recueil des Tables, Stockholm, 1880) gives binomial
coefficients to n = 4O and their logarithms to 7 places. Lambert,
Supplementa (1798), has the coefficients of the first 16 terms in
)5 and (i — *)», their values being given accurately as decimals.
Vega (1797) has a page of tables giving j-^, jjjjjf • j^,- • • and
similar quantities to 10 places, with their logarithms to 7 places, and
a page of this kind occurs in other collections. Kobler (1848) gives
the values of 40 such quantities.
Figurate Numbers. — Denoting «(» + i). . .(n+i — i)/t! by [»],-,
Lambert, Supplementa, i 798, gives [«]< from n = i to n = 30 and from
i=l to 1 = 12; and G. W. Hill (Amer. Jour. Math., 1884, 6, p. 130)
gives logio[»]i for « = i, |, f, J, I, and from i=i to i = y>.
Trigonometrical Quadratic Surds. — The surd values of the sines
of every third degree of the quadrant are given in some tables
of logarithms; e.g., in Hutton's (p. xxxix., ed. 1855), we find
and the
numerical values of the surds V (5 + V5), V (¥)> &c., are given
to 10 places. These values were extended to 20 places by Peter
Gray, Mess, of Math., 1877, 6, p. 105.
Circulating Decimals.— Goodwyn's tables have been described
already. Several others have been published giving the numbers
of digits in the periods of the reciprocals of primes: Burckhardt,
Tables des diviseurs du premier million (Paris, 1814-1817), gave one
for all primes up to 2543 and for 22 primes exceeding that limit.
E. Desmarest, Theorie des nombres (Paris, 1852), included all primes
up to 10,000. C. G. Reuschle, Mathematische Abhandlung, enthaltend
neue zahlentheoretische Tabellen (1856), contains a similar table to
15,000. This W. Shanks extended to 60,000; the portion from
i to 30,000 is printed in the Proc. Roy. Soc., 22, p. 200, and the
remainder is preserved in the archives of the society (Id., 23, p. 260
and 24, p. 392). The number of digits in the decimal period of i/p,
is the same as the exponent to which 10 belongs for modulus p, so
that, whenever the period has p — I digits, 10 is a primitive root of *.
Tables of primes having a given number, n, of digits in their periods,
i.e. tables of the resolutions of 10" — I into factors and, as far as
known, into prime factors, have been given by W. Looff (in Grunert's
Archiv, 16, p. 54; reprinted in Nouv. annales, 14, p. 115) and by
Shanks (Proc. Roy. Soc., 22, p. 381). The former extends to ra = 6o
and the latter to » = ioo, but there are gaps in both. Reuschle's
tract also contains resolutions of ion — I.
There is a similar table by C. E. Bickmore in Mess, of Math., 1896,
25' P- 43- A full account of all tables connecting n and p where
IO" = I, mod p, 10" being the least power for which this congruence
holds good, is given by Allan Cunningham (Id., 1904, 33, p. 145).
The paper by the same author, " Period-lengths of Circulates "
(Id. 1900, 29, p. 145) relates to circulators in the scale of radix a.
See also tables of the resolutions of a" — I into factors under Tables
relating to the Theory of Numbers (below). Some further references
on circulating decimals are given in Proc. Comb. Phil. Soc., 1878, 3,
p. 185.
Pythagorean Triangles. — Right-angled triangles in which the sides
and hypothenuse are all rational integers are frequently termed
Pythagorean triangles, as, for example, the triangles 3, 4, 5, and
5, 12, 13. Schulze, Sammlung (1778), contains a table of such
triangles subject to the condition tan %<j>s'£s(<a being one of the
acute angles). About 100 triangles are given, but some occur
twice. Large tables of right-angled rational triangles were given
by C. A. Bretschneider, in Grunert's Archiv, 1841, I, p. 96, and by
Sang, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1864, 33, p. 727. In these tables the
triangles are arranged according to hypothenuses and extend to
1201, 1200, 49, and 1105, 1073, 264 respectively. W. A. Whitworth,
in a paper read before the Lit. and Phil. Society of Liverpool in
1875, carried his list as far as 2465, 2337, 784. See also H. Rath,
" Die rationalen Dreiecke," in Grunert's Archiv, 1874, 56, p. 1 88.
Sang's paper also contains a table of triangles having an angle of
120 and their sides integers.
Powers of IT. — G. Paucker, in Grunert's Archiv, p. 10, gives ir"1 and
IT! to 140 places, and ir"2, n-J.irJ, irS to about 50 places; J. Burgess
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1898, 39, II., No. 9, p. 23) gives ($*•)-$,
2^71—5, and some other constants involving ?r as well as their Briggian
logarithms to 23 places, and in Maynard's list of constants (see
Constants, above) ir2 is given to 31 places. The first twelve powers
of TT and TT~I to 22 or more places were given by Glaisher, in Proc.
Land. Math. Soc., 8, p. 140, and the first hundred multiples of ir and
r~l to 12 places by J. P. Kulik, Tafel der Quadrat- und Kubik-Zahlen
(Leipzig, 1848).
The Series i-"+2-"+3-n+&c. — Let Sn, sn, an denote respectively
the sums of the series i~"+2-n+3~n+ &c., l~" — 2-»+3~n— &c.,
i~n+3~n+5~"+ &c. Legendre (Traite des fonctions elliptiques,
vol. 2, p. 432) computed 5» to 16 places from n — \ to 35, and
Glaisher (Proc. Land. Math. Soc., 4, p. 48) deduced inand <rn for the
same arguments and to the same number of places. The latter also
gave Sn, Sn, an for n = 2, 4, 6, . . . 12 to 22 or more places (Proc. Land.
Math. Soc., 8, p. 140), and the values of 2n, where 2n = 2-"+3~" +
5~"+&c. (prime numbers only involved), for n = 2, 4, 6, ... 36 to
15 places (Compte rendu de I'Assoc. Franchise, 1878, p. 172).
C. W. Merrineld (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1881, 33, p. 4) gave the values
of log, Sn and Sn for n = 1,2,3,..., 35 to 15 places, and Glaisher
(Quar. Jour. Math., 1891, 25, p. 347) gave the values of the same
quantities for n = 2,4,6, . . ., 80 to 24 places (last figure uncertain).
Merrifield's table was reprinted by J. P. Gram on p. 269 of the paper
of 1884, referred to under Sine-integral, &c., who also added the
values of logic Sn for the same arguments to 15 places. An error
in 2s in Merrifield's table is pointed out in Quar. Jour. Math.,
25. P- 373- This quantity is correctly given in Gram's reprint.
T. J. Stielies has greatly extended Legendre's table of 5n. His table
(Acta math., 1887, 10, p. 299) gives £„ for all values of n up to n = 7O
to 32 places. Except for six errors of a unit in the last figure he
found Legendre's table to be correct. Legendre's table was re-
printed in De Morgan's Diff. and Int. Gale. (1842), p. 554. Various
small tables of other series, involving inverse powers of prime
numbers, such as 3~"— 5~"+7~"+nn — 13"+. • ., are given in vols.
25 and 26 of the Quar. Jour. Math.
Tables of e1 and e~*, or Hyperbolic Antilogarithms. — The largest
taWes are the following: C. Gudermann, Theorie der potenzial- oder
cyklisch-hyperbolischen Functionen (Berlin, 1833), which consists of
papers reprinted from vols. 8 and 9 of Crelle's Journal, and gives
logio sinh x, logio cosh x, and logio tanh x from x = 2 to 5 at intervals
of -ooi to 9 places and from x = 5 to 12 at intervals of -01 to 10 places.
Since sinh x = $(ez — e~z) and cosh x = %(e*+e~x), the values of
ex and e~* are deducible at once by addition and subtraction.
F. W. Newman, in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 145, gives values of
e"1 from x = o to 15-349 at intervals of -ooi to 12 places, from
x = 15-350 to 17-298 at intervals of -002, and from x = 17-300 to 27-635
at intervals of -005, to 14 places. Glaisher, in Camb. Phil. Trans.,
13, p. 243, gives four tables of e*, erz, logio e1, logic «-*, their ranges
being from x = -ooi to • i at intervals of -ooi.from -01 to 2 at intervals
of -01, from -I to 10 at intervals of -I, from i to 500 at intervals of
unity. Vega, Tabulae (1797 and later ed.), has logio e" to 7 places
and e'to 7 figures from x = -oi to 10 at intervals of -01. Kohler's
Handbuch contains a small table of ez. In Schulze's Sammlung
(1778) e* is given for x = i, 2, 3,. . . 24 to 28 or 29 figures and for
* = 25, 30, and 60 to 32 or 33 figures; this table is reprinted in
Glaisher's paper (loc. at.). In Salomon's Tafeln (1827) the values
of e", e'n, e'°", e'00", . . . e-000000™, where n has the values i, 2, ...9,
are given to 12 places. Bretschneider, in Grunert's Archiv, 3, p. 33,
gavee* and e~z and also sin x and cos x for x = i, 2, ...to to 20
places, and J. P. Gram (in his paper of 1884, referred to under Sine-
integral, &c.), gives ez for x = io, n,. . .20 to 24 places, and from
ar = 7 to x = 20 at intervals of 0-2 to 10, 13, 14, or 15 places. J.
Burgess (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1888, 39, II. No. 9) has given (p. 26)
the values of e~* and
for x = % and for x = i, 2,. . ., 10 to 30
2
places. In the same paper he also gives the values of <j~e~a from
x = o to x =1-250 to 9 places, and from x = 1-25 to # = 1-50 at intervals
of -01, and thence at various intervals to a; = 6 to 15 places, and the
values of logio ^-e~** from x = i tc # = 3 at intervals of -ooi to
1 6 places.
Factorials. — The values of logic («!), where n\ denotes 1.2.3...
n, from n = l to 1200 to 18 places, are given by C. F. Degen, Tabu-
larum Enneas (Copenhagen, 1824), and reprinted, to 6 places, at the
end of De Morgan's article " Probabilities " in the Encyclopaedia
Metropolitana. Shortrede, Tables (1849, vol. i.), gives log (n!) to
n — 1000 to 5 places, and for the arguments ending in o to 8 places.
Degen also gives the complements of the logarithms. The first
20 figures of the values of nXw! and the values of —log (nXn\)
to 10 places are given by Glaisher as far as re = 71 in the Phil. Trans.
for 1870 (p. 370), and the values of i/n! to 28 significant figures
as far as n = 5O in Camb. Phil. Trans., 13, p. 246.
Bernoullian Numbers. — The first fifteen Bernoullian numbers
were given by Euler, Inst. Cole. Diff., part ii. ch. v. Sixteen more
were calculated by Rothe, and the first thirty-one were published
by M. Ohm in Crelle's Journal, 20, p. II. J. C. Adams calculated
the next thirty-one, and a table of the first sixty-two was published
by him in the Brit. Ass. Report for 1877 and in Crelle's Journal, 85,
p. 269. In the Brit. Ass. Report the numbers are given not only as
vulgar fractions, but also expressed in integers and circulating
decimals. The first nine figures of the values of the first 250 Ber-
noullian numbers, and their Briggian logarithms to 10 places, have
been published by Glaisher, Camb. Phil. Trans., 12, p. 384.
Tables of log tan (}*• + £<£). — C. Gudermann, Theorie der polenzial-
oder cyklisch-hyperbolischen Functionen (Berlin, 1833), gives (in 100
pages) log tan (jir-\-%<t>) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant
to 7 places. Another table contains the values of this function,
TABLE, MATHEMATICAL
335
also at intervals of a minute, from 88° to 1 00° (centesimal) to II
places. A. M. Legendre, Traite des fonctions elliptiques (vol. 11.
p. 256), gives the same function for every half degree (sexagesimal)
of the quadrant to 12 places.
The Gamma Function. — -Legendre's great table appeared in vol. ii.
of his Exercices de calcul integral (1816), p. 85, and in vol. ii. of his
Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826), p. 489. Log10 T(x) is given
from x = i to 2 at intervals of -ooi to 12 places, with differences to
the third order. This table is reprinted in full in O. Schlpmilch,
Analytische Studien (1848), p. 183; an abridgment in which the
arguments differ by -01 is given by De Morgan, Diff. and Int. Cole.,
p. 587. The last figures of the values omitted are also supplied,
so that the full table can be reproduced. A seven-place abridgment
(without differences) is published in J. Bertrand, Calcul integral
(1870), p. 285, and a six-figure abridgment in B. Williamson, Integral
Calculus (1884), p. 169. In vol. i. of his Exercices (1811), Legendre
had previously published a seven-place table of logic r(x), without
differences.
Tables connected with Elliptic Functions. — Legendre published
elaborate tables of the elliptic integrals in vol. ii. of his Traite des
fonctions elliptiques (1826). Denoting the modular angle by 6,
the amplitude by <t>, the incomplete integral of the first and second
kind by F(<(>) and Fi(<j>), and the complete integrals by K and E,
the tables are: — (l) logiofi and logio^C from 8=0° to 90° at intervals
of o°-i to 12 or 14 places, with differences to the third order; (2)
Ei(4>) and F(<t>), the modular angle being 45", from #=o° to 90°
at intervals of o°-5 to 12 places, with differences to the fifth order;
(3) £i(45°) and F (45°) from 8=0° to 90° at intervals of 1°, with
differences to the sixth order, also E and K for the same arguments,
all to 12 places; (4) Ei(<i>) and F(<t>) for every degree of both the
amplitude and the argument to 9 or 10 places. The first three tables
had been published previously in vol. iii. of the Exercices de calcul
integral (1816).
Tables involving q. — P. F. Verhulst, Traite des fonctions elliptiques
(Brussels, 1841), contains a table of logioOogicOg"1 for argument 0
at intervals of o°-i to 12 or 14 places. C. G. t. Jacobi, in Crelle's
Journal, 26, p. 93, gives logic q from 0 =0° to 90 at intervals of o°- 1
to 5 places. E. D. F. Meisset's Sammlung mathematischer Tafeln, i.
(Iserlohn, 1860), consists of a table of logic 3 at intervals of i' from
9=o° to 90° to 8 places. Glaisher, in Month. Not. R.A.S., 1877,
37, p. 372, gives logic q to 10 places and q to 9 places for every degree.
In J. Bertrand's Calcul Integral (1870), a table of logic q from 6 = 0°
to 90° at intervals of 5' to 5 places is accompanied by tables of logic
V (2.K/U-) and logic logic q~l and by abridgments of Legendre's tables
of the elliptic integrals. O. Schlomilch, Vorlesungen der hoheren
Analysis (Brunswick, 1879), p. 448, gives a small table of logio q for
every degree to 5 places.
Legendrian Coefficients (Zonal Harmonies). — The values of P*(x)
for n = l, 2, 3,. . .7 from *=o to I at intervals of -OI ale given by
Glaisher.in Brit. Ass. Rep., 1879, pp. 54-57. The functions tabulated
areP*=* P1*=«'-i ^3(*) = K5*3
), P»(x) =A
-5), F>(x)
The values o
P»(cos 0) for n = l, 2,. . .7 for 9 = 0°, 1°, 2°,. . .90
to 4 places are given by J. Perry in the Proc. Phys. Soc., 1892,
ii, p. 221, and in the Phil. Mag., 1891, ser. 6, 32, p. 512. The
functions P" occur in connexion with the theory of interpolation,
the attraction of spheroids, and other physical theories.
Bessel's Functions. — F. W. Bessel's original table appeared at the
end of his memoir, " Untersuchung des planetarischen Teils der
Storungen, welche aus der Bewegung der Sonne entstehen " (in
Abh. d. Berl. Akad. 1824; reprinted in vol. i. of his Abhandlungen,
p. 84). It gives Jc(x) and /i(x) from x = o to 3-2 at intervals of -01.
More extensive tables were calculated by P. A. Hansen in " Ermit-
telung der absoluten Storungen in Ellipsen von beliebiger Excen-
tricitat und Neigung "• (in Schriften der Sternwarte Seeberg, part i.,
Gotha, 1843). They include an extension of Bessel's original table
to x = 2o, besides smaller tables of J,(x) for certain values of n as
far as n=28, all to 7 places. Hansen's table was reproduced by
O. Schlomilch, in Zeitschr. fur Math., 2, p. 158, and by E. Lommel,
Studien iiber die Bessel'schen Functionen (Leipzig, 1868), p. 127.
Hansen's notation is slightly different from Bessel's; the change
amounts to halving each argument. Schlomilch gives the table in
Hansen's form ; Lommel expresses it in Bessel's.
Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound (1894), i, p. 321, gives /«(x) and
/i(x) from x = o to £ = 13-4 at intervals of o-i to 4 places, taken
from Lommel. A large table of the same functions was given by
E. D. F. Meissel in the Abh. d. Berlin Akad. for 1888 (published also
separately). It contains the values of /<>(x) and J\(x) from x = o to
x = 15-50 at intervals of -01. A. Lodge has calculated the values of
the function /n(x) where
/„(*) =*- /„(«) = £3 I i +2(2n+2)+2.4.(2n+2)(2n+4) + '
His tables give 7n(x) for n=o, I, 2,. . ., ii from x=o to x = 6 at
intervals of 0-2 to II or 12 places (Brit. Ass. Rep., 1889, p. 29),
. 7;(x) and /»(x) from x = o to x = 5-loo at intervals of -ooi to 9 places
(Id., 1893, p. 229, and 1896, p. 99), and of J0(x^i) from x=o to x = 6
at intervals of 0-2 (Id., 1893, p. 228) to 9 places. In all the tables
the last figure is uncertain. Subsidiary tables for the calculation
of Bessel's functions are given by L. N. G. Filon and A. Lodge in
Brit. Ass. Rep., 1907, p. 94. The work is being continued, the
object being to obtain the values of J»(x) for n = o, J, i, i|,. . . , 6J.
A table by E. Jahnke has been announced, which, besides tables of
other mathematical functions, is to contain values of Bessel's functions
of order J and roots of functions derived from Bessel's functions.
Sine, Cosine, Exponential, and Logarithm Integrals. — The func-
tions so named are the integrals (' S™-*dx, C' £21*<fx, (' eldx,
JO X J& X J—*X
f.
-, which are denoted by the functional signs Si x, Ci x, Ei x,
o log x
i x respectively, so that Ei x = Ii e*. J. von Spldner, Theorie et tables
d'une nouvelle fonction transcendante (Munich, 1809), gave the
values of Ii x from x =o to i at intervals of •! to 7 places, and thence
at various intervals to 1220 to 5 or more places. This table is
reprinted in De Morgan's Diff. and Int. Calc., p. 662. Bretschneider,
mGrunert's Archiv, 3, p. 33, calculated Ei (**), Si*, Ci * forx = i, 2,
... 10 to 20 places, and subsequently (in Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, 6)
worked out the values of the same functions from x = o to i at
ntervals of -01 and from i to 7-5 at intervals of -I to 10 places. Two
tracts by L. Stenberg, Tabulae logarithms integralis (Malmo, part i.
1861 and part ii. 1867), give the values of Ii loxfromx = — 15 to 3-5 at
intervals of -01 to 18 places. Glaisher, in Phil. Trans., 1870, p. 367,
gives Ei (=<=*), Si x, Ci x from x = o to i at intervals of -pi to 18
places, from x = i to 5 at intervals of -I and thence to 15 at intervals
af unity, and for x = 2o to ii places, besides seven-place tables of
Si * and Ci * and tables of their maximum and minimum values.
See also Bellavitis, " Tavole numeriche logaritmo-integrale " (a
paper in Memoirs of the Venetian Institute, 1874). F. W. Bessel
calculated the values of Ii 1000, Ii 10,000, Ii 100,000, Ii 200,000, . . .
Ii 600,000, and Ii i ,000,000 (see Abhandlungen, 2, p. 339). In
Glaisher, Factor Table for the Sixth Million (1883), § iii., the values of
Ii * are given from x=o to 9,000,000 at intervals of 50,000 to the
nearest integer. J. P. Gram in the publications of the Copenhagen
Academy, 1884, 2, No. 6 (pp. 268-272), has given to 20 places the
values of Ei x from x = 10 to x = 20 at intervals of a unit (thus carry-
ing Bretschneider's table to this extent) and to 8, 9, or 10 places,
the values of the same function from x = 5 to x = 2O at intervals of
0-2 (thus extending Glaisher's table in the Phil. Trans.).
Values of ( e~adx and e*1 I e~Mdx. — These functions are em-
J o J °
ployed in researches connected with refractions, theory of errors,
conduction of heat, &c. Let J e~**dx and J ^ e-**dx be denoted
by erf x and erfc x respectively, standing for " error function " and
"error function complement," so that erf x+erfc x = iVr (Phil.
Mag., Dec. 1871; it has since been found convenient to transpose
as above the definitions there given of erf and erfc). The tables of
the functions, and of the functions multiplied by e*1, are as follows.
C. Kramp, Analyse des Refractions (Strasbourg, 1798), has erfc x from
x = o to 3 at intervals of -01 to 8 or more places, also logic (erfc x)
and logic (e*2erfc x) for the same values to 7 places. F. W. Bessel,
Fundamenta astronomiae (Konigsberg, 1818), has logic (erferfc x) from
* = o to i at intervals of -01 to 7 places, likewise for argument logic x,
the arguments increasing from o to i at intervals of -01. A. M.
Legendre, Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826), 2, p. 520, contains
r(J, e—x1), that is, 2 erfc x from x = o to -5 at intervals of -01 to 10
places.
J. F. Encke, Berliner ast. Jahrbuch for 1834, gives -H- erf x
from x=o to 2 at intervals of -01 to 7 places and -T- erf (px) from
x = o to 3-4 at intervals of -01 and thence to 5 at intervals of -I to
5 places, /> being -4769360. Glaisher, in Phil. Mag., December 1871,
gives erfc x from x = 3 to 4-5 at intervals of -01 to 1 1, 13, or 14 places.
Encke's tables and two of Kramp's were reprinted in the Encyclo-
paedia Metropolitana, art. " Probabilities." These tables have also
been reprinted in many foreign works on probabilities, errors of
observations, &c. In vol. 2 (1880) of his Lehrbuch zur Bahnbestim-
mung der Kometen und Planeten T. R. v. Oppolzer gives (p. 587) a
table of erf x from x = o to 4-52 at intervals of -01 to 10 places, and
(p. 603) a table of -T- erf x from x=o to 2 at intervals of -01 to 5
places. Both tables were the result of original calculations. A very
large table of logic ez2 erfc x was calculated by R. Radau and published
in the Annales de I' observatoire de Paris (Memoires, 1888, 18, B. 1-25).
It contains the values of logic ea erfc x from x— —0-120 to i-ooo at
intervals of -ooi to 7 places, with differences. A. Markoff in a
/«
e~ndt (St
Petersburg, 1888), gives erfc x from x = o to 3 at intervals of -ooi and
from x = 3 to 4-80 at intervals of -01, with first, second, and third
differences to 1 1 places. He also gives a table of -^ erf x from
x = o to x = 2-499 at intervals of -ooi and thence to 3-79 at intervals
of -oi. J. Burgess, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1888, 39, II., No. 9,
published very extensive tables of -T— erf x, which were entirely
336
TABLE MOUNTAIN
the result of a new calculation. His tables give the values of this
function from x=p to 1-250 at intervals of -ooi to 9 places with
first and second differences, from * = i to 3 at intervals of -ooi to
15 places with differences to the fourth order, and from # = 3 to 5
at intervals of -I to 15 places. He also gives erfc * from * = oto
x = 5 at intervals of -I to 15 places. B. Kampfe in Wundt's Phil.
Stud., 1893, p. 147, gives -^ erf x from * = o to x = i -509 at intervals
of -ooi, and from x= 1-50 to * = 2-88 at intervals of -01 to 4 places.
G. T. Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (Leipzig, 1860) contains
(pp. 108, no) some small four-place tables connecting r/n (as argu-
ment) and hD where r = i+Tr~erf — • A more detailed account of
tables of erf x,ezt erf x,&c., is given in Mess, of Math., 1908, 38, p. 117.
Values of I eadx. — The values of this integral have been calcu-
lated by H. G. Dawson from x — o to x = 2 to 7 places (last figure
uncertain). The table is published in the Proc. Land. Math. Soc.,
1898, 29, p. 521.
Tables of Integrals, not Numerical. — Meyer Hirsch, Integral-
tafeln (1810; Eng. trans., 1823), and Minding, Integraltafeln (Berlin,
1849), give values of indefinite integrals and formulae of reduction;
both are useful and valuable works. De Haan, Nouvelles tables
d'integrales definies (Leyden, 1867), is a quarto volume of 727 pages
containing evaluations of definite integrals, arranged in 485 tables.
The first edition appeared in vol. 4 of the Transactions of the
Amsterdam Academy of Sciences. This edition, though not so full
and accurate as the second, gives references to the original memoirs
in which the different integrals are considered. B. O. Peirce's A Short
Table of Integrals (Boston, U.S.A., 1899) contains integrals, formulae,
expansions, &c., as well as some four-place numerical tables, including
those of hyperbolic sines and cosines and their logarithms.
Tables relating to the Theory of Numbers. — These are of so technical
a character and so numerous that a comprehensive account cannot
be attempted here. The reader is referred to Cayley's report in the
Brit.Ass. Rep. for 1875, p. 305, where a full description with references
is given. Three tables published before that date may, however,
be briefly noticed on account of their importance and because they
form separate volumes: (i) C. F. Degen, Canon Pellianus (Copen-
hagen, 1817), relates to the indeterminate equation y^—ax^ — i for
values of a from I to 1000. It in fact gives the expression for V& as
a continued fraction; (2) C. G. J. Jacobi, Canon arithmeticus
(Berlin, 1839), is a quarto work containing 240 pages of tables,
where we find for each prime up to 1000 the numbers corresponding
to given indices and the indices corresponding to given numbers, a
certain primitive root (10 is taken whenever it is a primitive root) of
the prime being selected as base; (3) C. G. Reuschle, Tafeln com-
plexer Primzahlen, welche aus Wurzeln der Einheit gebildet sind
(Berlin, 18 5), includes an enormous mass of results relating to the
higher complex theories.
Passing now to tables published since the date of Cayley's report,
the two most important works are (l) Col. Allan Cunningham's Binary
Canon, (London, 1900), a quarto volume similar in construction,
arrangement, purpose, and extent to Jacobi's Canon arithmeticus,
but differing from it in using the base 2 throughout, i.e. in Jacobi's
Canon the base of each table is always a primitive root of the modulus,
while in Cunningham's it is always 2. The latter tables in fact give
the residues R ol 2* (where x=o, l, 2, . . . ) for every prime p or
power of a prime, p", up to 1000, and also the indices x of 2*, which
yield the residues R to the same moduli. This work contains a list
of errors found in the Canon arithmeticus. (2) The same author's
Quadratic Partitions (London, 1904). These tables give for every
prime p up to 100,000 the values of a, 6; c, d; A, B; and L, M
where p = o?+b*=c'*+2d'i = A*+T,B* = \(L?+2TM''). They also give
,/ where p = e*—2f1 up to 25,000 and resolutions of /> into the forms
*-5y*, l(x2-sH e+W, K^+n™2), 4'2-3S'2, *'2+5/2,
up
to 10,000; as well as the least solutions of r2— Du2=±i up to
D = ioo and least solutions of other similar equations. A complete
list of errata in the previous partition tables of Jacobi, Reuschle,
Lloyd Tanner, and in this table is given by Allan Cunningham in
Mess, of Math., 1904, 34, p. 132. The resolution of a" — I into
its numerical factors is treated in detail by C. E. Bickmore in Mess.
of Math., 1896, 25, p. I, and 1897, 26, p. I. On p. 43 of the
former volume he gives a table of the known factors of on — I for
o- = 2, 3. 5. 6, 7, 10, II, 12 and from n = i to n = 5O. Other papers
on the same subject contained in the same periodical are by Allan Cun-
ningham, 1900, 29, p. 145; 1904, 33, p. 95; and F. B. Escott, ibid.,
p. 49. These papers contain references to other writings. Tables
of the resolutions of lon— I are referred to separately in this article
under Circulating Decimals. If a* is the smallest power of a for
which the congruence a*=i (mod. p) is satisfied, then a is said to
belong to the exponent x lor modulus p, and x may be called the
chief exponent (Haupt-exponent by Allan Cunningham) of the base
a for the modulus p; so that (i) this exponent is the number of
figures in the circulating period of the fraction l/p in the scale of
radix a, and (2) when x = p — I, a is a primitive root of p. In Mess.
of Math., 1904, 33, p. 145, Allan Cunningham has given a complete
list of Haupt-exponent tables with lists of errata in them ; and in
Quar. Jour. Math., 1906, 37, p. 122, he gives a table of Haupt-
exponents of 2 for all primes up to 10,000. In Acta Math. (1893,
17. P- 315; 1897. 20. p. 153; 1899, 22, p. 200) G. Wertheim has
given the least primitive root of primes up to 5000. The follow-
ing papers contain lists of high primes or factorizations of high
numbers: Allan Cunningham, Mess, of Math., 1906, 35, p. 166
(Pellian factorizations); 1907, 36, p. 145 (Quartan factorizations);
1908, 37, p. 65 (Trinomial binary factorizations); 1909, 38, pp.
81, 145 (Diophantive factorization of quartans); 1910, 39, pp. 33,
97; 1911, 40, p. i (Sextan factorizations); 1902, 31, p. 165;
1905, 34, P- 72 (High primes). The last three are joint papers
by Cunningham and H. J. Woodall. Tables relating to the distri-
bution of primes are contained in the introduction to the Sixth
Million (see under Factor Tables), in J. P. Gram's paper on the
number of primes inferior to a given limit in the Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.,
1884, II. 6, Copenhagen, and in Mess, of Math., 1902, 31, p. 172. A
table of x(n), the sum of the complex numbers having n for norm,
for primes and powers of primes up to n = 13,000 by Glaisher, was
published in Quar. Jour. Math., 1885, 20, p. 152, and a seven-piace
table of f(x) and logio /(*), where f(x) denotes §-H • • '^^» the
denominators being the series of prime numbers up to 10,000, in
Mess, of Math., 1899, 28, p. i.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Bibliographical and historical information re-
lating to tables is collected in Brit. Ass. Rep. for 1873, p. 6. The prin-
cipal works are:— J. C. Heilbronner, Historia Matheseos (Leipzig,
1 742) , the arithmetical portion being at the end , J . E. Scheibel, Einlei-
tung zur mathematischen Biicherkenntniss (Breslau, 1771-84); A. G.
Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik (Gottingen, 1796-1800), vol. iii.;
F. G. A. Murhard, Bibliotheca Mathematica (Leipzig, 1797-1804),
vol. ii. ; J. Rogg, Bibliotheca Mathematica (Tubingen, 1830), and
continuation from 1830 to 1854 by L. A. Sohnke (Leipzig and London,
1854); J. de Lalande, Bibliographic astronomique (Paris, 1803),
a separate index on p. 960. A great deal of information upon
early tables is given by J. B. J. Delambre, Histoire de I'astronomie
moderne (Paris, 1821), vol. i.; and in Nos. xix. and xx. of C.
Hutton's Mathematical Tracts (1812). For lists of logarithmic tables
of all kinds see De Haan, Verslagen en Mededeelingen of the Amster-
dam Academy of Sciences (Abt. Natuurkunde) 1862, xiv. 15, and
Verhandelingen of the same academy, 1875, xv. separately paged.
De Morgan's article " Tables," which appeared first in the Penny
Cyclopaedia, and afterwards with additions in the English Cyclo-
paedia, gives not only a good deal of bibliographical information, but
also an account of tables relating to life assurance and annuities,
astronomical tables, commercial tables, &c.
Reference should also be made to R. Mehmke's valuable article
" Numerisches Rechnen " in vol. i. pt. ii. pp. 941-1075 of the Encyk.
der math. Wiss. (Leipzig, 1900-4), which besides tables includes calcu-
lating machines, graphical methods, &c. (J. W. L. G.)
TABLE MOUNTAIN (Dutch Tafelberg), a name frequently
given in South Africa to flat-topped hills and mountains, there
a characteristic feature of the scenery. Occasionally such hills
are called plat, i.e. flat, bergen. Specifically Table Mountain is
the mountain which arises behind Table Bay, in the Cape
Peninsula, Cape Town lying at its seaward base and on its
adjacent lower slopes. The mountain forms the northern end
of a range of hills which terminates southward in the Cape of
Good Hope. The northern face of the mountain, overlooking
Table Bay, extends like a great wall some two miles in length,
and rises precipitously to a height of over 3500 ft. The face is
scored with ravines, a particularly deep cleft, known as The
Gorge, affording the shortest means of access to the summit.
East and west of the mountain and a little in advance of it are
lesser hills, the Devil's Peak (3300 ft.) being to the east and
Lion's Head (2100 ft.) to the west. Lion's Head ends seaward
in Signal Hill (noo ft.). The western side of Table Mountain
faces the Atlantic, and is flanked by the hills known as The
Twelve Apostles; to the south Hout's Bay Nek connects it
with the remainder of the range; on the east the mountain
overlooks the Cape Flats. On this side its slopes are less steep,
and at its foot are Rondebosch, Newlands, Wynberg, and other
residential suburbs of Cape Town. The ascent of the mountain
from Wynberg by Hout's Bay Nek is practicable for horses.
The surface of the summit (the highest point is variously stated
at 3549, 3582 and 3850 ft.) is broken into small valleys and hills,
and is covered with luxuriant vegetation, its flora including the
superb orchid Disa grandiflora and the well-known silver tree.
The Kasteel-Berg (Castle Mount), a northern buttress of the
mountain, has its own peculiar flora. Table Mountain and its
connected hills are famous for the magnificence of their scenery.
The kloof between the mountain and Lion's Head is of singular
TABLE-TURNING—TABOO
337
beauty. The view from the summit overlooking Table Bay
is also one of much grandeur.
The south-east winds which sweep over Table Mountain
frequently cause the phenomenon known as " The Table-cloth."
The summit of the mountain is then covered by a whitish-grey
cloud, which is being constantly forced down the northern face
towards Cape Town, but never reaches the lower slopes. The
clouds (not always caused by the south-easter) form very
suddenly, and the weather on the mountain is exceedingly
changeable. The rainfall on the summit is heavy, 72-14 inches
a year being the average of twelve years' observations. This
compares with an average of 54-63 inches at Bishop's Court,
Newlands, at the foot of the mountain on the east and with
25-43 inches at Cape Town at the northern foot of the mountain.
The relative luxuriance of the vegetation on the upper part of
the mountain, compared with that of its lower slopes, is due
not only to the rainfall, but to the large additional moisture
condensed from clouds. The result of experiments conducted
by Dr Marloth (Trans. S. Afrn. Phil. Soc. for 1903 and 1905)
goes to show that during cloudy weather the summit of the
mountain resembles an immense sponge, and that this condensa-
tion of moisture considerably influences the yield of the springs
in the lower part of the mountain.
TABLE-TURNING. When the movement of modern spirit-
ualism first reached Europe from America in the winter of
1852-3, the most popular method of consulting the " spirits "
was for several persons to sit round a table, with their hands
resting on it, and wait for the table to move. If the experiment
was successful the table would rotate with considerable rapidity,
and would occasionally rise in the air, or perform other move-
ments. Whilst by many the movements were ascribed to the
agency of spirits, two investigators — count de Gasparin and
Professor Thury of Geneva — conducted a careful series of
experiments by which they claimed to have demonstrated that
the movements of the table were due to a physical force ema-
nating from the bodies of the sitters, for which they proposed
the name " ectenic force." Their conclusion rested on the
supposed elimination of all known physical causes for the
movements; but it is doubtful from the description of the
experiments whether the precautions taken were sufficient to
exclude unconscious muscular action or even deliberate fraud.
In England table-turning became a fashionable diversion
and was practised all over the country in the year 1853. Dr
John EUiotson and his followers attributed the phenomena to
mesmerism. The general public were content to find the
explanation of the movements in spirits, animal magnetism,
odic force, galvanism, electricity, or even the rotation of the
earth. James Braid, W. B. Carpenter and others pointed out,
however, that the phenomena obviously depended upon the
expectation of the sitters, and could be stopped altogether by
appropriate suggestion. And Faraday devised some simple
apparatus which conclusively demonstrated that the move-
ments were due to unconscious muscular action. The apparatus
consisted of two small boards, with glass rollers between them,
the whole fastened together by indiarubber bands in such a
manner that the upper board could slide under lateral pressure
to a limited extent over the lower one. The occurrence of such
lateral movement was at once indicated by means of an upright
haystalk fastened to the apparatus. When by this means
it was made clear to the experimenters that it was the fingers
which moved the table, not the table the fingers, the phenomena
generally ceased. The movements were in fact simply an
illustration of automatism. But Faraday's demonstration did
little to stop the popular craze.
By believers the table was made to serve as a means of com-
municating with the spirits; the alphabet would be slowly
called over and the table would tilt at the appropriate letter,
thus spelling out words and sentences. Some Evangelical
clergymen discovered by this means that the spirits who caused
the movements were of a diabolic nature, and some amazing
accounts were published in 1853 and 1854 of the revelations
obtained from the talking tables.
Table-turning is still in vogue amongst spiritualist circles.
The device was employed with success by Professor Charles
Richet and others in thought-transference experiments.
See A. E. de Gasparin, Des Tables tournantes, du Surnaturel, &c.
(Paris, 1854); Thury, Des Tables tournantes (Geneva, 1855);
Faraday's letter on Table-turning in The Times, 3Oth June 1853.
Quarterly Review, Sept. 1853 — article by Carpenter on Spiritualism,
&c. ; Mrs De Morgan, From Matter to Spirit (London, 1863); Ch.
Richet, Proceedings S.P.R., vol. v. F. Podmore, Modern Spirit-
ualism (London, 1902), ii. 7-21, gives an account of the move-
ment in 1853, with references to contemporary pamphlets and
newspaper articles. (F. P.)
TABLINUM (or tabulinum, from tabula, board, picture), in
Roman architecture, the name given to an apartment generally
situated on one side of the atrium and opposite to the entrance;
it opened in the rear on to the peristyle, with either a large
window or only an anteroom or curtain. The walls were richly
decorated with fresco pictures, and busts of the family were
arranged on pedestals on the two sides of the room.
TABOO (also written tapu and tabu), the Polynesian name
given to prohibitions enforced by religious or magical sanctions.
As a verb it means to " prohibit," as an adjective " prohibited,
sacred, dangerous, unclean."
1. The word " taboo " or its dialectical forms are found
throughout Polynesia; in Melanesia the term is tambu; in
various parts of Malaysia and the East Indies pantang, bobosso,
pamalli, &c.; in Madagascar Jadi includes taboo; in North
America the Dakota term viakan bears a similar meaning.
Taboo is perhaps derived from la, to mark, and pu, an adverb
of intensity.
2. Fundamental Ideas. — In taboo proper are combined two
notions which with the progress of civilization have become
differentiated — (i) sacred and (ii.) impure, or unclean; it must
be borne in mind that the impurity is sacred, and is not derived
from contact with common things. It does not imply any
moral quality; it has been defined as an indication of " a
connexion with the gods, or a separation from ordinary pur-
poses and exclusive appropriation to persons or things con-
sidered sacred; sometimes it means devoted by a vow." This
definition does not cover the whole connotation of taboo as it
is employed at the present day, but it indicates clearly the
non-moral character of the idea. The ordinary usage is perhaps
best defined — the statement that taboo is " negative magic,"
i.e. abstinence from certain acts, in order that undesired magical
results may not follow; in this sense a taboo is simply a ritual
prohibition. Properly speaking taboo includes only (a) the
sacred (or unclean) character of persons or things, (b) the kind
of prohibition which results from this character, and (c) the
sanctity (or uncleanness) which results from a violation of the
prohibition. The converse of taboo in Polynesia is noa and
allied forms, which mean " general " or " common " ; by a curious
coincidence noa is the term used in Central Australia to express
the relation of persons of opposite sexes on whose intercourse
there is no restriction.
3. Classification. — Various classes of taboo in the wider sense
may be distinguished: (i) natural or direct, the result of mana
(mysterious power) inherent in a person or thing; (ii.) com-
municated or indirect, equally the result of mana, but (a)
acquired or (b) imposed by a priest, chief or other person; (iii.)
intermediate, where both factors are present, as in the appro-
priation of a wife to her husband. These three classes are those
of taboo proper. The term taboo is also apph'ed to ritual pro-
hibitions of a different nature; but its use in these senses is
better avoided. It might be argued that the term should be
extended to embrace cases in which the sanction of the pro-
hibition is the creation of a god or spirit, i.e. to religious inter-
dictions as distinguished from magical, but there is neither
automatic action nor contagion in such a case, and a better
term for it is Religious interdiction.
4. Objects. — The objects of taboo are many: (i.) direct taboos
aim at (a) the protection of important persons — chiefs,
priests, &c. — and things against harm; (b) tie safeguarding
TABOO
of the weak — women, children and common people generally —
from the powerful mana (magical influence) of chiefs and priests ;
(c) the provision against the dangers incurred by handling or
coming in contact with corpses, by eating certain foods, &c.;
(d) the guarding the chief acts of life — birth, initiation,
marriage and sexual functions, &c., against interference;
(e) the securing of human beings against the wrath or power of
gods and spirits; (/) the securing of unborn infants and young
children, who stand in a specially sympathetic relation with
one or both parents, from the consequences of certain actions,
and more especially from the communication of qualities sup-
posed to be derived from certain foods, (ii.) Taboos are imposed
in order to secure against thieves the property of an individual,
his fields, tools, &c.
5. Sanctions. — The sanctions of taboo may be (i.) natural
or direct; (ii.l social or indirect. Natural sanctions are
(a) automatic, where the punishment of the offender results
from the operation of natural laws without any element of
volition, just as some kinds of magic are held to bring about
their results without the intervention of a spirit; (b) animistic,
where the penalty results from the wrath of a god, deceased
human being, or other spirit. The motive of the social sanction
is ultimately religious or magical, but the penalties incurred by
the violator of a taboo are social; they are inflicted by other
members of the community, firstly, as a means of averting the
supernatural sanctions, which, not having fallen on the actual
offender, may visit his innocent fellows; and secondly, as a
means of discouraging other offenders; in these cases the
criminal is not himself taboo, but, thanks to his mana, braves
the supernatural consequences; the social penalty is also
inflicted on those who, like mourners, are themselves taboo and
refuse to take steps to seclude themselves, in defence of the
community; in the first class the social penalty is at once
repressive and prophylactic, saving the innocent by punishing
the guilty, and thus averting by a piaculum the vengeance which
would otherwise fall somewhere; in the second the penalty
is purely repressive.
The violation of a taboo makes the offender himself taboo;
other penalties are not unkown: thus a man who partakes of
a forbidden animal will break out in sores or the animal will
reproduce itself within him and devour his vitals. Sometimes
it is thought that the penalty falls on the kinswomen of the
offender and that they produce, instead of children, animals
of the taboo species. In Melanesia burial-grounds are taboo,
and if the shadow of a passer-by falls on one, this entails upon
him the loss of his soul; sometimes misfortune is held to dog
the footsteps of the offender in this life and the next. But
in some of these cases the observer who reports them has prob-
ably confused taboos proper with negative magic. The social
sanctions range from the death penalty down to the infliction
of a fine or exaction of money compensation; the Polynesian
custom of despoiling a man who breaks a taboo is perhaps a
special case of this penalty, but the practice of ceremonial
plundering cannot always be so explained, and may perhaps in
this case too be capable of an entirely different explanation.
Possibly the savage is more susceptible to suggestion than
civilized man; at any rate, cases are not unknown in which the
violation of a taboo has been followed by illness or even death,
when the offender discovers his error. Not unnaturally rites
of purification act as counter suggestions and save the offender
from the effects of his erroneous beliefs.
6. Mana. — In the case of automatic taboos, and to some
extent of other ritual prohibitions, the penalties for violation
are unequal; they may be regarded as varying with the relation
between the mana of the person or object and the mana of the
offender against the prohibition. In the words of Dr R. H.
Codrington, mana " is a power or influence, not physical and
in a way supernatural; but it shows itself in physical force
or in any kind of power or excellence which a man possesses.
This mana is not fixed in anything, and can be conveyed in
almost anything; but spirits, whether disembodied souls or
supernatural (i.e. non-human) beings, have it and can impart
it; and it essentially belongs to personal beings to originate it,
though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone
or a bone " (cf. the suhman of West Africa, in FETISHISM).
Persons or things which are regarded as taboo may be compared
to objects charged with electricity; they are the seat of a
tremendous power which is transmissible by contact, and may
be liberated with destructive effect if the organisms which
provoke its discharge are too weak to resist it; the result of a
violation of a taboo depends partly on the strength of the
magical influence inherent in the taboo object or person, partly
on the strength of the opposing mana of the violator of the
taboo. Thus, kings and chiefs are possessed of great power,
and it is death for their subjects to address them directly;
but a minister or other person of greater mana than common
can approach them unharmed, and can in turn be approached
by their inferiors without risk. The burial-place is often taboo
for the common people, save when they are actually engaged
in funeral rites; but the sorcerer, thanks to his indwelling
power, can resist the deadly influences which would destroy
the common folk, and may enter a cemetery for ritual or other
purposes. So too indirect taboos depend for their strength
on the mana of him who imposes them; if it is a chief or a
priest, they are more powerful than those imposed by a common
person. The mana of the priest, or chief, does not depend on
his position; on the contrary, it is thanks to his mana that
he has risen above the common herd.
7. Transmissibility. — It is characteristic of taboo proper
that it is transmissible; as a logical corollary of this idea,
acquired taboo may be thrown off by suitable magical or puri-
ficatory ceremonies; the mourner, or he who takes part in
funeral ceremonies; was perhaps at the outset regarded as a
person charged with death-dealing power, and fear of the spirit
of the dead may well have been secondary; however this may
be, we can distinguish taboos, the violation of which charges
with supernatural power the human being who violates them,
thus rendering him directly dangerous to the community, from
ritual prohibitions the violation of which makes him an outcast,
not as himself dangerous, but as a person obnoxious to the gods.
The ritual prohibitions of pregnancy, and the restrictions im-
posed on the parents during the early childhood of their offspring,
are not taboos proper; though they are transmissible, they do
not depend on the transmission of an undifferentiated mana;
what the parents seek to avoid is often the transmission of
specific qualities, conceived as inherent in certain animals,
e.g. cowardice in the hare, slowness in the tortoise ; the animal
is not necessarily hi any sense sacred, nor are the parents, if
they disregard the prohibition, liable to any penalty, direct
or indirect; neither they nor the child are rendered taboo by
any violation; finally, save that the child acquires its qualities
by a sympathetic process, the abstinence of the parents is
correlative to the converse operation of eating an animal or
otherwise acquiring by a magical process the good qualities
inherent in anything.
8. Duration of Taboos, Imposition, and Abrogation. — Taboo
is properly sanctity and the kind of interdict which it entrains;
by a transference of meaning it is sometimes used of a period
of time during which ritual prohibitions of a religious nature
are enforced; these periods were proclaimed in Polynesia on
important occasions and sometimes lasted for many years; they
may be termed interdicts. Many persons and things are per-
manently taboo; among them may be mentioned kings and
chiefs, the property of dead persons and, a fortiori, their bodies
or anything in contact with them. Other taboos are temporary.
Temporary direct taboos, whether natural or acquired, may be
removed by a process of desacralization or of purification. Thus,
new crops are frequently taboo till the chief has partaken of
them; his mana enables him to run risks which would be fatal
to ordinary people, and the crops thus desacralized become free
to all; perhaps, however, we may regard the practice as a case
of sacralization, in which the chief, like a sacrificing priest,
acquires special sanctity, and in so doing fortifies his people
by a sympathetic process against supernatural dangers. A
TABOO
339
new-born child may also make the crops noa, just as it may
remove the taboo from a temporarily affected person.
In the Tonga Islands a person who became taboo by touching
a chief or his property had to put away his sacred character,
before he was allowed to make use of his lands, by touching
the soles of a higher chief's feet and washing in water. Strangers
before penetrating into a village, priests after a sacrifice, warriors,
women after child-birth, at puberty, the menstrual period, &c.,
must submit to lustration. Sometimes the purification was
effected by inhaling the sacred contagion; in New Zealand a
chief who touched his own head had to apply his fingers to his
nose and snuff up the sanctity abstracted from his head. In
other cases mere lapse of time suffices to cause the removal of
a taboo; in Melanesia, where taboos are largely animistic,
mourners go away for some months r,nd on their return are free
from taboo, the explanation given being that the spirit has
got tired of waiting for them.
Indirect taboos are imposed in various ways, and unless they
are removed may be as permanent as direct taboos, save that
the death of the persons by whom they are imposed must result
in their abrogation. In Polynesia a general taboo was imposed
by proclamation; a chief might also taboo particular objects
to his own use by naming them after a part of his person; more
permanent was the taboo imposed by touching an object, but
this too could be removed by proper ceremonies. In Melanesia,
corresponding to the animistic character of lambu, a method of
imposing taboo is to mention the name of some spirit.
Taboo objects were marked in various ways: a piece of white
doth, a bunch of leaves, a bundle of branches (in Melanesia)
painted red and white, a stick with dry leaves, are among the
methods in common use; in Samoa one mark of a taboo was
to set up the image of a shark; in New Zealand it sufficed to
give a chop with an axe to make a tree taboo. Particular taboos
thus imposed seem to be abrogated by the declaration of the
person who imposes them; on the other hand, he, no less than
others, is bound by the taboo until it is abrogated.
9. Taboo and the Evolution of Punishment. — Penal codes may
be largely, if not wholly, traced to religious sources of which
taboo is certainly one; the violation of any taboo may imperil
the life or health of other members of the community besides
the offender; it calls for measures intended to discourage others,
as well as for steps to avert the immediate evil; if a taboo
imposed by a chief is disregarded, not only has his authority
been set at nought, but he, and in the second place, other
members of the community may suffer if the real offender
gets off scot free, thanks to the mana which enables him to
defy supernatural sanctions. The importance of this in the
evolution of law and order is manifest; for whereas a chief
would not intervene to protect the property of an individual
simply to punish what we regard as a transgression, he is bound
to do so when a taboo is broken. That the taboo may be of
his own imposition does not affect the question, for he is bound
to observe it himself, and conversely may suffer supernatural
penalties when it is violated by another. Just as blood-guilti-
ness may be wiped out by composition, the violation of a taboo
may be atoned for by a money payment or similar consideration
for the revocation of the taboo; this compensation seems to
have a retrospective effect, and thereby removes the dangers
brought into existence by the violation.
10. Taboo and Moral Obligation. — In proportion as a taboo
becomes a custom and its sanctions fall into the background
and are forgotten, its obligations thus transformed are one
source of the categorical imperative, the distinguishing feature
of which is that it is non-rational and instinctive. We are
ignorant of the origin of exogamy and the prohibition of incest,
the sanctions of which in Australia and among other peoples
of low culture seem to be purely1 social, for as a rule irregular
marriages seem to be regarded simply as offences against tribal
morality; if the rules were originally of the nature of taboos,
the transformation into customs must have been very early,
and the same may be said of the rules by which the relations
of members of the same kin are regulated.
1 1 . Royal and Priestly Taboos. — Among people of low culture
the chief, and in higher cultures the king, is sometimes held
responsible for the order of nature, the increase of the crops, '
and the welfare of his people generally; it is therefore of the
highest importance that nothing should diminish or perturb
his influence, and, as a logical consequence, the life of the king,
and to a less degree of the chief, is surrounded with a compli-
cated system of taboos and ritual prohibitions. Even where
this idea of the magician-king or chief is not found, his position
is an expression of the more powerful mana dwelling within him ;
consequently the king or chief may not come in contact with
the common folk, for fear his touch should blast them, as
lightning withers the life of the oak. We can usually see why
a king or chief must hold aloof from those whom he might injure,
but it is not always easy to see the basic idea of the taboos, if
such they be, which aim at protecting the potentate, or ensuring
his due regulation of the course of nature. Some African kings
may not see the sea; another may not lie down to sleep; in
the Mentawei Islands the chief will die who during an interdict
eats at the same time as common people; it is frequently for-
bidden to see the king partake of food. At a further stage
of evolution these taboos degenerate into mere rules of etiquette,
the violation of which involves the punishment of the offender,
but the punishment is justified on formal grounds only. In
early society the king and the priest often stand very near
together; just as we find a war chief and a peace chief, so we
meet with political and religious sovereigns. Sometimes the
political king is. also the priest and therefore sacred; the web of
ritual prohibition woven round him may result in the creation
of a secular authority like the Tycoon in Japan, who can rule
the state without reference to the ceremonial observances
prescribed for the nominal sovereign. Sometimes, on the other
hand, the priest bears the title of king, but has lost even the
shadow of political power and is free to perform his priestly
functions. In these, however, as we see by the example of the
flamen dialis at Rome, or the kings of fire and water in Cam-
bodia, he is still hedged round by manifold restrictions as a
person who must be protected from doing harm to others or
suffering harm himself. In the exercise of his priestly functions
he is called upon to offer sacrifice; before fulfilling his office
he is often required to submit to additional ritual prohibitions;
his personal sanctity, already great, is augmented, and his
approach to the sanctuary facilitated. Conversely, the sacrifice
over, he performs lustral rites, in part to free himself from
the taint of errors of ritual, but also to desacralize himself.
12. Funerary and Allied Taboos. — Taboos of mourners, widows,
and of the dead are common all the world over, but they are
especially prominent in Melanesia. These are explained on an
animistic hypothesis as due to the fear of the dead man's spirit,
but we seem to see traces, e.g. in Madagascar, of the idea that
the contagion of death and not the wrath of the dead is the
underlying motive; for it is not clear why the soul of a dead
kinsman should necessarily be hostile. With funerary taboos
may be compared taboos of warriors both on and after an
expedition, taboos of hunters during the chase and especially
after killing a dangerous animal, taboos of cannibals, and on
participants in all other ceremonies which involve contact with
death or the dead. Temporary seclusion and lustration before
return to ordinary life are commonly prescribed for all in this
category, even though their connexion with the dead be no
closer than is implied in consanguinity. The property of the
dead man is commonly burnt or deposited with him in the
grave, in part as a protective measure, in part under the influence
of belief in the continuity of this and the future life, and the
need of supplying him with necessaries. Burial grounds are
avoided, animals or plants from the neighbourhood are not
used as food. Finally the name of the dead is not used, partly
for fear of summoning him by the power of the word, but partly
also from a conviction that, like the name of a king or chief, it
is too holy or too dangerous for common use.
13. Taboos of the Sick. — Both disease and death are unnatural
in the eyes of the savage; they are often the result of the magic
340
TABOO
of some enemy; but they may also be the result of an infraction
of a taboo. Some part of the funerary taboos may perhaps be
referred to this belief; whatever be the case with taboos of
the dead, there can be no question that the sick are secluded or
even abandoned, subjected to rites of purification and to re-
strictions of various sorts, not because their malady is con-
tagious in our sense, but because they are temporarily taboo
and dangerous to the health of the community. The sick have
imposed on them curative as well as prophylactic taboos; in
Madagascar the sun is said to " die " when it sets; therefore
it is forbidden to a sick man to look upon it as it goes down.
14. Taboos of Women, Sexual Taboos, Avoidance. — The age of
puberty is especially dangerous for both sexes; in the case of
a woman the danger is not so much for herself as for others,
and results from her physiological state ; this danger is renewed
with each successive menstrual period, and the frequently long
seclusion at puberty finds a parallel in the universal practice
in lower stages of culture of separating adult females, not only
from males, but from the whole of the community at such periods.
At puberty girls are confined for months or even years; they
may not see the sun nor touch the earth; many foods are for-
bidden them, and special costumes are prescribed for them, as
for mourners. The expectant mother is taboo for months before
the birth of her child, and her disabilities are not removed for
a long period after delivery. Women may not look upon the
performance of rites of initiation nor of secret societies; they
may not eat new crops in New Caledonia till long after the
men have partaken of them; they may often not approach
the men's club-house. Both parents, but especially the mother,
are subjected to restrictions, having for their object the pre-
servation of the health of the unborn or newly born child.
Women are often forbidden to eat with their husbands; nor
may they share his labours, especially at sea.
The relations of the sexes are regulated by complicated rules,
but they are not necessarily taboos. In the first place, laws of
exogamy and similar regulations limit the field of choice; even
where no obstacle on this side is present the intercourse of the
sexes is often, especially at first, hedged round with numberless
interdictions and rites. Connected with the rules of exogamy
are the customs of avoidance, which prescribe that a man may
not speak to nor even look at his mother-in-law, sometimes also
his father-in-law, daughter, and other relatives; in like manner
the wife must avoid the husband's relatives, and the brother
may often not speak to the sister.
15. Other Taboos. — Taboos of various kinds are imposed on
strangers, on sorcerers, and on children. Certain places are
taboo; taboos protect the crops and ensure that landmarks
are not removed. In fact the number of taboos is so great
that it is impossible to mention them in detail.
16. Distribution. — Although taboo is a Polynesian word the
institution is far from being restricted to Oceania. Similar
prohibitions, though they seldom reached the Polynesian level,
are found in America, Africa, and especially Madagascar, North
and Central Asia, and among the non-Aryan tribes of India.
But taboo and its survivals are not confined to the uncivilized.
17. Developments of Taboo. — It would be remarkable if a
feature which has taken such deep root in the custom and
belief of savage and barbarous peoples did not leave a marked
impress on the faiths of higher cultures. Just as the gods have
become moral pari passu with mankind, so the ceremonially
clean has become the physically and morally clean, the pure
has become the moral, and taboo has changed its name to
holiness. At a certain point in evolution the notion of unclean,
sometimes positive and implying the possession of dangerous
properties, sometimes negative and connoting no more than
mere absence of holiness, which is in this case indistinguishable
from mana, becomes a prominent element in religion. At a
later stage and as a result of the greater weight attached to
morality, the positive uncleanness falls into the background,
leaving only the negatively unclean, the unholy, which is not
in itself death-dealing, but may, like its savage analogue, call
down on the community, innocent and guilty alike, the wrath
of higher powers, the remedy being, not so much the punish-
ment of the offender, still less mere physical purification, but
their moralized analogues, prayer, fasting and repentance.
1 8. Among the Greeks. — The general word for taboo among
the Greeks in 070$, which may bear the sense of " sacredness "
or " pollution "; derivatives occur in the same meanings.
Usually, however, the notions of sacred and unclean are dis-
tinguished by the use of different terms from this root, ayvos
for sacred, kvayfis for unclean or accursed. The rules of the
Greek ayvda (season of taboo) do not differ markedly from
those of the Polynesian. Corresponding to the war-taboo of
Oceania we find in Homer that the army (Od. xxiv. 81) and the
sentinel (//. x. 56, xxiv. 68 1) are sacred; and we learn from
Plato that warriors never eat fish, from which indeed there was
a general custom of abstinence except under the pressure of
famine. The epithets iepos, SToj, &c., which may point to
beliefs similar to those of Polynesia, are applied to chiefs and
kings, and further to the swineherd, thus suggesting that the
pig, which bore a mixed reputation for holiness and uncleanness
(ceremonial) both in Egypt and west Asia, was similarly re-
garded in Greece.
19. Among the Romans. — The term for taboo is sacer; any
one who removed a landmark became sacer and was outlawed,
any citizen having the right to kill him. Consecratio capilis el
bonorum was the term for devotion to the nether gods. The
flamen dialis and his wife were hedged in by a perfect network
of ritual prohibitions; he might not ride upon nor even touch
a horse; his eyes might not fall on an army under arms; he
might not walk under a vine; he might not name a goat, raw
meat, beans, ivy, a dog, and so on; his hair might be cut only
by a freeman; he might not touch a corpse. The flaminica
might not comb her hair at certain festivals; she was taboo
(feriata) after hearing thunder till she had purified herself by a
sacrifice. The Roman feriae were periods of taboo.
20. Among the Jews. — The Hebrew for holy is *h'p which
means " separated, cut off," while its correlative ^ means
" open for common use "; another sense of sacer is conveyed
by am " accursed, devoted to destruction." Holiness is
transmissible by contact (Ezek. xliv. 19, xlvi. 20; Ex. xxix. 37;
Lev. vi. 27). It is distinct from purity in the moral sense; the
names of the hieroduli Dfhij and hierodula rifenp are
connected with the word ehp. Taboo among the Jews
are: (i) things connected with Jehovah, his name is holy and
terrible; his arm is holy; holy places are taboo (see SANCTUARY);
the ark is actively dangerous, and Uzzah, no less than the men
of Bethshemesh, pays the penalty for too nearly approaching
it; (2) the Nazarite might not partake of certain foods, nor
touch a dead body nor shave his head, which was specially
sacred; (3) in fact any one who touched a dead body was
unclean and could communicate his uncleanness to others;
(4) the birth of a child made the mother taboo; she was required
to purify herself; (5) leprosy, menstruation, and sexual functions
generally occasioned longer or shorter periods of uncleanness;
and warriors, who were taboo on a campaign, were required
to observe continence; (6) certain foods were taboo, and the
uncleanness might be communicated to an earthen vessel,
which, under certain circumstances, would be broken, like a
pot in Polynesia; (7) the use of iron was forbidden in the
construction of the temple; (8) a field sown with different kinds
of herbs " becomes holy "; and (9) bystanders are warned not
to approach a heathen rite, lest they be " sanctified "; (10) to
the Polynesian interdicts, often termed taboos, corresponded
certain periods of time, such as the Sabbath and the Jubilee
year, but these are not connected with taboo proper.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For the definition of taboo see E. Tregear, Maori
Comparative Dictionary, s.v. On the Polynesian taboo see Waitz-
Gerland, Anthropologie der Natur-Volker, vi. 343-363 and the
authorities there quoted; Ellis, Polynesian Researches, iv. 385,
sq. of the 2nd ed. ; Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia, p. 294 sq. ;
do., Samoa, p. 185 sq.; Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori,
vii.-xii. ; Cook, Voyages (1809), v. 427 sq., vii. 146 sq., &c. On
Melanesia see Marillier in Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes
Religieuses, vii. 35-74; Codrington, The Melanesians, passim. On
Micronesia see Waitz-Gerland, op. cit. v.t ii. 147 sq. On the Malays
TABOR— TACHEOMETRY
see Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 33-42, 57-59, 191-193. 225-228, 254,
259, 263-265, 344-351, &c. On Madagascar see v. Gennep, Tabou
et totemisme; for the Jews see Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, ii.
38, 394; iv. 825. For the Semites see Robertson Smith, Religion of
the Semites, passim. For a general discussion of taboo see Marillier,
loc. cit., v. Gennep, do. For sexual taboos see Crawley, Mystic
Rose, and in Journ. Anth. Inst. xxiv. 116, 219, 430. For taboos of
commensality see Crawley in Folklore, vi. 130. See also Hubert
and Mauss in Annee Sociologique, ii. 29—138 on sacrifice; and vii.
108, on mono; Durkheim, ib. i. 38-70 on incest and exogamy; Mauss
in Revue de I'histoire des religions, xxxv. 49-60 on taboo and penal
law; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 297-464 on royal and priestly
taboos, also iii. 1-134, 201-236, 463-467; J. Tuchmann, articles on
" La Fascination "inMelusine, i88i,&c.; J.G.Frazer, on burial rites,
in Journ. Anth. Inst., xv. 64 sq. For purity and holiness in the Old
Testament see Baudissin, Studien, ii. 3-142; for mana see Inter-
nationales Archiv fur Ethnographic, vii. 232. (N. W. T.)
TABOR, a town in western Bohemia, on the Francis- Joseph
railway, 104 kilometres from Prague. Pop. (1908) 10,703.
It is the chief town of a government district and the seat of
a provincial law-court, and also of an industrial school. The
town was founded in 1420 by the more advanced party of the
church-reformers or Hussites, who, as it became their centre,
soon began to be known as the Taborites. The town is
situated on the summit of an isolated hill separated from the
surrounding country by the Luznice stream and by an extensive
pond, to which the Hussites gave the biblical name of Jordan.
The historical importance of the city of Tabor only ceased
when it was captured by King George of PodSbrad in 1452.
Though a large part of the ancient fortifications has recently
been demolished, Tabor — or Hradiste Hory Tabor, the castle
of the Tabor Hill, as it was called in the Hussite period — has
still preserved many memorials of its past fame. In the centre
of the city is the market-place (rynk). Only very narrow
streets lead to it, to render the approach to it more difficult in
time of war. In the centre of the market-place is the statue of
2izka, the greatest of the Taborite leaders. Here also is the
diaconal church, built in 1516 in the style of the Bohemian
Renaissance, and the town hall, in connexion with which a
museum has been founded, which contains interesting memorials
of the Hussite period. Some parts of the ancient fortifications
and the very ancient Kotnov tower also still exist.
See Thir, Hradiste Hory Tabor (1895).
TABRIZ, the capital of the province of Azerbaijan in Persia,
situated in the valley of the Aji Chai, " Bitter River," at an
elevation of 4400 ft. in 38° 4' N., 46° 18' E. Based on a
census taken in 1871 the population of Tabriz was in 1881
estimated at 165,000, and is now said to be about 200,000.
The popular etymology of the name Tabriz from tab = fever,
rtz = pourer away (verb, rikhlan = poWL away, flow; German
rieseln?), hence "fever-destroying," is erroneous and was
invented in modern times. It is related that Zobeideh, the wife
of Harun-al-Rashid, founded the town in 791 after recovering
there from fever, but the earlier chronicles give no support to
this statement, and it is nowhere recorded that Zobeideh ever
visited Azerbaijan, and the name Tabriz was known many
centuries before her time. In 1842 Hammer-Purgstall correctly
explained the name as meaning the " warm-flowing " (tab =
warm, same root as tep in " tepid ") from some warm mineral
springs in the neighbourhood, and compared it with the synony-
mous Teplitz in Bohemia. In old Armenian histories the name
is Tavresh, which means the same. The popular pronunciation
to and tau for tab has given rise to the spellings Toris and Tauris
met with in older travellers and used even now.
Overlooking the valley on the N.E. and N. are bold bare rocks,
while to the S. rises the majestic cone of Sahand (12,000 ft.).
The town possesses few buildings of note, and of the extensive
ruins few merit attention. The ark, or citadel, in the south-
west extremity of the city, now used as an arsenal, is a noble
building of burnt brick with mighty walls and a tower 120 ft. in
height. Among the ruins of old Tabriz the sepulchre of the
Mongol king, Ghazan Khan (1295-1304), in a quarter once known
as Shanb (generally pronounced Sham and Sham) i Ghazan, is
no longer to be distinguished except as part of a huge tumulus.
The great shanb (cupola or dome) and other buildings erected
by Ghazan have also disappeared. They stood about 2 m. S.W.
from the modern town, but far within the original boundaries.
The " spacious arches of stone and other vestiges of departed
majesty," with which Ker Porter found it surrounded in 1818,
were possibly remains of the college (medresseh) and monastery
(zavieh) where Ibn Batuta found shelter during his visit to the
locality. On the eastern side of the city stand the ruins of the
Masjed i Jehan Shah, commonly known as the Masjed i Kebud,
or " Blue Mosque," from the blue glazed tiles which cover its
walls. It was built by Jehan Shah of the Kara Kuyunli, or
Black Sheep dynasty (I437-I467).1 Tabriz is celebrated as one
of the most healthy cities in Persia.
Tabriz was for a long period the emporium for the trade of
Persia on the west, but since the opening of the railway through
the Caucasus and greater facilities for transport on the Caspian,
much of its trade with Russia has been diverted to Astara and
Resht, while the insecurity on the Tabriz-Trebizond route since
1878 has diverted much commerce to the Bagdad road. Accord-
ing to consular reports the value of the exports and imports
which passed through the Tabriz custom-house during the years
1867-73 averaged £593,800 and £1,226,660 (total for the year,
£1,820,460); the averages for the six years 1893-9 were
£212,880 and £544,530. There are reasons to believe that these
values were considerably understated. For the year 1898-9
the present writer obtained figures directly from the books kept
by the custom-house official at Tabriz, and although, as this
official informed him, some important items had not been
entered at all, the value of the exports and imports shown in
the books exceeded that of the consular reports by about 10 per
cent. Since that time the customs of Azerbaijan have been
taken over by the central customs department under Belgian
officials, and it is stated that the trade has not decreased.
British, Russian, French, Turkish and Austrian consulates and a
few European commercial firms are established at Tabriz; there
are also post and telegraph offices. Tabriz has suffered much
from earthquakes, notably in 858, 1042 and 1721, each time
with almost complete destruction of the city. (A. H.-S.)
TABULARIUM (tabula, board, picture, also archives, records),
the architectural term given to the Record office in ancient Rome,
which was built by Q. Lutatius Catulus, the conqueror of the
Cimbri. It was situated on the west side of the Forum Romanum,
and its great corridor, 220 ft. long, raised 50 ft. above the forum
on a massive substructure, is still partly preserved. This
corridor was lighted through a series of arches divided by semi-
detached columns of the Doric order, the earliest example of
this class of decoration, which in the Theatre of Marcellus, the
Colosseum, and all the great amphitheatres throughout the
Roman empire constituted the decorative treatment of the wall
surface and gave scale to the structure. Traces of an upper cor-
ridor with semi-detached columns of the Ionic order have been
found in the Tabularium, but this structure was much changed
in the i3th century, when the Palace of the Senators was built.
TACHEOMETRY (from Gr. TOXUS, quick; iiJtrpov, a measure),
a system of rapid surveying, by which the positions, both
horizontal and vertical, of points on the earth's surface relatively
to one another are determined without using a chain or tape
or a separate levelling instrument. The ordinary methods of
surveying with a theodolite, chain, and levelling instrument
(see SURVEYING) are fairly satisfactory when the ground is
pretty clear of obstructions and not very precipitous, but it
becomes extremely cumbrous when the ground is much covered
with bush, or broken up by ravines. Chain measurements are
then both slow and liable to considerable error; the levelling,
too, is carried on at great disadvantage in point of speed, though
without serious loss of accuracy. These difficulties led to the
introduction of tacheometry, in which, instead of the pole
formerly employed to mark a point, a staff similar to a level staff
is used. This is marked with heights from the foot, and is gradu-
ated according to the form of tacheometer in use. The azimuth
angle is determined as formerly. The horizontal distance is
'This mosque is popularly attributed to Ghazan Khan (end of
I3th century).
342
TACHEOMETRY
inferred either from the vertical angle included between two
well-defined points on the staff and the known distance between
them, or by readings of the staff indicated by two fixed wires
in the diaphragm of the telescope. The difference of height is
computed from the angle of depression or elevation of a fixed
point on the staff and the horizontal distance already obtained.
Thus all the measurements requisite to locate a point both verti-
cally and horizontally with reference to the point where the
tacheometer is centred are determined by an observer at the
instrument without any assistance beyond that of a man to
hold the staff.
The simplest system of tacheometry employs a theodolite with-
out additions of any kind, and the horizontal and vertical distances
are obtained from the angles of depression or elevation of
Subtense two well-defined points on a staff at known heights from
method. the foot, the staff being held vertically. In fig. I let T
be the telescope of a theodolite centred over the point C,
and let AB be the staff held truly vertical on the ground at A. Let
P and P' be the two well-defined marks on the face of the staff,
FIG. i.
both of them at known heights above A, and enclosing a distance
PP'=s between them. Let a and /3 be the measured angles of
elevation of P and P', and let d be the horizontal distance TM of
the staff from the theodolite, and h the height PM of P above T.
Then since
P'M = d tan 0 and PM =d tan a,
we have s = P'M — PM=d(tan 0 — tan a).
Therefore
d =
tan a
tan 0 — tan a'
tan 0 — tan o
If TC, the height of the rotation axis of the telescope above the
ground, =q, and if AP = £, then the height of A above C is h-p-\-q.
If, as is usually the case, a number of points are determined
from one station of the theodolite, and hi, h?, hi, &c., be the
values of h for the different points Aj, A2, A3, &c., then the
difference of level of A! and A2 will be h^-hi, that of Aj and
As will be harhi, and so on. To ensure the essential condition
that the staff is held vertical, it is usually provided with a
small circular spirit-level, and the staff-holder must always
keep the bubble in the centre of its run. No graduation
of the staff is required beyond two well-defined black lines
across the white face at P and F", but the marks can be
very usefully supplemented by wings fastened on the two
sides of the staff, having their tops at right angles to the
staff, at the same height as the points P and P', and
forming a continuation of the black lines. A convenient 0\
length for the staff is 12 ft., with the point P 2 ft. from
ihe foot, and the point P' at the top of the staff, so that
s = io ft.
With the above arrangement the staff can easily be read
with a 5-inch theodolite at half a mile distance. But while it
is frequently very useful to determine approximately points
a long way off, the determinations will not be nearly so
accurate as those of near points. Thus suppose that the
distance of the staff is d, and the intercept on the staff is s, and
suppose that the personal and instrumental error is &a (a being
the angle subtended by s at the telescope) ; then since
, _ s d(d) _ s _i+tan2a _d(d]
: i—j
tan a da
tan2 a
Therefore &d, the distance error, is given by the equation
&d=-&a(s2+d?)fs. But at distances of 5 chains or more s2 will
be very small compared with d2 and may be neglected, so that
Sd = -Sa.d2/s. Since 8a may be considered as constant for all distances
where the staff can be distinctly read, the distance error increases as
the square of the distance. With small theodolites, where special care
has not been given to the graduating and reading of the vertical circle,
Sa will probably amount to about 20". At a quarter of a mile
excellent work can be done. In carrying on a traverse line by this
method with stations 10 or 12 chains apart, the theodolite being set up
at points about midway between the stations, the probable distance
error in a mile is about 3$ ft., and the probable level error about 4 in.
In 25 miles these probable errors would correspond to about 18 ft.
and 20 in. respectively. This system of tacheometry is well adapted
for distant readings, and from the great simplicity of the observations
there is little likelihood of errors in the field. But the reduction
work is rather heavier than is the case with some of the tacheometers
described below. Since the accuracy of the method depends
entirely upon the accuracy with which the vertical angles are
measured, it is advisable that the vertical circle should be as large
as possible, very finely and accurately divided, and fitted with good
verniers and microscopes.
In Eckhold's omnimeter the vertical circle of the theodolite is dis-
pensed with, and a saving of reduction work is effected by reading,
not the vertical angles themselves, but the tangents of the angles.
In the Ziegler-Hager tacheograph the tangents are read not
horizontally but vertically, and the arrangement is as follows: —
In fig. 2 O is the axis of rotation of the telescope; mn is the axial
line of a steel bolt, which carries on its top a knife-edge, on which
the telescope rests by means of an agate plate. The bolt is carried
by a slide in which it can be raised or lowered by a micrometer screw
fitted with a graduated head. The slide plays between the vertical
cheeks of a standard rigidly attached to the frame of the instrument,
and it can be raised or lowered by a rack and pinion. The telescope,
which rests on the knife-edge, follows the movement of the bolt.
The slide carries on one side a vernier by which to read the divisions
on a scale fixed to one of the vertical legs of the standard, and the
zero point o of the scale is the point where the horizontal plane
through O cuts the scale when the plane-table or upper plate of the
theodolite is truly level. The scale is graduated in divisions, each
of which is the rioth part of the distance Oo, or h. The head of the
micrometer screw which raises or lowers the steel bolt in the slide is
graduated with a zero mark and with marks corresponding to a
vertical movement of the knife-edge of ?fah,fah, &c. The instrument
is used as follows: — Let AB be the surface of the ground, and BC
a staff held vertically at B, and let CB be produced to meet the
horizontal line through O in M. Let the head of the micrometer
screw be turned till the zero division is exactly under the pointer.
Let p be the zero division on the staff, and let the slide and bolt
be raised by the rack and pinion movement till the axis of the
telescope is directed towards p. Let v be the point where the line
Op cuts mn, and let the tangent reading ov be taken on the scale.
Then let the telescope be lowered by the micrometer screw in the
slide till the division on the head of the screw marked i is exactly
under the pointer; the knife-edge of the bolt has then been lowered
through a distance vt equal to h/ioo. Let ^ be the point on the staff
where the line Ot cuts it, and let the reading at q be taken. Then
since the triangles between O and mn and O and CM are similar
to each other, and vt is ji^th of Oo, therefore pq will be firth
of OM, or OM = iooXpq. This gives the horizontal distance
of the staff from O, and the vertical distance pM of p above
O is OM tan MOp = OMXot//Oo, and since ov has been read in
FIG. 2.
parts of which Oo contains 100, the distance~/>M is readily obtained.
If the difference of elevation of B and A be required, the height
pM must be reduced by pB and increased by OA, both known
quantities. By this arrangement the reduction work of the observa-
tions is rendered extremely simple, and can readily be performed
in the field. The instrument is well adapted for use with the plane-
table.
Tacheometers in which the horizontal distance of the staff from
the telescope is deduced from the readings of the staff indicated
by two fixed wires in the diaphragm of the telescope will
now be considered. In fig. 3 BC is a diaphragm fixed . .
in a tube having fine horizontal wires at B and C. Let
the end E of the tube be closed by a disk which has a minute hole at
E, to which the eye can be applied. If P and D be the points on a
vertical staff at which the lines EB and EC are observed to cut the
staff, so that the intercept PD is known, then from similar triangles
ED = (EC/BC)PD, and since EC and BC are constant, ED varies as
PD. If, for instance, PD has a certain observed value when the staff
is held at a certain distance ED, and has exactly half that value
when the staff is held at another distance ED', then the distance
TACHEOMETRY
343
ED' is one-half of the distance ED, and so on in proportion. The
distance ED can be instantly inferred from the readings of the staff,
if the latter be suitably graduated. If, for example, it be desired
to know the distance ED in yards, and by construction the pro-
portion EC/BC =5°, then the intercept on the staff at I yard from
E would be 6*&th of a yard, or -72 inch, the intercept at 2 yards from
E would be 2X-72 inches, and so on. If therefore the staff be
graduated with divisions of -72 inch, and the intercept be 45 of
such divisions, it would be inferred that the distance of the staff
from E was 45 yards. The constant proportion EC/BC can be
checked by measuring 100 yards from E and observing whether
FIG. 3.
the intercept is exactly 100 divisions or not. If it is not, the wire
diaphragm must be shifted in the tube until it is. In figs. 3, 4, 5
and 6 the distances are deduced from the readings of a central
wire in the optical axis of the telescope and of a wire above it, for the
sake of simplicity. The usual arrangement is to fit the diaphragm
with a central wire and with one or two wires above and below it
at equal distances from the central wire. The vertical angle of
depression or elevation is fixed by directing the central wire to a
well-defined division on the staff, and the distance of the staff is
inferred from the readings given by the corresponding wires above
and below the central wire.
The elementary form of tacheometer given above illustrates
the general principle of the class of tacheometers now under con-
sideration, and as leading up to the practical form, in which the
staff is viewed with a telescope mounted in the manner of a theo-
dolite. The simplest form is Reichenbach's tacheometer, which
may be investigated as follows: — In fig. 4 let A be the object glass
by which an image of the staff ST is formed at HK. The wire
diaphragm is moved in the tube so as to coincide with the image,
and vertical distances of the staff from the axis of rotation of the
telescope are found thus: — In fig. 5 let ST be the observed
intercept on the staff when the telescope is inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. Draw TS' at right angles to OT.
The angle TS'S will be very nearly a right angle, and STS' may be
taken as equal to a. If there were n graduations (each corresponding
to I yard in distance) in ST, there would be » cos a graduations in
FIG. 4.
and the image and wires are viewed with an eye-piece (not shown)
in the usual way. Let O be the point where the vertical axis of
the instrument cuts the axis of the telescope, the instrument being
centred over a peg, from which the distance to the staff is requirecf
The object glass (of focal length =/) is at a distance c from O. Let
AT = M and AH=t>, and the angle SAT = HAK=0. Then if i be
the height of the image HK, i=v tan 9. Since i/v+i/u = i/f, we
have n= —«//(«—/), and hence « = «/ tan 6/(u—f). Let F be some
point on AT such that AF=x and FT = w'. And let the angle
SFT = <£. Then u-u'+x and tan B = u' tan <t>/(u'+x), and therefore
tan
and> if X=f' i=f tan
If tl-ereiore the point F be taken at a distance / from the object
glass, every intercept of the staff for positions between T
and F, such as STj, ST', &c., which are bounded by the
line FS, and for which consequently 0 is the same, will have
the same height of image at the diaphragm. Conversely, if
K be a wire in the diaphragm it will cut the image of the
staff for all positions of the staff between T and F in points H_
that lie on the line FS. Now the intercept ST*, half-way
between F and T, will be one-half of ST, and therefore if
the reading on the staff indicated by the wire in question
be one-half of ST, it may be inferred that the position of
the staff is half-way between F and T, and similarly for
other distances. If the distance of ST from O is required,
as is usually the case, a quantity f-\-c must be added to
every distance from F determined as above.
It is very seldom that the line of sight AT of the telescope
is at right angles to the staff. In general it is mote or less inclined
to the staff, which is almost always held vertical, and the horizontal
FIG. 5.
S'T, and therefore the distance of the staff from F, as inferred from
the observed number of graduations in ST, must be multiplied by
cos a to give the true distance FT. Again FN = FT cos o, so that
the distance inferred from the observed number of graduations in
ST must be multiplied by cos2o to give the horizontal listance of
F from T. To this must be added the distance OL = OF cos a =
(f+c) cos o to get the horizontal distance, OM, of O (the vertical
axis of the instrument) from T. This value of OM must be multi-
plied by tan a to obtain the value of h, the vertical distance of T
from O. Tables of the value of cos o, cos* a, and tan a are necessary
to facilitate these calculations.
In this tacheometer the distances as inferred from the readings
of the staff are the distances of the staff from F and not from O.
This defect was remedied by Porro, who added a lens (called the
anallattic lens) to the telescope. The arrangement of the telescope
as manufactured by Messrs Troughton and
Simms, is as follows : — In fig. 6 O is the point
where the vertical axis of the instrument cuts
the axis of the telescope. The object glass is
fixed at a distance c from O, and the anallattic
lens at a distance d from the object glass.
The distances c and d are chosen to suit the
constructive conveniences of the instrument.
The diaphragm at K is movable so that it
can be made to coincide with the irrage of the
staff. The focal length j\ of the object glass
is arbitrary, and the focal length /j of the
anallattic lens is determined from an equation
of condition between c, d, ft, and ft. The
image of the staff ST would be formed by the
object glass at H, at a distance v\ from the
object glass, were it not that the rays, after
passing through the object glass, are received
by the anallattic lens and the image of the staff is formed at
K on the wire diaphragm, which is slid in the tube till it coincides
with the position of the image. The image at K is viewed by an
eye-piece in the usual way. Let T be the point where the image
of the staff is cut by the central wire of the diaphragm, and S the
point where the image is cut by one of the outer wires of the dia-
phragm. If 6 and <j> be the angles subtended by ST at the object
glass and at the point O respectively, and if i be the height of
the image at K, h the height of the virtual image at H, then by
elementary geometry and from optical considerations, we obtain
u'f f
* = u'(fl -d+f,)-{cfi-(c+ft)(d-M' tan *
Let /j be made such that eft — (c-f-/i) (d—ft)=o, the equation of
condition above mentioned. Then fi = \d(c+fi)— f/i)/(c+/i).
And
FIG. 6.
Therefore all the readings of the staff which would be given by
the outer wire of the diaphragm will lie on the line OS (for all of
344
TACHIENLU— TACHYLYTES
which <t> is the same), and the distance from O along OT will be
proportional to the reading on the staff. Thus if the staff be
suitably graduated, the distance from O can be immediately deduced
from the reading. Also, as before, if the telescope be inclined at an
angle o to the horizontal, the distance OT inferred from the number
of graduations in ST must be multiplied by cos2 a to give the horizontal
distance of O from T, and the horizontal distance so obtained must
be multiplied by tan a to obtain the vertical distance of T from O.
The inconvenience of the reduction work necessary to obtain
the horizontal and vertical distances produced the Wagner-Feunel
tacheometer, by which the distances can be read directly from the
instrument. As is seen from fig. 7, three scales are provided, to
measure the inclined distance, the horizontal distance, and the
vertical distance respectively. All three are arranged in a plane
parallel to the plane in which the telescope turns. The inclined
scale is attached to the telescope exactly parallel to its line of
collimation, and moves with it. The horizontal scale is fixed to
the upper horizontal plate of the theodolite. The vertical scale is
on the vertical edge of a right-angled triangle, which can be slid
along on the top of the horizontal scale. The inclined scale carries
a slide which is provided with two verniers. One of these is parallel
to the inclined scale, and is for the purpose of setting off on the
scale (in terms of the divisions on the scale) the inclined distance
of the staff from the axis of rotation of the telescope. The other
turns on a pivot whose centre is accurately in the edge of the inclined
scale at the point where the zero division of the inclined vernier
FIG. 7.
cuts the edge, and is for the purpose of reading the vertical scale;
it can be turned on its pivot so as to be vertical whatever may be
the inclination of the telescope. Moreover, since the distance
from the centre of the pivot to the zero of the vernier is always
constant and known, the vertical scale can be graduated so that
the reading of the vernier gives the height (in terms of the division
on the scale) of the staff above the axis of rotation of the telescope.
The horizontal scale attached to the horizontal plate of the theodolite
is read by means of a vernier carried by the triangle. To ascertain
the horizontal and vertical distances of the point on the staff which
is cut by the middle wire in the diaphragm of the telescope from the
rotation axis of the telescope, the inclined distance of the point on
the staff is read by means of the wires, as in Porro's tacheometer.
This distance (in terms of the divisions) is then set off on the inclined
scale by means of the inclined vernier, and the vertical scale on the
triangle is moved up to the vertical vernier, which is adjusted to
its edge. With proper graduation of the horizontal and vertical
scales the horizontal and vertical distances can be at once read off
on the scales. This method, however, requires that the staff be
held so that its face is perpendicular to the line of sight, which is
more troublesome than holding the staff vertical.
AUTHORITIES. — Brough on " Tacheometry," Proc. Inst. C.E.,
vol. xci. Pierce on the " Use of the Plane Table," ibid. vol. xcii.
Kennedy on the " Tacheometer," ibid. vol. xcix. Airy on the
" Probable Errors of Surveying by Vertical Angles," ibid. vol. ci.
Middleton on " Observations in Tacheometry," ibid. vol. cxvi.
Young on " Surveying with the Omnimeter," ibid. vol. cxyii.
J. Bridges Lee on Photographic Surveying," Trans. Soc. Engin.,
vol. for 1899. " The Ziegler-Hager Tacheograph," Engineering,
vol. Ixv. (W. AY.)
TACHIENLU, a town of China, in the province of Sze-ch 'uen.
It is the great tea mart for Tibet, and from Tachienlu the two
trade-routes, the Gya lam and the Chang lam, diverge, the
former to Ladakh and the latter to Kashgar.
TACHYLYTES, or TACHYLITES (from Gr. raxw, swift,
\beiv, to dissolve, meaning " easily fused," though some have
erroneously interpreted it as " easily soluble in acids "), in
petrology, the vitreous forms of the basic igneous rocks; in
other words, they are basaltic obsidians. They are black in
colour, dark brown in the thinnest sections, with a resinous
lustre and the appearance of pitch, often more or less vesicular
and sometimes spherulitic. They are very brittle, and break
down readily under the hammer. Small crystals of felspar or
of olivine are sometimes visible in them with the unaided eye.
All tachylytes weather rather easily, and by oxidation of their
iron become dark brown or red. Three modes of occurrence
characterize this rock. In all cases they are found under
conditions which imply rapid cooling, but they are much less
common than acid volcanic glasses (or obsidians) , the reason being
apparently that the basic rocks have a stronger tendency to
crystallize, partly because they are more liquid and the molecules
have more freedom to arrange themselves in crystalline order.
The fine scoria ashes or " cinders " thrown out by basaltic
volcanoes are often spongy masses of tachylyte with only a few
larger crystals or phenocrysts imbedded in black glass. Such
tachylyte bombs and scoria are frequent in Iceland, Auvergne,
Stromboli, Etna, and are very common also in the ash beds or tuffs
of older date, such as occur in Skye, Midlothian and Fife, Derbyshire,
and elsewhere. Basic pumices of this kind are exceedingly wide-
spread on the bottom of the sea, either dispersed in the " red clay "
and other deposits or forming layers coated |with oxides of man-
ganese, precipitated on them from the sea water. These tachylyte
fragments, which are usually much decomposed by the oxidation
and hydration of their ferrous compounds, have taken on a dark red
colour. This altered basic glass is known as " palagonite " ; con-
centric bands of it often surround kernels of unaltered tachylyte,
and are so soft that they are easily cut with a knife. In the pala-
gonite the minerals also are decomposed, and are represented only
by pseudomorphs. The fresh tachylyte glass, however, often con-
tains lozenge-shaped crystals of plagioclase felspar and small prisms
of augite and olivine, but all these minerals very frequently occur
mainly as microlites or as beautiful skeletal growths with sharply-
pointed corners or ramifying processes. Palagonite tuffs are found
also among the older volcanic rocks. In Iceland a broad stretch of
these rocks, described as " the palagonite formation," is said to
cross the island from south-west to north-east. Some of these tuffs
are fossiliferous; others are intercalated with glacial deposits.
The lavas with which they occur are mostly olivine-basalts.
Palagonite tuffs are found in Sicily, the Eifel, Hungary, Canary
Islands, &c.
A second mode of occurrence of tachylyte is in the form of lava
flows. Basaltic rocks often contain a small amount of glassy
ground-mass, and in the limburgites this becomes more important
and conspicuous, but vitreous types are far less common in these
than in the acid lavas. In the Hawaiian Islands, however, the
volcanoes have poured out vast floods of black basalt, containing
felspar, augite, olivine, and iron ores in a black glassy base. They
are highly liquid when discharged, and the rapid cooling which
ensues on their emergence to the air prevents crystallization taking
place completely. Many of them are spongy or vesicular, and their
upper surfaces are often exceedingly rough and jagged, while at
other times they assume rounded wave-like forms on solidification.
Great caves are found where the crust has solidified and the liquid
interior has subsequently flowed away, and stalactites and stalag-
mites of black tachylyte adorn the roofs and floors. On section
these growths show usually a central cavity enclosed by walls of dark
brown glass in which skeletons and microliths of augite, olivine
and felspar lie imbedded. From the crater of Kilauea thin
clouds of steam rise constantly, and as the bubbles of vapour are
liberated from the molten rock they carry into the air with them
thin fibres of basalt which solidify at once and assume the form of
tachylyte threads. Under the microscope they prove to be nearly
completely glassy with small circular air vesicles sometimes drawn
out to long tubes. Only in the Hawaiian Islands are glassy basaltic
lavas of this kind at all common.
A third mode of occurrence of tachylyte is as the margins and thin
offshoots of dikes or sills of basalt, dplerite and diabase. They are
sometimes only a fraction of an inch in thickness, resembling a thin
layer of pitch or tar on the edge of a crystalline dolerite dike, but
veins several inches thick are sometimes met with. In these situa-
tions tachylyte is rarely vesicular, but it often shows very pronounced
fluxion banding accentuated by the presence of rows of spherulites
which are visible as dark brown rounded spots. The spherulites
have a distinct radiate structure and sometimes exhibit zones of
varying colour. The non-spherulitic glassy portion is sometimes
perlitic and these rocks are always_ brittle. The commonest crystals
are olivine, augite and felspar, with swarms of minute dusty black
grains of magnetite. At the extreme edges the glass js often per-
fectly free from crystalline products, but it merges rapidly into the
TACITUS, CORNELIUS
345
ordinary crystalline dolerite, which in a very short distance may
contain no vitreous base whatever. The spherulites may form J:he
greater part of the mass, they may be a quarter of an inch in diameter
and are occasionally much larger than this. These coarsely spherulitic
rocks pass over into the variolites (j.f.) by increasing coarseness
in the fibres of their spherulites, which soon become recognizable
as needles of felspar or feathery growths of augite. The ultimate
product of decomposition in this case also is a red palagonitic
substance, but owing to the absence qf steam cavities the tachylyte
selvages of dikes are more often found in a fresh state than the
basic lapilli in ash-beds. Many occurrences of basaltic pitchstones
have been reported from Skye, Mull, and the western part of Scot-
land; they are found also in connexion with the intrusive dolerite
sills of the north of England and the centre of Scotland. In the
Saar district of Germany similar rocks occur, some of which have
been described as weisselbergites (from Weisselberg).
Other localities for tachylytes of this group are Nassau, Silesia
and Sweden.
The chemical composition of some of the rocks of this group is
indicated by the analyses given below: —
passage of his Agricola, describing this as a "singularly blessed
time," but the hideous reign of terror had stamped itself in-
effaceably on his soul, and when he sat down to write his History
he could see little but the darkest side of imperialism. To
his friend the younger Pliny we are indebted for the little we
know about his later life. He was advanced to the consulship
in 97, in succession to a highly distinguished man, Verginius
Rufus, on whom he delivered in the senate a funeral eulogy.
In 99 he was associated with Pliny in the prosecution of a great
political offender, Marius Priscus, under whom the provincials
of Africa had suffered grievous wrongs. The prosecution was
successful, and both Tacitus and Pliny received a special vote
of thanks from the senate for their conduct of the case. It
would seem that Tacitus lived to the close of Trajan's reign, as
he seems4 to hint at that emperor's extension of the empire
by his successful Eastern campaigns from 115 to 117. Whether
SiO2.
A12O3.
FeO.
Fe2Oa.
CaO.
MgO.
NazO.
K,0.
H,O.
I. Palagonite. Seljadalr, Iceland ....
38-96
11-62
14-75
9-13
6-29
0-68
0-72
I7-85
II. Palagonite from deep-sea deposits, Pacific (
Ocean (with 2-89% MnOj) . \
4473
16-28
14-57
1-88
2-23
4-50
4-02
9-5°
III. Palagonite. Franz Joseph Land ....
35-48
8-30
14-60
12-30
1-04
7-10
3-92
tr.
16-80
IV. Tachylyte. Ardtun, Mull, Scotland
53-03
20-09
9-53
6-05
2-63
4-52
1-27
2-64
V. Tachylyte. The Beal, Portree, Skye . .
52-59
17-33
11-14
6-47
2-62
4-24
2-40
3-27
TACITUS, CORNELIUS (£.55-120), Roman historian. Tacitus,
who ranks beyond dispute in the highest place among men
of letters of all ages, lived through the reigns of the emperors
Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian,
Nerva and Trajan. All we know of his personal history is from
allusions to himself in his own works, and from eleven letters
addressed to him by his very intimate friend, the younger Pliny.
The exact year of his birth is a matter of inference, but it may
be approximately fixed near the close of the reign of Claudius.
Pliny indeed, though himself born in 61 or 62, speaks of Tacitus
and himself as being "much of an age,"1 but he must have been
some years junior to his friend, who began, he tells us, his official
life under Vespasian,2 no doubt as quaestor, and presumably
tribune or aedile under Titus (80 or 81), at which time he must
have been twenty-five years of age at least. Of his family and
birthplace we know nothing certain; we can infer nothing
from his name Cornelius, which was then very widely extended;
but the fact of his early promotion seems to point to respectable
antecedents, and it may be that his father was one Cornelius
Tacitus, who had been a procurator in one of the divisions of
Gaul, to whom allusion is made by the elder Pliny in his Natural
History (vii. 76). But it is all matter of pure conjecture, as it
also is whether his " praenomen " was Publius or Gaius. The
most interesting facts about him to us are that he was an eminent
pleader at the Roman bar, that he was an eye-witness of the
" reign of terror " during the last three years of Domitian,
and that he was the son-in-law of Julius Agricola. This honour-
able connexion, which testifies to his high moral character, may
very possibly have accelerated his promotion, which he says3
was begun by Vespasian, augmented by Titus, and still further
advanced by Domitian, under whom we find him presiding as
praetor at the celebration of the secular games in 88, and a
member of one of the old priestly colleges, to which good family
was an almost indispensable passport. Next year, it seems, he
left Rome, and was absent till 93 on some provincial business,
and it is possible that in these four years he may have made
the acquaintance of Germany and its peoples. His father-in-
law died in the year of his return to Rome. In the concluding
passage of his Life of Agricola he tells us plainly that he witnessed
the judicial murders of many of Rome's best citizens from 93
to 96, and that being himself a senator he felt almost a guilty
complicity in them. With the emperor Nerva's accession his
life became bright and prosperous, and so it continued through
the reign of Nerva's successor, Trajan, he himself, in the opening
1 Pliny, Epp. vii. 20.
* Hist. 1. I.
"Ibid.
(j. s. F.)
he outlived Trajan is matter of conjecture. It is worth noticing
that the emperor Tacitus in the 3rd century claimed descent
from him, and directed that ten copies of his works should be
made every year and deposited in the public libraries. He also
had a tomb built to his memory, which was destroyed by order
of Pope Pius V. in the latter part of the i 6th century.
Pliny, as we see clearly from several passages in his letters,
had the highest opinion of his friend's ability and worth. He
consults him about a school which he thinks of establishing at
Comum (Como), his birthplace, and asks him to look out for
suitable teachers and professors. And he pays 'him the high
compliment, " I know that your Histories will be immortal,
and this makes me the more anxious that m*y name should
appear in them."
The following is a list of Tacitus's remaining works, arranged
in their probable chronological order, which may be approxi-
mately inferred from internal evidence: — (i) the Dialogue on
Orators, about 76 or 77; (2) the Life of Agricola, 97 or 98;
(3) the Germany, 98, published probably in 99; (4) the Histories
(Historiae), completed probably by 115 or 116, the last years of
Trajan's reign (he must have been at work on them for many
years); (5) the Annals, his latest work probably, written in
part perhaps along with the Histories, and completed sub-
sequently to Trajan's reign, which he may very well have
outlived.
The Dialogue on Orators discusses, in the form of a conversation
which Tacitus professes to have heard (as a young man) between
some eminent men at the Roman bar, the causes of the decay of
eloquence under the empire. There are some interesting remarks
in it on the change for the worse that had taken place in the
education of Roman lads. The style of the Dialogue is far more
Ciceronian than that of Tacitus's later work, and critics have
attributed it to Quintilian; but its genuineness is now generally
accepted. It is noticeable that the mannerisms of Tacitus
appear to develop through his lifetime, and are most strongly
marked in his latest books, the Annals.
The Life of Agricola, short as it is, has always been considered
an admirable specimen of biography. The great man with all
his grace and dignity is brought vividly before us, and the sketch
we have of the history of our island under the Romans gives a
special interest to this little work.
The Germany, the full title of which is " Concerning the
geography, the manners and customs, and the tribes of
Germany," describes with many suggestive hints the general
* Ann. ii. 61 ; iv. 4.
1 Epp. vii. 33.
34-6
TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS
character of the German peoples, and dwells particularly on their
fierce and independent spirit, which the author evidently felt
to be a standing menace to the empire. The geography is its
weak point; much of this was no doubt gathered from vague
hearsay. Tacitus dwells on the contrast between barbarian
freedom and simplicity on the one hand, and the servility and
degeneracy of Roman life on the other.
The Histories, as originally composed in twelve books, brought
the history of the empire from Galba in 69 down to the close of
Domitian's reign in 97. The first four books, and a small
fragment of the fifth, giving us a very minute account of the
eventful year of revolution, 69, and the brief reigns of Galba,
Otho and Vitellius, are all that remain to us. In the fragment
of the fifth book we have a curious but entirely inaccurate
account of the Jewish nation, of their character, customs and
religion, from a cultivated Roman's point of view, which we see
at once was a strongly prejudiced one.
The Annals — a title for which there is no ancient authority,
and which there is no reason for supposing Tacitus gave dis-
tinctively to the work — record the history of the emperors of
the Julian line from Tiberius to Nero, comprising thus a period
from A.D. 14 to 68. Of these, nine books have come down to us
entire; of books v., xi. and xvi. we have but fragments, and
the whole of the reign of Gaius (Caligula), the first six years of
Claudius, and the last three years of Nero are wanting. Out
of a period of fifty-four years we thus have the history of forty
years.
The principal MSS. of Tacitus are known as the " first "and
" second " Medicean — both of the loth or nth centuries. The
first six books of the Annals exist nowhere but in the " first
Medicean " MS., and an attempt was made in 1878 to prove
that the Annals are a forgery by Poggio Bracciolini, an Italian
scholar of the isth century, but their genuineness is confirmed
by their agreement1 in various minute details with coins and in-
scriptions discovered since that period. Moreover, Ruodolphus,
a monk, writing in the 9th century, shows that he is acquainted
with a MS. of Tacitus containing at least the two first books.
Add to this the testimony of Jerome that Tacitus wrote in thirty
books the lives of the Caesars and the evidence of style, and there
can be no doubt that in the Annals we have a genuine work of
Tacitus.
Much of the history of the period described by him, especially
of the earlier Caesars, must have been obscure and locked up
with the emperor's private papers and memoranda. As we
should expect, there was a vast amount of floating gossip, which
an historian would have to sift and utilize as best he might.
Tacitus, as a man of good social position, no doubt had access
to the best information, and must have talked matters over
with the most eminent men of the day. There were several
writers and chroniclers, whom he occasionally cites but not very
often; there were memoirs of distinguished persons — those,
for example, of the younger Agrippina, of Thrasea, and Hel-
vidius. There were several collections of letters, like those of
the younger Pliny; a number, too, of funeral orations; and the
" acta senatus " and the " acta populi " or " acta diurna," the
first a record of proceedings in the senate, the latter a kind of
gazette or journal. Thus there were the materials for history
in considerable abundance, and Tacitus was certainly a man
who knew how to turn them to good account. He has given
us a striking, and on the whole doubtless a true, picture of the
empire in the ist century. The rhetorical tendency which
characterizes the " silver age " of Roman literature, gives perhaps
exaggerated expression to his undoubtedly strong sense of the
badness of individual emperors, but he assuredly wrote with a
high aim, and we may accept his own account of it: " I regard2
it as history's highest function to rescue merit from oblivion,
and to hold up as a terror to base words and actions the repro-
bation of posterity." He is convinced of the degeneracy of the
age, though it be relieved by the existence of truly noble virtues:
and he connects this degeneracy more or less directly with the
1 See Introduction to vol. i. of Furneaux's edition of the Annals
of Tacitus, Clarendon Press Series, 1884. 2 Ann. iii. 65.
imperial regime. But it is difficult to dogmatize as to Tacitus's
political ideals. He is primarily concerned rather with ethics
than with politics; though he may feel that the world is out
of joint — with whatever sentimental sympathy he may regard
the age of "liberty," and admire the heroic epoch of the
republic — yet he appears to realize that the empire is a practical
necessity, and to the provinces even a benefit. Like the Stoics,
with whom otherwise he has little in common, he censures rather
individual rulers than the imperial system. But " the key
to the interpretation of Tacitus," it has been well said,3 " is
to regard him as a moralist rather than a politician." Perhaps
the strongest work in the Annals and Histories is the delineation
of character.
Tacitus gives us no certain clue to his religious belief. His
expressions of opinion about the government of the universe
are difficult to reconcile with each other. There seems to have
been a strange tinge of superstition about him, and he could not
divest himself of some belief4 in astrology and revelations of
the future through omens and portents, though he held these
were often misunderstood and misinterpreted by charlatans
and impostors. On the whole he appears to have inclined to
the philosophical theory of " necessitarianism," that every man's
future is fixed from his birth; but we must not fasten on him
any particular theory of the- world or of the universe. Some-
times he speaks as a believer in a divine overruling Providence,
and we may say confidently that with the Epicurean doctrine
he had no sort of sympathy.
Tacitus's style is discussed in the article LATIN LANGUAGE.
Whatever judgment may be passed on it, it is certainly that of
a man of genius, and cannot fail to make a deep impression on
the studious reader. Tacitean brevity has become proverbial,
and with this are closely allied an occasional obscurity and a
rhetorical affectation which his warmest admirers must admit.
He has been compared to Carlyle: and both certainly affect
singularity of expression. But they are alike only in the brevity
of sentences; and the brevity of Carlyle is not that of an artist
in epigram. Tacitus was probably never a popular author;
to be understood and appreciated he must be read again and
again, or the point of some of his acutest remarks will be quite
missed.
Tacitus has been many times translated, in spite of the very great
difficulty of the task; the number of versions of the whole or part
is stated as 393.
Murphy's translation (we should call it a paraphrase) was for long
one of the best known; it was published early in the I9th century.
On this was based the so-called Oxford translation, published by
Bohn in a revised edition. Messrs Church and Brodnbb's transla-
tion, and Professor Ramsay's (1904) (the latter of Annals i.-iv.)
are much better. The best known foreign translation is Davanzati's
(Italian), printed about 1600 and frequently re-published. The
French versions by Louandre and Burnouf (about the middle of the
last century) are also good. Among the very numerous modern
commentaries, the most important are Ruperti's (1839); Orelli's
(1859: the Histories, Germania, Agricola, and Dialogues were
revised and re-edited by Meiser and Andersen between 1877 and
1895); Hitter's (1864); Nipperdey's (1879); Heraus's (Histories,
1885); Furneaux's (Annals, i.-vi., 1884; xi.-xvi., 1891; Germania,
1894); Spooner's (Histories, 1891). The last two editors' intro-
ductions are particularly useful. Of works relating to Tacitean
Latinity, Draeger's Syntax und Stil des Tacitus is the best.
(W. J. B.;A. D. G.).
TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS, Roman emperor from the
2$th of September A.D. 275 to April 276, was a native of Inter-
amna (Terni) in Umbria. In the course of his long life he held
various civil offices, including that of consulin 273, with universal
respect. Six months after the assassination of Aurelian he was
chosen by the senate to succeed him, and the choice was cordially
ratified by the army. During his brief reign he set on foot
some domestic reforms, and sought to revive the authority of
the senate, but, after a victory over the Goths in Cilicia, he
succumbed to hardship and fatigue (or was slain by his own
soldiers) at Tyana in Cappadocia. Tacitus, besides being a
man of immense wealth (which he bequeathed to the state),
* Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, Bk. i. ch. i
4 Ann. vi. 21, 22.
TACNA— TACTICS
347
had considerable literary culture, and was proud to claim descent
from the historian, whose works he caused to be transcribed at
the public expense and placed in the public libraries. Tacitus
possessed many admirable qualities, but his gentle character
and advanced age unfitted him for the throne in such lawless
times.
See Life by Vopiscus in Historiae Augustae Scriplores; alsoEutro-
pius, ix. 10; Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 36; Zonaras xii. 28; H.
Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. 1883 ; Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopddie, iii. 2871 ff.
TACNA, a northern province of Chile, in dispute with Peru
from 1893 onwards, bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia, S. by
Tarapaca, and W. by the Pacific. Area, 9251 sq. m. Pop.
(1895) 24,160. It belongs to the desert region of the Pacific
coast, and is valuable because of its deposits of nitrate of soda
and some undeveloped mineral resources. There are a few
fertile spots near the mountains, where mountain streams afford
irrigation and potable water, and support small populations,
but in general Tacna is occupied for mining purposes only.
None cf its streams crosses the entire width of the province;
they are all lost in its desert sands. The climate is hot, and
earthquakes are frequent and sometimes violent. There is
one railway in the province, running from the city of Tacna to
Arica (q.v.), and in 1910 another from Arica to La Paz, Bolivia,
was under construction by the Chilean government. The pro-
vince consists of two departments, Tacna and Arica, which
once formed part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Its
capital is Tacna (pop. 1895, 9418; 1902, estimated 11,504),
a small inland town 48 m. by rail from Arica, in a fertile valley
among the foothills of the Andes. Existence is made possible in
this oasis by a small mountain stream, also called Tacna, which
supports a scanty vegetation. The town owes its existence to
the Bolivian trade from La Paz and Oruro, and is the residence
of a number of foreign merchants. Tacna was captured by a
Chilean force under General Baquedano on the 27th of May 1880.
At the close of the war between Chile and Peru (1879-1883),
the terms of the treaty of Ancon (signed by representatives of
the two countries on the 2oth of October 1883) were practically
dictated by Chile, and by one of the provisions the Peruvian
provinces of Tacna and Arica were to be occupied and exploited
by Chile for a period of ten years, when a plebiscite should be
taken of their inhabitants to determine whether they would
remain with Chile or return to Peru, the country acquiring the
two provinces in this manner to pay the other $10,000,000.
At the termination of the period Peru wished the plebiscite to
be left to the original population, while Chile wanted it to
include the large number of Chilean labourers sent into the
province. Chile refused to submit the dispute to arbitration,
and it remained unsettled. Meanwhile Chile expelled the
Peruvian priests, and treated the province more like a conquered
territory than a temporary pledge.
TACOMA, a city and sub-port of entry, and the county-seat
of Pierce county, Washington, U.S.A., on Commencement Bay
of Puget Sound, at the mouth of Puyallup river, about 80 m.
from the Pacific coast, and about 23 m. S.S.W. of Seattle.
Pop. (1890) 36,006; (1900) 37,714, of whom 11,032 were foreign-
born (including 1603 Swedes, 1534 English-Canadians, 1474
Norwegians, 1424 Germans, and 1323 English; (1910. U.S.
census) 83,743. Tacoma is served by the Northern Pacific,
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, and the Tacoma
Eastern railways; the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway
operates through trains to and from Missouri river points and
Tacoma, over the Northern Pacific tracks, which are also used
by the Great Northern and Oregon & Washington railways.
There is electric railway connexion with Seattle. Tacoma is
the starting-point of steamship lines to Alaska, to San Francisco,
and to Seattle, Port Townsend, Olympia, Victoria, and other
ports on Puget Sound. There are trans-oceanic lines to Japan
and China, to the Philippines and Hawaii, and to London,
Liverpool and Glasgow, by way of the Suez Canal. The city
is situated on an excellent harbour and has 25 m. of waterfront.
From the tidelands the city site slopes gradually to a plateau
about 300 ft. high, commanding fine views of Puget Sound and
its wooded islands, and parts of the Cascade and Olympic ranges.
Tacoma is the seat of Whit worth College (1890, Presbyterian),
the University of Puget Sound (1903, Methodist Episcopal),
the Annie Wright Seminary (1884), a boarding and day school
for girls, and the Pacific Lutheran Academy and Business
College. The Tacoma High School has an excellent stadium
for athletic contests, seating 25,000. The city has a Carnegie
library (1899), with about 51,000 volumes. Among other
public buildings are the court house, the city hall, in which are
the rooms of the State Historical Society (organized, 1891;
incorporated, 1897); the Federal Building; an armoury; the
Chamber of Commerce, and several fine churches. The Ferry
Museum, founded by Clinton P. Ferry, has interesting historical
and ethnological collections. In 1910 the city had seven public
parks (1120 acres), including Point Defiance, a thickly wooded
park (about 640 acres1), and, in the centre of the city, Wright
Park, in which is the Seymour Conservatory. Tacoma is a
sub-port of entry in the Puget Sound Customs district (of which
Port Townsend is the official port), which is second only to San
Francisco on the Pacific coast in the volume of foreign trade.
The city has a large jobbing trade, a coal supply from rich de-
posits in Pierce county, and abundant water-power from swift
mountain streams, which is used for generating electricity for
municipal and industrial use. In 1900 and in 1905 Tacoma
ranked second among the cities of the state in the value of
factory products. Lead smelting and refining (by one establish-
ment) was the most important industry in 1905; lumber, timber
and planing mill products, valued at $3,407,951, were produced
in that year, and flour and grist mill products, valued at
$2,293,587. Other important manufactures were furniture,
ships and boats, railway cars (the Chicago, Milwaukee &
Puget Sound and the Northern Pacific systems having shops
here), engines, machinery, shoes, water pipes, preserves and
beer. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was
$12,501,816, an increase of 121-4% since 1900. The assessed
property valuation of the city in 1909 was $54,226,261, being
about 42 % of the actual valuation.
The site of Tacoma was visited by Captain George Vancouver
in 1792; Commencement Bay was surveyed for the United
States government by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes in 1841, and
the present city was founded by General Morton Matthew
McCarver in 1868 and was at first called Commencement City.
That name was soon changed to Tacoma, said to be a corruption
of Ta-ho-ma or Ta-ho-bet, Indian terms meaning " greatest white
peak," the name of the peak (14,526 ft.), also called Mt. Rainier,
about 50 m. S.E. of the city. General McCarver's original plat
included what is now the first ward of the city, and is called
the Old Town. In 1873 the Northern Pacific railway (com-
pleted in 1887) established its terminal on Commencement
Bay, and named it New Tacoma. A town government was
formed in 1874, the place became the county-seat in 1880, and
in 1883 the two " towns " were consolidated and incorporated as
a city under the name Tacoma. In 1909 a new city charter
was adopted under which the city government is vested in
five commissioners (one of whom acts as mayor), each in charge
of a city department.
TACTICS (Gr. ram/o?, sc. r'exyri, from raaffeiv, to arrange
in order of battle).1 It may perhaps seem superfluous at the
present time to emphasize the distinction between strategy
and tactics. Moreover, definitions are rarely quite satisfactory,
for they can seldom be perfectly clear and at the same time
perfectly comprehensive. Yet, since it is necessary that the
parties to any discussion should have some common starting-
point, it will be as well to begin by stating exactly what is
meant to be included under the heading of this article.
Strategy (q.v.) is the art of bringing the enemy to battle
on terms disadvantageous to him. Combined, or to use the
phraseology of the Napoleonic era, " grand " tactics are the
1 Unlike the French tactique, the German Taktik, and indeed
all other forms, the English word is invariably treated as a plural
TACTICS
methods employed for his destruction by a force of all arms,
that is, of infantry (q.v.), artillery (q.v.) and cavalry (q.v.).
Each of these possesses a power peculiar to itself, the full
development of which depends to a greater or less degree upon
the aid and co-operation of the other two. Now it is quite
evident that the only force which can ensure this co-operation,
and can produce harmonious working between the various
components of that complex machine, a modern army, is the
will-power of the supreme commander. It is, then, the sphere
of the higher commander on the day of battle which is generally
expressed by the term " combined tactics," and which will be
dealt with in this article. Yet it must not be understood that
because the term higher, or supreme, commander is used that
the theory of combined tactics may be safely neglected by those
soldiers whose ambitions or opportunities do not seem to lead
to that position. In the British Army more than
'n anv ot^er' as t^le South African war showed, a
comparatively junior officer may at any moment find
himself placed in command of a mixed force of all arms, without
any previous practical knowledge of how it should be handled.
It' 'will not then be possible to make the best use of such
opportunities by the uneducated light of nature, and such
theoretical knowledge as may have been gleaned from books
and matured by thought will be of great value.
It is of the first importance that the commander of a mixed
force should know exactly the powers and limitations of the
units under his control. Should he not be a master of his
profession, he will at times demand more from his subordinates
than they can reasonably be expected to perform; at other
times he will miss his chances by ignorance of their capabilities.
An uneducated commander may indeed be likened to an in-
different mechanic, who sometimes places an undue strain
upon the engine he is supposed to control, and sometimes allows
its precious powers to run to waste.
There is, however, a still stronger reason why all officers
should study the art of grand tactics. In every battle situations
arise of which the issue is decided by the promptitude and
efficiency of the co-operation between the three arms. At such
moments, an officer in charge of a battery of artillery, or of a
squadron of cavalry, may find an opportunity of rendering
valuable aid to his own infantry; and a knowledge of the
tactics and training of the other arms may then be essential,
for it will probably be necessary to act without instructions
from superior authority.
But although the importance of studying tactics may be
readily allowed, there would appear to be considerable diversity
of opinion as to the best method of conducting that study. It
is often confidently asserted that tactics cannot be learnt from
books; and in support of this theory it is customary to adduce
Napoleon's well-known statement that tactics change every
ten years. But if we examine the matter more closely, it will
become evident that the changes which the great captain had
in his mind were those of formations, due principally to im-
proved weapons, rather than of the principles upon which
combined tactics are based. Indeed, it could hardly be other-
wise, for military history furnishes many instances of great
battles which have been fought out on exactly the same lines,
although separated in point of time by many centuries. The
great similarity between Rossbach (q.v.), Austerlitz (q.v.) and
Salamanca (q.v.) has often been quoted since Napoleon first
drew attention to it, but a great deal more remarkable and
instructive is the similarity between the battle on the Metaurus,
which dealt the final blow to the hopes of Carthage in Italy, and
Marlborough's masterpiece, the battle of Ramillies (q.v.). In
both cases the battle was lost through faulty dispositions before
it had been begun. In both cases the ultimate loser
<ot'miiHlty to°k UP a Posit*011 behind a stream, thereby losing his
history. mobility and voluntarily surrendering the initiative
to an enemy who was not slow to take advantage of
it. Precisely the same error was committed time after time
by the Austrian generals who fought against Frederick, notably
at Leu then (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR), a battle closely resembling
both Ramillies and the Metaurus. Coming to a later date, we
find the same error committed, with of course precisely the same
result, in Manchuria, where the Russian generals repeatedly
surrendered the initiative to their enterprising opponents, and
allowed them to dictate the course of battle. It must not,
however, be understood from this that no commander should
ever stand upon the defensive; \ rather it is meant that we
should learn from history the proper method of doing so. This
we cannot do better than by studying Wellington's battles in
the Peninsula, for never have tactics been brought to higher
perfection. Although frequently compelled to adopt the
defensive, he never surrendered the conduct of the battle to
his enemy. Even when surprised and taken at great disad-
vantage by Soult at Maya (see PENINSULAR WAK), it can be
seen how, while lesser men would have been content to reinforce
the threatened points, Wellington's one thought was to discover
where he could deal the most effective blow. Nearly a hundred
years later and in a theatre of war many thousands of miles
away, a very similar battle was fought out by Kuropatkin and
Oyama, though on a vastly greater scale.
But history teaches us more than the methods of the great
captains; for from it we may learn those changes which have
been introduced into both organization and tactics by the
improved weapons which science has placed in our hands, and
thence the tactician may deduce the changes of the future.
Just as the " Old Dessauer " foresaw the advantage which the
iron ramrod would give to the Prussian infantry, and as Welling-
ton perceived that improved firearms would render possible the
extended lines he adopted, so may the great generals of the
future learn those lessons which are only brought home to others
through the dire ordeal of battle. From the days of the long-bow
to those of the Lee-Metford rifle, the changes in tactics have
been brought about by the development of fire. It
is therefore only natural that the introduction of ^^,er
small-bore rifles, quick-firing artillery, and smokeless
powder should have revolutionized many of our ideas. Before
the invention of the breech-loader and the rifled cannon, the
three arms of the service employed very different methods of
combat. The infantry depended principally on the bayonet,
the cavalry on the lance or sabre, the artillery on fire. Now
there is practically but one method common to all arms whether
in attack or defence. The bayonet and the sabre still have their
part to play; but in almost every phase of the combat their
importance is diminishing, and infantry and cavalry must
depend more and more upon fire to compass the enemy's over-
throw. All the preliminary movement and manoeuvres have
but one end in view, the development of fire in greater volume
and more effectively directed than that of the opposing force;
for it is " superiority of fire " that prepares the ground for the
final decision.
Side by side with the improvement in firearms there has
come another great change which, on the continent of Europe
at all events, has had a marked effect on modern tactics. This
is the improvement in communications, which has alone made
it possible to use the vast numbers with which great battles
have recently been fought. Without railways the power
which universal service has placed in the hands of the generals
of the 2oth century could never have been fully developed, for
the men could neither have been conveyed to the theatre of
operations, nor could they have been fed even sup- Moderm
posing they had been got there. Now all this is «>»-
altered, and the first step towards the attainment <"tloas-
of superiority of fire will be to bring as many men as possible
on to the field of battle; the second step will be to place them
in the position from which they can use their weapons to the
very best advantage. From these premises it is not difficult
to foresee the type of battle which will prevail, until some new
discovery changes the military systems of the world. In the
future, as in the past, it will be the duty of the strategist to mass
superior numbers at the decisive point; but so soon as this has
been effected there is only one method by which the tactician
will be able to follow up the advantage. That is by bringing
TACTICS
349
more rifles into action than his opponent is able to do. From
this it follows that the enveloping action will be the usual form
of battle; and that although the extent of front may not always
be so great, in proportion to the numbers engaged, as on the
battlefields of South Africa or even of Manchuria, the general
tendency of modern invention will undoubtedly be to increase
the area of the battlefield.
If then we are right in supposing that the front of an army
in action will cover many miles of country, it necessarily follows
that in approaching the field many roads will be used. Here
the duties of the cavalry will begin; for the commander who
can discover earliest the approaches by which the flank detach-
ments of his opponent are moving, is obviously in the best
position to form his plans for envelopment. Here we are
Cavalry ver8mS upon the strategic use of cavalry; but under
modern conditions the tactical use of that arm is almost
merged in the strategical use. No doubt it has always been the
object of the wise commander to attain his enemy's flank; yet,
since, owing to the increased range of small-bore rifles, turning
movements like those which formed such a marked feature of
Frederick the Great's battles can no 'longer be made after the
infantry troops' have come into contact, they must be prepared
as soon as the necessary information has been obtained. More-
over, nothing must be left to chance, for it can hardly be denied
that if the battle of Gravelotte were to be fought again to-morrow,
the failure to locate the right flank of the French army would
have even more serious consequences than were actually the
case (see METZ: Bailies of 1870). Such mistakes can only be
avoided by obtaining good information, and thus it will be
seen that the chances of bringing off a successful converging
attack are greatly in favour of the commander who is best served
by his cavalry. But, as the opposing forces draw near, a
gradual change comes over the duties of the mounted arm, for
it must then protect the troops in rear from observation, so that
the preparations for envelopment may be concealed. To this
end the occupation of points of tactical vantage, such as hills,
woods and villages, behind which the main army can deploy
or the outflanking columns march in security, becomes its
chief aim. In the next stage, i.e., when one or other army is
forced to stand on the defensive, reconnaissance of the position
held will be the duty of the cavalry of the attack.
So far its functions are clear enough, but when the preparations
for the infantry attack have been completed we have practically
nothing to guide us. Unfortunately the two most recent wars,
in South Africa and Manchuria, have ta.ught us but little of the
handling of cavalry in battle. In South Africa the peculiar
characteristics of the Boers gave no scope for cavalry action;
while in Manchuria the theatre of operations was practically a
defile between the mountains arid the Liao river, which afforded
no room for manoeuvre. With regard to the handling of cavalry
in conjunction with the other arms there is, therefore, more room
for diversity of opinion than is the case with either infantry or
artillery. Time alone will show the real capabilities of the
cavalry of to-day, and the opening battles of the next great
campaign in Europe will bring about many changes. Meanwhile
such experience as we have to guide us seems to indicate that
the development of fire has rendered cavalry, even when highly
trained in the use of the rifle, less capable of acting indepen-
dently against infantry than it was formerly. Throughout the
war in Manchuria, we constantly find the Russian cavalry
reconnaissance checked by Japanese infantry; and on the other
hand the weak Japanese cavalry closely supported by infantry
was fairly effective. The circumstances were of course peculiar,
but the inference appears to be that unsupported mounted
troops cannot be expected to achieve important results except
when acting against similar bodies of the enemy; that is to
say, under conditions which fall outside the province of com-
bined tactics. Moreover, since well-posted infantry can easily
hold in check greatly superior numbers of cavalry, it would
certainly seem that wide tactical movements, intended to
threaten the enemy's line of retreat, are more likely than not to
result in prodigal waste of strength. This being the case it
Artillery
melton.
would seem that the best use of cavalry on the battlefield will
be on the flanks of, and in close touch with, the infantry, where
each arm can render support to the other. On the defensive
the tactical action of cavalry is not less important than on the
offensive. Accompanied and strengthened by horse artillery
it may occupy tactical points either on the flanks of the main
position or thrown out well to the front. Aided by smokeless
powder, magazine rifles and quick-firing guns, numbers may be
concealed and the attacking enemy may be induced to deploy
his troops and to reveal his movements prematurely. Should
he do so, much of his advantage will be gone, for the defender
will be greatly helped in his preparations for the counter-attack,
the most effective weapon at his command.
But when at last the slower moving bodies of infantry and
artillery come into contact, the battle enters upon a new phase.
It has long been recognized that the first step towards the
attainment of fire superiority over a vigilant enemy is a vigorous
artillery bombardment. For many years this action of the
artillery was regarded merely as a preliminary to the infantry
attack; and it was not until the rude awakening of the early
battles of the Boer war, that it was realized in England that
unless the infantry co-operate, the artillery is not likely to
produce any result. If the attacking infantry is kept
at such a distance from the position that it cannot
pass quickly to the assault, the enemy will retain his
troops under cover during the cannonade, perhaps even leaving
his trenches unoccupied, and present no target to the guns.
Indeed, a most instructive instance of this very line of action
is furnished by the battle of Ta-shih-chiao. There the right of
the Russian line was held by the infantry of the ist Siberian
army corps, supported throughout the greater part of the day
by only two batteries of artillery. So heavy was the fire of
the Japanese artillery in this portion of the field that General
Stakelberg, the commander of the Russian corps, sent word to
his superior officer that he had not considered it advisable to
occupy his trenches, and that should he be compelled to do so
his troops must suffer very heavy loss. As things turned out
the Japanese infantry did not deliver any attack against the
Russian right, the defenders remained under cover, and the
losses inflicted by the bombardment were almost negligible.
Other instances might be quoted, but enough has been said to
prove that to render the artillery bombardment effective the
infantry must co-operate; for by this means only will the enemy
be compelled to man his defences, to show himself above his
parapets, and to expose himself to shrapnel fire.
Here arises one of those questions which are the outcome of
modern science, but which have not been finally answered by
modern war. As a result of improved ballistics, better methods
of observation, and perfected methods of communication, it is
now possible for field artillery to make use of indirect fire from
behind cover. Against stationary objects, such as a battery in
action, the results achieved by this method are as good as those
which are obtained by firing directly over the sights. At the
same time the control of indirect fire is slow, and it still remains
to be proved whether it can be used satisfactorily against quickly
moving targets. If it should be found that, in spite of scientific
aids, the artillery of the defence can be made to leave its cover
and to disclose its position by the advance of the infantry, the
importance of the aid which one arm can render to the other
needs no demonstration. After all, however, the silencing of
the guns of the defence is but a means to an end, and the
principal aim of the guns of the attack is to enable the infantry
to get sufficiently close to the position to deliver an assault;
for the infantry assault is the crowning act of battle. Similarly
the gunners of the defence must never forget that their great
object is to repel this same assault. The artillery duel, there-
fore, is but a phase. Sooner or later one side will gain the
upper hand. Then it must be decided whether the inferior
artillery can best serve the interests of the infantry by continuing
the duel, or by ceasing to fire until it can find some more vulner-
able target.
Should the guns of the defence have proved inferior to those
350
TACTICS
of the attack, it will probably be wise for them to wait until the
advancing columns of infantry have deployed; should the
positions be reversed, it will be well for the gunners of the attack
to leave their weapons and to remain under cover until such
time as their opponent is compelled to turn his attention to
repelling the infantry. So great is the power of the modern
rifle and quick-firing gun that infantry, unsupported by artillery,
has but little chance of carrying a position held by determined
men, and it is for this reason, and not with a view to saving their
own lives, that the gunners must reserve themselves until the
last moment. They must be ready and alert when their services
are most required; moreover their final positions should be
selected with a view to keeping up their fire until the last possible
moment. Indeed they must often run the risk of injuring some
of their own troops when firing over their heads. Sometimes
a favourable position may be found for the artillery upon the
flank of the attack. Such positions have a double advantage.
Not only do they bring enfilade or oblique fire to bear upon the
enemy's trenches, but they are able to continue the bombard-
ment much longer than is possible when posted directly in rear
of the assaulting columns. But whatever the position of the
artillery may be, one thing is certain: namely, that the infantry
of the attack can hardly hope to succeed if its own guns have
been disabled while striving to maintain an unequal duel. Thus
in the earlier stages of battle the action of the artillery will
be characterized by a certain degree of prudence. The com-
manders on either side will strive to conceal the numbers and
positions of their batteries, and will not employ more guns than
are absolutely necessary for the attainment of any particular
object they may have in hand. But when the preliminary
stages' are over, and the infantry is finally committed to the
assault, a change must come over the conduct of the artillery.
In this final phase there is no longer room for prudence. In-
direct fire is out of place, and the duty of the guns cannot be
better described than in the words of the French text-books,
" to follow the infantry in a series of rapid advances, by echelons,
without hesitating to come into action within the shortest range
of the hostile infantry." But when the time comes to follow up
the infantry the skill and knowledge of the battery commander
are most highly tried. Concealment is no longer his object, and
he must trust all to his offensive power. To make the most of
this power it is of the first importance that his guns should be
brought at once into positions whence they can be effectively
used; for, quoting again from the French instructions, " con-
siderations of concealment lose their importance for artillery
that is told off to follow up the movements of the infantry. In
this case artillery must not fear to come into action in the open,
although in this situation a battery usually forfeits its freedom
of manoeuvre."
Even the introduction of shielded guns will not affect this loss
of mobility, for batteries which are brought to within effective
rifle range of the defence must expect to lose a considerable
proportion of their horses. Hence it follows that although the
position into which they are brought in support of infantry may
prove to be unsatisfactory it cannot be changed; their assist-
ance will be lost at the most critical moment, with the result
that the attack, deprived of their support, will probably fail.
In France, where artillery tactics have perhaps received even
more attention than in other countries, the necessity for this
close support by guns has been so far recognized that the
batteries of the attack have been divided into two distinct
portions. The duties of one section have already been described.
Those of the second are: — (i) To continue to shell the enemy's
position as long as possible without danger to the advancing
infantry; (2) To engage the hostile infantry " avec la derniere
energie "; (3) To watch carefully for counter-attack.
It is perfectly clear that the performance of these duties,
in fact, the application of the whole principle of co-operation
between infantry and artillery, is intimately connected with the
use of ground. The art of utilizing ground to the best advantage
must therefore be deeply studied. If we look back upon history,
we cannot but be struck by the important part that the apprecia-
tion or neglect of the capacities of the ground has played in
almost every battle. The most brilliant victories have been won
by manoeuvres which, if not suggested by the physical features
of the battlefield, were deprived by the nature of the ground of
half their risk. What was true of Austerlitz and Leuthen is true
of Liao-yang and Mukden. Now, as in the past, battles resolve
themselves into a series of struggles for certain localities, a
methodical progression from point to point, each successive
capture weakening the enemy's position until at last an over-
whelming fire can be brought to bear upon some vital point.
This method of attack is most distinctly seen in siege operations,
such as those round Port Arthur, where the attack closed
gradually in upon the defence until the possession of one or two
points rendered the capture of the place a matter of time alone.
Now the difference between the attack of a fortress and of a
defended position is, in the main, one of degree rather than of
kind. But there is no doubt that the chief point of difference
is often overlooked, both by the amateur and by the uneducated
professional soldier.
In staff rides and in war games, occasionally even in peace
manoeuvres, it is usually assumed that the party who starts
upon the defensive must remain in that unenviable position
throughout. This, however, is not the teaching of history. If
there is one lesson in tactics which stands out more clearly than
all the others which may be learnt from the campaigns of the
great commanders, it is that a defensive attitude should never
be assumed except as a means of passing to the offensive under
more favourable conditions than those which present themselves
at the moment. In siege operations the roles of the
rival forces are more clearly defined; and until the aefeasiye'.
operations are brought to a conclusion the relations
of the two commanders remain unchanged. In the open field
of battle, except in the case of a purely delaying or of a rear-
guard action, this is not the case. There both generals, if they
understand their duties, are always striving to secure the
offensive, for no battle has ever yet been won by purely defensive
tactics. The defensive attitude is, therefore, only a phase of
that manoeuvring to secure the upper hand which begins with
the strategic concentration, almost, one might say, with the
peace organization.
In spite of Moltke's oft-quoted saying that the combination of
the tactical defensive with the strategical offensive is the strongest
form of war, the very fact of one side adopting the defensive
proves, in at least ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, that
in earlier stages of the campaign the enemy has gained an
advantage, either by his numbers, his strategy, or his readiness
to act, which can only be counterbalanced by success in battle.
Other things being equal, the side which is numerically the
weaker is naturally the first to be forced to relinquish the
initiative. But, whatever the cause, the aim of the commander
will be to retrieve his fortunes by a tactical success. Perhaps
the most striking example in history of its accomplishment is
furnished by the campaign and battle of Salamanca. There,
after weeks of marching and counter-marching, Wellington was
finally out-manoeuvred by Marmont and forced to stand and
fight under circumstances by no means favourable to the defence.
His line of communication was in danger, and his trains were
already being hurried to the rear. Then Marmont made a
mistake; and in a few hours the French army was in full re-
treat. Never was the tactical genius of a commander more
dramatically displayed; but we may well ask ourselves whether
under modern conditions similar results would be possible.
The point is, however, that to the true general the purely
defensive battle is unknown; and in place of a single movement
directed by a master mind we shall see in future a series of com-
bats, each with its stroke and counter-stroke, taking place upon
a front extending over many miles of country. Of this type
of battle the Sha-ho is at present the best example. There the
operations opened with an attack against the Japanese right,
which was met by a similar attack delivered by the Japanese
centre and left. A less able commander than Oyama might
have attempted to check Kuropatkin's offensive movement by
TACTICS
reinforcing his own threatened flank; that is to say, that he would
have conformed to the movements of his adversary and per-
mitted him to dictate the course of events. This was not the
Japanese system. Oyama had no intention of fighting a purely
defensive action. He knew that his opponent had massed his
strength upon his left, and it was only reasonable to assume that
if one portion of his line was strong, some other portion must
be weak. The actual point first selected by Oyama for decisive
attack was the centre of Kuropatkin's line. This effort failed,
and the scales were ultimately turned by an almost unexpected
success against the Russian right. The resulting victory was
certainly less complete than would have been the case had the
Japanese commander been able to carry through his original
plan, but it is obvious that a force operating against the centre
of a hostile line must itself be in danger of envelopment; and
in this case it is interesting to note that the battle was really
decided by an outflanking movement by a weak force, while the
central attack in considerable strength achieved but little.
Oyama's conduct of this battle has been much criticized. By some
writers he has been blamed for leaving his own defensive line too
weak; by others he has been accused of attempting too much.
These are difficult questions, requiring detailed examination;
for the present it is sufficient to note that, although inferior in
numbers, he succeeded in accomplishing an enveloping movement
which forced his enemy to retire. The fact is that by superior
skill, although actually inferior in numbers, he succeeded in
placing more rifles in the firing line than did his opponent.
During a great part of this struggle, which lasted for five days,
it would be difficult to say which side was on the defensive
and which on the offensive. No doubt at the commencement
Kuropatkin was the assailant; it is equally certain that in the
end it was Oyama who attacked; yet it would be impossible
to say, as at Austerlitz and Salamanca, exactly at what moment
the r61es were exchanged.
If then we are justified in assuming that in the great battles
of the future neither army will be acting entirely on the offensive
or entirely on the defensive, it may seem idle to speculate as to
whether the recent improvements in firearms and ballistics are
in favour of one side or the other. In this connexion the lessons
which may be learned from the South African and the Russo-
Japanese wars are most instructive. After the former it was
often urged that the conditions of modern battle are distinctly
in favour of defensive tactics; in other words, that the force
which awaits attack can develop the full power of each arm with
greater facility than that which delivers it. This contention
had much to support it, but it was not always realized that any-
thing which gives new strength to the defence must at the same
time add something to the advantages of the army which attacks.
The outcome of the improvements in rifles, guns and powder
is that far fewer men are required to hold a definite position
than of old. To a certain extent this favours the defence. A
much larger proportion of the available troops can be set free to
act in reserve, and to deliver the counter-stroke, i.e. a mueh
larger number than formerly can be employed by the defenders
in attack. This is to the good. But the assailant profits in
almost equal ratio. His strength has always lain in power of
manoeuvring, of hiding his movements, and of massing suddenly
against some weak point. To-day this power is greater than
ever before. The increased power of the rifle renders it com-
paratively easy for him to form an impenetrable barrier with
part of his force, perhaps with his cavalry supported only by a
small proportion of his infantry, behind which the remainder
can move unobserved. Moreover, the object of the assailant's
manoeuvres will be to place portions of his forces on the flank
or flanks of the position he is attacking. If he can accomplish
this, the effect, moral and physical, of the enfilade fire which is
brought to bear upon the enemy's front will be far greater than
that which attended a similar operation when fire was of less
account. In addition to this increased facility for manoeuvre,
the great strength of the local defensive confers upon the assail-
ant the power of denuding certain portions of his line of troops,
in order that he may mass them for offensive action elsewhere.
Here again the study of ground and a true knowledge of the
capabilities of the various arms are of supreme importance. Well-
placed artillery, aided by machine guns, may enable a compara-
tively weak force of infantry to hold a wide extent of front,
provided that each arm is able to use its strength to the fullest
extent. In this way the skilful commander can turn each
feature of the battlefield to account and can release a greater
number of his troops for the all-important enveloping move-
ments. It was just this power which enabled Oyama to outflank
the Russian XVII. Corps at the battle of Sha-ho, for he was
able to weaken his own right to an extent which a very few
years ago would have been impossible. In short, the process of
envelopment is more easy than it used to be; and envelopment,
which means that the enemy is under fire from several directions,
is much more effective now than in the past.
In Germany this fact has long been recognized, and it was for
this reason that German soldiers refused to accept the con-
clusions at which many English military critics arrived after
the South African war. Under the influence of their German
teachers the Japanese never hesitated to attack, even with
inferior numbers, and to make the envelopment of the enemy
more certain they went into battle practically without reserves.
In this respect the war in Manchuria marks an epoch in the
history of tactics; and for that reason, if for no other, it should
be carefully studied. Moreover, it emphasizes an important
difference in the handling of large and small armies which is of
quite recent origin. Until a few years ago all continental
armies were organized in army corps. These corps were com-
posed of two or three infantry divisions with a large body of
corps troops, principally artillery. Now the raison d'etre of
this artillery was to form the nucleus of a reserve which could be
retained under the hand of the corps commander to be used as
required. That is to drive home the infantry attack, to deliver
or repel a counter-attack, or, but very sparingly, to strengthen
a weak point in the defensive line. With the development of
the enveloping battle, it was soon realized in Germany that
corps artillery was an anachronism, for the distances
are now so great that reserve artillery can hardly c<"*" ttad
be moved to the particular part of the battlefield ,,£111°™
where its services are required in time to be of any
use. Thus the corps artillery was first split up among the
divisions, and soon a number of divisional reserves took the
place of the great central body, while the corps commander
retained a comparatively small number of troops under his
own hand. In this way the control of the supreme commander
over the course of the battle is greatly weakened and the chance
of correcting any error in the original plan is diminished. It
had long been realized that errors in the strategic deployment
of troops were almost impossible to correct; and now it came
to be seen that this was equally true of the tactical deployment.
Just as under modern conditions even Napoleon could hardly
have recovered from errors like those which marked the opening
phases of the Eckmiihl campaign (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS),
so the most brilliant genius will no longer be sufficient to win
battles if the original plan is not correct. It was upon this
theory that the Japanese commanders planned their battles,
and it was very soon proved that they had the courage of their
convictions. For the first time it was seen that battles were no
longer won by the general who husbanded his reserves, but by
him who first got every available man into the firing line. But,
while giving Oyama, Kuroki, Oku and the others every credit
for the strength of mind which enabled them to divest them-
selves of reserves when their battles were far from being won,
we must also remember that they were fighting an enemy who,
like the Boers, were incapable of organizing a really decisive
counter-stroke. For English soldiers this point has a peculiar
interest, as it has a very distinct bearing upon the tactics of our
own army. From what has already been said it is, or should
be, clear that the value of numbers upon the battlefield is greater
now than formerly; for, granting that the leadership on either
side is equally skilful, the chances of envelopment are in favour
of him who commands the greater number of men. Owing
352
TACTICS
to our geographical position and to the conditions under which
we live, the number of British troops available for employment
in any war against a continental Power will almost certainly
be inferior to that which can be employed against us. It is
of course true that we should never engage in operations on the
continent of Europe except in alliance with some other Power;
but it is quite possible that the British army might be entrusted
with the execution of some definite task which, while part of
a general strategical scheme, would involve completely inde-
pendent action. It is under such circumstances as these that
we must be prepared to encounter troops which in leadership
and training will be at least the equal of our own, and in numbers
will probably be superior to them. In these circumstances our
chances of envelopment will not be great, but this must by no
means be taken to mean that our chances of success are to be
despaired of. Far from it. In the first place strategy may
induce the enemy temporarily to divide his forces, and thus to
afford favourable opportunity for an effective blow. Failing
this, it remains to be considered how a general may best employ
inferior numbers with a reasonable hope of gaining a tactical
victory. To this the answer must be that his best, indeed his
only, chance of victory lies in the counter-stroke.
In France this fact has received due recognition, and since
that country is in the unfortunate position of having to be
prepared to encounter superior numbers, the training and
organization of her armies differ essentially from those of her
most formidable neighbour. Acknowledging that at the outset
of a war she must be placed at a grave disadvantage, she strives
The to develop her power of manoeuvre and of delivering
counter- a strategic counter-stroke. With this object her
stroke- armies move in deep formations on a comparatively
narrow front, covered by strong advanced guards. Thus, in
the earlier stages, they are much less committed to a definite
line of action than are armies moving upon a widely extended
front, and, provided intelligence is received in time, they can
be massed quickly against the enemy's flanks. Similarly in
the later stages she trusts to the tactical counter-stroke, and
hence the corps artillery, which has been abandoned in Germany
for reasons which have already been given, is still retained in
France.
In the foregoing pages the question was raised as to whether
the great tactical counter-strokes of the past are still possible
under modern conditions. Unfortunately the battles in Man-
churia afford no instance of a successful counter-stroke, for the
Sha-ho is more an example of an encounter action than of
a carefully conceived counter-attack. In these circumstances
we are forced to rely upon theory; but theory based upon a
correct understanding of the past should form no uncertain
guide to the practice of the future. What then are the principles
upon which our theory is to be based? First, that the defensive
battle is only a step towards assuming the offensive. Secondly,
that the only means of assuming the offensive with success is
the counter-stroke. Thirdly, that the counter-stroke, in at
least nine cases out of every ten, should aim at the envelopment
of the attack. From these premises it follows that the most
effective form of the defensive battle will be that which compels
the enemy to deploy his forces and then uses the reserve to
envelop one or both of his flanks. Since, however, modern
battles are fought over a very wide extent of front, it necessarily
follows that the possibility which the defence possesses of
successfully enveloping the attack must depend to a very great
extent upon the correct disposal of the reserves when drawing
up the original line of battle. Just as the chances of making
the best u?e of superior number in the attack depend upon
a correct strategical deployment at the commencement of a
campaign, so the chances of a successful counter-stroke depend
upon a correct distribution of troops at the commencement of
an action. Hence we see that the most important point which
a general who finds himself compelled to take up a defensive
position has to decide is where to place those troops by whose
aid he hopes eventually to seize the offensive. One thing is
clear, namely, that the worst place for men who are destined
to envelop one or other flank of the attack must be behind the
centre of the defensive line. Time alone must render such a
position unsuitable, for it must entail a march of many hours,
if not of days, before the troops can reach the point from which
they are to be launched to the attack. This being so, it would
seem that the right place for the general reserve of the defending
army under modern conditions must be on one or other of the
flanks; and, always bearing in mind that the chief object to be
attained is regaining the initiative, we are driven to the con-
clusion that the best place is that flank from which an effective
blow can be dealt at the assailant's most vulnerable point, that
is to say, at the flank through which his line of communication
may be most easily attained. If this theory be correct, yet
another point has been established, namely, that the main
plan of the decisive counter-stroke must be decided before,
and not after, the first shot in the general engagement has been
fired. Under the conditions which obtain to-day it is no use
waiting for the enemy to make a mistake, for the odds against
it being detected are great. A hundred years ago armies
manoeuvred in full view of one another, and mistakes could be
perceived by every company officer on either side. Now all
this is changed, and the difficulties of the defence are increased
by the fact that although the attack may make many blunders,
it will do so at such a distance from the defence as to render
them comparatively secure from detection. Having prepared
his counter-stroke, the chief point towards which the commander
of the defence must direct his attention after battle has been
joined, is the exact moment at which it should be delivered.
Needless to say that the chances of success will be enormously
increased if the counter-stroke is unexpected, for in war the
demands which surprise makes upon moral are quite out of
proportion with the physical danger which men are called upon
to undergo. If then defence is ever to be converted into attack,
it would appear: (i) That the counter-stroke must be carefully
planned, and must form an integral part of the original scheme
of defence. (2) That it must be properly directed. (3) That
it must be correctly timed. (4) That if possible it must come
as a surprise. Of these conditions, the first three are dependent
for their fulfilment upon good information, careful preparation,
and correct appreciation of the enemy's plans; but it is in the
fourth that the inspiration of the really great commander will
be most conspicuously displayed on the day of battle, and the
greater the numbers under his command the more difficult his
task must be.
When, as at the Sha-ho and Mukden, the troops on either
side are numbered by hundreds of thousands, the commander-
in-chief cannot hope to keep the direction of events in his own
hands for very long; but when tens of thousands only are
engaged, the whole battle can be controlled as well now as in
the past. The extent of front will certainly be greater than it
was formerly, but against this may be set the fact that improved
communications by telegraph and telephone enable the com-
mander to keep in touch with events in a manner which until
recently was quite impossible. It is for this reason that the
earlier and smaller battles of the Russo-Japanese War contain
many lessons which are of more use to British soldiers than are
those which may be learned from the great struggles which took
place later on. But in all battles, whether great or small, the
first requirement is a commander who possesses sufficient stead-
fastness of character to carry out on the day of battle the plans
he has formed beforehand. War is like a game of bridge, for the
most successful player is not he who best remembers the fall
of the cards or who knows the correct leads by heart, but he
who can decide upon and carry out the plan best suited to the
strength of his hand. In both cases a bad plan is better than
none, and vacillation even between two good plans is fatal.
In both cases side issues are constantly arising which
tend to obscure the main issue. On the battlefield
these side issues take the form of appeals for assist-
ance from various quarters, all of which must tempt the supreme
commander to weaken the general reserve which has been
set aside for his decisive stroke. To such appeals he must turn
TADPOLE
353
a deaf ear, confident in the knowledge that the best way of
assisting his sorely-pressed troops is by a vigorous blow at his
enemy's weakest spot. Hence it follows that the force which
is to deliver the blow must be kept perfectly distinct from the
local reserves under subordinate commanders, which are held
in readiness to strengthen weak places in the defensive line, or
to deliver local counter-attacks. It also follows that this force
must comprise every man who can be spared from the passive
portion of the defence, and that to produce the fullest results
there must be complete co-operation between the three arms.
It is here, in all probability, that cavalry will find its oppor-
tunity. On the one hand, the cavalry of the attack will strive
to locate the hostile reserve which is preparing to deliver a
counter-attack ; failing this it will protect the flanks of its own
infantry, ready to move to any threatened point and to assist
with dismounted fire in repelling the advancing lines when the
necessity arises. On the other hand, the cavalry of the defence
will strive to conceal the movements of its own general reserve
and will locate the flanks of the infantry against which the
counter-attack is to be directed. The share of the artillery in
this stage of the battle is sufficiently apparent, and it is obvious
that the chances of success of one side or the other must depend
largely upon the skill and self-sacrifice of the gunners. Should
the commander of the defence, aided by his cavalry, have been
successful in effecting a surprise, his chances of victory will
be further increased if his infantry is supported closely by the
artillery. Much also must depend upon the handling of the
artillery which has suddenly been thrown upon the defensive.
If the battery leaders are quick to realize the changed situation
and to pick up new targets, perhaps leaving covered positions
and firing over the sights, all may yet be well; but it is certain
that if the surprise has really been complete the infantry will
require all the assistance it can possibly derive from the other
arms in order to avert defeat.
One more point remains to be noted. Since the object of
tactics is to win battles, every effort should be directed to that
single end. If certain formations are adopted with a view to
avoiding losses, it must only be in order that more men may
be brought up to the decisive point. The same principle holds
good with regard to what are known as holding, or secondary,
attacks whose role is frequently misunderstood. Indeed the
names themselves are misleading, for they inevitably convey
the impression that the duty of winning has been entrusted to
some other body. For this reason the commander is apt to
consider that he has fulfilled his task if he succeeds in getting
to within reasonably close range of the enemy's position, where
he can remain without suffering undue loss. Far from this
being the case, the fact is that against an able opponent an
attack of this nature is useless, for he will very soon detect
which is the real and which is the secondary attack,
attacks. an(^ unless the two are pushed with equal vigour he
will disregard the one and turn all his attention to the
other. It may even happen that he will be able to take troops
from that portion of his line which is only threatened and place
them where he is really pressed, or even utilize them in counter-
attack. In such a case it may happen that the so-called " hold-
ing " attack may itself be held by less than its own numbers,
while the main attack is suffering defeat in some other quarter
of the field. Here again there is much to be learnt from the
past; and for the true conduct of these feint attacks we need
not go outside the history of our own army. Many instances
might be quoted, but none are more to the point than that of
the assaulting columns at the capture of Badajoz. On that
memorable occasion the British troops were divided into five
columns, three of which were vainly hurled against the great
breaches which had been made in the walls. But what the
main assaults failed to do was accomplished by the attacks from
which least had been expected; and Philippon with his gallant
defenders was forced to surrender by the loss of the San Vincente
bastion and the castle of San Roque, which had been considered
to be impregnable. This is the spirit which must imbue the
infantryman, the cavalryman, and the artilleryman alike. For
XXVI. 12
without the fighting spirit, neither generalship, formations, nor
weapons can prevail. (N. M.*)
TADPOLE, a term often, but wrongly, applied indiscriminately
to all Batrachian larvae. It is absurd to call the larva of a newt
or of a Caecilian a tadpole, nor is the free-swimming embryo
of a frog as it leaves the egg a tadpole. A tadpole is the larva
of a tailless Batrachian after the loss of the external gills and
before the egress of the fore limbs (except in the aberrant
Xenopus) and the resorption of the tail. What characterizes a
tadpole is the conjoined globular head and body, so formed
that it is practically impossible to discern the limit between
the two, sharply set off from the more or less elongate com-
pressed tail which is the organ of propulsion. In describing
tadpoles, the term " body " is therefore used as meaning head
and body. The tail consists of a fleshy muscular portion bordered
above and below by membranous expansions, termed respectively
the upper and lower crest, the former sometimes extending along
the body.
Except in a few aberrant types, which are mentioned below,
the mouth is surrounded by a much developed lip like a funnel
directed downwards, and is armed with a horny beak not unlike
that of a cuttle-fish. The characters offered by the circular lip
are among the most important for the distinction of species.
It may be entirely bordered by fleshy papillae, or these may be
restricted to the sides, or to the sides and the lower border.
Its inner surface is furnished with ridges beset with series of
minute, bristle-like, erect, horny teeth, each of which, when
strongly magnified, is seen to be formed of a column of super-
posed cones, hollowed out at the base and capping each other;
the summit or crown of each of these cones is expanded, spatu-
late, hooked backwards, and often multicuspid. The number
of these columns is very great. F. E. Schulze has counted as
many as noo in the lip of Pelobates fuscus. The beak is made
up of horny elements, like the labial teeth, fused together; its
edge, when sufficiently magnified, is seen to be denticulate, each
denticle representing the cusp of a single tooth. The gills, borne
on four arches, are internal and enclosed in the branchial
chambers. The arches bear on the convex outer side the
delicate arborescent gills, and on the concave inner side develop
a membrano'us septum with vermicular perforations, a special
sifting or filtering contrivance through which the water
absorbed by the mouth has to pass before reaching the respira-
tory organs of the branchial apparatus.
The water is expelled from the branchial chambers by one or
two tubes opening by one orifice in most Batrachians. This
orifice is the spiraculum, which is lateral, on the left side of the
body, in most tadpoles, but median, on the breast or belly, in
those of the Discoglossidae and of some of the Engystomalidae.
All tadpoles are provided with more or less distinct lines of
muciferous sensory crypts or canals, which stand in immediate
relation to the nerve branches and are regarded as organs of a
special sense possessed by aquatic vertebrates, feeling, in its
broadest sense, having been admitted as their possible use,
and the function of determining waves of vibration in the
aqueous medium having been suggested. In addition to these
lines, all tadpoles show more or less distinctly a small whitish
gland in the middle of the head between the eyes, the so-called
frontal gland or pineal gland, which in early stages is connected
with the brain. A glandular streak extending from the nostril
towards the eye is the lachrymal canal. The eyes are devoid
of lids.
Owing to more or less herbivorous habits, the intestine is
exceedingly elongate and much convoluted, being several times
larger and of a greater calibre than after the metamorphosis.
Its opening, the vent, is situated either on the middle line at
the base of the tail, or on the right side, as if to balance the.
sinistral position of the spiraculum. The tail varies much in
length and shape according to the species; sometimes it is
rounded at the end, sometimes more or less acutely pointed, or
even terminating in a filament. The skeleton is cartilaginous,
and the skull is remarkable for the very elongate suspensorium
of the lower jaw; the tail remains in the notochordal condition,
354
TAEL— TAFT, W. H.
no cartilages being formed in this organ, which is destined to
disappear with the gills. The hind limbs appear as buds at
the base of the tail, and gradually attain their full development
during the tadpole life. The fore limbs grow simultaneously,
and even more rapidly, but remain concealed within a diverti-
culum of the branchial chambers until fully formed, when they
burst through the skin (unless the left spiraculum be utilized
for the egress of the corresponding limb).
The above description applies to all European and North American
tadpoles, and to the great majority of those known from the tropics.
The following types are exceptional.
The circular lip is extremely developed in Megalophrys montana,
and its funnel-shaped expansion, beset on the inner side with
radiating series of horny teeth, acts as a surface-float, when the
tadpole rests in a vertical position; the moment the tadpole sinks
in the water the funnel collapses, taking on the form of a pair of
horns, curling backwards along the side of the head; but, as they
touch the surface again, it re-expands into a regular parachute.
In some species of Rana and Staurois inhabiting mountainous
districts in south-eastern Asia, the larvae are adapted for life in
torrents, being provided with a circular adhesive disk on the ventral
surface behind the mouth, by means of which they are able to anchor
themselves to stones.
In some Indian and Malay Engystomatids of the genera Callula
and Microhyla, the tadpoles are remarkably transparent, and differ
markedly in the structure of the buccal apparatus. There is no
funnel-shaped lip, nc horny teeth, and no beak. The spiraculum
is median and opens far back, in front of the vent.
In the Aglossal Xenopus, the tadpoles are likewise devoid of
circular lip, horny teeth, and beak, and they are further remarkable
in the following respects: There is a long tentacle or barbel on
each side of the mouth, which appears to represent the " balancer "
of Urpdele larvae; the spiraculum is paired, one on each side; the
fore limbs develop externally, like the hind limbs.
Some tadpoles reach a very great size. The largest, that of
Pseudis paradoxa, may measure a foot, the body being as large
as a turkey's egg. The perfect frog, after transformation, is
smaller than the larva. Pseudis was first described by Marie
Sibylle de Merian (1647-1717), in her work on the fauna of
Surinam (published first in 1705 at Amsterdam, republished in
Latin in 1719), as a frog changing into a fish. Among European
forms, some tadpoles of Pelobates attain a length of seven inches,
the body being of the size of a hen's egg. The tadpole of the
North American bull-frog measures six inches, and that of the
Chilian Calyptocephalus gayi seven and a half inches.
AUTHORITIES. — L. F. Heron-Royer and C. Van Bambeke, " Le
vestibule de la bouche chez les tltards des batraciens anoures
d'Europe," Arch. Biol., ix. 1889, p. 185; F. E. Schulze, " Uber die
inneren Kiemen der Batrachierlarven," Abh. Ak. Berl., 1888 and
1892; G. A. Boulenger, "A Synopsis of the Tadpoles of the
European Batrachians," P.Z.S., 1891, p. 593; F. E. Beddard,
" Notes upon the Tadpole of Xenopus laevis," P.Z.S., 1894, p. 101 ;
S. Flower, " Batrachians of the Malay Peninsula and Siam," P.Z.S.,
1899, p. 885; H. S. Ferguson, "Travancore Batrachians," /. Bombay
N.H. Soc., xv. 1904, p. 499. (G. A. B.)
TAEL (Malay tail, tahil, weight, probably connected with
Hind, tola, weight), the name current in European usage for
the Chinese Hang or ounce, the Hang of fine uncoined silver being
the monetary unit throughout the Chinese empire. The tael is
not a coin, the only silver currency, apart from imported dollars,
being the ingots of silver known as " sycee "; the only other
native currency is the copper " cash." As a money of account
the tael is divided into 10 mace (tsien), 100 conderin or candereen
(fun), loco li. The value varies with the price of silver. The
" Haikwan tael," i.e. the custom-house tael, that in which
duties are paid to the Imperial Maritime Customs, is a weight of
58-77 grains Troy, the value of which varies; thus it was
reckoned at 33. ^d. in 1905, 33. 3^d. in 1906, 35. 3d. in 1907,
and 2s. 8d. in 1908 (see CHINA: § Finance).
TAENIA (Gr. raivia, ribbon, fillet), the term in architecture
given to the projecting fillet which crowns the architrave of the
Greek Doric order.
TAFILALT, or TAFILET (i.e. " The Country of the Filali,"
as its inhabitants are called, because descended from the Arabian
tribe of Hilal, settled here in the nth century), the most impor-
tant oasis of the Moroccan Sahara, ten days' journey south of
Fez, across the Atlas. It is celebrated for its large and luscious
dates, to the successful cultivation of which, soon after the
arrival of an ancestor of the reigning dynasty of Morocco
(hence called the Filali Sharifs, i.e. descendants of Mahomet)
circ. A.D. 1250, this dynasty owes its rise to power. Since 1648
it has been the custom of Moorish sultans to despatch superfluous
sons and daughters to Tafilalt, and as the males are aU sharifs,
the fanaticism against Europeans is comprehensible. Instead
of living in towns its bellicose inhabitants occupy isolated
fortified buildings, and are constantly at war. In Ifli, the
central portion, formerly existed the town of Sagilmasa, founded
by Miknisa Berbers in 757 B.C. It was on the direct caravan
route from the Niger to Tangier, and attained a considerable
degree of prosperity. It was destroyed at the end of the nth
century, but its ruins still extend five miles along the river bank.
The first European to visit Tafilalt was Rene Caillie (1828), the
next Gerhard Rohlfs (1864). A later visit to the oasis by W. B.
Harris is described in his book Tafilet (London, 1895).
TAFT, LOR A DO (1860- ), American sculptor, was born
at Elmwood, Illinois, on the 29th of April 1860. He graduated
from the University of Illinois in 1879, and from 1880 to 1883
studied in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. In 1886 he became
instructor at the Art Institute, Chicago, lecturing there, at
the Chicago University, and elsewhere in the United States.
He is the author of an exhaustive and authoritative work, The
History of American Sculpture (1903). Among his works, in
addition to much portraiture, are: " Sleep of the Flowers " and
" Awakening of the Flowers," both made for the Columbian
Exposition; "Despair" (1898); "Solitude of the Soul"
(1900), and " Fountain of the Lakes " (1903).
TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD (1857- ), the twenty-seventh
President of the United States, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio,
on the isth of September 1857. His father, Alphonso Taft
(1810-1891), born in Townshend, Vermont, graduated at Yale
College in 1833, became a tutor there, studied law at the Yale
Law School, was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1838,
removed to Cincinnati in 1839, and became one of the most
influential citizens of Ohio. He served as judge of the Superior
Court (1865-72), as secretary of war (1876) and as attorney-
general of the United States (1876-77) in President Grant's
cabinet; and as minister to Austria-Hungary (1882-84) and
to Russia (1884-85).
William Howard Taft attended the public schools of Cincinnati,
graduated at the Woodward High School of that city in 1874,
and in the autumn entered Yale College, where he took high
rank as a student and was prominent in athletics and in the
social life of the institution. He graduated second (salutatorian)
in his class in 1878, and began to study law in Cincinnati College,
where he graduated in 1880, dividing the first prize for scholar-
ship. He was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1880. For a few
months he worked as a legal reporter for the Cincinnati Times
(owned by his brother C. P. Taft), and then for the Cincinnati
Commercial. Early in 1881 he was appointed assistant prose-
cuting attorney of Hamilton county (in which Cincinnati is
situated), but resigned in 1882 on being appointed collector of
internal revenue of the United States for the first district of
Ohio. The work was distasteful, however, and in 1883 he
resigned to return to the law. From 1885 to 1887 he served as,
assistant solicitor of Hamilton county, and in the latter year
was appointed judge of the Superior Court of Ohio to fill a
vacancy. He was elected by the people in the next year and
served until 1890, when he was appointed solicitor-general of
the United States by President Benjamin Harrison. His work
in connexion with the drafting of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act
and with the Bering Sea controversy attracted attention. In
1892 he was appointed a judge of the Sixth Circuit, United States
Court, and became known as a fearless administrator of the
law. Several decisions were particularly objectionable to
organized labour. The first of these, decided in 1890, upheld
the verdict of a jury awarding damages to the Moores Lime
Company, which had sustained a secondary boycott because it
had sold material to a contractor who had been boycotted by
Bricklayers' Union No. i. The second decision grew out of the
attempt of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers to prevent
TAGANROG
355
other roads from accepting freight from the Toledo, Ann Arbor
& North Michigan railroad, against which a " legal " strike had
been declared. Judge Taft granted an injunction (7th March
1893) against the Pennsylvania railroad, making P. M. Arthur,
chief of the Brotherhood, a party, and called Rule 12, forbidding
engineers to haul the freight, criminal. During the great railway
strikes of 1894 Eugene V. Debs, president of the American Railwa y
Union, sent one Frank W. Phelan to tie up traffic in and around
Cincinnati. The receiver of the Cincinnati, New Orleans &
Texas Pacific railway applied for an injunction against Phelan
and others, which was granted. Phelan disobeyed the injunction
and on the i3th of July 1894 was sentenced to jail for six months
for contempt. The doctrine that " the starvation of a nation
cannot be the lawful purpose of a combination " was announced,
and Judge Taft said further that " if there is any power in the
army cf the United States to run those trains, the trains will
be run." In 1896-1900 Judge Taft was professor and dean of
the law department of the University of Cincinnati.
A movement to elect Mr Taft president of Yale University
gained some strength in 1898-99, but was promptly checked
by him, on the ground that the head of a great university should
be primarily an educationalist. In 1900 he was asked by
President McKinley to accept the presidency of the Philippine
Commission charged with the administration of the islands.
Though he had been opposed to the acquisition of the Philippines,
he did not believe that the inhabitants were capable of self-
government, and he foresaw some of the difficulties of the
position. Yielding, however, to the urgent request of the
president and his cabinet, he accepted and served from the
I3th of March 1900 to the ist of February 1904. On the
establishment of civil government in the islands, on the 4th of
July 1901, he became governor, ex officio. The task of construct-
ing a system of government from the bottom, of reconciling the
conflicting and often jealously sensitive elements, called for
tact, firmness, industry and deep insight into human nature,
all of which Governor Taft displayed in a marked degree. (See
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.) The religious orders had been driven
out during the insurrection, but held title to large tracts of land
which many Filipinos and some Americans wished to confiscate.
This delicate matter was arranged by Mr Taft in a personal
interview with Pope Leo XIII. in the summer of 1902. The
pope sent a special delegate to appraise the lands, and the sum
of $7,239,000 was paid in December 1903. Mr Taft gained
great influence among the more conservative Filipinos, and
their entreaties to him to remain influenced him to decline the
offer of a place upon the Supreme bench offered by President
Roosevelt in 1902.
Finally, feeling that his work was accomplished, Mr. Taft
returned to the United States to become secretary of war from
the ist of February 1904. With a party of congressmen he
visited the Philippines on a tour of inspection July-September
1905, and in September 1906, on the downfall of the Cuban
republic and the intervention of America, he took temporary
charge of affairs in that island (September-October) . In the next
year (March-April) he inspected the Panama Canal and also
visited Cuba and Porto Rico. He again visited the Philippines
to open the first legislative assembly (i6th October 1907), and
returned by way .of the Trans-Siberian railway. On this tour
he visited Japan, and on the 2nd of October, at Tokyo, made a
speech which had an important effect in quieting the appre-
hensions of the Japanese on the score of the treatment of their
people on the Pacific coast.
With the approach of the presidential election of 1908,
President Roosevelt reiterated his pledge not to accept another
nomination, and threw his immense influence in favour of Mr
Taft. At the Republican convention held in Chicago, in June,
Mr Taft was nominated on the first ballot, receiving 702 out of
980 votes cast. James S. Sherman of New York was nominated
for Vice-President. During the campaign many prominent
labour leaders opposed the election of Mr Taft, on the ground
that his decisions while on the bench had been unfriendly to
organized labour. In the campaign Mr Taft boldly defended
his course from the platform, and apparently lost few votes on
account of this opposition. At the ensuing election in November,
Taft and Sherman received 321 electoral votes against 162 cast
for William Jennings Bryan_and John W. Kern, the.Democratic
candidates.
In his inaugural address (4th March 1909) President Taft
announced himself as favouring the maintenance and enforce-
ment of the reforms initiated by President Roosevelt (including
a strict enforcement of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, an effective
measure for railway rate regulation, and the policy of conserva-
tion of natural resources) ; the revision of the tariff on the basis
of affording protection to American manufactures equal to the
difference between home and foreign cost of production; a
graduated inheritance tax; a strong navy as the best guarantee
of peace; postal savings banks; free trade with the Philippine
Islands; and mail subsidies for American ships. He also
announced his hope to bring about a better understanding
between the North and the South, and to aid in the solution of
the negro problem. In accordance with his pre-election pledge,
Congress was called to meet in extra session on the isth of March
to revise the tariff. Hearings had been previously held by the
Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives,
and a measure was promptly reported. After passing the
House it was sent to the Senate, where it was much changed.
The final Payne-Aldrich Act was approved by the President on
the 5th of August 1909, though in many respects it was not the
measure he desired. The wish to meet people of the different
sections of the country and to explain his position upon the
questions of the day led the President to begin (i4th September
1909), a tour which included the Pacific coast, the South-west,
the Mississippi Valley and the South Atlantic states, and during
which he travelled 13,000 miles and made 266 speeches.
Mr Taft delivered the Dodge lectures at Yale University in 1906
on the Responsibilities of Citizenship,) published as Four Aspects
of Civic Duty (1906). Some of his political speeches have been
published under the titles Present Day Problems (1908), and PolticioJ
Issues and Outlooks (1909).
TAGANROG, a seaport of southern Russia, on the N. shore of
the Sea of Azov, in the Don Cossacks territory, some 170 m.
S.E. of the town of Ekaterinoslav. It is built principally of
wood, stands on a low cape, and has the aspect of an important
commercial city. The imperial palace, where Alexander I.
died in 1825, and the Greek monastery (under the patriarch
of Jerusalem) are worthy of notice. Statues of Alexander I.
(1830) and Peter the Great (1903) adorn the town. In the
i3th century Pisan merchants founded there a colony, Portus
Pisanus, which, however, soon disappeared during the migra-
tions of the Mongols and Turks. An attempt to obtain pos-
session of the promontory was made by Peter the Great, but it
was not definitely annexed by the Russians until seventy years
afterwards (1769). The commercial importance of the town
dates from the second half of the I9th century; in 1870 its
population had risen to 38,000, and after it was brought into
railway connexion with Kharkov and Voronezh, and thus with
the fertile provinces of south and south-east Russia, the increase
was still more rapid, the number reaching 56,047 in 1885, and
58,928 in 1900 — Greeks, Jews, Armenians and West-Europeans
being important elements. The town was bombarded and in
part destroyed by an Anglo-French fleet in May 1855. Taganrog
is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has
tanneries, tallow works and tobacco manufactures. The road-
stead is very shallow, and exposed to winds which cause great
variations in the height of the water; it is, moreover, rapidly
silting up. At the quay the depth of water is only 8 to 9 feet,
and large ships have to lie 5 to 13 miles from the town. More-
over, the port is closed by ice three to four months in the year.
Notwithstanding the disadvantages of its open roadstead, the
foreign trade has rapidly expanded, the annual value of the
exports having increased from 6J millions sterling in 1899 to
over 10 millions sterling in 1904. The chief article of export
being corn, the trade of the city is subject to great fluctuations.
Linseed and other oil-bearing grains are also important articles
356
TAGES— TAHITI
of commerce, as well as wool and butter. The imports, which
consist chiefly of machinery, fruits (dried and fresh), wine,
oil and textiles, do not much exceed half a million sterling
annually.
TAGES (Tdges), a minor Etruscan deity, grandson of Jupiter,
and founder of the art of divination in Etruria. According to
the story, during the ploughing of a field near Tarquinii a being
of boyish appearance sprang out of the furrow. The shouts of
the ploughman (Tarchon) brought to the spot all the people
of Etruria, whom the boy proceeded to instruct in the art of
divination. Having done this, he suddenly disappeared. His
instructions were for some time handed down orally, but were
subsequently committed to writing, and formed the twelve books
of Tages, containing a complete system of Etruscan lore.
See Cicero, De Div. ii. 23 ; Ovid, Metam. xv. 553 1 Festus, s.v. ;
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. i. ch. 12.
TAGLIACOZZI, GASPARO (1546-1599), Italian surgeon, was-
born at Bologna in 1546, and studied at that university under
Cardan, taking his degree in philosophy and medicine at the
age of twenty-four. He was appointed professor of surgery and
afterwards of anatomy, and achieved notoriety at least, and the
fame of a wonder-worker. He died at Bologna on the 7th of
November 1599.
His principal work is entitled De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem
Libri Duo (Venice, I597i fol.,; it was reprinted in the following
year under the title of Chirurgia Nova de Narium, Aurium, Labior-
umque Defectu per Insitionem Cutis ex Humero, arte hactenus omnibus
ignota, sarciendo (Frankfort, 1598, 8vo).
TAGLIACOZZO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province
of Aquila, 56 m. by rail E.N.E. of Rome, and 10 m. W. of
Avezzano. Pop. (1901) 4517 (town); 9061 (commune). It
lies 2428 ft, above sea-level, at the mouth of the deep ravine of
the Imele. It contains several old churches, notably S. Fran-
cesco, with a fine rose window in the fagade, and medieval
houses. The palace, built at the end of the i4th century by
the Orsini, is fine. The place was given to the Colonna family
in 1526. At the end of 1268 a battle took place here between
Conradin of Hohenstaufen and Charles of Anjou, which resulted
in the defeat of Conradin and his execution.
TAGLIONI, MARIA (1804-1884), Italian ballet dancer,
daughter of Filippo Taglioni (1777-1871), master of the ballet
at Stockholm, Cassel, Vienna and Warsaw, was born at Stock-
holm on the 23rd of April 1804. She was trained by her father,
who is said to have been pitilessly severe. It was to his care
and her own special talent for dancing that she owed her success,
for she possessed no remarkable personal attraction. Her first
appearance was at Vienna on the loth of June 1822, in a ballet
of which her father was the author, La Reception d'une jeune
nymphe a la cour de Terpsichore. Her success was immediate,
and was repeated in the chief towns of Germany. On the 23rd
of July 1827 she made her Paris debut at the Opera, in the
Ballet de Sicilien, and aroused a furore of enthusiasm. Among
her more remarkable performances were the dancing of the
Tyrolienne in Guillaume Tell, of the pas de fascination in Meyer-
beer's Robert le Diable, and in La Fille du Danube. At this
period the ballet was an important feature in opera, but with
her retirement in 1847 the era of grand ballets may be said to
have closed. In 1832 she married Comte Gilbert de Voisins,
by whom she had two children. Losing her savings in specula-
tion, she afterwards supported herself in London as a teacher
of deportment, especially in connexion with the ceremony of
presentation at court. During the last two years of her life
she lived with her son at Marseilles, where she died on the 23rd
of April 1884. Taglioni is frequently mentioned in the novels
of Balzac; and Thackeray, in The Newcomes, says that the
young men of that epoch " will never see anything so graceful
as Taglioni in La Sylphide."
TAG US (Span. Tajo, Portug. Tejo), the longest river of the
Iberian Peninsula. Its length is 565 m., of which 192 are on
or within the frontier of Portugal, and the area of its basin is
about 31,850 sq. m. The basin is comparatively narrow, and
the Tagus, like the other rivers of the Iberian tableland, generally
flows in a rather confined valley, often at the bottom of a rocky
gorge below the general level of the adjacent country. The
river rises on the western slope of the Muela de San Juan (5225
ft.), a mountain which forms part of the Sierra de Albariacin,
88 m. E. of Madrid. Thence the Tagus flows at first north-
westwards, but, after receiving the Gallo on the right, it flows
west, and then south-west or west-south-west, which is its
general direction for the rest of its course. Regular river
navigation begins only at Abrantes, a few miles below which
the Tagus is greatly widened by receiving on its right bank the
impetuous Zezere from the Serra da Estrella. Passing San-
tarem, the highest point to which the tide ascends, and the limit
of navigation for large sailing vessels and steamers, the river
divides below Salvaterra into two arms, called the Tejo Novo
(the only one practicable for ships) and the Mar de Pedro.
These branches enclose a deltaic formation, a low tract of
marshy alluvium known as the Lezirias, traversed by several
minor channels. Both branches terminate in a broad tidal
lake immediately above Lisbon (q.v.). The Tagus estuary,
though partly blocked by a bar of sand, is one of the chief
harbours of south-western Europe.
The narrower part of the Tagus basin lies to the south, and
the left-hand tributaries which drain it are almost all mere
brooks, dry in summer. The principal exception is the Zatas
or Sorraia, which, rising in the Serra d'Ossa, flows westwards
across the plateau of Alemtejo, and joins the Mar de Pedro. The
principal right-hand tributaries, besides the Gallo and Zezere,
are the Jarama, descending from the tableland of New Castile
a little below Aranjuez, the Alberche and the Tietar, which
collect their head waters from opposite sides of the Sierra de
Credos, and the Alagon, from the rough and broken country
between the Sierras de Credos and Gata.
TAHITI, the largest and most important of the French
Society Islands (q.v.) in the Pacific Ocean, in 17° 38' S., 149°
30' W. Pop. about 10,300. The island, in shape not unlike
the figure 8, has a length of 33 m., a coast-line of 120, and an
area of 402 sq. m. It is divided into two portions by a short
isthmus (Isthmus of Taravao) about a mile in width, and
nowhere more than 50 ft. above sea-level. The southern, the
peninsula of Taiarapu, or Tahiti-iti (Little Tahiti) measures
ii m. in length by 6 m. in breadth; while the northern, the
circular main island of Porionuu, or Tahiti-uni (Great Tahiti),
has a length of 22 m. and a breadth of 20. The whole island
is mountainous. A little to the north-west of the centre of
Great Tahiti the double-peaked Orohena rises to 7349 ft., and
the neighbouring Aorai is only a little lower. Little Tahiti has
no such elevation, but its tower-like peaks are very striking.
The flat land of the Tahitian coast, extending to a width of
several miles — with its chain of villages, its fertile gardens, and
its belt of palms, sometimes intersected by stream-fed valleys
which open on the seashore — forms a most pleasing foreground
to the grand mountain ranges. A good road surrounds the
island, the extreme north of which is formed by Point Venus,
W. of which lie the Bay of Matavai and Papeete, the European
town and seat of government, on its beautiful harbour.
Climate.— The seasons are not well defined. Damp is excessive;
there is little variation in the weather, which, though hot, is never-
theless not depressing, and the climate for the tropics must be
considered remarkably healthy. The rainfall is largest between
December and April, but there is so much at other times of the
year also that these months hardly deserve the name of the rainy
season. During this period north-west winds are frequent, con-
tinuing at times for weeks, and there are thunderstorms and hurri-
canes. These, while not generally destructive, are sometimes so,
as notably the storm of the I3th of January 1903. During the
eight drier and cooler months south-east trade winds prevail, but
there are southerly winds which bring rain, and even westerly
breezes are not infrequent. The mean temperature for the year
on the coasts is 77° F. (maximum 84°, minimum 69°); and the
average rainfall from December to March (4 months) is 29 inches;
from April to November (8 months), 19 inches.
Fauna. — Mammals, as in other Polynesian islands, are restricted
to a few species of bats (mostly of the genus Pteropus), rats and
mice, none of them peculiar. Of domestic animals, the pig and the
dog — the former a small breed which quickly disappeared before
TAHITI
357
the stronger European strains — were plentiful even in Wallis's days.
The ornithology is very poor as compared with that of the Western
Pacific; the Society Islands possess no peculiar genera and but few
peculiar species. They claim, however, a thrush, several small
parrots of great beauty, doves, pigeons, rails and a sandpiper
(Tringa leucoptera). A jungle-fowl (var. of Callus bankiva) is found
in the mountains, but as domesticated fowls were abundant, even
when Tahiti was first discovered by Europeans, these wild birds
are doubtless the offspring of tame birds. The lagoons swarm
with fish of many species. Insects are poor in species, though some
of them are indigenous. Crustaceans and molluscs, on the other
hand, are well represented; worms, echinoderms, and corals com-
paratively poorly. A noteworthy feature of Tahitian concholocy
is the number of peculiar species belonging to the genus Partula,
almost every valley being the habitat of a distinct form.1
Flora. — The flora, though luxuriant and greatly enhancing the
beauty of the islands, is not very rich. It is, however, less poor
in trees, shrubs and hardwood plants, than in the smaller under-
growth. Orchids, including some beautiful species, and ferns are
abundant; but, here as in Polynesia generally, Rubiaceae is the
order best represented. Remarkable are the banana thickets,
which grow at an altitude of from 3000 to 5000 ft. Along the
shore — in some places almost to the extinction of all native growth
— many exotics have established themselves; and a great variety
of fruit-bearing and other useful trees have been introduced.2
Inhabitants. — The Tahitians are a typical Polynesian race,
closely connected physically with the Marquesans and Raro-
tongans, but widely divided from them in many of their customs.
The dialects, also, of the three groups are different, the Tahitian
being perhaps the softest in all Oceania. The women rank
with the most beautiful of the Pacific, though the accounts given
of them by early voyagers are much exaggerated; and for
general symmetry of form the people are unsurpassed by any
race in the world. Even now in its decadence, after generations
of drunkenness and European disease and vice, grafted on inborn
indolence and licentiousness, many tall and robust people (6 ft.
and even upwards in height) are to be found. Men and women
of good birth can generally be distinguished by their height
and fairness, and often, even in early age, by their enormous
corpulence. The skin varies from a very light olive to a full dark
brown. The wavy or curly hair and the expressive eyes are
black, or nearly so; the mouth is large, but well-shaped and set
with beautiful teeth; the nose broad (formerly flattened in
infancy by artificial means); and the chin well developed.
The native costume was an oblong piece of bark-cloth with a hole
in its centre for the head, and a plain piece of cloth round the loins
was worn alike by men and women of the higher classes. Men of
all ranks wore, with or without these, the T bandage. The women
concealed their breasts except in the company of their superiors,
when etiquette demanded that inferiors of both sexes should uncover
the upper part of the body. The chiefs wore short feather cloaks,
not unlike those of the Hawaiians, and beautiful semicircular breast-
plates, dexterously interwoven with the black plumage of the
frigate bird, with crimson feathers and with sharks' teeth; also
most elaborate special dresses as a sign of mourning. The priests
had strange cylindrical hats, made of wicker-work and over a yard
in height. Circumcision, and in both sexes tattooing, were generally
practised, and much significance was attached to some of the marks.
The houses were long, low, and open at the sides. Household
utensils were few — plain round wooden dishes, sometimes on legs,
coco-nut shells, baskets, &c. Low stools and head-rests were used.
Pottery being unknown, all food was baked in a hole dug in the
ground or roasted over the fire. Their chief musical instruments
were the nose-flute — often used as the accompaniment of song —
and the drum. Conch-shells were also used. Tahitian stone adzes,
which are greatly inferior in finish to those of the Hervey Islands,
are, like the adzes of Polynesia in general, distinguished from those
of Melanesia by their triangular section and adaptation to a socket.
Slings were favourite weapons of the Tahitians; they had also
plain spears expanding into a wide blade, and clubs. The bow and
arrow seem only to have been used in certain ceremonial games.
Their canoes, from 20 to 70 ft. in length, were double or single, and
provided with sail and outriggers. They were not well finished,
but the high curved sterns, rising sometimes to a height of 20 ft.,
of those destined to carry the images of their gods, were carved with
strange figures and hung with feathers. Cannibalism is unknown,
though some ceremonies which were performed in connexion with
human sacrifices may possibly be survivals of this practice. The
staple food of the islanders consisted of the bread-fruit, the taro-
root, the yam, the sweet potato, and in some districts the wild
I * Finsch and Hartlaub, Fauna Central-Polynesiens, Halle, 1867.
! De Castillo, Illuslrationes Florae Insularum Marts Pacifici,
Paris, 1886.
plantain; but they also ate much fish (the turtle was considered
sacred food), as well as pigs and dogs, though of the latter, as pets,
the women were so fond as to suckle the puppies sometimes even
to the exclusion of their own children.
Tahitians were good fishermen and bold seamen. They steered
by the stars, of which they distinguished many constellations.
The land was carefully tended and the fields well irrigated. Three
great classes were recognized: — (i) The sovereign, who bore a semi-
sacred as well as a political character, and the reigning chiefs of
districts; (2) the proprietors and cultivators of inherited land, who
also built canoes, made arms, &c. ; to these two classes also belonged
the priests, who were medicine-men as well ; (3) the fishers, artisans,
&c., and slaves. As wars and infanticide depopulated the island
this class gradually acquired land and with it certain privileges.
Rank is hereditary and determined by primogeniture, not necessarily
in the male line. The firstborn of a sovereign succeeded at once
to titular sovereignty; the father, who was the first to pay homage
to his child, then abdicated, and became regent. It is easy to sec
that, while this custom tended to keep honours within a family,
it may have encouraged the practice of infanticide, which was
common in all grades of society when Tahiti was first visited by
Europeans. The age at which the child's authority became real
varied according to his own abilities and the will of his subjects.
Though arbitrary, the power of the king was limited by the power
of his vassals, the district chiefs, who ruled absolutely over their
respective districts, and who might be of as good blood as himself.
The king had a councillor, but was alone responsible for any act.
The bi-insular form of Tahiti promoted the independence of the
chiefs, and war was rarely declared without their being first sum-
moned to council. Their power over their own people was absolute.
The form of government was thus strictly feudal in character, but
it gradually centralized into a monarchy, which, in the person of
Pomare II., the English missionaries greatly helped to regulate and
strengthen. The sovereign sent his commands by a messenger,
whose credentials were a tuft of coco-nut film. This tuft was
returned intact as a sign of assent or torn in token of refusal.
The temples were square tree-surrounded enclosures, with a
single entrance and several small courts, within which were houses
for the images and attendant priests. A pyramidal stone structure,
on which were the actual altars, stood at the further end of the
square. In the temples were buried the chiefs, whose embalmed
bodies, after being exposed for a time, were interred in a crouching
position. Their skulls, however, were kept in the houses of their
nearest relations. In the great temple at Atahura the stone
structure was 270 ft. long, 94 ft. wide, and 50 ft. high, and its summit
was reached by a flight of steps built of hewn coral and basalt.
Sacrificial offerings, including human sacrifices, formed a prominent
part of Tahitian worship. An eye of the victim was offered to the
king, and placed within his mouth by the officiating priest. Every
household possessed its own guardian spirits, but there were several
superior divinities, of which, at the beginning of the igth century,
Oro was the most venerated. The images, which are less remarkable
than those of Hawaii, were rough representations of the human form
carved in wood. The Areoi, a licentious religious association, was a
special feature of Tahitian society.
The Tahitians are light-hearted, frivolous, courteous and generous,
but deceitful and cruel. They were always notorious for their
immorality, one of their customs being a systematized exchange of
wives. Besides dancing, the singing of songs, and the recitation
of historical and mythical ballads, the natives had also a variety
of sports and games. Wrestling, boxing, and spear-throwing
matches, with foot and canoe races, were held; also sham fights
and naval reviews. They had several ball games — one (played
chiefly by women), a kind of football; but surf-swimming was
perhaps the favourite sport, and cock-fighting was much practised.
Products, Trade, Administration. — Papeete, as the emporium for
a widely scattered archipelago (including Paumotu, &c.), has an
export trade in mother-of-pearl, pearls (mainly from the Paumotu
islands), oranges, trepang (for China), copra and vanilla. Many
whalers formerly visited Papeete harbour. During the American
Civil War, in the middle of the igth century, Tahitian cotton was
put upon the European market, but its cultivation had ceased by
1884, and it has been little grown since. This is also true of coffee
and tobacco, among other crops which have been tried. Sugar and
rum are also produced.
The importation of " labour," chiefly for the plantations, from
other Polynesian islands was placed under government control in
1862. The Tahitians themselves prefer handicrafts to agricultural
work, and many are employed as artisans by European masters.
The total value of exports was £140,325 and of imports £127,600
in 1904. Papeete is the seat of government. The French establish-
ments in the Eastern Pacific are administered by a governor, a
privy council, and a council including the maire of Papeete and the
presidents of the chambers of commerce and agriculture.
History. — The discovery and early exploration of the Society
Islands is treated under that heading. In 1788, when Lieutenant
Bligh in the " Bounty " visited Tahiti, the leading chief was
Pomare, whose family had been pre-eminent in the island for
358
TAHR— TAILLE
more than a century. Aided by sixteen of the " Bounty "
mutineers, and armed with guns procured from Bligh and a
Swedish vessel, Pomare greatly strengthened his power and
brought to a successful close a long struggle with Eimeo.
The attempt at colonization by the Spaniards in 1774 was
followed by the • settlement of thirty persons brought in
1797 by the missionary ship "Duff." Though befriended by
Pomare I. (who lived till 1805), they had many difficulties,
especially from the constant wars, and at length they fled with
Pomare II. to Eimeo and ultimately to New South Wales,
returning in 1812, when Pomare renounced heathenism. In
1815 he regained his power in Tahiti. For a time the mis-
sionaries made good progress — a printing press was established
(1817), and coffee, cotton and sugar were planted (1819); but
soon there came a serious relapse into heathen practices and
immorality. Pomare II. died of drink in 1824. His successor,
Pomare III., died in 1827, and was succeeded by his half-sister
Aimata, the unfortunate " Queen Pomare (IV.)." In 1828 a
new fanatical sect, the " Mamaia," arose, which gave much
trouble to the missions. The leader proclaimed that he was
Jesus Christ, and promised to his followers a sensual paradise.
In 1836 the French Catholic missionaries in Mangareva attempted
to open a mission in Tahiti. Queen Pomare, advised by the
English missionary and consul Pritchard, refused her consent,
and removed by force two priests who had landed surreptitiously
and to whom many of the opposition party in the state had
rallied. In 1838 a French frigate appeared, under the command
of Abel Dupetit-Thouars, and extorted from Pomare the right
of settlement for Frenchmen of every profession. Pritchard
opposed this, and caused Pomare to apply for British protec-
tion; but this was a failure, and the native chiefs compelled the
queen, against her will, to turn to France. A convention was
signed in 1843, placing the islands under French protection, the
authority of the queen and chiefs being expressly reserved.
Dupetit-Thouars now reappeared, and, alleging that the treaty
had not been duly carried out, deposed the queen and took
possession of the islands. His high-handed action was not
countenanced by the French government; but while, on formal
protest being made from England, it professed not to sanction
the annexation, it did not retrace the steps taken. Two years
were spent in reducing the party in the islands opposed to French
rule; an attempt to conquer the western islands failed; and
at length, by agreement with England, France promised to
return to the plan of a protectorate and leave the western
islands to their rightful owners. Pomare died in 1877, and her
son Aiiane (Pomare V.) abdicated in 1880, handing over the
administration to France, and in the same year Tahiti, in-
cluding Eimeo, was proclaimed a French colony. In 1903 the
whole of the French establishments in the Eastern Pacific were
declared one colony, and the then existing elective general
council was superseded by the present administration.
Besides the narratives of early voyages, and general works covering
the Society Islands (for which see PACIFIC), see Vincendon-Dumoulin,
Les lies Tahiti, esquisses historiques et geographiques, Paris, 1844;
A. Gonfil, "Tahiti," in La France coloniale, Paris, 1886; H. Le
Chattier, Tahiti, Paris, 1887; Monchoisy, La Nouyelle Cythere,
Paris, 1888; G. Collingridge, " Who discovered Tahiti? " in Journ.
Polynesian Soc., xii., 1903. Among the narrative works of visitors
to Tahiti may be mentioned Pierre Loti, Le Mariage de Loti, Paris,
1881 ; Dora Hort, Tahiti: the Garden of the Pacific, London, 1891.
TAHR, the native name of a shaggy-haired brown Himalayan
wild goat characterized by its short, triangular and sharply
keeled horns. Under the name of Hemitragus jemlaicus, it
typifies a genus in which are included the wariatu, or Nilgiri
ibex (H. hylocrius), from the Nilgiri and Anamalai hills of
Southern India, and a small species, H. jayakeri, from South
Arabia. Tahr frequent the worst ground of almost all ruminants.
TAILLANDIER, SAINT-RENE (1817-1879), French critic,
whose original name was Rene Gaspard Ernest Taillandier, was
born in Paris on the i6th of December 1817. He completed his
studies at Heidelberg, and then became professor of literature
successively at Strassburg, Montpellier and the Sorbonne, where
he was nominated to the chair of French eloquence in 1868.
Most of the articles included in his published volumes first ap-
peared in the Revue des deux mondes. In January 1870 he became
general secretary of the ministry of education, and continued
in this office after the fall of the Empire. He became officer of
the Legion of Honour in 1870, and was elected to the Academy
in 1873. He died in Paris on the 22nd of February 1879.
His works include: — Allemagne et Russie, etudes historiques et
litteraires (1856), Le Poete du Caucase . . . Michel Lermontoff
(1856), Maurice de Saxe (2 vols. 1865), Tcheques et Magyars (1869),
Le General Philippe de. Segur '('875).
TAILLE (from Fr. tailler, to cut or divide; late Lat. taliare,
said to come from (alia, talea), the equivalent of the English
tallage (q.v.), was in France the typical direct tax of the middle
ages, just as the word tonlieu was the generic term for an
indirect tax. Other words used in certain districts in the
same sense as tattle were queste (questa, quista) , fouage (foragium),
cote. The essence of the tax denoted by these names was that
the amount was fixed en bloc for a whole group of persons, and
afterwards divided among them in various ways. In ancient
French law we find three forms of tattle: the tattle senile, tattle
seigneuriale, and tattle royale.
The taille servile can scarcely be termed a tax; it was rather a
tax which had degenerated into a source of profit for certain in-
dividuals. Every lord who possessed serfs could levy the taille on
them, and originally this was done arbitrarily (a volonte) both as to
frequency and amount. It always remained a characteristic feature
of serfdom, but was limited and fixed, either by contracts or con-
cessions from the lord (taille abonnee), or by the customs.
The taille seigneuriale was a true tax, levied by a lord on all his
subjects who were neither nobles nor ecclesiastics. But, in our
opinion, when feudalism was established, the right of levying it did
not belong to every lord, but only to the lord having the haute
justice. But he levied it by right, without the necessity for any
contract between him and those who paid it. He fixed the sum to
be paid by each group of inhabitants, who then had to see that it
was assessed, collected, and paid to the lord, electing commissaries
(preud hommes) from among themselves for this purpose. This
was reducing the administration of taxation to its simplest form.
Custom, however, or an order of the lord generally fixed the principle
upon which the division was made. It was often a " hearth tax "
(fouage), when each fire, i.e. each head of a family, paid the same
sum, arrived at by dividing the local contingent of the taille by the
number of fires. But this equality, which took no account of wealth
or poverty, was felt to be unjust, and the assessment began to be
made according to the resources of each family, " the strong bearing
the weak, and the weak relieving the strong." The seigniorial
taille, like the servile, had the character of a personal tax (tattle
personelle), a rudimentary tax on income, every man being taxed
according to his wages or other income. The king originally had
only the right of levying the taille in places where he had retained
the exercise of the haute justice. At that time there was no royal
taille, strictly speaking; it was only the seigniorial taille. transferred
to the crown, but it was one of the first taxes his right to levy which
upon all the inhabitants of the domain of the crown, whether serfs
or roturiers, was recognized. In the course of the i^th century the
idea began to prevail that it was fair for the king, in time of war,
to levy a taille upon the subjects of the lords having the haute
justice in various parts of the royal domain. Moreover, tailles were
often granted him by the provincial estates or the states-general.
Thus the general taille, raised for the benefit of the king, became
more and more frequent, and naturally tended to become permanent.
This transformation was confirmed, rather than effected, by the
ordonnance of 1439. Its immediate object was, not the regulation
of the taille, but the organization of the compagnies d'ordonnance,
i.e. the heavy cavalry which the king from that time on maintained
on a permanent footing. Military expenses thus becoming per-
manent, it was natural that the tattle, the tax which had long been
devoted to meeting the expenses of the royal wars, should also
become permanent. This was contained implicitly in the ordonnance
of 1439, which at the same time suppressed the seigniorial taille,
as competing too closely with the royal taille by imposing a double
burden on the taxpayer. A kind of seigniorial taille continued
to exist besides the servile taille, but this kind presupposed a title,
a contract between the taxable roturier and the lord, or else im-
memorial possession, which amounted to a title.
The royal taille naturally retained the distinctive characteristics
of the seigniorial, as can be seen from an examination of the way in
which it was assessed and collected; the chief characteristic being
that ecclesiastics and nobles, who were exempt from the seigniorial
taille, were also exempt from the royal. The royal taille, though
levied by the king by right, did not fall upon the whole kingdom.
The pays d 'elections were subject to it, the pays d'etats were not (see
FRANCE: Law and Institutions).
Throughout the pays d'elections the taille was almost universally
personal (taille personnelle), i.e. a tax on the whole income of the
TAILLEFER— TAILOR
359
taxpayer, whatever its source. It was also a distributory tax
(impot de repartition) ; every year the king in his council fixed the
total sum which the taille was to produce in the following year;
he drew up and signed the brevet de la taille (warrant), and the con-
tribution of the individual taxpayer was arrived at in the last
analysis by a series of subdivisions.
The conseil du roi first divided the total sum among the various
generalites (the higher financial divisions), again dividing the amount
due from each generalite among the elections of which it was com-
posed. Then the elus in each election divided the contribution
due from it among the parishes. The final division took place
in the parish or community, among the inhabitants subject to
the tax. So far the system remained the same as that of the old
seigniorial taille. The assessment and collection of it were the
business of the community; the crown, in principle, had nothing
to do with them and did not bear the cost of a local administration
for the purpose. The community had to produce its contingent
of the taille. In principle it was even held to be the debtor for the
amount; hence the inhabitants were jointly responsible, a state
of affairs which was not suppressed till the time of Turgot, and even
then not completely.
The inhabitants subject to the taille, summoned to a general
assembly by the syndic, elected commissaries for the assessment
(asseeurs) and collection (collecteurs) of the tax from among them-
selves. Originally two series were elected, both assessors and
collectors. But from 1600 onwards the same persons fulfilled both
functions, the object being, by giving the assessors the duty of
collecting the tax, to lead to a juster and more conscientious assess-
ment. The system appeared to be admirable, forming in this
respect a kind of self-government, but in practice it was frequently
oppressive for the taxpayers. The assessors estimated the indivi-
dual incomes arbitrarily, village quarrels and rivalries leading them
to over-charge some and under-charge others, and complaints were
numberless on this point. Control should no doubt have been exer-
cised by the elus, but they do not seem to have taken this part
of their duties very seriously. Payment was rigorously enforced,
and thus for a variety of reasons the taille was a burdensome and
hated tax. It had still further vices: not only were nobles and
ecclesiastics exempt from it, but many other privileges had been
introduced by law, total or partial exemption extending to a large
number of civil and military officials and employes of the crown
on the ferme generale. The towns in general were not subject to it,
at least directly; some had been exempt from time immemorial,
others (redimees) had purchased exemption for a sum of money,
yet others (abonnees) had compounded for the tax, i.e. instead of
paying the taille they paid into the royal treasury a sum fixed by
contract, which they generally raised by octrois, or entrance dues.
Such was the administration of the taille until about the middle
of the 1 7th century, after which time, although the broad lines
remained the same, important reforms were introduced. They
came principally from the provincial intendants, or from the cotirs
des aides, which were animated by a liberal spirit. The intendants,
by an exercise of their general or special powers, took the place of
the elus, and delegated commissaires aux tallies (commissaries of
the taille) for the assessment of the parishes, who guided and super-
vised the elected collectors — for the most part ignorant and partial
peasants. They also endeavoured to distinguish between different
kinds of income, in order to arrive at a more just estimate of the
total income, and fixed by tariff the proportion in which each kind
of income was to contribute. They sometimes settled officially
and of their own authority the share of certain taxpayers, and,
though this was sometimes done as a favour, it was often a measure
of justice. They also tried to limit the scope of privileges. These
efforts were inspired by a series of scientific studies and criticisms,
chief among which were Vauban's Dime royale, and the Taille tarifee
of the Abbe de St. Pierre.
In certain districts the taille was real (taille reette) i.e. a tax on
real property. It was not an equal tax falling on all landowners,
but the question as to whether a certain estate was to be taxed or
not was decided according to the quality of the property, and not
that of the owner. The biens nobles (fiefs) and the biens ecclesiastiques
were exempt; tenures roturieres, however, by whomsoever held, were
taxed. A small part of the pays d 'elections was also pays de taille
rcele. But it was the chief form of tax in the pays d'etats, and even
there an attempt had generally been made to check the exemption
of nobles' property. It has been shown that in these districts the
taille had originally been personal, having become real by a curious
evolution. In these districts there were cadastres, or compoix-
terriers (land registers), which allowed of a non-arbitrary assessment;
and at the end of the ancien regime merely needed revision.
In certain provinces where the royal taille was levied there were
neither elections nor generalites, and the whole administration of
the tax was in the hands of the intendants. These were the provinces
of the east and north, which were united to the crown at a period
when the power of the intendants was already fully developed;
they were sometimes known as pays d' imposition.
See FRANCE: Law and Institutions; Henri See, Les Classes
rurales et le regime domanial en France au Moyen Age (Paris, 1901) ;
and Auger, Code des failles (Paris, 1788). (J. P. E.)
TAILLEFER, the surname of a bard and warrior of the
nth century, whose exact name and place of birth are unknown.
He accompanied the Norman army to England in 1066, and
obtained permission from William to strike the first blow at
the battle of Hastings. He fought with spirit and determina-
tion, and was killed in the battle. Mention of Taillefer is made
by Guido, bishop of Amiens, in his Carmen de hello Hastingensi,
v. 931-44 (in M on. Hist. Brit., 1848) and by Henry of Huntingdon
in his Historia Anglorum (in Rer. Brit. med. aevi script., p. 763,
ed. Arnold, London, 1879); and his prowess is depicted on the
Bayeux tapestry. The statement of Wace in the Roman de
Rou, 3rd part, v. 8035-62, ed. Andresen (Heilbronn, 1879), that
Taillefer went before the Norman army singing of Charlemagne
and of Roland and the vassals who died at Roncevaux, has
been considered important in demonstrating the existence of
a comparatively early tradition and song of Roland.
See W. Spatz, Die Schlacht von Hastings (Berlin, 1896); Freeman,
History of the Norman Conquest.
TAILOR (Fr. taitteur, from tailler, to cut, Lat. Idea, a thin
rod, a cutting for planting), one who cuts out and makes clothes.
Formerly the tailor, or cissor, made apparel for both men and
women, and not merely outer garments, but also articles of linen
and the padding and lining of armour — whence the style " Taylors
and Linen Armourers " applied to the Merchant Taylors Com-
pany of the City of London in their earliest charters. But the
word is now generally limited to those who make the outer
(cloth) garments for men, and less frequently for women, though
a phrase such as " shirt-tailor " is occasionally met with. In
modern usage, too, it commonly has the implication that the
garments are made to the order, and to the measure, of the
individual purchaser, as opposed to ready-made clothing, which
means articles of apparel manufactured in large quantities in a
series of stock or standard sizes, such that any purchaser may
expect to find among them one that will fit him with more or
less accuracy. The clothing trade was originally confined to
goods of the poorest grades, but it has come, especially in
America, to include articles of good, though not of the first,
quality. It probably first came into existence at seaport towns,
where, to meet the convenience of sailors returning from long
voyages and requiring their wardrobes to be replenished at
short notice, the " outfitters " kept stocks of ready-made
garments on sale; but it made no considerable progress until
after the middle of the i9th century, when the introduction of
the sewing-machine brought about the possibility of manu-
facturing in large quantities. Its development was attended
with gradually increasing subdivision of labour and, to a large
extent, with the disappearance of the tailor as a skilled craftsman.
The first step was for a garment, such as a coat, to be com-
pleted by the joint efforts of a family. Then followed the " task
system," which in America was the result of the influx of
Russian Jews that began about 1875. Under it a team of three
men, with a " presser " and a girl to sew on the buttons, divided
the work between them. Payment was made by the " task,"
i.e. a specified number of garments, the money being divided
between the members of the team in certain proportions. Often
several teams would be run by a contractor, who naturally
selected the cheapest workshops he could find and packed them
as full of workers as possible; and when through stress of com-
petition he had to accept lower prices the plan he adopted was
to increase the number of garments to a task, leaving the pay
unaltered. The result was the introduction of many of the
worst features of the " sweating system," the workers having to
work excessively long hours in order to finish the task, which
in some cases meant as many as twenty coats a day. In the
factory " or " Boston " system the subdivision is still more
minute, and as many as one hundred persons may be concerned
in the production of one coat. The amount of tailoring skill
required in a worker is even further reduced, but the premises
come under the regulation of the factory laws. The factory
system has also cheapened production in a legitimate way,
because it has enabled mechanical power for driving sewing-
machines, and also expensive labour-saving machinery, to be
36°
TAIN— TAINE
introduced to an extent not economically possible in small
shops.
TAIN, a royal and police burgh of the county of Ross and
Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2076. It is situated on
rising ground within a mile of the southern shore of Dornoch
Firth, 255 m. N.E. of Dingwall by the Highland Railway. The
name, of which the Tene, Tayne and Thane are older forms, is
derived from the Icelandic thing, " assembly " or " court."
Among the principal buildings are the town hall, court house,
public hall, Easter Ross combination poorhouse, and the
academy (opened in 1812). The industries include distilling,
the making of aerated waters, and woollen manufactures, and
the town is important as a market and distributing centre.
The rainfall is one of the lowest in the kingdom. Duthac
(locally called Duthus), a saint of the nth century, is believed to
have been a native, and the old ruined chapel near the station
is supposed to have been his shrine. To the collegiate church
of St Duthus, a Decorated building, founded by James III. in
1471, James IV. made several pilgrimages in penance for his
father's death. The building was used as the parish church till
1815, when it fell into disrepair, but it was restored between
1871 and 1876. It has monuments to Patrick Hamilton, the
martyr, and Thomas Hog (1628-1692), the Scottish divine, for
some time a prisoner on the Bass. Three and a half miles
S.E. are the remains of the Early English abbey of Fearn,
founded at Edderton in 1230 by Farquhar, ist earl of Ross,
and transferred hither in 1338. The chancel, nave and two side
chapels exist, and it still serves as the parish church. Patrick
Hamilton became titular abbot in 1517, and after his martyr-
dom the abbey was added to the bishopric of Ross.
TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE (1828-1893), French critic
and historian, the son of Jean Baptiste Taine, an attorney, was
born at Vouziers on the 2ist of April 1828. He remained with
his father until his eleventh year, receiving instruction from him,
and attending at the same time a small school which was under
the direction of M. Pierson. In 1839, owing to the serious illness
of his father, he was sent to an ecclesiastical pension at Rethel,
where he remained eighteen months. J. B. Taine died on the
8th of September 1840, leaving a moderate competence to his
widow, his two daughters, and his son. In the spring of 1841
Taine was sent to Paris, and entered as a boarder at the Institu-
tion Mathe, where the pupils attended the classes of the College
Bourbon. Madame Taine followed her son to Paris. Taine
was not slow to distinguish himself at school. When he was
but fourteen years old he had already drawn up a systematic
scheme of study, from which he never deviated. He allowed
himself twenty minutes' playtime in the afternoon and an hour's
music after dinner ; the rest of the day was spent in work. In 1 847 ,
as veteran de rhetorique, he carried off six first prizes in the general
competition, the prize of honour, and three accessits; he won
all the first school prizes, the three science prizes, as well as two
prizes for dissertation. It was at the College Bourbon that he
formed lifelong friendships with several of his schoolfellows
who afterwards were to exercise a lasting influence upon him:
among these were Prevost-Paradol, for many years his most
intimate friend; Planat, the future " Marcelin " of the Vie
Parisienne; and Cornells de Witt, who introduced him to Guizot
when the latter returned from England in 1846.
Public education was the career which seemed to lie open to
Taine after his remarkable school successes. In 1848 he ac-
cordingly took both his baccalaureat degrees, in science and
letters, and passed first into the Ecole Normale; among his
rivals, who passed in at the same time, were About, Sarcey,
Libert, and Suckau. Among those of Taine's fellow-students
who afterwards made a name in teaching, letters, journalism,
the theatre and politics, &c., were Challemel-Lacour, Chassang,
Aube, Perraud, Ferry, Weiss, Yung, Gaucher, Greard, Prevost-
Paradol and Levasseur. Taine made his influence felt among
them at once; he amazed everybody not only by his erudition,
but by his indefatigable energy; and not only by his prodigious
industry, but by his facility both in French and Latin, in verse
as well as in prose. He devoured Plato, Aristotle, the Fathers of
the Church, and he analysed and classified all that he read. He
already knew English, and set himself to master German in
order to read Hegel in the original. His brief leisure was
! devoted to music. The teachers of his second and third years,
Deschanel, Geruzez, Berger, Havet, Filon, Saisset and Simon,
were unanimous in praising the nobility of his character, the
vigour and the fertility of his intellect, the distinction of style
with which his work was always stamped; they were equally
unanimous in finding fault with his unmeasured taste for classi-
fication, abstraction and formula. The director of studies,
M. Vacherot, gauged his capacity at the end of his second year
with prophetic insight. He prophesied that Taine would be a
great savant, adding that he was not of this world, and that
Spinoza's motto, " Vivre pour penser," would also be his. In
the month of August 1851 he came forward as a candidate for
the fellowship in philosophy (agregation de philosophic) in com-
pany with his friends Suckau and Cambier. Tame was declared
to be admissible, together with five other candidates; but in
the end only two candidates were admitted, his friend Suckau
and Aube. This decision created almost a scandal. Taine's
reputation had already spread beyond the college. Everybody
had taken for granted that he would be admitted first. The fact
was that his examines sincerely considered his ideas to be
absurd, his style and method of handling a subject dry and
tiresome.
The Minister of Public Instruction, however, judged Taine
less severely, and appointed him provisionally to the chair of
philosophy at the college of Toulon on 6th October 1851; but
he never entered upon his duties, as he did not wish to be so
far from his mother, and on I3th October he was transferred
to Nevers as a substitute. Two months later, on the 27th
December, occurred the coup d'ttat, after which every university
professor was regarded with suspicion; many were suspended,
others resigned. In Taine's opinion it was the duty of every
man, after the plebiscite of the loth December, to accept the
new state of affairs in silence; but the universities were not
only asked for their submission, but also for their approbation.
At Nevers they were requested to sign a declaration expressing
their gratitude towards the President of the Republic for the
measures he had taken. Taine was the only one to refuse his
endorsement. He was at once marked down as a revolutionary,
and in spite of his success as a teacher and of his popularity
among his pupils, he was transferred on 29th March 1852 to the
lycee of Poitiers as professor of rhetoric, with a sharp warning
to be careful for the future. Here, in spite of an abject com-
pliance with the stringent rules imposed upon him, he remained
in disfavour, and on 2$th September 1852 he was appointed
assistant professor of the sixth class at the lycee of Besanjon.
This time he could bear it no longer, and he applied for leave,
which was readily granted him on gth October 1852, and renewed
every year till his decennial appointment came to an end. It
was in this painful year, during which Taine worked harder than
ever, that the fellowship of philosophy was abolished. As soon
as Taine heard of this he at once began to prepare himself for
the fellowship in letters, and to work hard at Latin and Greek
themes. On loth April 1852 a decree was published by which
three years of preliminary study were necessary before a candi-
date could compete for the fellowship, but by which a doctor's
degree in letters counted as two years. Taine immediately
set to work at his dissertations for the doctor's degree; on the
8th June (1852) they were finished, and 150 pages of French
prose on the Sensations and a Latin essay were sent to Paris.
On the i sth July he was informed that the tendency of his Essay
on the Sensations made it impossible for the Sorbonne to accept
it, so for the moment he laid this work aside, and on ist August
he began an essay on La Fontaine. He then started for Paris,
where an appointment which was equivalent to a suspension
awaited him. His university career was over, and he was
obliged to devote himself to letters as a profession. In a few
months his two dissertations, De personis Platonicis and the
essay on La Fontaine's fables were finished, and on 3oth May
1853 he took his doctor's degree. This was the last act of his
TAINE
361
university career; his life as a man of letters was now to
begin.
No sooner had he deposited his dissertations at the Sorbonne
than he began to write an essay on Livy for one of the com-
petitions set by the Academy. Here again the moral tendency
of his work excited lively opposition, and after much discussion
the competition was postponed till 1855; Taine toned down
some of the censured passages, and the work was crowned by
the Academy in 1855. The essay on Livy was published in
1856 with the addition of a preface setting forth determinist
doctrines, much to the disgust of the Academy. In the beginning
of 1854 Taine, after six years of uninterrupted efforts, broke
down and was obliged to rest: but he found a way of utilizing
his enforced leisure; he let himself be read to, and for the first
time his attention was attracted to the French Revolution; he
acquired also a knowledge of physiology in following a course
of medicine. In 1854 he was ordered for his health to the
Pyrenees, and Hachette, the publisher, asked him to -write a
guide-book of the Pyrenees. Taine's book was a collection
of vivid descriptions of nature, historical anecdotes, graphic
sketches, satirical notes on the society which frequents watering-
places, and underlying the whole book was a vein of stern
philosophy; it was published in 1855.
The year 1854 was an important one in the life of Taine.
His enforced leisure, the necessity of mixing with his fellow-
men, and of travelling, tore him from his cloistered existence and
brought him into more direct contact with reality. His method
of expounding philosophy underwent a change. Instead of
employing the method of deduction, of starting with the most
abstract idea and following it step by step to its concrete realiza-
tion, henceforward he starts from the concrete reality and pro-
ceeds through a succession of facts until he arrives at the central
idea. His style also became vivid and full of colour; he shows
that he is acutely sensible to the outward manifestations of
things and depicts them in all their relief. Simultaneously with
this change in his works his life became less self-centred and
solitary. He lived with his mother in the Isle Saint-Louis, and
now he once more associated with his old friends, Planat, Pre-
vost-Paradol and About. He made the acquaintance of Renan,
and through Renan that of Sainte-Beuve, and he renewed
friendly relations with M. Havet, who for three months had
been his teacher at the Ecole Normale. These years (1855-56)
were Taine's periods of greatest activity and happiness in pro-
duction. On ist February 1855 he published an article on La
Bruyere in the Revue de V Instruction Publique. In the same
year he published seventeen articles in this review and twenty
in 1856 on the most diverse subjects, ranging from Menander
to Macaulay. On ist August 1855 he published a short article
in the Revue des Deux Mond.es on Jean Reynaud. On 3rd
July 1856 appeared his first article in the D&bats on Saint-Simon,
and from 1857 onwards he was a constant contributor to that
journal. But he was seeking a larger field. On lyth January
1856 his history of English literature was announced, and from
I4th January 1855 to gth October 1856 he published In the
Revue de I'Inslruction Publique a series of articles on the French
philosophers of the igth century, which appeared in a volume
at the beginning of 1857. In this volume he energetically
attacked the principles which underlie the philosophy of Victor
Cousin and his school with an irony which amounts at times to
irreverence. The book closes with the sketch of a system in
which the methods of the exact sciences are applied to psycho-
logical and metaphysical research. The work itself met with
instantaneous success, and Taine became famous. Up till that
moment the only important articles on his work were an article
by About on the Voyage aux Pyrenees,1 and two articles by
Guizot on his Livy,2 After the publication of Les Philosophcs
Francois, the articles of Sainte-Beuve in the Moniteur (gth and
i6th March 1856), of Sherer3 in the Bibliotheque Universelle
(1858), and of Planche in the Revue des Deux Monies (ist April
1 Revue de V Instruction Publique, 2gth May 1856.
1 Debats, 26th and 27th January 1857.
3 Reprinted in Melanges de Critique Religieuse.
1857) show that from this moment he had taken a place in the
front rank of the new generation of men of letters. Caro
published an attack on Taine and Renan, called " L'Id6e de
Dieu dans une Jeune Ecole," in the Revue Contemporaine of
iSth June 1857. Taine answered all attacks by publishing new
books. In 1858 appeared a volume of Essais de Critique et
d'Histoire; in 1860 La Fontaine et ses Fables, and a second
edition of his PhUosophes Francois. During all this time he
was persevering at his history of English literature up to the
time of Byron. It was from that moment that Taine's influence
began to be felt; he was in constant intercourse with Renan,
Sainte-Beuve, Sherer, Gautier, Flaubert, Saint-Victor and the
Goncourts, and gave up a little of his time to his friends and to
the calls of society. In 1862 Taine came forward as a candidate
for the chair of literature at the Polytechnic School, but M. de
Lomenie was elected in his place.
The following year, however, in March, Marshal Randon,
Minister of War, appointed him examiner in history and German
to the military academy of Saint Cyr, and on 26th October 1864
he succeeded Viollet-le-Duc as professor of the history of art
and aesthetics at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. Renan's appointment
at the College de France and Taine's candidature for the Poly-
technic School had alarmed Mgr. Dupanloup, who in 1863 issued
an Avertissement a la Jeunesse et aux Peres de Famille, which
consisted of a violent attack upon Taine, Renan and Littre:
Renan was suspended, and Taine's appointment to Saint Cyr
would have been cancelled but for the intervention of the
Princess Mathilde. In December 1863 his Histoire de la Litter a-
ture Anglaise was published, prefaced by an introduction in
which Taine's determinist views were developed in the most
uncompromising fashion. In 1864 Taine sent this work to the
Academy to compete for the Prix Bordin. M. de Falloux and
Mgr. Dupanloup attacked Taine with violence; he was warmly
defended by Guizot: finally, after three days of discussion, it
was decided that as the prize could not be awarded to Taine, it
should not be awarded at all. This was the last time Taine
sought the suffrages of the Academy save as a candidate, in
which quality he appeared once in 1874 and failed to be elected,
Mezieres, Caro and Dumas being the rival candidates; and
twice in 1878, when, after having failed in May, H. Martin being
chosen, he was at last elected in November in place of M.
Lomenie. In 1866 he received the Legion of Honour, and on
the conclusion of his lectures in Oxford on Corneille and Racine,
the University conferred upon him (1871) its degree of D.C.L.
The period from 1864 to 1870 was perhaps the happiest of
Taine's life. He derived pleasure from his employment at the
Beaux Arts and Saint Cyr, which left ample leisure for travel
and research. In 1864 he spent February to May in Italy, which
furnished him with several articles for the Revue des Deux Mondes
from December 1864 to May 1866. In 1865 appeared La
Philosophic de I' Art, in 1867 L'Ideal dans I' Art, followed by
essays on the philosophy of art in the Netherlands (1868), in
Greece (1869), all of which short works were republished later
(in 1880) as a work on the philosophy of art. In 1865 he
published his Nouveaux Essais de Critique et d'Histoire; from
1863 to 1865 appeared in La Vie Parisienne the notes he had
taken for the past two years on Paris and on French society
under the sub-title of " Vie et Opinions de Thomas Frederic
Graindorge," published in a volume in 1867, the most personal
of his books, and an epitome of his ideas. In 1867 appeared a
supplementary volume to his history of English literature, and
in January 1870 his Theorie de V Intelligence. In 1868 he
married Mademoiselle Denuelle, the daughter of a distinguished
architect.
He had made a long stay in England in 1858, and had brought
back copious notes, which, after a second journey in 1871, he
published in 1872 under the title of Notes sur I'Angleterre. On
z8th June 1870 he started to visit Germany, but his journey
was abruptly interrupted by the outbreak of the war; his
project had to be abandoned, and Taine, deeply shaken by the
events of 1870, felt that it was the duty of every Frenchman to
work solely in the interests of France. On gth October 1870 he
362
TAINE
published an article on " L'Dpinion en Allemagne et les Con-
ditions de la Paix," and in 1871 a pamphlet on Le Suffrage
Universel; and it was about this time also that the more or
less vague ideas which he had entertained of writing on the
French Revolution returned in a new and definite shape. He
determined to trace in the Revolution of 1789 the reason of the
political instability from which modern France was suffering.
From the autumn of 1871 to the end of his life his great work,
Les Origines de la France Contemporaine, occupied all his time,
and in 1884 he gave up his professorship in order to devote
himself wholly to his task; but he succumbed before it was
finished, dying in Paris on 5th March 1893. In the portion of
the work which remained to be finished Taine had intended to
draw a picture of French society and of the French family,
and to trace the development of science in the igih century.
He had also planned a complementary volume to his Theorie
de r Intelligence, to be entitled Un Traite de la Volonte.
The Origines de la France Contemporaine, Taine's monu-
mental achievement, stands apart from the rest of his work.
His object was to explain the existing constitution of France
by studying the more immediate causes of the present state of
affairs — the last years of what is called the Ancien Regime, the
Revolution and the beginning of the ipth century, to each of
which several volumes were assigned. He also had another
object, although he was perhaps hardly conscious of it, which
was to study man in one of his pathological crises; for Taine
makes an investigation into human nature, and the historian
checks and endorses the pessimism and misanthropy of Grain-
dorge. The problem which Taine set himself was to inquire
why the centralization of modern France is so great that all
individual initiative is practically non-existent, and why the
central power, whether it be in the hands of a man or of an
assembly, is the sole and only power ; also to expose the error
underlying two prevalent ideas: — (i) That the Revolution
destroyed absolutism and set up liberty; the Revolution, he
points out, merely caused absolutism to change hands. (2) That
the Revolution destroyed liberty instead of establishing it;
that France was less centralized before 1789 than after 1800.
This also he shows to be untrue. France was already a cen-
tralized country before 1789, and grew rapidly more and more
so from the time of Louis XIV. onwards. The Revolution
merely gave it a new form.
The Origines differ from the rest of Taine's work in that,
although he applies to a period of history the method which he
had already applied to literature and the arts, he is unable to
approach his subject in the same spirit; he loses his philosophic
calm; he cannot help writing as a man and a Frenchman, and
he lets his feelings have play; but what the work loses thus
in impartiality it gains in life.
Taine was the philosopher of the epoch which succeeded the
era of romanticism in France. The romantic era had lasted
from 1820 to 1850. It had been the result of a reaction against
the classical school, or rather against the conventionality and
lifeless rules of this school in its decadence. The romantic
school introduced the principle of individual liberty both as
regards matter and style; it was a brilliant epoch, rich in men
of genius and fruitful of beautiful work, but towards 1850 it
had reached its decline, and a young generation, tired in turn of
its conventions, its hollow rhetoric, its pose of melancholy, arose,
armed with new principles and fresh ideals. Their ideal was
truth; their watchword liberty; to get as near as possible to
scientific truth became their object. Taine was the mouthpiece
of this period, or rather one of its most authoritative spokesmen.
Many attempts have been made to apply one of Taine's
favourite theories to himself, and to define his predominant
and preponderant faculty. Some critics have held that it
was the power of logic, a power which was at the same time the
source of his weakness and of his strength. He had a passion
for abstraction. " Every man and every book," he said, " can
be summed up in three pages, and those three pages can be
summed up in three lines." He considers everything as a
mathematical problem, whether it be the universe or a work
of art: " C'est beau comme un syllogisme," he said of a sonata
of Beethoven. Taine's theory of the universe, his doctrine,
his method of writing criticism and history, his philosophical
system, are all the result of this logical gift, this passion for
reasoning, classification and abstraction. But Taine's imagina-
tive quality was as remarkable as his power of logic; hence the
most satisfactory definition of Taine's predominating faculty
would be one which comprehended the two gifts. M. Lemaitre
gave us this definition when he called Taine a poete-logicien;
M. Bourget likewise when he spoke of Taine's imagination
philosophiqtte, and M. Barres when he said that Taine had the
power of dramatizing abstractions. For Taine was a poet as
well as a logician; and it is possible that the portion of his work
which is due to his poetic and imaginative gift may prove the
most lasting.
Taine's doctrine consisted in an inexorable determinism, a
negation of metaphysics; as a philosopher he was a positivist.
Enamoured as he was of the precise and the definite, the
spiritualist philosophy in vogue in 1845 positively maddened
him. He returned to the philosophy of the i8th century,
especially to Condillac and to the theory of transformed sensa-
tion. Taine presented this philosophy in a vivid, vigorous
and polemical form, and in concrete and coloured language
which made his works more accessible, and consequently more
influential, than those of Auguste Comte. Hence to the men
of 1860 Taine was the true representative of positivism.
Taine's critical work is considerable; but all his works of
criticism are works of history. Hitherto history had been to
criticism as the frame is to the picture; Taine reversed] the
process, and studied literary personages merely as specimens
and productions of a certain epoch. He started with the axiom
that the complete expression of a society is to be found in its
literature, and that the way to obtain an idea of a society is to
study its literature. The great writer is not an isolated being;
he is the result of a thousand causes; firstly, of his race;
secondly, of his environment; thirdly, of the circumstances in
which he was placed while his talents were developing. Hence
Race, Environment, Time — these are the three things to be
studied before the man is taken into consideration. Taine
completed this theory by another, that of the predominating
faculty, the faculte maitresse. This consists in believing that
every man, and especially every great man, is dominated by
one faculty so strong as to subordinate all others to it, which
is the centre of the man's activity and leads him into one
particular channel. It is this theory, obviously the result of
his love of abstraction, which is the secret of Taine's power and
of his deficiencies. He always looked for this salient quality,
this particular channel, and when he had once made up his
mind what it was, he massed up all the evidence which went
to corroborate and to illustrate this one quality, and necessarily
omitted all conflicting evidences. The result was an inclination
to lay stress on one side of a character or a question to the
exclusion of all others.
Taine served science unfalteringly, without looking forward
to any possible fruits or result. In his work we find neither
enthusiasm nor bitterness, neither hope nor yet despair; merely
a hopeless resignation. The study of mankind was Taine's
incessant preoccupation, and he followed the method already
described. He made a searching investigation into humanity,
and his verdict was one of unqualified condemnation. In
" Thomas Graindorge " we see him aghast at the spectacle of
man's brutality and woman's folly. In man he sees the primeval
savage, the gorilla, the carnivorous and lascivious animal, or
else the maniac with diseased body and disordered mind, to whom
health, either of mind or body, is but an accident. Taine is
appalled by the bete humaine; and in all his works we are
conscious, as in the case of Voltaire, of the terror with which
the possibilities of human folly inspire him. It may be doubted
whether Taine's system, to which he attached so much import-
ance, is really the most lasting part of his work, just as it may
be doubted whether a sonata of Beethoven bears any resem-
blance to a syllogism. For Taine was an artist as well as a
TAIREN— TAIT, A. C.
363
logician, an artist who saw and depicted what he saw in vital
and glowing language. From the artist we get his essay on
La Fontaine, his articles on Balzac and Racine, and the passages
on Voltaire and Rousseau in the Ancien Regime. Moreover, not
only was Taine an artist who had not escaped from the influence
of the romantic tradition, but he was by his very method and
style a romanticist. His emotions were deep if not violent,
his vision at times almost lurid. He sees everything in startling
relief and sometimes in exaggerated outline, as did Balzac and
Victor Hugo. Hence his predilection for exuberance, strength
and splendour; his love of Shakespeare, Titian and Rubens;
his delight in bold, highly-coloured themes.
Taine's influence was great, and twofold. On his own genera-
tion it was considerable; during the epoch ift which he lived,
while a wave of pessimism was sweeping over French literature,
he was the high priest of the cult of misanthropy, in which even
science was held to be but an idol, worthy of respect and de-
votional service, but not of faith. In its turn came the reaction
against positivism and pessimism, and an attempt at spiritual
renascence. Around a man so remarkable as Taine a school is
certain to form itself; Taine's school, which was one of positivist
doctrines, rigid systems and resigned hopelessness, was equally
certain to produce at some time or another a school of determined
opponents to its doctrines and system. If, therefore, the tone
which pervades the works of Zola, Bourget and Maupassant
can be immediately attributed to the influence we call Taine's,
it is also the influence of Taine which is one of the ultimate
causes of the protest embodied in the subsequent reaction.
(M. BA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The official life, H. Taine, sa vie et sa correspon-
dance, was published in 3 yols. in 1902-5 (Eng. trans, by Mrs. R. L.
Devonshire, 1902-8). His friend, M. E. Boutmy, published an
appreciative study of Taine's philosophy in his Taine, Scherer,
Laboulaye (Paris, 1901). See also A. Sorel, Nouveaux essais d'histoire
et de critique (1898) ; Gabriel Monod, Les Maitres de Vhistoire (Paris,
1894); Emile Faguet, Pahliques \moralistes au XIX" siecle (Paris,
1900) ; P. Lacombe, La psychologie des individus et des societes chez
Taine (1906); P. Neve, La philosophie de Taine (1908); and
especially Victor Giraud, Essai sur Taine, son oeuvre et son influence,
d'apris des documents inedits (2nd ed., 1902) ; V. Giraud, Biblio-
graphie de Taine (Paris, 1902). A comprehensive list of books and
articles on Taine is given in H. P. Thieme's Guide bibliographique de
la litterature franc.aise de 1800 a 1906 (Paris, 1907). More recently,
Taine's historical work has been adversely criticized, especially by
A. Aulard in lectures delivered at the Sorbonne in 1905-6 and 1906-7
( Taine, historien de la revolution fran^aise, 1 907) , devoted to destructive
criticism of Taine's work on the French Revolution.
TAIREN, or DAIREN (Russian Dalny), a free port created by
the Russian government and opened to foreign tra.de in 1901,
situated on the Central Manchurian railway, and thus one of
the Pacific termini of the Trans-Siberian railway. It stands
at the head of Talien-wan Bay, on the east side of Liao-tung
peninsula, in Manchuria, about 20 m. N.E. of Port Arthur. The
harbour is roomy, easy of entrance, and free from ice all the
year round. The town is situated along the front of the harbour
and occupies the slope leading up to the hills at the rear. It is
designed to accommodate 30,000 inhabitants and is separated
from the Chinese quarter by a large natural park. The climate
is temperate and healthy. Tairen is provided with wharves
to accommodate the largest ocean steamers, the wharves having
a vertical face with 28 ft. depth at low water. The area of the
port is 132 acres, and the inner harbour is protected by a stone
and concrete breakwater 5950 ft. long. At an early period in
the Russo-Japanese war (28th of May 1904), Dalny was occupied
by the Japanese after slight resistance.
TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL (1811-1882), Anglican
divine, archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Edinburgh on
the 2ist of December 1811. His parents were Presbyterians,
but he early turned towards the Scottish Episcopal Church, and
was confirmed in his first year at Oxford, having entered Balliol
College in October 1830 as a Snell exhibitioner from the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. He won an open scholarship, took his
degree with a first-class in literis humanioribus (1833), and
became fellow and tutor of Balliol; he was also ordained deacon
(1836) and priest (1838), and served the curacy of Baldon.
Rapid changes among the fellows found him at the age of
twenty-six " the senior and most responsible of the four Balliol
tutors." The experience gained during this period stood him
in good stead afterwards as a member of the first Oxford
University Commission (1850-52). He never sympathized with
the principles of the Tractarian movement, and on the appear-
ance of Tract XC. in 1841 he drafted the famous protest of the
" Four Tutors " against it; but this was his only important
contribution to the controversy. On the other hand, although
his sympathies were on the whole with the liberal movement
in the university, he never took a lead in the matter. In 1842
he became an undistinguished but useful successor to Arnold
as headmaster of Rugby; and a serious illness in 1848, the first
of many, led him to welcome the comparative leisure which
followed upon his appointment to the deanery of Carlisle in
1849. His life there, however, was one of no little activity;
he served on the University Commission, he restored his
cathedral, and did much excellent pastoral work. There too he
suffered the great sorrow of his life. He had married Catharine
Spooner at Rugby in 1843; in the spring of 1856, within five
weeks, five of their children were carried off by virulent scarlet
fever. Not long afterwards he was consecrated bishop of
London on the 22nd of November 1856, as successor to C. J.
Blomfield. His translation to Canterbury in 1868 (he had refused
the archbishopric of York in 1862) constituted a recognition of
his work, but made no break in it. His last years were inter-
rupted by illness and saddened by the death in 1878 of his only
son Craufurd, and of his wife.
If Blomfield had almost remodelled the idea of a bishop's
work, his successor surpassed him. Tail had all Blomfield's
earnestness and his powers of work, with far wider interests.
Blomfield had given himself zealously to the work of church-
building; Tail followed in his steps by inaugurating (1863) the
Bishop of London's Fund. He devoted a very large part
of his time at London in actual evangelistic work; and to the
end his interest in the pastoral side of the work of the clergy
was greater than anything else. With his wife, he was instru-
mental in organizing women's work upon a sound basis, and he
did not a little for the healthful regulation of Anglican sister-
hoods during the formative period in which this was particularly
necessary. Nor was he less successful in the larger matters of
administration and organization, which brought into play his
sound practical judgment and strong common-sense. He was
constant in his attendance in parliament, and spared no pains
in pressing on measures of practical utility. The modification
of the terms of clerical subscription (1865), the new lectionary
(1871), the Burials Act (1880) were largely owing to him; for
all of them, and especially the last, he incurred much obloquy
at the time. The Royal Commissions on Ritual (1867) and on
the Ecclesiastical Courts (1881) were due to him, and he took a
large part in the deliberations of both. Probably his successor
(see BENSON, E. W.) was brought into closer relations with the
colonial churches than Tail was; but the healthy development of
the Lambeth Conferences on the lines of mutual counsel rather
than of a hasty quasi-synodic action was largely due to him.
On the other hand, Tait was not successful in dealing with
matters which called for the higher gifts of a ruler, and especially
in his relations with (a) the liberal trend in modern thought,
and (b) the Catholic revival, (a) As regards the former, he was
himself not a little in sympathy with it. But although well-
read, he was no scholar in the true sense, and had neither the
knowledge to feel sure of his ground nor the theological insight
to perceive the real point at issue. His object in dealing with
questions of faith, as in dealing with the ritual question, was
primarily a practical one: he wished to secure peace, and
obedience to the law as he saw it. Consequently, after his
sympathies had led him to express himself favourably towards
some movement, he frequently found himself compelled to draw
back. He expressed a qualified sympathy with some of the
writers of Essays and Reviews, and then joined in the censure of
it by the bishops (1861). The same kind of apparent vacillation
was found in his action in other cases; e.g., in the Colenso case
364
TAIT, A. F.— TAIT, P. G.
(1863), and in the controversy as to the use or disuse of the
Athanasian symbol (1872). It was naturally and widely mis-
understood. Some who did not know him thought, or pre-
tended to think, that he was a Socinian or a free-thinker. The
world at large knew better; but even Temple warned him, in
the case of Essays and Reviews, " You will not keep friends if
you compel them to feel that in every crisis of life they must
be on their guard against trusting you." (b) As regards the
second point, Tait was concerned with it during the whole of
his episcopate, and above all on the side of ritual, on which it
naturally came into most direct conflict with the recognized
ecclesiastical practice of the day. He had to deal with the
St George's -in-the-East riots in 1859, and the troubles at St
Alban's, Holborn, in their earlier stages (1867); he took part
as assessor in the Privy Council judgment in the Ridsdale case
(1877); he was more closely concerned than any other bishop
with the agitation against confession in 1858, and again in 1877.
His method throughout was the same: he endeavoured to obtain
a compliance to the law as declared by the courts; failing this,
he made the most earnest efforts to secure obedience to the
ruling of the Ordinary for the sake of the peace of the Church;
after this, he could do nothing. He did not perceive how much
of reason the " ritualists " had on their side: that they were
fighting for practices which, they contended, were covered by
the letter of the rubric; and that, where rubrics were notoriously
disregarded on all hands, it was not fair to proceed against one
class of delinquent only. In fact, if others were inclined to
ignore it altogether, Tait could hardly realize anything but the
connexion between the English Church and the State. From
such a position there seemed to be no escape but in legislation
for the deprivation of the recalcitrant clergy; and the Public
Worship Regulation Act (1874) was the result. For this Tait
was by no means responsible as a whole: some of the provisions
which proved most irksome were the result of amendments by
Lord Shaftesbury which the bishops were unable to resist;
and it must be borne in mind that the most disastrous results
of the measure were not contemplated by those who were instru-
mental in passing it. The results followed inevitably: clergy
•were cited before a new tribunal, and not only deprived but
imprisoned. A widespread feeling of indignation spread not
only among High Churchmen, but among many who cared little
or nothing for the ritual practices involved; and it seemed
impossible to foretell what the outcome would be. But the
aged archbishop was moved as much as anybody, and tried
hard to mitigate such a state of things. At length, when the
Rev. A. H. Mackonochie was on the point of being deprived of
his benefice of St. Alban's, Holborn, for contumacy, the arch-
bishop, then on his deathbed at Aldington, took steps which
resulted in the carrying out of an exchange of benefices (which
had already been projected), which removed him from the juris-
diction of the court. This proved to be the turning-point;
and although the ritual difficulty by no means ceased, it was
afterwards dealt with from a different point of view, and the
Public Worship Regulation Act became practically obsolete.
The archbishop died on the 3rd of December (Advent Sunday),
1882, leaving a legacy of peace to the Church.
Tait was a Churchman by conviction; but although the work
of his life was all done in England, he remained a Scotsman to
the end. It was the opinion of some that he never really under-
stood the historical position of the English Church and took
no pains to learn. John Tillotson, one of his predecessors in
the archbishopric, was a favourite hero of his, and in some
ways the two men resembled one another. But Tait had none
of Tillotson's gentleness, and he rode roughshod over the
obstacles in his way. He cannot be called a great ecclesiastical
statesman, but he administered his office well and was un-
doubtedly one of the foremost public men of his day.
See R. T. Davidson and D. Benham, Life of Archbishop Tait,
2 vols. (1891); A. C. Tait, Catharine and Craufurd Tait (1880).
(W. E. Co.)
TAIT, ARTHUR FITZWILLIAM (1819-1905), American
artist, was born near Liverpool, England, on the 5th of August
1819. He emigrated to the United States in 1850, and was
identified with the art life of New York until his death. In
1858 he was elected to full membership in the National Academy
of Design, New York. He died at Yonkers, New York, on
the 28th of April 1905. He painted barnyard fowls and wild
birds as well as sheep and deer, with great dexterity, and repro-
ductions of his minute panels of chickens had an enormous
vogue.
TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE (1831-1901), Scottish physicist,
was born at Dalkeith on the 28th of April 1831. After attending
the Academy at Edinburgh and spending a session at the
University, he went up to Cambridge as a member of Peterhouse,
and graduated as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman
in 1852. As a fellow and lecturer of his college he remained in
Cambridge for two years longer, and then left to take up the
professorship of mathematics at Queen's College, Belfast. There
he made the acquaintance of Thomas Andrews, whom he joined
in researches on the density of ozone and the action of the
electric discharge on oxygen and other gases, and by whom he
was introduced to Sir W. R. Hamilton and quaternions. In
1860 he was chosen to succeed his old master, J. D. Forbes, as
professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, and this chair he
occupied till within a few months of his death, which occurred
on the 4th of July 1901, at Edinburgh. The first scientific
paper that appears under Tait's name only was published in
1860. His earliest work dealt mainly with mathematical
subjects, and especially with quaternions (q.v.), of which he
may be regarded as the leading exponent after their originator,
Hamilton. He was the author of two text-books on them — one
an Elementary Treatise on Quaternions (1867), written with the
advice of Hamilton, though not published till after his death,
and the other an Introduction to Quaternions (1873), in which
he was aided by Professor Philip Kelland (1808-1879), who
had been one of his teachers at Edinburgh. In addition,
quaternions was one of the themes of his address as president
of the mathematical section of the British Association in 1871.
But he also produced original work in mathematical and ex-
perimental physics. In 1864 he published a short paper on
thermodynamics, and from that time his contributions to that
and kindred departments of science became frequent and
important. In 1871 he emphasized the significance and promise
of the principle of the dissipation of energy. In 1873 he took
thermoelectricity for the subject of his discourse as Rede
lecturer at Cambridge, and in the same year he presented the
first sketch of his well-known thermoelectric diagram before the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Two years later researches on
" Charcoal Vacua " with J. Dewar led him to see the true
dynamical explanation of the Crookes radiometer in the large-
ness of the free path of the molecule of the highly rarefied air.
From 1879 to 1888 he was engaged on difficult experimental
investigations, which began with an inquiry into the corrections
required, owing to the great pressures to which the instruments
had been subjected, in the readings of the thermometers em-
ployed by the " Challenger " expedition for observing deep-sea
temperatures, and which were extended to include the com-
pressibility of water, glass and mercury. Between 1886 and
1892 he published a series of papers on the foundations of the
kinetic theory of gases, the fourth of which contained what was,
according to Lord Kelvin, the first proof ever given of the
Waterston-Maxwell theorem of the average equal partition of
energy in a mixture of two different gases; and about the same
time he carried out investigations into impact and its duration.
Many other inquiries conducted by him might be mentioned,
and some idea may be gained of his scientific activity from the
fact that a selection only from his papers, published by the
Cambridge University Press, fills three large volumes. This
mass of work was done in the time he could spare from his
professorial teaching in the university. In addition, he was the
author of a number of books and articles. Of the former,
the first, published in 1896, was on the dynamics of a particle;
and afterwards there followed a number of concise treatises on
thermodynamics, heat, light, properties of matter and dynamics,
TAJIK— TAKLA MAKAN
365
together with an admirably lucid volume of popular lectures on
Recent Advances in Physical Science. With Lord Kelvin he
collaborated in writing the well-known Treatise on Natural
Philosophy. " Thomson and Tait," as it is familiarly called
(" T and T'" was the authors' own formula), was planned soon
after Lord Kelvin became acquainted with Tait, on the latter's
appointment to his professorship in Edinburgh, and it was
intended to be an all-comprehensive treatise on physical science,
the foundations being laid in kinematics and dynamics, and the
structure completed with the properties of matter, heat, light,
electricity and magnetism. But the literary partnership ceased
in about eighteen years, when only the first portion of the plan
had been completed, because each of the members felt he could
work to better advantage separately than jointly. The friend-
ship, however, endured for the twenty-three years which yet
remained of Tail's life.
Tait collaborated with Balfour Stewart in the Unseen Universe,
which was followed by Paradoxical Philosophy. Among his articles
may be mentioned those which he wrote for the ninth edition of
this Encyclopaedia on Light, Mechanics, Quaternions, Radiation
and Thermodynamics, besides the biographical notices of Hamilton
and Clerk Maxwell. ,
TAJIK, or PARSIWAN, a subject race of Afghanistan.
Underlying the predominant Pathan elements in the country,
the Tajik (Tajak, or Tausik) represents the original Persian
possessor of the soil, who still speaks his mother tongue and
therefore calls himself Parsiwan. There are pure Persians in
Afghanistan, such as the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Naoshir-
wanis of Kharan; but the name Tajik (= " stranger ") appears
to be applied only to an admixture of original Arab and Persian
stock, who are the slaves of the community — hewers of wood
and drawers of water. Everywhere the Tajiks are the culti-
vators in rural districts, and the shopkeepers and clerks in the
towns. They are a fine, athletic people, generally fair in
complexion, and assimilate in aspect, in dress, and much in
manners to the Afghans, but they are never nomadic. The
Tajik is as much the slave of the Pathan in Afghanistan as is
the Hindki (whose origin is similar) in the plains of the Indus.
Yet the Tajik population of the richly-cultivated districts north
of Kabul proved themselves to be of good fighting material in
the Afghan war of 1879-80, and the few Kizilbashes that are
to be found in the Indian army are brave soldiers. The
number of the Tajiks in Afghanistan is estimated at 900,000.
The name itself originally occurs in the Pahlavi writings, and is
explained to mean, first, the Arabs in general, then their descendants
born in Persia and elsewhere out of Arabia, and, lastly, the Persians
in general and their descendants born in Turkestan and elsewhere
out of Persia. Tajik thus came to be the collective name of all
communities of Iranian stock and Persian speech wherever found in
Central Asia. These are co-extensive with the former eastward and
northward limits of the Persian empire; but, after the ascendancy
of the Turki races, they became the subject element in Turkestan,
Afghanistan, Bokhara, Khiva, Kashgaria, while still politically
dominant in Badakshan, Wakhan, Darwaz, Kost and Karateghin.
In most of these places the Tajiks, with the kindred Galchas, seem
to form the bulk of the population, the distinction being that
" Tajik " is applied rather to the settled and more civilized low-
landers of modern Persian speech, " Galcha " to the highlanders
of Ferghana, Kohistan, Wakhan, &c., who speak either archaic
forms of Persian or dialects intermediate between the Iranian and
Sanskritic branches of the Indo-European linguistic family.
But, although mainly of Iranian stock, with light complexion and
regular features, the Tajiks claim Arab descent, regarding the
district about Bagdad as their primeval home, and considering
themselves the descendants of the Arabs who overran Central Asia
in the first century of the Hejira. At the same time, " it is evident
that the inhabitants of the greater part of this region (Central Asia)
must from an early period have come in contact with the successive
waves of Turkish (Tflrki) and even Mongol population which broke
over them ; accordingly we find that, although the type is essentially
Iranian, it has undergone a certain modification " (Capt. J. M.
Trotter, Bokhara, p. 169). The term Tajik must be distinguished
from Sarte, the latter simply meaning " trader " or " shopkeeper," and
being applied indiscriminately to the settled as opposed to the
nomad element, and especially to the urban populations, of what-
ever race, in Central Asia. The Tajiks are known as Tits on the
west side of the Caspian (Baku, Lenkoran, &c.).
TAKHTSINGJI (1858-1896), Maharaja of Bhaunagar, a
Rajput chief of the Gohel clan, and the ruler of a state in
Kathiawar, was born on the 6th of January 1858, and succeeded
to the throne of Bhaunagar on the death of his father, Jaswant-
singji, in 1870. During his minority, which ended in 1878, he
was educated at the Kajkot college and afterwards under an
English officer, while the administration of the state was con-
ducted jointly by Mr. E. H. Percival, a member of the Indian
Civil Service, and Azam Gowrishankar Yodeyshankar, C.S.I.,
one of the foremost native statesmen of India, who had served
the state in various capacities since 1822. At the age of twenty
Takhtsingji found himself the ruler of a territory nearly 3000
square miles in extent. His first public act was to sanction a
railway connecting his territory with one of the main trunk lines,
which was the first enterprise of its kind on the part of a raja
in western, if not in all, India. The commerce and trade, and
the economic and even social development of the state, which
came in the wake of this railway, confirmed Takhtsingji in a
policy of progressive administration, under which educational
establishments, hospitals and dispensaries, trunk roads, bridges ,
handsome edifices and other public works grew apace. In 1886
he inaugurated a system of constitutional rule, by placing
several departments in the hands of four members of a council
of state under his own presidency. This innovation, which
had the warm support of the governor of Bombay, Lord Reay,
provoked a virulent attack upon the chief, who brought his
defamers to trial in the High Court of Bombay. The punish-
ment of the ringleaders broke up a system of blackmailing to
which rajas used to be regularly exposed, and the public spirit
of Takhtsingji in freeing his brother chiefs from this evil was
widely acknowledged throughout India, as well as by the British
authorities. In 1886 he was created G.C.S.I.; and five years
later his hereditary title of thakore was raised to that of
maharaja. In 1893 he took the occasion of the opening of the
Imperial Institute by Queen Victoria to visit England in order
to pay personal homage to the sovereign of the British Empire,
on which occasion the University of Cambridge conferred on
him the degree of LL.D. He died in 1896. (M.M.BH.)
TAKIN, the Mishmi name of a remarkable hollow-horned
ruminant (Budorcas laxicolor), the typical representative of
which inhabits the Mishmi Hills, in the south-east corner of
Tibet, immediately north of the Assam Valley, while a second
form is found further east, in the Moupin district. The takin,
which may be compared in size to a Kerry cow, is a clumsily
built brute with yellowish-brown hair and curiously curved
horns, which recall those of the South African white-tailed gnu.
Its nearest relatives appear to be the serows of the outer
Himalaya and the Malay countries, which are in many respects
intermediate between goats and antelopes, but it is not improb-
ably also related to the musk-ox (q.v.). As it lacks the thick
woolly coat of the two Tibetan antelopes known as the chiru
and the goa, there can be little doubt that it inhabits a country
with a less severe climate than that of the Central Tibetan
plateau, and it is probably a native of the more or less wooded
districts of comparatively low elevation forming the outskirts
of Tibet. It is remarkable for the shortness of the cannon-
bones of the legs, in which it resembles the Rocky Mountain goat.
TAKLA MAKAN, the Central Asian desert which lies between
the N. foot of the Kuen-lun ranges and the wide curve of the
Tarim river on the W., N., and E. It appears to be naturally
divisible into two parts by the river Khotan-darya, and the
name applied to the western part between that river and the
Yarkand-darya (Tarim) is the desert of Takla Makan proper,
while the part between the Khotan-darya and the line of the
lower Tarim and the Cherchen-darya is known as the desert of
Cherchen. The former is occupied almost entirely by sand-
dunes. Sand mountains range in altitude from 60 ft. up to as
much as 300 ft. The only breaks in this " sea of sand-waves "
are a few small patches of alluvial clay. Often two distinct
systems of dunes can be distinguished; one system, consisting
of the larger concatenations, stretches from E. to W., while
the secondary or transverse dunes run from N. to S. or from
N.E. to S.W. The steeper faces of the dunes and of the dune-
accumulations are for the most part turned towards the S.,
3 66
TALAING— TALAVERA DE LA REINA
the S.W. and the W., that is, invariably away from the direction
of the prevailing winds; but in some parts the steep faces are
those fronting the E. and the S. In the desert of Cherchen,
however, where the general height of the dunes in the N.E. is
uniformly greater than in the desert of Takla Makan proper,
reaching up to 350 ft., the configuration is complicated by the
appearance of elongated expanses of level clay called bayirs,
varying in size from half a mile to a dozen miles in length,
barren and tinged with saline deposits in the middle, with scanty
vegetation around, and lofty sand-dunes overhanging them on
both sides. These elliptical, cauldron-shaped basins all stretch
from N.E. or E.N.E. to S.W. or W.S.W., and are arranged in
long curving chains, the successive depressions being parted
by transverse ridges of sand. They owe their configuration in
great part, perhaps entirely, to the prevailing wind.
On perfectly level ground the dunes are crescentic in shape, have
a steep face towards the W., are highest in the centre, and slope
away in each direction towards the two horns or cusps of the crescent.
On the windward side they have a convex, spoon-shaped slope,
regularly formed, but crumpled by tiny sand-waves or ripple-marks.
" With regard to the large accumulations of sand (in the desert
of Cherchen) we have ascertained the following laws — (i) In the
N. of the desert they turn their steep faces towards the N.W., in
the middle towards the W.N.W., and in the S. towards the W. and
W.S.W. ; (2) their eastern slopes ascend rather slowly towards
their crests; (3) on the other side their steep leeward faces go down
sheer at an angle of 33 °, or else in two or three steps; (4) their mass
diminishes towards the S. ; (5) they are each built up of an innu-
merable number of individual dunes; (6) although their relief is
influenced by winds from other quarters than the predominant,
their mass is unaffected by them; (7) it is their varying breadths
which give rise originally to the thresholds, and consequently to the
formation of the bayirs " (Sven Hedin, op. cit. i. 362).
The bayirs become progressively rarer, less distinct, and
smaller in size as one advances from E. to W. At the same
time the arrangement of the sand-dunes grows more and more
irregular, and the dunes themselves plunge steeply down
towards the W., the S., and the S.W., and are drawn out towards
the N.N.E. and S.S.W., the N. and S. and the N.W. and S.E.
In that part of the desert two systems of dunes are distinguish-
able, intersecting or rather crossing over one another diagonally
or at right angles. In the extreme west, at Ordan-Padshah,
between Kashgar and Yarkand, the dunes travel annually some
13 ft. towards the S.E., not towards the S.W. The principal
cause of the difference between the arrangement of the sand-
dunes in the desert of Cherchen and the arrangement of the
sand-dunes in the desert of Takla Makan proper in the W.
is the wind. In the latter, winds from several quarters co-
operate to mould the relief of the desert into capricious and
changing outlines; but in the E. the wind blows not only with
greater regularity from one settled direction, the N.E. or
E.N.E., but also with much greater violence. Indeed, it is in
the open Lop country, where the mountains, the Kuruk-tagh
on the N., and the Astin-tagh on the S., are the nearest to each
other, that the wind develops its greatest and most concentrated
energy.1 In the E., where the sand waves are most exposed to
the fiercest wind, they form elongated waves, distinctly out-
lined, corresponding to the breakers of the ocean. They dis-
seminate themselves westwards over the desert in ever-widening
concentric circles. The curving courses of the Tarim and the
Koncheh-darya are the only check upon the invasion of the
Takla Makan by the sand which is generated in the desert of
Lop or further E. and N. in the mountains which girdle the
desert of Gobi. But the former river is itself encroaching upon
the N.E. margin of the desert, and pressing more and more
towards the S.W.
With regard to the origin of the stupendous masses of sand
that fill the basin of the Tarim, K. Bogdanovich considers them to
consist for the most part of the disintegrated products of the fine-
grained alluvial clays of the desert itself. On the other hand,
G. N. Potanin and V. A. Obruchev both seek for its origin in the
hard rocks of the mountains which encircle the deserts; and in this
view, subject to certain modifications, Sven Hedin is disposed to
agree. But he adds * that the masses of sand themselves " are
1 Sven Hedin, op. cit. \. 364.
* Op. cit. ii. 448.
derived from three separate sources, in part directly, in part in-
directly— (i) the direct transportation by the wind of the products
of disintegration from the adjacent mountains, whether sandstones
or crystalline rocks; (2) through the activity of the wind operative
amongst the arenaceous alluvia of the rivers and temporary lakes;
(3) through the sand that was already present in the soil, and which
became exposed in rings more or less concentric in proportion as
the former (Central Asian Mediterranean) sea dried up." Of these
agencies the river Tarim makes by comparison much the smallest
contribution of disintegrated material to the volume of sand. The
area covered by sands in the desert of Takla Makan proper is esti-
mated at nearly 116,000 sq. m., and the area covered by them in
the desert of Cherchen at nearly 143,000 sq. m.
Vegetation and animal life are extremely scarce. The former
is practically confined to various steppe plants, kamish (reeds),
tamarisks (almost invariably growing on root-mounds), and poplars.
The animals are hares, rats and one or two other rodents, foxes, and
in a few places the wild camel.
The -climate is one of extremes. At Merket on the W. verge of
the desert of Takla Makan proper the winters are cold, though the
snowfall is small, while the summers are hot. In the desert of
Cherchen a temperature of -22° F. has been observed in the depth of
winter, and there snow sometimes falls heavily. During the sand-
storms which sweep over the region in spring, the thermometer
drops as much as 10° or 12° F. below zero. On the other hand, a
temperature as high as 86° has been recorded in the end of April
(cf. GOBI). It is only in winter that this appalling desert can be
crossed with any degree of safety. It is destitute of water, but in
winter it is possible to transport ice on the backs of camels. Some-
times for days together the desert is enveloped in an impenetrable
dust-haze, which chokes and smothers every living creature. In
the second half of the I3th century Marco Polo left a vivid descrip-
tion of this desert and related legends associated with it (see the
edition of his travels in English by Sir H. Yule, ed. 1903). The
fullest account by a modern writer is that given by Sven Hedin in
his Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902 (Stock-
holm, vols. i. and ii. 1905-6); see also his Through Asia (London,
1898), vol. i. For archaeology, see TURKESTAN. (J. T. BE.)
TALAING, more accurately called M6n, the name given to
the remnant of the Peguan race, which for long strove with
the Burmans for the ascendancy in what is now Burma. In
the middle of the i8th century the Peguans were masters of the
country from the Gulf of Martaban to far to the north of
Mandalay. Now, however, the Talaing population is practically
cpnfined to the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Lower Burma,
and even there it seems to be dying out. According to the
census of 1901 they numbered only 321,898 persons, of whom
154,480 spoke the Talaing language. The Talaings are, histori-
cally, the most important representatives in Burma of the M6n-
Annam linguistic family, who have left tokens of their presence
from the Khasia Hills in Assam to the Gulf of Siam. The origin
of the name Talaing is disputed, but it is most commonly believed
to be a term of reproach, meaning " downtrodden," given by
the conquering Burmans. The people call themselves Mons.
They are lighter in complexion and more sturdily built than
the Burmans and the face is rounder.
TALAR, the architectural term given to the throne of the
Persian monarchs which is carved on the rock-cut tomb of
Darius at Nakst in Rustan, near Persepolis, and above the portico
which was copied from his palace.
TALAVERA DE LA REINA, a town of central Spain, in the
province of Toledo; on the right bank of the river Tagus, and
on the Madrid-Caceres railway. Pop. (1900) 10,580. Talavera
is of great antiquity, the Caesobriga of the Romans. Portions
of the triple wall which surrounded it remain standing, and the
Arco de San Pedro is one of its Roman gates restored. Among
the ancient buildings are the Torres Albarranas, built by the
Moors in the loth century, the Gothic collegiate church, and
three secularized convents, one of which dates from the i4th
century, but has twice been partially restored, and is now a
factory. The bridge of thirty-five arches across the Tagus
dates from the isth century. Talavera " of the queen " was so
named because, from the reign of Alphonso XI. (1312-50), it
was the property of the queens of Castile.
For the operations which culminated in the famous battle of
Talavera, between the English and the French, and those which
followed that engagement, see PENINSULAR WAR. Sir Arthur
Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington), the British commander,
acting in co-operation with Lieutenant-General Cuesta's Spanish
army, took position on the 27th of July 1809 on the Upper Tagus,
TALBOT (FAMILY)
367
protected by his advanced guard. His line, facing due east, ran
north from the right bank of the river to a ridge running parallel
to the Tagus, beyond which ridge, also parallel to the river, lay the
Sierra de Montalban. Cuesta's men with their right flank resting
on the river held Talavera itself and the close country to the north-
ward of it; Wellesley's right connected with Cuesta's left, and his
line stretched away northwards to the ridge mentioned above.
The Sierra was not, on the first day, occupied, and even on the inner
ridge itself the division of General (afterwards Lord) Hill was from
some misunderstanding very late in taking up its position. The
whole front was covered by a rivulet running from the ridge to the
Tagus. The battle was begun by the attack of two French divisions
on the British advanced guard, which retired into the main position
with severe loss and in some disorder. Marshal Victor's forces
followed them up sharply, and soon came upon Wellesley's line of
battle. For some time the possession of the ridge (owing to the
delay of Hill's Division) was doubtful, and Rufane Donkin's brigade
had a severe struggle, but in the end the arrival of Hill's troops
secured this all-important point for the Allied left. Meanwhile
the Spaniards (though there was at first a temporary panic amongst
them) and the right divisions of the British repulsed an attack in
the plain, and the day closed with the armies facing each other
along the rivulet and on the ridge. The losses had been heavy on
both sides. Early on the 28th the battle was renewed by a furious
attack on Hill's troops, whose left was now prolonged to the Sierra
by the Allied cavalry and a division borrowed from Cuesta. King
Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan his chief of staff, who were present,
were averse from fighting on this present ground, wishing to wait
for Soult, whom they expected to come in on Wellesley's rear, and
it was only after long discussion that the king gave a reluctant assent
to Victor's plan of attack. That Marshal's divisions once more
tried to oust Hill from the ridge, and once more failed before the
steady volleys of the British line and the charge of the cavalry
posted in this quarter (though, owing perhaps to defective ground-
scouting, this nearly ended in disaster). At the same time General
Sebastiani's 4th corps, after a heavy bombardment, assaulted the
Allied centre in the plain. Here the British and Spanish battalions
held their own firmly, and a counter attack by General Mackenzie's
division hurled back the French in disorder. Yet another attack
followed these failures, and came very near to achieving a great
success. This time Lapisse's division of Victor's corps attacked
the Allies' left centre, composed of the British Guards. The French
columns were again checked by the British line, but here the counter-
stroke, unlike Mackenzie's, was carried too far, and the troops in
the ardour of incautious pursuit were very severely handled and
pushed back to the position by the French reserves; when Wel-
lesley decided the day by a counter attack with the 48th regiment,
made with great intrepidity and steadiness. The Guards, with
splendid discipline, resumed their positions, and eventually' the
French, with their leader Lapisse mortally wounded, fell back.
Failure all along the line and heavy losses left King Joseph no
alternative but to retire towards Madrid. The French lost 7268 men
out of 46,138 present, the British 5363 out of 20,641 ; the Spanish
losses were officially returned at 1201 out of some 36,000 present.
TALBOT (FAMILY). Apart from its achievements, this is
one of the few families in the English aristocracy which traces
alike its descent and its surname from the Norman conquerors
of England; and it may be said that there has hardly been a
time during more than seven centuries in which the Talbots
have not been of considerable account in public life. Yet in
some periods they appear rather as a potential influence, while
at certain marked epochs they stand out among the most pro-
minent actors in English history. The name of Richard Talbot
occurs in Domesday Book as the holder of nine hides of land ill
Bedfordshire under Walter Giffard. There is no evidence that
he came over to England with the Conqueror himself; and,
as he did not hold of the king in capite, it is clear that he was
not a leader. Talbot being a personal nickname and not derived
from a place, those who bore it were not of necessity connected,
and the early pedigree is obscure. But a Geoffrey Talbot took
part with the empress Maud against King Stephen; and a
Hugh Talbot held the castle of Plessis against Henry I. for
Hugh de Gournay, and afterwards became a monk at Beaube,c
in Normandy. Richard Talbot, with whom the proved pedigree
begins, obtained from Henry II. on his accession the lordship
of Linton in Herefordshire, and from Richard I. the custody of
Ludlow Castle; and his descendants for some generations
appear to have been wardens of various castles on the borders
of Wales, and intermarried with the great families of this region.
Under Edward II. a Gilbert Talbot was head of the house, and
invaded Scotland in the king's company, but afterwards took
part with Thomas of Lancaster against the king. He, however,
was pardoned, and obtained from Edward III. a confirmation
of the grant of the manor of Linton and other lands, being also
summoned to parliament as a baron (1331).
His son Richard, who had married a daughter and co-heiress
of John Comyn of Badenoch, laid claim to certain lands in
Scotland in her right, and, when restrained from entering that
country by land (Edward III. having then made an alliance
with King David), he joined in a successful expedition which
invaded it by sea in the interests of Edward Baliol. Three years
later he was taken prisoner in Scotland, and redeemed for
2000 marks, after which the king made him governor of Berwick.
He took part also in Edward's wars against France, as did like-
wise his son Gilbert, who succeeded him. His wife had brought
him the noble seat of Goodrich Castle on the Wye, and at this
time the family possessed lands in the counties of Oxford,
Gloucester, Hereford and Kent. Gilbert's son Richard added
to this inheritance by marrying the heiress of Lord Strange of
Blackmere, and himself became under Richard II. one of the
heirs of the earl of Pembroke, thus adding to his estates, lands
in Berkshire, Wilts, Salop and Essex. Another Gilbert Talbot,
grandson of the last, claimed to carry the great spurs at the
coronation of Henry V., and had a commission to receive the
submission of Owen Glendower and his adherents. He also
distinguished himself in the invasion of Normandy. He was
twice married, his second wife being a Portuguese lady, but he
left no male issue, and was succeeded by his brother John.
Hitherto the head of the house had borne the name of Lord
Talbot; but this John, after obtaining by marriage the title of
Lord Furnival, was for his distinguished actions created earl
of Shrewsbury (see SHREWSBURY, JOHN TALBOT, ist earl of).
Besides his martial exploits, this John claims some attention
for his family alliances. His first wife Maud, a granddaughter
of Thomas, Lord Furnival, brought him the castle of Sheffield
as part of her inheritance, and he was accordingly summoned
to parliament in the days of Henry IV. as John Talbot of
Hallamshire, otherwise Lord Furnival, more than thirty years
before he was made earl of Shrewsbury. The property became a
favourite residence of the family during the Tudor era; and, but
for the death in 1616 of Gilbert, 7th earl of Shrewsbury, without
male issue, Sheffield might have remained much longer a centre
of feudal magnificence rather than of commerce and manu-
factures. The second wife of John, earl of Shrewsbury, was
Margaret, the eldest of three daughters of Richard Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick, by that earl's second wife, a daughter of
Thomas, Lord Berkeley. By her he obtained a third part of
the Berkeley property; and, though she did not become the
mother of a line of earls, her eldest son, John Talbot, was created
Viscount Lisle, and it was he who fell along with his father at
the disastrous battle of Chatillon in Gascony. His son Thomas,
who inherited the title of Viscount Lisle, was slain at the early
age of twenty-two in a feudal contest with Lord Berkeley, arising
out of a dispute as to the possession of Berkeley castle, on the
20th of March 1470; and the title was afterwards conferred on
Edward Grey, the husband of one of his two sisters.
John, the second earl of Shrewsbury, was the ist earl's son
by his first wife. He had been knighted at Leicester in 1426
along with the infant king Henry VI., had served in the wars
of France, and been made chancellor of Ireland during his
father's lifetime, when he was only Lord Talbot. Afterwards
he was made lord high treasurer of England, and in 1459 was
rewarded for his services to the house of Lancaster with a grant
of 100 marks a year out of the lordship of Wakefield, forfeited
by Richard, duke of York. But next year he and his brother
Christopher were slain at the battle of Northampton, fighting
in the cause of Henry VI. His son John succeeded him, and
then his grandson George, who fought for Henry VII. at Stoke,
and whom King Henry VIII. sent as his lieutenant against the
rebels in the Pilgrimage of Grace. But perhaps the thing which
most redounds to his credit is the humanity with which he
received the fallen Cardinal Wolsey into his house at Sheffield
when he was on his way up to London as a state prisoner.
Francis, the sth earl, took a leading part in the invasions of
368
TALBOT, M. A.— TALC
Scotland under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and was one of
the two peers who alone opposed the bill for abolishing the
pope's jurisdiction under Elizabeth. His son George, who
succeeded, was the earl to whom the custody of Mary Stuart
was committed, his task being rendered all the more difficult
for him by the intrigues of his second wife, Bess of Hardwick,
the builder of Chatsworth, who had married three husbands
before her union with him. Two sons of this last earl succeeded
one another, and the title then devolved, for want of male issue,
on the lineal descendants of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton in
Worcestershire, third son of John, the 2nd earl. But the old
baronies of Talbot, Strange of Blackmere, and Furnival had
passed away in 1616 to the daughters of the 7th earl, of whom
the youngest married Thomas (Howard) earl of Arundel, whose
descendant, the duke of Norfolk, has the valuable Furnival
estates. The above Sir Gilbert had fought for Henry VII. at
Bosworth, where he was severely wounded, was knighted on
the field, and was throughout one of the first Tudor's most
trusted councillors. He fought also at Stoke against the in-
surgents with Lambert Simnel, was made a knight banneret,
governor of Calais, and lord chamberlain.
The gth earl, George, descended from this Gilbert, died un-
married, and his nephew, who followed, was succeeded by his
grandson Francis, chiefly memorable for his unhappy fate.
His second wife, the " wanton Shrewsbury " of Pope, a daughter
of the earl of Cardigan, was seduced by the duke of Buckingham,
whom the outraged husband challenged to a duel. The countess,
it is said, was present at the scene, and held Buckingham's horse
in the disguise of a page, saw her husband killed, and then
clasped her lover in her arms, receiving blood-stains .upon her
dress from the embrace. Charles, the I2th earl, son of this
unfortunate nobleman, was raised by William III. to the dignity
of a duke, but as he left no son this title died along with him in
1718, and the earldom of Shrewsbury devolved on his cousin
Gilbert, a Roman Catholic priest.
From this time the direct line of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton
began to fail. A nephew three times succeeded to an uncle,
and then the title devolved upon a cousin, who died unmarried
in 1856. On the death of this cousin the descent of the title
was for a short time in dispute, and the lands were claimed for
Lord Edmund Howard (now Talbot), an infant son of the duke
of Norfolk, under the will of the last earl; but the courts
decided that, under a private act obtained by the duke of
Shrewsbury shortly before his death, the title and bulk of the
estates must go together, and the true successor to the earldom
was found in Earl Talbot, the head of another line of the de-
scendants of Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton, sprung from a second
marriage of Sir Gilbert's son, Sir John Talbot of Albrighton.
The head of this family in the beginning of the i8th century
was a divine of some mark, William Talbot, who died bishop of
Durham in 1730. His son Charles, who filled the office of lord
chancellor, was created Baron Talbot of Hensol in Glamorgan-
shire in 1733; and his son William was advanced to the dignity
of Earl Talbot in 1761, to which was added Ingestre, the barony
of Dynevor, with special remainder to his daughter, Lady Cecil
Rice, in 1780. Then succeeded a nephew, who was created
Viscount and Earl Talbot, and assumed by royal licence the
surname of Chetwynd before Talbot, from his mother.
All the titles just mentioned have been united in the line
of the Earl Talbot who successfully claimed the Shrewsbury
title as the i8th earl, the earldom of Shrewsbury (1442) being
now the oldest existing that is not merged in a higher title.
The family seats (Alton Towers and Ingestre Hall) and the chief
estates are in Staffordshire. The old badge of the family was
a " talbot " or running hound. (J. GA.; J. H. R.)
TALBOT, MARY ANNE (1778-1808), the "British Amazon,"
was born in London on the 2nd of February 1778. She believed
herself to be the illegitimate child of the ist Earl Talbot. Early
in her career she eloped, in the disguise of a boy, with a captain.
In 1792 she was a drummer in Flanders. In the capture of
Valenciennes her lover was killed; and Mary Anne deserted and
became cabin boy on a French lugger, which she asserted was
captured by the British, who transferred her to the " Bruns-
wick," where she served as a powder monkey, being wounded
in Lord Howe's victory of the ist of June 1794. For this she
later received a small pension. When the wound healed she
again went to sea, was captured by the French, and imprisoned
for a year and a half. Her sex was not discovered until shortly
afterwards she was seized by a pressgang. She finally became
a household servant to Robert Kirby, a London publisher, who
included an account of her adventures in his Wonderful Museum
(1804) and in Life and Surprising Adventures of Mary Anne
Talbot (1809). She died on the 4th of February 1808.
TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY FOX (1800-1877), English dis-
coverer in photography, was the only child of William Daven-
port Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, Wilts, and of Lady Elizabeth
Fox Strangways, daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester. He
was born on the nth of February 1800, and was educated at
Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gained
the Person prize in 1820, and graduated as twelfth wrangler in
1821. From 1822 to 1872 he frequently communicated papers
to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects.
At an early period he had begun his optical researches, which
were to have such important results in connexion with photog-
raphy. To the Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1826 he con-
tributed a paper on " Some Experiments on Coloured Flame ";
to the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1827 a paper on " Mono-
chromatic Light "; and to the Philosophical Magazine a number
of papers on chemical subjects, including one on " Chemical
Changes of Colour." Before L. J. M. Daguerre exhibited in
1839 pictures taken by the sun, Talbot had obtained similar
success, and as soon as Daguerre's discoveries became known
communicated the results of his experiments to the Royal
Society. In 1841 he made known his discovery of the calotype
or talbotype process, and after the discovery of the collodion
process by Frederick Scott Archer in 1851 he devised a method
of instantaneous photography. For his discoveries, which are
detailed in his Pencil of Nature (1844), he received in 1842 the
Rumford medal of the Royal Society. While engaged in his
scientific researches he devoted much time to archaeology.
He published Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches
(1838-39), and Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of
Genesis (1839). With Sir Henry Rawlinson and Dr Edward
Hincks he shares the honour of having been one of the first
decipherers of the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh. He was
also the author of English Etymologies (1846). He died at
Lacock Abbey on the I7th of September 1877.
TALBOT OF HENSOL, CHARLES TALBOT, IST BARON (1685-
I73?)i lord chancellor of England, was the eldest son of William
Talbot, bishop of Durham, a descendant of the ist earl of
Shrewsbury. He was educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford,
and became a fellow of All Souls College in 1704. He was called
to the bar in 1711, and in 1717 was appointed solicitor-general
to the prince of Wales. Having been elected a member of the
House of Commons in 1720, he became solicitor-general in 1726,
and in 1733 he was made lord chancellor and raised to the peerage
with the title of Baron Talbot of Hensol. Talbot proved himself
an equity judge of exceptional capacity and of the highest
character during the three years of his occupancy of the Wool-
sack. He died on the i4th of February 1737. Among his
contemporaries Talbot enjoyed the reputation of a wit; he
was a patron of the poet Thomson, who in The Seasons com-
memorated a son of his to whom he acted as tutor; and Butler
dedicated his famous Analogy to the lord chancellor. The title
assumed by Talbot was derived from Hensol in Glamorganshire,
which came to him through his wife.
See Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of
the Great Seal (8 vols. London, 1845-69) ; Edward Foss, The Judges
of England (9 vols. London, 1848-64); Lord Hervey, Memoirs of
the Reign of George II. ( 2 vols. London. 1848); G. E. C., Complete
Peerage, vol. vii. (London, 1896).
TALC, a mineral which in its compact forms is known as
steatite, or soapstone. It was probably the nayvrJTis \idos
of Theophrastus, described as a stone of silvery lustre, easily
TALCA— TALE
369
cut. The word talc, sometimes written talk, is said to come
from the Arabic talq, and not to be connected, as has been
fancifully suggested, with the Swedish lalja, " to cut." Talc
and mica were confused by the older writers, and even at the
present day mica is sometimes known in trade as talc; whilst
the term was formerly applied also to foliated gypsum.
Talc is found occasionally in small hexagonal and rhombic
plates, with perfect basal cleavage, and they are supposed
to be monoclinic. Talc often occurs in foliated masses,
sometimes with a curved surface, readily separating into
thin very flexible, non-elastic laminae. The plates give
a six-rayed percussion-figure. Talc has a hardness of only
about i, and a specific gravity of from 2-6 to 2-8. Its extreme
softness and its greasy feel are characteristic. The lustre on
the cleavage face is pearly, or sometimes silvery, and one of the
old names of the mineral was stetta terrae, while German writers
sometimes called it Kalzensilber. The colour is white, grey,
yellow or frequently green. The' mineral has strong bire-
fringence and a small optic axial angle.
Talc is a magnesium silicate H2Mg3Si4Oi2. It is generally
regarded as a hydrous sih'cate, but the water is expelled only
at a very strong heat, and may therefore be regarded as basic.
By the action of heat the hardness of the mineral is greatly
increased. Pseudomorphs are known after actinolite, pyr-
oxene, &c., and the mineral has probably been generally formed
by the alteration of ferro-magnesian silicates. Talc occurs chiefly
in crystalline schists, usually associated with chlorite, serpentine
and dolomite. Fine examples of apple-green colour are found
at Mount Greiner, in the Zillerthal, Tirol. Talc-schist is a
foliated rock composed chiefly of talc, generally associated
with quartz and felspar; but all soapy schists are not neces-
sarily talcose. The pearly micaceous constituent of the Alpine
protogine is a muscovite.
The " steatites " of Pliny was a stone resembling fat, but other-
wise undescribed. Being easily cut, steatite has always been a
favourite material with the carver: it was used for Egyptian
scarabs and other amulets, which were usually coated with a
blue vitreous glaze; and it was employed for Assyrian cylinder-
seals and for other ancient signets. By the Chinese steatite is
largely used for ornamental carvings, but many of their " soap-
stone " figures are wrought in a compact pyrophyllite (q.v.),
which is essentially different from talc. The name agalmatolite
is often applied to the material of these figures, and was sug-
gested by M. H. Klaproth from the Greek o/yaX/ua, " an image."
Pagodite is an old name for Chinese figure-stone. Ancient
steatite carvings are found among the ruins of Rhodesia.
Steatite is usually a white, grey, greenish or brown substance,
occurring in veins or nodular masses or in lenticular bedded
deposits. Pseudomorphs after quartz and dolomite occur
near Wunsiedel in Bavaria. In some cases it is a product of
the alteration of pyroxenic rocks, and the commercial mineral
may be very impure. The ease with which steatite may be
worked, coupled with its power of resisting heat, has led
to its employment for vessels for household use, whence it is
called " potstone " — the lapis ollaris of old writers. Among the
uses of steatite may be mentioned its employment, especially in
America, for sinks, stoves, firebricks, foot-warmers, tips for gas-
burners and electric switchboards: when ground it is used as a
filler for paper, for leather-dressing, for covering steam-pipes, as
an ingredient in soap, for toilet-powder, for certain paints and as
a lubricant. A fine granular steatite is used by tailors for mark-
ing cloth under the name of " French chalk " or " Spanish chalk."
Slate pencils are made of steatite and pyrophyllite; and in Burma
steatite pencils are used for writing on black paper. In the
oxyhydrogen flame, steatite has been fused and drawn out into
threads, like quartz-fibres.
Steatite and talc-schists are widely distributed, and have occasion-
ally been used as building stones. When first raised the stone is
soft, but hardens on exposure. Soapstone from Gudbrandsdal is
used in the cathedral of Trondhjem in Norway. Veins of steatite
occur in the serpentine of the Lizard district in Cornwall, and the
mineral was used under the name of soap rock in the manufac-
ture of the old Worcester porcelain. Among localities of steatite
in the British Isles mention may be made of Crohy Head and
Gartan near Letterkenny in cp. Donegal, Ireland ; the Shetland isles,
the Hebrides (Harris) and Shiness in Sutherland. In North America
the distribution of the mineral is very extensive; localities of
economic importance are near Gouverneur and elsewhere in St
Lawrence co., New York; at Francestown in New Hampshire;
Stockbridge, Windsor co., Vermont; Lynnfield, Massachusetts;
near Lafayette, Pennsylvania; Albemarle, Amelia, Buckingham,
Fairfax and Fluvanna cos., Virginia; Cherokee, Moore and Swain
cos., North Carolina; and in Murray co., Georgia.
A fibrous steatite from New York state, usecTin the manufacture
of paper, is known as agalite. Rensselaerite is a wax-like talcose
substance, passing into serpentine, from St Lawrence co., New
York, named by E. Emmons in 1837 after S. Van Rensselaer, of
Albany, N.Y. Beaconite is an asbestiform talc from Michigan,
named by L. W. Hubbard. The term pyrallolite was given by Nils
G. Nordenskiold to a mineral from Finland, which appears to be
talc pseudomorphous after pyroxene. Talcoid was K. F. Naumann's
name for a white lamellar mineral from near Pressnitz in Bohemia.
A blue earthy mineral from near Silver City, New Mexico, known
locally as " native ultramarine," is a magnesium silicate.
See " Talc and Soapstone " in vol. ii. of Mineral Resources of the
U.S. (Washington, 1909), and J. H. Pratt, " Economic Papers," No. 3
of Geol. Surv. of N. Carolina (1900) ; also E. W. Parker in igth Report
of U.S. Geol. Surv. (1898); C. H. Smyth, junior, The Fibrous Talc
Industry of St Lawrence Co., N.Y., in " Mineral Industry," vol. ix.,
for 1900; and G. P. Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals (New York,
1904)- (F. W. R.*)
TALCA, a province of Chile, bounded N. by Curico, E. by
Argentina, S. by Linares and Maule, and W. by the Pacific.
Area 3840 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 128,961. In the E. the Andean
slopes cover a considerable part of its territory, and in the W.
another large area is covered by the coast range. Between
these is the central valley of Chile in which the population and
industries of the province are chiefly concentrated. The
mountainous parts are well wooded. The intermediate plain,
which is rolling and slopes gently to the S., is fertile and devoted
to wheat and stock. The capital of the province is Talca (pop.
189S, 33,232; 1902 estimated 42,766), on the Rio Claro, a
tributary of the Maule, 156 m. by rail S. of Santiago. It is
one of the most important provincial towns and commercial
centres of central Chile. There are woollen factories, especially
for the universally worn " poncho." Talca has railway con-
nexion with Santiago on the N., with Concepci6n on the S.,
and with Constitution at the mouth of the Maule.
TALCAHUANO, or TALCAGUANO, a seaport of the province
of Concepcion, Chile, on the bay of Conception, 8 m. N.W. of
the city and port of that name. Pop. (1895) 10,431; (1902,
estimated) 13,499. It is sheltered by the island of Quiriquina.
It has the best harbour on the Pacific coast of South America,
and is one of the most important ports of southern Chile, being
connected by rail with Concepcion, Santiago and southern
Chile. Its foreign trade is large and steadily increasing. The
Chilean government has established its chief naval depot here.
TALE (O.Eng. ialu, number, account, story; the word is
common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number,
Erziihlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language), a general
term, in the usual acceptance of the word, for fictitious narra-
tives, long or short, ancient or modern (see NOVEL). In this
article " tale " is used in a stricter sense, as equivalent to the
German " Volks-marchen " or the French " conte populaire."
Thus understood, popular tales mean the stories handed down
by oral tradition from an unknown antiquity, among savage
and civilized peoples. So understood, popular tales are a subject
in mythology, and indeed in the general study of the develop-
ment of man, of which the full interest and importance was long
unrecognized. Popular tales won their way into literature,
it is true, at a very distant period. The Homeric epics, especially
the Odyssey, contain adventures (those, for example, of the
Cyclops and the husband who returns in disguise) which are
manifestly parts of the general human stock of popular narrative.
Other examples are found in the Rigceda, and in the myths which
were handled by the Greek dramatists. Collections of popular
tales, more or less subjected to conscious literary treatment,
are found in Sanskrit, as in the work of Somadeva, whose Kathd
Sarit Sagara, or " Ocean of the Streams of Story," has been
translated by Mr Tawney (Calcutta, 1880). The THOUSAND
370
TALE
AND ONE NIGHTS (q.v.) are full of popular tales, and popular
tales are the staple of the medieval Gesta Romanorum, and of
the collections of Straparola and other Italian conteurs. In
all these and similar gatherings the story, long circulated from
mouth to mouth among the people, is handled with conscious
art, and little but the general outline of plot and character of
incident can be regarded as original. In the Histories ou Conies
du Temps Passi of Perrault (Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1697; the
Parisian edition is of the same date) we have one of the earliest
gatherings of tales which were taken down in their nursery
shape as they were told by nurses to children. This at least
seems probable, though M. Alfred Maury thinks Perrault drew
from literary sources. Perrault attributed the composition to
his son, P. Darmancour, at that time a child, and this pretext
enabled him to give his stories in a simple and almost popular
guise. It seems that popular tales in many cases probably owe
their origin to the desire of enforcing a moral or practical lesson.
It appears that their irrational and " infantile " character —
" depourvues de raison " — is derived from their origin, if not
actually among children, at least among childlike peoples, who
have not arrived at "raison," that is, at the scientific and
modern conception of the world and of the nature of man.
The success of Perrault's popular tales brought the genre
into literary fashion, and the Comtesse d'Aulnoy invented, or
in some cases adapted, " contes," which still retain a great
popularity. But the precise and scientific collection of tales
from the lips of the people is not much earlier than our century.
The chief impulse to the study was given by the brothers Grimm.
The first edition of their Kinder- und Haus-Marchen was
published in 1812. The English reader will find a very con-
siderable bibliography of popular tales, as known to the Grimms,
in Mrs Alfred Hunt's translation, Grimm's Household Tales,
with Notes (London, 1884). " How unique was our collection
when it first appeared," they exclaim, and now merely to
enumerate the books of such traditions would occupy much
space. In addition to the marchen of Indo-European peoples,
the Grimms became acquainted with some Malay stories, some
narratives of Bechuanas, Negroes, American Indians, and
Finnish, Esthonian, and Magyar stories. Thus the Grimms'
knowledge of non-European marchen was extremely slight.
It enabled them, however, to observe the increase of refinement
" in proportion as gentler and more humane manners develop
themselves," the monstrosities of Finnish and Red-Indian
fancy gradually fading in the narratives of Germans and Italians.
The Grimms notice that the evolution of popular narrative
resembles the evolution of the art of sculpture, from the South-
Sea idol to the frieze of the Parthenon, " from the strongly
marked, thin, even ugly, but highly expressive forms of its
earliest stages to those which possess external beauty of mould."
Since the Grimms' time our knowledge of the popular tales of
non-European races has been greatly enriched. We possess
numbers of North-American, Brazilian, Zulu, Swahili, Eskimo,
Samoan, Maori, Kaffir, Malagasy, Bushman, North African,
Fiort, New Caledonian, and even Australian marchen, and can
study them in comparison with the stories of Hesse, of the West
Highlands of Scotland, of Scandinavia.
While the popular romances of races of all colours must be
examined together, another element in this subject is not less
important. It had probably been often observed before, as by
Lord Fountainhall (1670), but the fact was brought out most
vividly by J. G. von Hahn (Griechische und albanesische Marchen,
Leipzig, 1864), that the popular tales of European races turn
on the same incidents, and display the same succession of
situations, the same characters, and the same plots, as are
familiar in the ancient epic literature of Greece, India, Germany
and Scandinavia. The epics are either fully-developed marchen
evolved by the literary genius of poets and saga-men, or the
marchen are degenerate and broken-down memories of the
epics and sagas, or perhaps there may be examples of both
processes. The second view, — namely, that the popular tales
are, so to speak, the scattered grains of gold of which the epic
is the original " pocket " or " placer," — the belief that the
marchen are the detritus of the saga, — was for a long time
prevalent. But a variety of arguments enforce the opposite
conclusion, namely, that the marchen are essentially earlier in
character than the epic, the final for»n to which they have been
wrought by the genius of Homer or of some other remote yet
cultivated poet. If this view be accepted, the evolution of
marchen and of certain myths has passed through the following
stages: —
(1) The popular tale, as current among the uncultivated
peoples, such as Iroquois, Zulus, Bushmen, Samoans, Eskimo,
and Samoyedes. This tale will reflect the mental condition of
rude peoples, and will be full of monstrous and miraculous events,
with an absence of reason proper, as Perrault says, " a ceux qui
n'en ont pas encore." At the same time the tale will very
probably enforce some moral or practical lesson, often the
sanction of a taboo, and may even appear to have been invented
with this very purpose, for man is everywhere impressed with
the importance of conduct.
(2) The same tale — or rather a series of incidents and a plot
essentially the same — as it is discovered surviving in the oral
traditions of the illiterate peasantry of European races. Among
them the monstrous element, the ferocity of manners observed
in the first stage, will be somewhat modified, but will be found
most notable among the Slavonic tribes. Nowhere, even in
German and Scottish marchen, is it extinct, cannibalism and
cruel torture being favourite incidents.
(3) The same plots and incidents as they exist in the heroic
epics and poetry of the cultivated races, such as the Homeric
epics, the Greek tragedies, the Cyclic poets, the Kaleivala of the
Finns, certain hymns of the Rigveda, certain legends of the
Brahmanas, the story of the Volsungs, — in these a local and
almost historical character is given by the introduction of names
of known places, and the adventures are attributed to national
heroes, — Odysseus, Oedipus, Sigurd, Wainamomen, Jason,
Pururavas, and others. The whole tone and manners are
nobler and more refined in proportion as the literary workman-
ship is more elaborate.
This theory of the origin of popular tales in the fancy of
peoples in the savage condition (see MYTHOLOGY), of their
survival as marchen among the peasantry of Indo-European and
other civilized races, and of their transfiguration into epics,
could only be worked out after the discovery that savage and
civilized popular tales are full of close resemblances. These
resemblances, when only known to exist among Indo-European
peoples, were explained as part of a common Aryan inheritance,
and as the result of a malady of language. This system, when
applied to myths in general, has already been examined (see
MYTHOLOGY). According to another view, marchen every-
where resemble each other because they all arose in India,
and have thence been borrowed and transmitted. For this
theory consult Benfey's Panchatantra and M. Cosquin's Conies
de Lorraine (Paris, 1886). In opposition to the Aryan theory,
and the theory of borrowing from India, the sytem which is
here advocated regards popular tales as kaleidoscopic arrange-
ments of comparatively few situations and incidents, which
again are naturally devised by the early fancy. Among these
incidents may be mentioned, first, kinship and intermarriage
between man and the lower animals and even inorganic pheno-
mena. Thus a girl is wooed by a frog, pumpkin, goat, bear,
or elephant, in Zulu, Scotch, Walachian, Eskimo, Ojibway, and
German marchen. This incident is based on the lack of a sense
of difference between man and the things in the world which
is prevalent among savages (see MYTHOLOGY). Other incidents
familiar in our nursery tales (such as " Cinderella " and " Puss
in Boots") turn on the early belief in metamorphosis, in magic,
in friendly or protecting animals (totems or beast manitous).
Others depend on the early prevalence of cannibalism (compare
Grimm, 47, " The Juniper Tree "). This recurs in the mad song
of Gretchen in Faust, concerning which a distinguished student
writes, " This ghost of a ballad or rhyme is my earliest remem-
brance, as crooned by an old East-Lothian nurse." (Compare
Chambers's Popular Rhymes of Scotland, 1870, p. 49.) The
TALENT— TALGARTH
same legend occurs among the Bechuanas, and is published by
Casalis. Yet another incident springs from the taboo on certain
actions between husband and wife, producing the story of
Cupid and Psyche (see Lang's Custom and Myth, 1884, p. 64).
Once more, the custom which makes the youngest child the
heir is illustrated in the marchen of the success, despite the
jealousy of the elders, of Cinderella, of the Zulu prince (Calla-
way's Tales from the Amazulu, pp. 64, 65) , and in countless other
marchen. In other cases, as in the world-wide marchen corre-
sponding to the Jason epic, we seem in presence of an early
romantic invention, — how diffused it is difficult to imagine.
Moral lessons, again, are inculcated by the numerous tales
which turn on the duty of kindness, or on the impossibility of
evading fate as announced in prophecy. In opposition to the
philological explanation of the story of Oedipus as a nature-
myth, this theory of a collection of incidents illustrative of
moral lessons is admirably set forth in Prof. Comparetti's Edipo
e la Mitologia Comparata (Pisa, 1867).
On a general view, then, the stuff of popular tales is a certain
number of incidents and a certain set of combinations of these
incidents. Their strange and irrational character is due to their
remote origin in the fancy of men in the savage condition; and
their wide distribution is caused, partly perhaps by oral trans-
mission from people to people, but more by the tendency of
the early imagination to run everywhere in the same grooves.
The narratives, in the ages of heroic poetry, are elevated into
epic song, and in the middle ages they were even embodied in
legends of the saints. This view is maintained at greater
length, and with numerous illustrations, in the introduction to
Mrs Hunt's translation of Grimm's Kinder- und Haus-Miirchen,
and in Custom and Myth, already referred to.
For savage popular tales see Theal's Kaffir Folk Lore (2nd ed.,
London, 1886); Callaway's Nursery Tales of the Amazulu (London,
1868); Schpolcraft's Algic Researches; Gill's Myths and Tales of the
South Pacific; Petitot's Traditions Indiennes (1886) ; Shortland's
Maori Religion and Mythology (London, 1882); the South African
Folk Lore Record; the Folk Lore Record (London, 1879-85, Malagasy
stories); Rink's Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo; Bleek's
Hottentot Tales and Fables (London, 1864); CastreVs Samoyedische
Marchen; Maspero's Contes Egyptiens (from ancient Egyptian MSS.) ;
and Leland's Algonquin Legends (London, 1884). For European
tales, the bibliography in the translation of Grimm already referred
to may be usea, and the Maisonneuve collection, Les Litteratures
populaires, may be recommended. The names of Liebrecht, Kohler,
Dasent, Ralston, Nigra, Pitr6, Cosquin, Afanasief, Gaidoz, S6billot,
may serve as clues through the enchanted forest of the nursery tales
of Europe. Miss Coxe's Cinderella (Folk-Lore Society) is an excellent
work on the subject, as is Sidney Hartland's Legend of Perseus,
mainly concerned with myths of miraculous births. For Australia
see Mrs Langloh Parker's Australian Legendary Tales (2 vols.) and
Howitt's Native Tribes of South-East Australia. M. S^billot has
edited French tales, and Mr Dennett has given Folk-Lore of the Fiort.
There are abundant materials and discussions in Frazer's The
Golden Bough. (A. L.)
TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. T&\avTov, balance,
weight, from root ra\-, to lift, as in r\rjvai, to bear, TdXas,
enduring, cf. Lat. tollere, to lift, Skt. tula, balance), the name
of an ancient Greek unit of weight, the heaviest in use both for
monetary purposes and for commodities (see WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES). The weight itself was originally Babylonian, and
derivatives were in use in Palestine, Syria and Egypt. In
medieval Latin and also in many Romanic languages the word
was used figuratively, of will, inclination or desire, derived from
the sense of balance, but the general figurative use for natural
endowments or gifts, faculty, capacity or ability, is due to the
parable of the talents in Matt. xxv.
TALFOURD, SIR THOMAS NOON (1795-1854), English
judge and author, the son of a brewer in good circumstances,
was born on the 26th of May 1795 at Reading (not, as is some-
times stated, at Doxey, near Stafford). He received his early
education ab Hendon, and at the Reading grammar-school.
At the age of eighteen he was sent to London to study law under
Joseph Chitty, the special pleader. Early in 1821 he joined the
Oxford circuit, having been called to the bar at the middle
Temple in the same year. When, fourteen years later, he wa's
created a serjeant-at-law, and when again he in 1849 succeeded
Mr. Justice Coltman as judge of the court of common pleas, he
attained these distinctions more perhaps for his laborious care
in the conduct of cases than on account of any forensic brilliance.
At the general election in 1835 he was returned for Reading.
This seat he retained for close upon six years, and he was again
returned in 1847. In the House of Commons he introduced
an International Copyright Bill; his speech on this subject
was considered the most telh'ng made in the House during that
session. The bill met with strong opposition, but Talfourd
had the satisfaction of seeing it pass into law in 1842, albeit
in a greatly modified form. Dickens dedicated the Pickwick
Papers to him.
In his early years in London Talfourd was dependent — in
great measure, at least — upon his literary exertions. He
was at this period on the staff of the London Magazine, and
was an occasional contributor to the Edinburgh and Quarterly
reviews, the New Monthly Magazine, and other periodicals ;
while, on joining the Oxford circuit, he acted as law reporter
to The Times. His legal writings on matters germane to
literature are excellent expositions, animated by a lucid and
telling, if not highly polished, style. Among the best of these
are his article " On the Principle of Advocacy in the Practice
of the Bar " (in the Law Magazine, January 1846); his Proposed
New Law of Copyright of the Highest Importance to Authors
(1838); Three Speeches delivered in the House of Commons in
Favour of an Extension of Copyright (1840) ; and his famous
Speech for the Defendant in the Prosecution, the Queen v. Moxon,
for the Publication of Shelley's Poetical Works (1841).
But Talfourd cannot be said to have gained any position
among men of letters until the production of his tragedy Ion,
which was privately printed in 1835, and produced in the follow-
ing year at Covent Garden theatre. The tragedy was also well
received in America, and was reproduced at Sadler's Wells in
December 1861. This dramatic poem, its author's masterpiece,
turns upon the voluntary sacrifice of Ion, king of Argos, in
response to the Delphic oracle, which had declared that only
with the extinction of the reigning family could the prevailing
pestilence incurred by the deeds of that family be removed.
Two years later, at the Haymarket theatre, The Athenian
Captive was acted with moderate success. In 1839 Glencoe,
or the Fate of the Macdonalds, was privately printed, and in
1840 it was produced at the Haymarket; but this home drama
is inferior to his two classic plays. The Castilian (1853) did not
excite a tenth part of the interest called forth by Ion. Before
this he had produced various other prose writings, among them
his " History of Greek Literature," in the Encyclopaedia Metro-
politana. Talfourd died in court during the performance of his
judicial duties, at Stafford, on the I3th of March 1854.
In addition to the writings above-mentioned, Talfourd was the
author of The Letters of Charles Lamb, with a Sketch of his Life (1837) ;
Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles
and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental tours in
the vacations of 1841, 1842, and 1843 (2 vols., 1844); and Final
Memorials of Charles Lamb (1849-50).
TALGARTH, a decayed market town in Breconshire, South
Wales, situated on the Ennig near its junction with the Llynfi
(a tributary of the Wye), with a station on the joint line of the
Cambrian and Midland companies from Brecon to Three Cocks
Junction (2! m. N.N.E., but in Talgarth parish). The popu-
lation of the whole parish (which measures 12,294 acres) was
1466 in 1901. The church of St Gwendoline, restored in 1873,
is in Perpendicular style, with an embattled tower restored in
1898. The Baptists, Congregationalists and Calvinistic Metho-
dists have each a chapel in the town, and there is also a Con-
gregational church at Tredwestan, founded in 1662. About
i m. S.W. is Trevecca, where Howel Harris, one of the founders
of Welsh Methodism, was born in 1713, and where in 1752 he
established a communistic religious " family " of about a hundred
persons; their representatives in 1842 handed over the property
to the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist connexion, who in that year
opened there a theological college, and in 1874 added to it a
Harris memorial chapel. In 1906 the college was removed
372
TALIENWAN— TALLAHASSEE
to Aberystwyth, and the buildings are now used by the Con-
nexion as a preparatory school for ministerial students.
The fortified station of Dinas occupies the summit of a hill
about 2§ m. S.E. of Talgarth, and commands the mountain pass
to Crickhowell and the eastern part of the vale of Usk. Its
castle, built on the site of an earlier British fortress, was destroyed
(according to Leland) by the inhabitants to prevent its falling
into the hands of Glendower. The town was in the manor of
English Talgarth, there being also a manor of Welsh Talgarth,
in which Welsh laws prevailed.
TALIENWAN, an open bay or roadstead on the east side of
the Liaotung peninsula, Manchuria. It was leased to Russia by
China in 1898 with the naval fortress of Port Arthur, from which
it is distant 40 m., the lease being transferred to Japan in 1905.
The Russian town of Dalny (now Tairen) was built upon the
west side of the bay, known as Port Victoria. Being ice-free all
the year round, it has an advantage over Niuchwang, which is
frozen up for four months in the year. Niuchwang, however,
lies much nearer to the great producing and consuming districts
of Manchuria. Talienwan is in railway connexion with Niu-
chwang and Peking and via the Siberian railway with Europe. It
was the rendezvous of the British fleet during the Anglo-China
war of 1860, whence the names Port Arthur and Port Victoria.
TALIESSIN, the name of a late 6th century British bard,
of whom practically nothing is known except the attribution
to him of the collection of poems known as the Book of Taliessin.
See the article CELT, § Literature, IV.
TALISMAN, a magical charm. The word is often used as a
term synonymous with amulet (g.v.), but strictly should be
applied to an inanimate object which is supposed to possess
a supernatural Capacity of conferring benefits or powers, an
amulet being that which protects or wards off evil (see
MAGIC). The most common form which the talisman took
in medieval or later times was that of a disk of metal or stone
engraved with astrological figures, or with magical formulae,
of which Abraxas (g.v.) and Abracadabra (q.v.) are the most
familiar. The word is derived through the Spanish from Arab.
tilsamdn, plural of tilsam, an adaptation of Gr. TeXtoywi, pay-
ment, outlay (from Tt\eiv, to accomplish), used in Late Gr. of
an initiation or mystery and in Med. Gr. of a charm.
TALLADEGA, a city and the couty-seat of Talladega county,
Alabama, U.S.A., 35 m. E. of Birmingham. Pop. (1900) 5056
(2687 negroes); (1910) 5854. It is served by the Southern,
the Louisville & Nashville and other railways. Talladega is
situated in the foothills of the Blue Ridge, about 560 ft. above
sea level. It is the seat of the Alabama Synodical College for
Women (Presbyterian, 1903), of Talladega College (Congrega-
tional, opened 1867; chartered 1869 and 1889) for the higher
education of negroes — the first college for negroes in the state,
and of several institutions devoted to the care of the deaf,
dumb and blind. Limestone and coal are found in the
vicinity. Among the manufactures are cotton goods, cotton-
seed oil, iron, hosiery, chemicals and fertilizers. There are
several mineral springs near the city, and the municipal water
supply is derived from a spring in the city. The electric lighting
and power plant is operated by water power on Jackson Shoals.
Talladega was originally an Indian village. On the gth of
November 1813, it was the scene of a decisive victory of the
whites and their Indian allies, 2000 strong, led by Gen. Andrew
Jackson, over 1000 " Red Sticks," or Creek Indians, who were
hostile to the extension of white settlements in Indian territory.
TALLAGE (med. Lat. tallagium, Fr. tailage, from late Lat.
talare, taleare, Fr. taUler, to cut, classical Lat. talea, a cutting,
slip; cf. " tally " and the French taille, q.v.}, a special tax in
England paid by cities, boroughs and royal demesnes. The
word, variously interpreted as a part " cut off " from the
property taxed, or as derived from the tally (q.v.), first appears
in the reign of Henry II. as a synonym for the auxilium burgi,
which was an occasional payment exacted by king and barons
over and above the annual firma burgi from burgage tenants,
since all boroughs after the Norman Conquest came to be re-
garded as in some lord's demesne. The tax displaced the
Danegeld so far as the towns and demesne lands of the Crown
were concerned in the second half of the i2th century, and
gradually the barons were deprived of the right of lallaging their
respective demesnes without royal authorization. The imposi-
tion of tailage continued under the immediate successors of
Henry II.; the barons failed to secure its prohibition or even
limitation at Runnymede, and Henry III. levied it frequently.
The amount to be paid was determined during this time by
officials of the exchequer in special fiscal circuits through
separate negotiations with the various tax-paying communities,
the towns usually raising their quota by means of a capitation
or poll tax. Its imposition practically ceased by 1283 in favour
of a general grant made in parliament, and the king's retention
of tailage seemed particularly unnecessary and illogical after
burgesses were summoned to parliament. The opinion used
to be held that tailage was forbidden by the Conjirmatio car-
tarum, but the Latin version of that document which bears the
title De tallagio non concedendo, although cited as a statute in
the preamble to the Petition of Right in 1627 and in a judicial
decision of 1637, was merely a chronicler's summary of the
purposes of the official French document, which did not mention
tailage by name. After 1297, however, there were only three
levies of the tax: one by Edward I. in 1304; again in 1312 by
Edward II. despite the protests of London and Bristol; and
finally in 1332, when Edward III. encountered such opposition
from parliament that he withdrew the commissions and accepted
in its place a grant of a tenth-and-fifteenth. The last time that
the king granted leave to the barons to tailage their demesnes
was in 1305. The second statute of 1340 formally enacted that
the nation should thenceforth not " make any common aid or sus-
tain charge," including tailage, without consent of parliament.
See William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. i.
sect. 161, vol. ii. sect. 275; D. J. Medley, English Constitutional
History, yd ed. (London, 1902); Pollock and Maitland, History
of English Law, vol. i., 2nd ed. ; S. J. Low and F. S. Pulling,
Dictionary of English History.
TALLAHASSEE, the capital of Florida, U.S.A., and the
county seat of Leon county, in the W. part of the state, about
40 m. E. of the Apalachicola river and 20 m. from the Gulf of
Mexico, about midway by railway between Jacksonville and
Pensacola. Pop. (1900) 2981 (1755 negroes); (1910) 5018;
in 1900 the population of the county was 19,887, of whom
16,000 were negroes. Tallahassee is served by the Seaboard
Air Line and the Georgia, Florida & Alabama railways. The
city is finely situated on a hill, about 300 ft. above sea-level,
and the streets are wide and well-shaded. The principal build-
ings are the State Capitol, Grecian in architecture, the Federal
Building, and the County Court House. In the Episcopal
cemetery two monuments mark the graves of Charles Louis
Napoleon Achille Murat (1801-1847), the eldest son of Joachim
Murat, and of his wife Catherine (1803-1867), the daughter of
Col. Bird C. Willis of Virginia and a grand-niece of George
Washington.1 Tallahassee is the seat of the Florida Female
College, co-ordinate with the State University for men, and the
State Normal and Industrial School (for negroes), an agricultural
and mechanical college. About 17 m. S. of Tallahassee, in
Wakulla county, is the Wakulla Spring, about 106 ft. deep,
one of the largest of the remarkable springs of Florida.
Tallahassee's name is of Seminole origin, and means, it is
said, " tribal land. " During a war with the Apalachee Indians
in 1638 the Spaniards, according to tradition, fortified a hill
W. of the city, where the Fort St Luis Place, a plantation
1 Murat settled here about 1821, became a naturalized American
citizen, relinquishing his claim to the crown of Naples, and lived
here for much of the time until his death, holding successively the
office of alderman, mayor and postmaster of the city, and devoting
some of his leisure to the preparation of three books, describing
political and social conditions in America, the last of which, Ex-
position des principes du gouvernement republicain tel qu'il a ete
perfect-tonne en Amerique (1838), was translated into many languages
and was very popular in Europe. After his death his wife lived in
what is still known as the Murat Homestead, about 2 m. W. of
Tallahassee, and after the American Civil War she received an annuity
of 30,000 francs from Napoleon III.
TALLBOY— TALLEYRAND
373
mansion, now stands. About 1818 most of the Indians were
expelled from the vicinity, and a settlement was made by the
whites. In 1824 Tallahassee, then virtually uninhabited, was
formally chosen by the United States Government as the capital
of the Territory of Florida, and it continued as the capital after
the admission of Florida into the Union as a state in 1845. It
was a residential centre for well-to-do planters before the Civil
War, and Bellair, 6 m. S., now in ruins, was a fashionable
pleasure resort. On the loth of January 1861 a state conven-
tion adopted at Tallahassee an Ordinance of Secession.
TALLBOY (partly a translation and partly a corruption of
the French hautbois), a double chest of drawers. Whereas the
chest of drawers in its familiar form (sometimes in the i8th
century called a " lowboy ") contains three long and two short
drawers, the tallboy has five, six, or seven long drawers, and
two short ones. It is a very late 17th-century development
of the smaller chest. The early examples are of walnut, but by
far the largest proportion of the many that have survived are
of mahogany, that being the wood most frequently employed
in the i8th century for the construction of furniture, especially
the more massive pieces. Occasionally the walnut at the
beginning of the vogue of the tallboy was inlaid, just as satin-
wood varieties were inlaid, depending for relief upon carved
cornice-mouldings or gadrooning, and upon handsome brass
handles and escutcheons. The tallboy was the wardrobe of
the 1 8th century, but it eventually gave place to the modern
type of wardrobe, which, with its sliding drawers, was speedily
found to be not only as capacious as its predecessor but more
convenient of access. The topmost drawers of the tallboy
could only be reached by the use of bed steps, and the dis-
appearance of high beds and the consequent disuse of steps
exercised a certain influence in displacing a characteristic
piece of furniture which was popular for at least a century.
TALLEMANT, GEDEON, SIEUR DBS REAUX (1619-1692),
French author, was born at La Rochelle on the 7th of November
1619. He belonged to a wealthy middle-class family of Huguenot
persuasion; the name des Reaux he derived from a small pro-
perty purchased by him in 1650. When he was about eighteen
years of age he was sent to Italy with his brother Francois, abbe
Tallemant. On his return to Paris, Tallemant took his degrees
in civil and canonical law, and his father secured for him the
position of conseiller au parlement. The profession was dis-
tasteful to him, and he decided to ensure himself a competence
by marriage with his cousin Elisabeth de Rambouillet. His
half-brother had married a d'Angennes, and this connexion
secured for Tallemant an introduction to the Hotel de Ram-
bouillet. Madame de Rambouillet was no admirer of Louis XIII.,
and she gratified Tallemant's curiosity with stories of the reigns
of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. of real historical value. But
the society of the Hotel de Rambouillet itself opened a field
for his acute and somewhat malicious observation. In the
Historietles he gives finished portraits of Voiture, Balzac, Mal-
herbe, Chapelain, Valentin Conrart and many others; Blaise
Pascal and Jean de la Fontaine appear in his pages; and he
chronicles the scandals of which Ninon de 1'Enclos and
Angelique Paulet were centres. They are invaluable for the
literary history of the time. It has been said that the malicious
intention of his work may be partly attributed to his bourgeois
extraction and that the consequent slights he received are
avenged in his pages, but independent testimony has established
the substantial correctness of his statements. In 1685 he was
converted to Catholicism. It seems that the change was not
entirely disinterested, for Tallemant, who had suffered con-
siderable pecuniary losses, soon- after received a pension of
2000 livres. He died in Paris on the 6th of November 1692.
Des Reaux was a poet of some merit and contributed to the
Guirlande de Julie, but it is by his Historiettes that he is remembered.
The work remained in manuscript until it was edited in 1834-6 by
MM. de Chateaugiron, Jules Taschereau and L. J. N. de Monmerqu6,
with a notice on Tallemant by Monmerqu6. A third edition (6 vols.
1872) contains a notice by Paulin Paris. Tallemant had begun
Memoires pour la rigente d'Anne d'Autriche, but the manuscript
has not been found.
TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD, CHARLES MAURICE DE (1754-
1838), French diplomat island statesman, was born at Paris on
the I3th of February 1754, though some accounts give the date
as the 2nd of February. His father was Lieutenant-General
Charles Daniel de TaUeyrand-Perigord, and his mother was
Alexandrine (n6e) de Damas Antigny. His parents, descended
from ancient and powerful families, were in constant attendance
at the court of Louis XV., and (as was generally the case then
in their class) neglected the child. In his third or fourth year,
while under the care of a nurse in Paris, he fell from a chest of
drawers and injured his foot for life. This accident darkened
his prospects; for though by the death of his elder brother he
should have represented the family and entered the army, yet
he forfeited the rights of primogeniture, and the profession of
arms was thenceforth closed to him. Entrusted to the care of
his grandmother at Chalais in Perigord, he there received the
only kind treatment which he experienced in his early life, and
was ever grateful for it. He was removed at the age of eight
to the College d'Harcourt at Paris (now -the Lycee St Louis),
where his rich intellectual gifts enabled him to make good by
private study the defects of the training there imparted. At
the age of twelve he fell ill of smallpox, but his parents showed
little or no interest in his recovery. Destined for the church
by the family council which deprived him of his birthright, he
was sent when about thirteen years of age to St Sulpice, where
he conceived a dislike of the doctrines and discipline thrust
upon him. After a visit to his uncle, the archbishop of Reims,
he returned to St Sulpice to finish his preliminary training for
the church, but in his spare time he read the works of Mon-
tesquieu, Voltaire, and other writers who were beginning to
undermine the authority of the ancien rigime, both in church
and state. As subdeacon he witnessed the coronation of
Louis XVI. at Reims, but he did not take priest's orders until
four years later. Recent researches into his early life discredit
most of the stories that have been told respecting his profligacy
and his contempt for the claims of the church; and it is ad-
mitted that, while rejecting her authority in the sphere of .dogma
and intellect, he observed the proprieties of life (gambling being
then scarcely looked on as a vice) and respected the outward
observances of religion.
During his life at Paris he had opportunities of mixing in the
circles of the philosophers and of others who frequented the
salon of Madame de Genlis, and he there formed those ideas in
favour of political and social reform which he retained through
life. After taking his licentiate in theology in March 1778, he
gave little more attention to theological studies. Nevertheless
the acuteness of his powers, added no doubt to his social position,
gained for him in the year 1780 the position of agent-general of
the clergy of France, in which capacity he had to perform
important administrative duties respecting the relations of the
clergy to the civil power. The growing claims of the state on
the exchequer of the clergy made his duties responsible, his
colleague as agent-general being of little use. At the extra-
ordinary assembly of the clergy in 1782 he made various pro-
posals, by one of which he sought, though in vain, to redress the
most glaring grievances of the underpaid cures. Though the
excellence of his work as agent-general in the years 1780-86
was fully acknowledged, and earned him a special gift of 31,000
livres, yet he did not gain a bishopric until the beginning of the
year 1789, probably because the king disliked him as a free-
thinker. He now became bishop of Autun, with a stipend [of
22,000 livres, and was installed on the isth of March.
The first rumblings of the revolutionary storm were making
themselves heard. The elections for the States General were
soon to take place; and the first important act of the new
bishop was to draw up a manifesto or programme of the reforms
which he desired to see carried out by the States General of
France. It comprised the following items: the formation of a
constitution which would strengthen the monarchy by calling
to it the support of the whole nation, the drafting of a scheme
of local self-government on democratic lines, the reform of the
administration of justice and of the criminal law, and the
374
TALLEYRAND
abolition of the most burdensome of feudal and class privileges.
This programme was adopted by the clergy of his diocese as
their cahier, or book of instructions to their representative at
the States General, namely Talleyrand himself.
His influence in the estate of the clergy, however, was cast
against the union of the three estates in a single assembly, and
he voted in the minority of his order which in the middle of
June opposed the merging of the clergy in the National Assembly.
The folly of the court, and the weakness of Louis XVI'. at that
crisis, probably convinced him that the cause of moderate reform
and the framing of a bicameral constitution on the model of that
of England were hopeless. Thereafter he inclined more and
more to the democratic side, though for the present he concerned
himself mainly with financial questions. In the middle of
July he was chosen as one of the committee to prepare a draft
of a constitution; and in the session of the Assembly which
Mirabeau termed the orgie of the abolition of privileges (4th of
August) he intervened in favour of discrimination and justice.
On the zoth of October, that is, four days after the insurrection of
women and the transference of the king and court to Paris, he
proposed to the Assembly the confiscation of the lands of the
church to the service of the nation, but on terms rather less
rigorous than those in which Mirabeau (<?.».) carried the proposal
into effect on the 2nd of November. He identified himself in
general with the Left of the Assembly, and supported the pro-
posed departmental system which replaced the old provincial
system early in 1790. At the federation festival of the i4th
of July 1790 (the " Feast of Pikes") he officiated at the altar
reared in the middle of the Champ de Mars. This was his last
public celebration of mass. For a brilliantly satirical but not
wholly fair reference to the part then played by Talleyrand,
the reader should consult Carlyle's French Revolution, vol. ii.,
bk. i., ch. 12. The course of events harmonized with the anti-
clerical views of Talleyrand, and he gradually loosened the ties
that bound him to the church. He took little part in, though
he probably sympathized with, the debates on the measure known
as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, whereby the state enforced
its authority over the church to the detriment of its allegiance
to the pope. When the Assembly sought to impose on its
members an oath of obedience to the new decree, Talleyrand
and three other bishops complied out of the thirty who had
seats in the Assembly. The others, followed by the greater
number of the clergy throughout France, refused, and thence-
forth looked on Talleyrand as a schismatic. He did not long
continue to officiate, as many of the so-called " constitutional "
clergy did; for, on the 2ist of January 1791, he resigned the
see of Autun, and in the month of March was placed under the
ban of the church by the pope.
Just before his resignation he had been elected, with Mirabeau
and Sieyes, a member of the department of Paris; and in that
capacity did useful work for some eighteen months in seeking
to support the cause of order in the turbulent capital. Though
he was often on strained terms with Mirabeau, yet his views
generally coincided with those of that statesman, who is said
on his death-bed (2nd of April 1791) to have communicated to
him his opinions on domestic and international affairs, especially
advising a close understanding with England. Talleyrand's
reputation for immorality, however, was as marked as that of
Mirabeau. While excelling him in suppleness and dexterity,
he lacked the force of character possessed by the great " tribune
of the people "; and his influence was gradually eclipsed by
that of the more ardent and determined champions of democ-
racy, the Girondins and the Jacobins. In the closing days of
the first or Constituent Assembly, Talleyrand set forth (loth
of September 1791) his ideas on national education. Education
was to be free, and to lead up to the university. In place of
dogma, the elements of religion were alone to be taught.
Debarred from election to the second National Assembly
(known as the Legislative) by the self-denying ordinance passed
by the " constituents," Talleyrand, at the close of 1791, sought
to enter the sphere of diplomacy for which his mental qualities
and his clerical training furnished him with an admirable
equipment. The condition of affairs on the continent seemed
to French enthusiasts to presage an attack by the other Powers
on France. In reality those Powers were far more occupied
with the Polish and Eastern questions than with the affairs of
France; and the declaration of Pilnitz, drawn up by the
sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, which appeared to threaten
France with intervention, was recognized by all well-informed
persons to be " a loud-sounding nothing." The French foreign
minister, Delessart, believed that he would checkmate all the
efforts of the emigres at the continental courts provided that
he could confirm Pitt in his intention of keeping England neutral.
For that purpose Delessart sent Talleyrand, well known for his
Anglophil tendencies, to London, but in the unofficial or semi-
official capacity which was rendered necessary by the decree of
the Constituent Assembly referred to above. Talleyrand arrived
in London on the 24th of January 1792, and found public
opinion so far friendly that he wrote off to Paris, " Believe me,
a rapprochement with England is no chimera." Pitt received
him cordially; and to Grenville the envoy stated his hope that
the two free nations would enter into close and friendly relations,
each guaranteeing the other in the possession of its existing
territories, India and Ireland being included on the side of
Britain. After some delay the British government decided to
return no definite answer to this proposal, a result due, as
Talleyrand thought, to the Gallophobe views of King George
and of the ministers Camden and Thurlow. Talleyrand,
however, was convinced that Great Britain would not intervene
against France unless the latter attacked the Dutch Netherlands.
He returned to Paris on the loth of March to persuade the
foreign minister (Dumouriez now held that post) of the need of
having a fully accredited ambassador at London. The ex-
Marquis Chauvelin was appointed, with Talleyrand as adviser.
The situation became more complex after the I9th of April,
when France declared war against Austria and prepared to
invade the Austrian or Belgic Netherlends. Owing to certain
indiscretions of Chauvelin and the growing unpopularity of the
French in England (especially after the disgraceful day of the
2oth of June at the Tuileries), the mission was a failure; but
Talleyrand had had some share in confirming Pitt in his policy
of neutrality, even despite Prussia's overtures for an alliance
against France. After Talleyrand's return to Paris early in
July (probably in order to sound the situation there) matters
went from bad to worse. The overthrow of the monarchy on
the loth of August and the September massacres rendered
hopeless all attempts at an entente cordiale between the two
peoples; and the provocative actions of Chauvelin, undertaken
in order to curry favour with the extremists now in power at
Paris, undid all the good accomplished by the tact and modera-
tion of Talleyrand. The latter now sought to escape from
France, where events were becoming intolerable; and after
some unsuccessful attempts to obtain a passport to leave Paris,
he succeeded on the i4th of September and landed in England
on the 23rd, avowedly on private business, but still animated
by the hope of averting a rupture between the two governments.
In this he failed. The provocative actions of the French Con-
vention, especially their setting aside of the rights of the Dutch
over the estuary of the Scheldt, had brought the two nations
to the brink of war, when the execution of Louis XVI. (2ist of
Jan. 1793) made it inevitable. Talleyrand was expelled from
British soil and made his way to the United States. There he
spent thirty months in a state of growing uneasiness and dis-
content with his surroundings.
The course of events after the Thermidorian reaction of July
1794 favoured his return to France. Thanks to the efforts of
Daunou and others his name was removed from the list of
emigres, and he set sail for Europe in November 1795. Landing
at Hamburg in the January following, he spent some time there
in the company of his friends Madame de Genlis and Reinhard;
and when party rancour continued to abate at Paris, he returned
thither in September. After a time marked by some pecuniary
embarrassment, he was recommended by Madame de. Stael to
the Director Barras for the post of minister of foreign affairs.
TALLEYRAND
375
His claims on the attention of the Directors had been strengthened
by his reading two papers before the French Institute, the first
on the commercial relations between England and the United
States (in the sense referred to above), and the second on the
advantages to be derived from new colonies. In the latter
there occurred the suggestive remarks that, whereas revolutions
made men prematurely old and weary, the work of colonization
tended to renew the youth of nations. France, he observed,
needed the spur to practical energy which the Americans had
at hand in the effort to subdue the difficulties placed in their
way by nature. Similar efforts would tend to make Frenchmen
forget the past, and would at the same time supply an outlet
for the poor and discontented. The practical statesmanship
contained in these papers raised Talleyrand in public estima-
tion; and, thanks to the efforts above named, he gained the
post of foreign minister, entering on his duties in July 1797.
Bonaparte by his victories over the Austrians in Italy and
Styria had raised the French republic to heights of power never
dreamed of, and now desired to impose on the emperor terms
of peace, to which the Directors demurred. Talleyrand, despite
the weakness of his own position (he was as yet little more than
the chief clerk of his department), soon came to a good under-
standing with the general, and secretly expressed to him his
satisfaction at the terms which the latter dictated at Campo
Formio (i?th of October 1797). The coup d'etat of Fructidor
(September 1797) had perpetuated the Directory and led to
the exclusion of the two " moderate " members, Carnot and
Barthelemy; but Talleyrand saw that power belonged really to
the general who had brought about the coup d'etat in favour of
the Jacobinical Directors headed by Barras.
After the rupture of the peace negotiations with England,
which resulted from the coup d'Uat of Fructidor, the policy of
France became more warlike and aggressive. The occupation
of Rome and of Switzerland by the French troops and the events
of Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition (see NAPOLEON I.) brought
about a renewal of war on the continent, but with these new
developments Talleyrand had little or no connexion. His
powers as minister were limited, and he regretted the extension
of the area of war. Moreover, in the autumn of 1797 his reputa-
tion for political morality (never very bright) was overclouded
by questionable dealings with the envoys of the United States
sent to arrange a peaceful settlement of certain disputes with
France. The investigations of the most recent of Talleyrand's
biographers tend to show that the charges made against him of
trafficking with the envoys have been overdrawn; but all his
apologists admit that irregularities occurred. Talleyrand re-
fused to clear himself of the charges made against him as his
friends (especially Madame de Stael) urged him to do; and the
incident probably told against his chances of admission into
the Directory, which were discussed in the summer of 1798.
A year later he resigned the portfolio for foreign affairs (2oth
of July 1799), probably because he foresaw the imminent collapse
of the Directory. If so, his premonitions were correct. Their
realization was assured by the return to France of the " Con-
queror of the East " in October. The general and the diplo-
matist soon came to an understanding, and Talleyrand tact-
fully brought about the alliance between Bonaparte and Sieyes
(q.v.) (then the most influential of the five Directors) which
paved the way for the coup d'etat of Brumaire (see FRENCH
REVOLUTION and NAPOLEON I.).
Talleyrand's share in the actual events of the i8th, igih
Brumaire (gth, loth of November) 1799 was limited to certain
dealings with Barras on the former of those days. About
midday he took to Barras a letter, penned by Roederer, re-
questing him to resign his post as Director. By what means
Talleyrand brought him to do so, whether by persuasion, threats
or bribes, is not known; but on that afternoon Barras left
Paris under an escort of soldiers. With the more critical and
exciting events of the igth of Brumaire at St Cloud Talleyrand
had no direct connexion; but he had made all his preparations
for flight in case the blow failed. His reward for helping on the
winning cause was the ministry for foreign affairs, which he
held from the close of December 1799 on to the summer of 1807.
In the great work of reconstruction of France now begun by
the First Consul, Talleyrand played no unimportant part. His
great aim was to bring about peace, both international and
internal. He had a hand in the pacific overtures which Bona-
parte, early in the year 1800, sent to the court of London; and,
whatever may have been the motives of the First Consul in
sending them, it is certain that Talleyrand regretted their
failure. After the battle of Marengo an Austrian envoy had
come to Paris in response to a proposal of Bonaparte, and
Talleyrand persuaded him to sign terms of peace. These were
indignantly repudiated at Vienna, but peace was made between
the two Powers at Luneville on the gth of February 1801.
As regards French affairs, Talleyrand used his influence to
help on the repeal of the vexatious laws against emigres, non-
juring priests, and the royalists of the west. He was also in
full sympathy with the policy which led up to the signature of
the Concordat of 1801-2 with the pope (see CONCORDAT); but
it is probable that he had a hand in the questionable intrigues
which accompanied the closing parts of that complex and
difficult negotiation. At the end of June 1802 the pope removed
Talleyrand from the ban of excommunication and allowed him
to revert to the secular state. On the loth of September 1803,
owing to pressure put on him by Bonaparte, he married Madame
Grand, a divorcee with whom he had long been living.
During the meeting of Italian notables at Lyons early in 1802
Talleyrand was serviceable in manipulating affairs in the way
desired by Bonaparte, and it is known that the foreign minister
suggested to them the desirability of appointing Bonaparte
president of the Cisalpine Republic, which was thenceforth to
be called the Italian Republic. In the negotiations for peace
with England which went on at Amiens during the winter of
1 801-2 Talleyrand had no direct share, these (like those at
Luneville) being transacted by Napoleon's eldest brother, Joseph
Bonaparte (<?.».). On the other hand he helped the First Consul
in assuring French supremacy in Switzerland, Italy and Germany.
In Germany the indemnification of the princes who lost all their
lands west of the Rhine was found by secularizing and absorbing
the ecclesiastical states of the empire. This unscrupulous
proceeding, known as the Secularizations (February 1803), was
carried out largely on lines laid down by Bonaparte and Talley-
rand; and the latter is known to have made large sums of
money by trafficking with the claimants of church lands.
While helping to establish French supremacy in neighbouring
states and assisting Bonaparte in securing the title of First
Consul for life, Talleyrand sought all means of securing the
permanent welfare of France. He worked hard to prevent the
rupture of the peace of Amiens which occurred in May 1803,
and he did what he could to prevent the sale of Louisiana to
the United States earlier in the year. These events, as he
saw, told against the best interests of France and endangered the
gains which she had secured by war and diplomacy. Thereafter
he strove to moderate Napoleon's ambition and to preserve the
European system as far as possible. The charges of duplicity
or treachery made against the foreign minister by Napoleon's
apologists are in nearly all cases unfounded. This is especially
so in the case of the execution of the due d'Enghien (March 1804),
which Talleyrand disapproved. The evidence against him
rests on a document which is now known to have been forged.
On the assumption of the imperial title by Napoleon in May
1804, Talleyrand became grand chamberlain of the empire,
and received close on 500,000 francs a year.
Talleyrand had rarely succeeded in bending the will of the
First Consul. He altogether failed to do so with the Emperor
Napoleon. His efforts to induce his master to accord lenient
terms to Austria in November 1805 were futile; and he looked
on helplessly while that Power was crushed, the Holy Roman
Empire swept away, and the Confederation of the Rhine set
up in central Europe. In the bargainings which accompanied
this last event Talleyrand is believed to have reaped a rich
harvest from the German princes most nearly concerned. On
the 6th of July 1806 Napoleon conferred on his minister the
TALLEYRAND
title of prince of Benevento, a papal fief in the Neapolitan
territory.
In the negotiations with England which went on in the
summer of 1806 Talleyrand had not a free hand; they came
to nought, as did those with Russia which had led up to the
signature of a Franco-Russian treaty at Paris by d'Oubril which
was at once disavowed by the tsar. The war with Prussia and
Russia was ended by the treaties of Tilsit (7th and 9th of July
1807). Talleyrand had a hand only in the later developments
of these negotiations; and it has been shown that he cannot
have been the means of revealing to the British government
the secret arrangements made at Tilsit between France and
Russia, though his private enemies, among them Fouche, have
charged him with acting as traitor in this affair.
Talleyrand had long been weary of serving a master whose
policy he more and more disapproved, and after the return
from Tilsit to Paris he resigned office. Nevertheless Napoleon
retained him in the council and took him with him to the inter-
view with the Emperor Alexander I. at Erfurt (September
1808). There Talleyrand secretly advised that potentate not
to join Napoleon in putting pressure on Austria in the way
desired by the French emperor; but it is well known that
Alexander was of that opinion before Talleyrand tendered the
advice. Talleyrand disapproved of the Spanish policy of
Napoleon which culminated at Bayonne in May 1808; and the
stories to the contrary may in all probability be dismissed as
idle rumours. It is also hard to believe the statement in the
Talleyrand Memoirs that the ex-foreign minister urged Napoleon
to occupy Catalonia until a maritime peace could be arranged
with England. On Talleyrand now fell the disagreeable task
of entertaining at his new mansion at Valencay, in Touraine, the
Spanish princes virtually kidnapped at Bayonne by the emperor.
They remained there until March 1814. At the close of 1808,
while Napoleon was in Spain, Talleyrand entered into certain
relations with his former rival Fouche (q.v.), which aroused the
solicitude of the emperor and hastened his return to Paris.
He subjected Talleyrand to violent reproaches, which the
ex-minister bore with his usual ironical calm.
After the Danubian campaign of 1809 and the divorce of
Josephine, Talleyrand used the- influence which he still possessed
in the imperial council on behalf of the choice of an Austrian
consort for his master, for, like Metternich (who is said first to
have mooted the proposal), he saw that this would safeguard
the interests of the Habsburgs, whose influence he felt to be
essential to the welfare of Europe. He continued quietly to
observe the course of events during the disastrous years 1812-13;
and even at the beginning of the Moscow campaign he summed
up the situation in the words, " It is the beginning of the end."
Early in 1814 he saw Napoleon for the last time; the emperor
upbraided him with the words: " You are a coward, a traitor,
a thief. You do not even believe in God. You have betrayed
and deceived everybody. You would sell even your own father."
Talleyrand listened unmoved, but afterwards sent in his resigna-
tion of his seat on the council. It was not accepted. He had
no share in the negotiations of the congress of Chatillon in
February-March 1814. On the surrender of Paris to the allies
(30th of March 1814), the Emperor Alexander I. took up his
abode at the hotel Talleyrand, and there occurred the conference
wherein the statesman persuaded the victorious potentate that
the return of the Bourbons was the only possible solution of
the French problem, and that the principle of legitimacy alone
would guarantee Europe against the aggrandizement of any
one state or house. As he phrased it in the Talleyrand Memoirs:
" The house of Bourbon alone could cause France nobly to
conform once more to the happy limits indicated by policy and
by nature. With the house of Bourbon France ceased to be
gigantic in order to be great." These arguments, reinforced
by those of the royalist agent de Vitrolles, convinced the tsar;
and Talleyrand, on the ist of April, convened the French senate
(only 64 members out of 140 attended), and that body pro-
nounced that Napoleon had forfeited the crown. Ten days
later the fallen emperor recognized the inevitable and signed
the Act of Abdication at Fontainebleau. The next effort of
Talleyrand was to screen France under the principle of legitimacy
and to prevent the scheme of partition on which several of the
German statesmen were bent. Thanks mainly to the support
of the tsar and of England these schemes were foiled; and
France emerged from her disasters with frontiers which were
practically those of 1792.
At the congress of Vienna (1814-15) for the settlement of
European affairs, Talleyrand, as the representative of the
restored house of Bourbon in France, managed adroitly to break
up the league of the Powers (framed at Chaumont in February
1814) and assisted in forming a secret alliance between England,
Austria and France in order to prevent the complete absorption
of Poland by Russia and of Saxony by Prussia. The new triple
alliance had the effect of lessening the demands of those Powers,
and of leading to the well-known territorial compromise of 1815.
Everything was brought into a state of uncertainty once more
by the escape of Napoleon from Elba; but the events of the
Hundred Days, in which Talleyrand had no share — he remained
at Vienna until the loth of June — brought in the Bourbons once
more; and Talleyrand's plea for a magnanimous treatment of
France under Louis XVIII. once more prevailed in all important
matters. On the gth of July 1815 he became foreign minister
and president of the council under Louis XVIII., but diplo-
matic and other difficulties led him to resign his appointment
on the 23rd of September 1815, Louis., however, naming him
high chamberlain and according him an annuity of 100,000
francs. The rest of his life calls for little notice except that
at the time of the July Revolution of 1830, which unseated the
elder branch of the Bourbons, he urged Louis Philippe, duke of
Orleans (<?.».), to take the throne offered to him by popular
acclaim. The new sovereign offered him the portfolio for foreign
affairs; but Talleyrand signified his preference for the embassy
in London. In that capacity he took an important part in the
negotiations respecting the founding of the new kingdom of
Belgium. In April 1834 he crowned his diplomatic career by
signing the treaty which brought together as allies France,
Great Britain, Spain and Portugal; and in the autumn of that
year he resigned his embassy. During his last days he signed
a paper signifying his reconciliation with the Roman Catholic
Church and his regret for many of his early actions. The king
visited his death-bed. His death, on the i7th of May 1838,
called forth widespread expressions of esteem for the statesman
who had rendered such great and varied services to his country.
He was buried at Valencay. He had been separated from the
former Madame Grand in 1815 and left no heir.
Under all the inconsistencies of Talleyrand's career there lies
an aim as steadily consistent as that which inspired his contem-
porary, Lafayette. They both loved France and the cause of
constitutional liberty. Talleyrand believed that he served
those causes best by remaining in office whenever possible, and
by guiding or moderating the actions of his chiefs. He lived
to see the triumph of his principles; and no Frenchman of that
age did so much to repair the mischief wrought by fanatics and
autocrats. In the opinion of enlightened men this will mitigate
the censures that must be passed on him for his laxity in matters
financial. If he enriched himself, he also helped to save France
from ruin at more crises than one. In private life his ease of
bearing, friendliness, and, above all, his inexhaustible fund of
humour and irony, won him a large circle of friends; and judges
so exacting as Mmes de Stael and de Remusat and Lord
Brougham avowed their delight in his society.
By a codicil added to his will on the lyth of March 1838 Talley-
rand left his memoirs and papers to the duchess of Dino and to M.
de Bacourt. The latter revised them with care, and added to them
other pieces emanating from Talleyrand. They were not to be
published until after the lapse of thirty years from the lime of
Talleyrand's death. For various reasons they did not see the light
until 1891. This is not the place in which to discuss so large a
question as that of the genuineness of the Memoires, which, indeed,
is now generally admitted. There are, however, several suspicious
circumstances which tell against them as documents of the first
importance, notably these: first that Talleyrand is known to have
destroyed many of his most important papers, and secondly that
TALLIEN— TALLIS
377
M. de Bacourt almost certainly drew up the connected narrative
which we now possess from notes which, were in more or less of con-
fusion. For this question see articles by M. Chuquet in Rev. critique
d'histoire et de litterature, 25th of May 1891 (Paris); also articles by
others in the Rev . historique, vols. xlviii. and xlix. (Paris) ; also in
the Quarterly Review, No. 345 (London, 1891), and Edinburgh Review,
vol. 174 (London, 1891) ; by P. Bailleu in the Historische Zeitschrift,
vol. Ixviii. (Munich, 1892), and by Albert Sorel in his Lectures
historiques (pp. 70-112).
The Talleyrand Memoires were edited by the due de Broglie in
5 vols. (Paris, 1891-2). They have been translated into English
by A. Hall, 5 vols. (London, 1891-2). Of his letters and despatches
the following are the chief collections: — G. Pallain, La mission de
Talleyrand a Londres en 1792 (Paris, 1889), and Le ministere de
Talleyrand sous le Directoire (Paris, 1891); P. Bertrand, Leltres
inedites de Talleyrand a Napoleon, 1800-9 (Paris, 1889); G. Pallain,
Talleyrand et Louis. XVIII. (Paris, 1881), and Ambassade de Talley-
rand d Londres (1830-4), 2 vols. (Paris, 1891).
Among the biographies, or biographical notices, of Talleyrand the
following are, on the whole, hostile to him: G. Teuchard Lafosse,
Talleyrand, histoire politique et vie intime (Paris, 1848) ; G. Michaud,
Hist, politique et privee de Talleyrand (Paris, 1853); A. Pichot,
Souvenirs intimes sur Talleyrand (Paris, 1870) ; Sainte-Beuve, " Tal-
leyrand," in Nouveaux lundis, No. xii. ; and Villemarest, Talleyrand.
The estimate of him of Sir H. L. E. Bulwer Lytton in his Historical
Characters, 2 vols. (London, 1867) and that of Lord Brougham in
Historical Sketches of Statesmen, 3 vols. (London, 1845, new edition),
are better balanced, but brief. Of recent biographies of Talleyrand
the best are Lady Blennerhasset's Talleyrand (Berlin, 1894, Eng.
translation by F. Clarke, 2 vols. London, 1894); Talleyrand, a Bio-
Ciphical Study, by Joseph McCabe (London, 1906) ; and Bernard de
combe, La vie privee de Talleyrand (1910). (J. HL. R.)
TALLIEN, JEAN LAMBERT (1767-1820), French Revolu-
tionist, was the son of the mattre d'hotel of the marquis de Bercy,
and was born in Paris. The marquis, perceiving the boy's
ability, had him well educated, and got him a place as a lawyer's
clerk. Being much excited by the first events of the Revolu-
tion, he gave up his desk to enter a printer's office, and by 1791
he was overseer of the printing department of the Monileur.
While thus employed he conceived the idea of thejournal-affiche,
and after the arrest of the king at Varennes in June 1791 he
placarded a large printed sheet on all the walls of Paris twice a
week, under the title of the Ami des Citoyens, journal fraternel.
This enterprise, of which the expenses were defrayed by the
Jacobin Club, made him well known to the revolutionary
leaders; and he made himself still more conspicuous in or-
ganizing the great " Fete de la Liberte " on the isth of April
1792, in honour of the released soldiers of Chateau- Vieux, with
Collot d'Herbois. On the 8th of July 1792, he was the spokes-
man of a deputation of the section of the Place Royale which
demanded from the legislative assembly the reinstatement of
the mayor, Jerome Petion, and the proiureur, P. L. Manuel,
and he was one of the most active popular leaders in the attack
upon the Tuileries on the zoth of August, on which day he was
appointed secretary or clerk to the revolutionary commune of
Paris. In this capacity he exhibited an almost feverish activity;
he perpetually appeared at the bar of the assembly on behalf of
the commune; he announced the massacres of September
in the prisons in terms of apology and praise; and he sent off
the famous circular of the 3rd of September to the provinces,
recommending them to do likewise. He had several persons
imprisoned in order to save them from the fury of the mob,
and protected several suspects himself. At the close of the
month he resigned his post on being elected, in spite of his youth,
a deputy to the Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise,
and he began his legislative career by defending the conduct
of the Commune during the massacres. He took his seat upon
the Mountain, and showed himself one of the most vigorous
Jacobins, particularly in his defence of Marat, on the 26th of
February 1793; he voted for the execution of the king, and was
elected a member of the Committee of General Security on the
2ist of January 1793. After a short mission in the western
provinces he returned to Paris, and took an active part in the
coups d'flat of the 3ist of May and the 2nd of June, which re-
sulted in the overthrow of the Girondists. For the next few
months he remained comparatively quiet, but on the 23rd of
September 1793, he was sent with Claude Alexandre Ysabeau
(1754-1831) on his mission to Bordeaux. This was the month
in which the Terror was organized under the superintendence of
the Committees of Public Safety and General Security.
Tallien showed himself one of the most vigorous of the pro-
consuls sent over France to establish the Terror in the provinces;
though with but few adherents, he soon awed the great city
into quiet. It was at this moment that the romance of Tallien's
life commenced. Among his prisoners was Therese, the divorced
wife of the comte de Fontenay, and daughter of the Spanish
banker, Francois Cabarrus, one of the most fascinating women
of her time, and Tallien not only spared her life but fell in love
with her. Suspected of " Moderatism " on account of this
incident, especially when he was recalled to Paris, Tallien
increased, in appearance, his revolutionary zeal, but Therese
abated his revolutionary ardour, and from the lives she saved by
her entreaties she received the name of " Our Lady of Ther-
midor," after the 9th of Thermidor. Tallien was even elected
president of the Convention or. the 24th of March 1794. But
the Terror could not be maintained at the same pitch: Robes-
pierre began to see that he must strike at many of his own
colleagues in the committees if he was to carry out his theories,
and Tallien was one of the men condemned with them. They
determined to strike first, and on the great day of Thermidor
it was Tallien who, urged on by the danger in which his beloved
lay, opened the attack upon Robespierre. The movement was
successful; Robespierre and his friends were guillotined; and
Tallien, as the leading Thermidorian, was elected to the Com-
mittee of Public Safety. He showed himself a vigorous Ther-
midorian; he was instrumental in suppressing the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal and the Jacobin Club; he attacked J. B.
Carrier and Joseph Lebon, the representants en mission of
Nantes and Arras; and he fought bravely against the insurgents
of Prairial. In all these months he was supported by Therese,
whom he married on the 26th of December 1794, and who became
the leader of the social life of Paris. His last political achieve-
ment was in July 1795, when he was present with Hoche at the
destruction of the army of the emigres at Quiberon, and ordered
the executions which followed. After the close of the Conven-
tion Tallien's political importance came to an end, for, though
he sat in the Council of Five Hundred, the moderates attacked
him as terrorist, and the extreme party as a renegade. Madame
Tallien also tired of him, and became the mistress of the rich
banker Ouvrard. Bonaparte, however, who is said to have
been introduced by him to Barras, took him to Egypt in his
great expedition of June 1798, and after the capture of Cairo
he edited the official journal there, the Decade Egyptienne.
But General J. F. Menou sent him away from Egypt, and on his
passage he was captured by an English cruiser and taken to
London, where he had a good reception among' the Whigs and
was well received by Fox. On returning to France in 1802 he
obtained a divorce from his wife (who in 1805 married the comte
de Caraman, later prince de Chimay), and was left for some time
without employment. At last, through Fouche and Talleyrand,
he got the appointment of consul at Alicante, and remained
there until he lost the sight of one eye from yellow fever. On
returning to Paris he lived on his half-pay until 1815, when he
received the favour of not being exiled like the other regicides.
His latter days were spent in poverty; he had to sell his books
to get bread. He died in Paris on the i6th of November 1820.
Tallien left an interesting Discours sur les causes qui onl produit
d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, t. iii. p. 269. On Madame
Tallien see Arsene Houssaye, Notre Dame de Thermidor (Paris,
1866); J. Turquan, Souveraines et grandes Dames: La citoyenne
Tallien, temoignages des contemporains et documents inedits (Paris,
1898); and Louis Gastine, La belle Tallien (1909).
TALLIS (TALLYS, TALYS, or TALLISIUS), THOMAS (c. 1515-
1585), justly styled "the father of English cathedral music,"
was born about 1315- It has been conjectured that, after
singing as a chorister at old Saint Paul's under Thomas Mulliner,
he obtained a place among the children of the chapel royal.
He is known to have become organist at Waltham abbey, where,
37»
TALLOW— TALLOW TREE
on the dissolution of the monastery in 1540, he received, in com-
pensation for the loss of his preferment, zos. for wages and
2os. for reward. In the library of the British Museum there is
preserved a volume of MS. treatises on music, once belonging to
the abbey, on the last page of which appears his autograph,
" Thomas Tallys " — the only specimen known.
Not long after his dismissal from Waltham, Tallis was ap-
pointed a gentleman of the chapel royal; and thenceforward
he laboured so zealously for the advancement of his art that
the English school owes more to him than to any other composer
of the 1 6th century.
One of the earliest compositions by Tallis to which an approxi-
mate date can be assigned is the well-known Service in the
Dorian Mode, consisting of the Venile, Te Deum, Benediclus,
Kyrie, Nicene Creed, Sanctus, Gloria in Excelsis, Magnificat
and Nunc Dimittis, for four voices, together with the Preces,
Responses, Paternoster and Litany, for five, all published for
the first time, in the Rev. John Barnard's First Book of Selected
Church Music, in 1641, and reprinted, with the exception of the
Venile and Paternoster, in Boyce's Cathedral Music in I76o.1
That this work was composed for the purpose of supplying a
pressing need, after the publication of the second prayer-book
of King Edward VI. in 1552, there can be no doubt. Written
in the style known among Italian composers as lo stile famig-
liare, i.e. in simple counterpoint of the first species, nota contra
notam, with no attempt at learned complications of any kind — it
adapts itself with equal dignity and clearness to the expression
of the verbal text it is intended to illustrate, bringing out the
sense of the words so plainly that the listener cannot fail to
interpret them aright, while its pure rich harmonies tend far
more surely to the excitement of devotional feeling than the
marvellous combinations by means of which too many of Tallis's
contemporaries sought to astonish their hearers, while forgetting
all the loftier attributes of their art. In self-restraint the Litany
and Responses bear a close analogy to the Improperia and other
similar works of Palestrina, wherein, addressing himself to the
heart rather than to the ear, the princeps musicae produces the
most thrilling effects by means which, to the superficial critic,
appear almost puerile in their simplicity, while those who are
able to look beneath the surface discern in them a subtlety of
style such as none but a highly cultivated musician can appre-
ciate. Of this profound learning Tallis possessed an inex-
haustible store; and it enabled him to raise the English school
to a height which it had never previously attained, and which
it continued to maintain until the death of its last representative,
Orlando Gibbons, in 1625. Though this school is generally said
to have been founded by Dr Tye, there can be no doubt that
Tallis was its greatest master, and that it was indebted to him
alone for the infusion of new life and vigour which prevented
it from degenerating, as some of the earlier Flemish schools had
done, into a mere vehicle for the display of fruitless erudition.
Tallis's ingenuity far surpassed that of his most erudite con-
temporaries; and like every other great musician of the period,
he produced occasionally works confessedly intended for no
more exalted purpose than the exhibition of his stupendous
skill. In his canon Miserere nostri (given in Hawkins's History
of Music) the intricacy of the contrapuntal devices seems little
short of miraculous; [yet the resulting harmony is smooth
and normal, and only the irregular complexity of the rhythm
betrays the artificiality of its structure. The famous forty-part
motet, Spem in alium, written for eight five-part choirs, stands
on a far higher plane, and the tour de force of handling freely
and smoothly so many independent parts is the least remark-
able of its qualities. An excellent modern edition of it was
produced by Dr A. H. Mann in 1888 (London, Weekes & Co.);
and, when the reader has overcome the difficulty of reading a
score that runs across two pages, he finds himself in the presence
of a living classic. The art with which the climaxes are built
up shows that Tallis's object in writing for forty voices is indeed
1 Boyce's unaccountable omission of the very beautiful Venite
is a misfortune which cannot be too deeply deplored, since it has
led to its consignment to almost hopeless oblivion.
to produce an effect that could not be produced by thirty-nine.]
These tours de force, however, though approachable only by the
greatest contrapuntists living in an age in which counterpoint
was cultivated with a success that has never since been equalled,
serve to illustrate one phase only of Tallis's many-sided genius,
which shines with equal brightness in the eight psalm-tunes
(one in each of the first eight modes) and unpretending little
Veni Creator, printed in 1567 at the end of Archbishop Parker's
First Quinquagene of Metrical Psalms, and many other compo-
sitions of like simplicity.
In 1575 Tallis and his pupil William Byrd — as great a contra-
puntist as himself — obtained from Queen Elizabeth royal letters
patent granting them the exclusive right of printing music and
ruling music-paper for twenty-one years; and, in virtue of this
privilege, they issued, in the same year, a joint work, entitled
Cantiones quae. ab argumento Sacrae wcantur, quinque et sex
partium, containing sixteen motets by Tallis and eighteen by
Byrd, all of the highest degree of excellence. Some of these
motets, adapted to English words, are now sung as anthems in
the Anglican cathedral service. But no such translations appear
to have been made during Tallis's lifetime; and there is strong
reason for believing that, though both he and Byrd outwardly
conformed to the new religion, and composed music expressly
for its use, they remained Catholics at heart.
Tallis's contributions to the Cantiones Sacrae were the last
of his compositions published during his lifetime. He did not
live to witness the expiration of the patent, though Byrd survived
it and published two more books of Cantiones on his own
account in 1589 and 1591, besides numerous other works. Tallis
died November 23, 1585, and was buried in the parish church
at Greenwich, where a quaint rhymed epitaph, preserved by
Strype, and reprinted by Burney and Hawkins, recorded the
fact that he served in the chapel royal during the reigns of
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. This was
destroyed with the old church about 1710; but a copy has
since been substituted. Portraits, professedly authentic, of
Tallis 'and Byrd, were engraved by Vandergucht in 1730, for
Nicolas Haym's projected History of Music, but never published.
One copy only is known to exist.
, Not many works besides those already mentioned were printed
during Tallis's lifetime; but a great number are preserved in MS.
It is to be feared that many more were destroyed, in the I7th
century during the spoliation of the cathedral libraries by the
Puritans. (W. S. R.)
TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the
connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubt-
ful), the solid oil or fat of ruminant animals, but commercially
obtained almost exclusively from oxen and sheep. The various
methods by which tallow and other animal fats are separated
and purified are dealt with in the article OILS. Ox tallow occurs
at ordinary temperatures as a solid hard fat having a yellowish
white colour. The fat is insoluble in cold alcohol, but it dissolves
in boiling alcohol, in chloroform, ether and the essential oils. The
hardness of tallow and its melting-point are to some extent affected
by the food, age, state of health, &c., of the animal yielding it,
the firmest ox tallow being obtained in certain provinces of
Russia, where for a great part of the year the oxen are fed on hay.
New tallow melts at from 42-5° to 43° C., old tallow at 43-5°, and
the melted fat remains liquid till its temperature falls to 33° or
34° C. Tallow consists of a mixture of two-thirds of the solid
fats palmitin and stearin, with one-third of the liquid fat olein.
Mutton tallow differs in several respects from that obtained
from oxen. It is whiter in colour and harder, and contains only
about 30 per cent, of olein. Newly rendered it has little taste or
smell, but on exposure it quickly becomes rancid. Sweet mutton
tallow melts at 46° and solidifies at 36° C.; when old it does
not melt under 49°, and becomes solid on reaching 44° or 45° C.
It is sparingly soluble in cold ether and in boiling alcohol.
TALLOW TREE, in botany, the popular name of a small
tree, Stillingia sebifera, belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae,
a native of China, but cultivated in India and other warm
countries. The seeds are thickly coated with a white greasy
TALLY— TALMA
379
substance — so-called vegetable tallow — from which candles are
made, and which is also used in soap-making and dressing cloth.
The butter tree or tallow tree of Sierra Leone is Pentadesma
butyracea, a member of the family Guttiferae. The fruit, which
is 4 to 5 in. long and about 3 in. in diameter, has a thick fleshy
rind abounding in a yellow greasy juice.
TALLY, an old device, now obsolete, formerly used in the
English exchequer for the purpose of keeping accounts. The
tally was a willow or hazel stick about one inch in depth and
thickness, and roughly shaped like a thick knife-blade (see
Fig. i). Notches (see Fig. 2) were cut on it showing the amount
] stoves which warmed the houses of parliament. On the i6th of
October 1834 the houses of parliament were burnt down by the
overheating of the stoves through using too many of the tallies.
The so-called tally-trade was an old system of dealing carried
on in London and in the manufacturing districts of England, by
which shopkeepers furnished certain articles on credit to their
customers, the latter paying the stipulated price for them by
weekly or monthly instalments (see M'Culloch, Dictionary of Com-
merce)— the precursor, in fact, of the modern instalment system.
See S. R. Scargill-Bird, Guide to the Public Records (Calendar of
State Papers) ; H. Hall, Curiosities and Antiquities of the Exchequer.
FIG. I. — A tally (f scale) (not the same as that shown in Fig. 2).
paid, a gauged width of 15 inches representing £1000, I inch
£100, f inch £10, half a notch of this size representing £i;
/g- inch is., and the smallest notch id.; half-pennies were rep-
resented by small holes. The account of the transaction was
written on the two opposite sides, the piece of wood being then
split down the middle through the notches; one half, called
the tally, being given as a form of receipt to the person making
the payment, while the other half, called the counter-tally, was
kept in the exchequer. Payments made into the exchequer
were entered into an account-book, from which they were trans-
TALMA, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1763-1826), French actor, was
born in Paris on the 1 5th of January 1 763. His father, a dentist
there, and afterwards in London, gave him a good English
education, and he returned to Paris, where for a year and a half
he practised dentistry. His predilection for the stage was culti-
vated in private theatricals, and on the 2ist of November 1787
he made his debut at the Comedie Francaise as Seide in Voltaire's
Mahomet. His efforts from the first won approval, but for a
considerable time he only obtained secondary parts. It was as
the jeune premier that he first came prominently into notice,
FIG. 2. — Diagrammatic view, showing notches with facsimile of writing, of an Exchequer tally (J scale), acknowledging the receipt
of £236, 4s. Sid: on the 25th of October 1739, from Edward Ironside, Esq., as a loan to the king on £3 per cent, annuities payable
out of the Sinking Fund, on account of £500,000 granted by Act 11 Geo. II., c. 27. The date is written upon the upper side of the
tally, where the two notches denoting £200 are cut. The lower side, on which the smaller notches are cut, has only the word Sol
written upon it.
f erred to a strip of parchment, or teller's bill; this was then
thrown down a pipe into the tally-court, a large room directly
under the teller's office. In the tally-court were officers of the
clerk of the "pells"1 and of the auditor as representing the
chamberlain of the exchequer. The teller's bill was then
entered in the introitus or receipt-book by the officer of the
clerk of the pells, and in another book, called the bill of the day,
by the auditor's clerk. A tally was then made of the teller's
bill, and it was given on application, generally on the following
day, to the person paying in the money. At the end of the day,
the bill of the day was passed on to the clerk of the cash-book,
by whom all the day's receipts were entered (see the " Great
Account " of Public Income and Expenditure, part ii. app. 13,
July 1869, by H. W. Chisholm).
The practice of issuing wooden tallies was ordered to be
discontinued by an act of 1782; this act came into force on the
death of the last of the chamberlains in 1826. The returned
tallies were stored in the room which had formerly been the
Star-chamber. This room was completely filled by them, so
that in 1834, when it was desired to use the room, the tallies
were ordered to be destroyed. They were used as fuel for the
1 So called from the pells or sheepskins (Lat. pellis, skin) on which
the records were written. The clerk of the pells was originally
the private clerk of the treasurer. His duty was to keep separate
records of all monies entering and leaving the exchequer. These
records were kept on two rolls, the pellis inlroitus, or pells receipt
roll, and the pellis exitus, or pells issue roll. The office gradually
became a sinecure, its duties being discharged by deputy. Previ-
ously to 1783 the salary of the office was derived from fees and per-
centages, but in that year parliament settled the salary at £1500
a year. The office was abolished in 1834.
and he attained only gradually to his unrivalled position as
the exponent of strong and concentrated passion. Talma was
among the earliest advocates of realism in scenery and costume,
being aided by his friend the painter David. His first essay
in this direction took the form of appearing in the small r61e of
Proculus in Voltaire's Brutus, with a toga and Roman head-
dress, much to the surprise of an audience accustomed to i8th
century costume on the stage, and heedless whether or not it
suited the part played. Talma possessed in perfection the
physical gifts fitting him to excel in the highest tragedy, an
admirably proportioned figure, a striking countenance, and a
voice of great beauty and power, which, after he had conquered
a certain thickness of utterance, enabled him to acquire a
matchless elocution. At first somewhat stilted and monotonous
in his manner, he became by perfection of art a model of sim-
plicity. Talma married Julie Carreau, a rich and talented lady
in whose salon were to be met the principal Girondists. The
actor was an intimate friend of Napoleon, who delighted in his
society, and even, on his return from Elba, forgave him for
performing before Louis XVIII. In 1808 the emperor had
taken him to Erfurt and made him play the Mart de Cfsar to a
company of crowned heads. Five years later he took him also
to Dresden. Talma was also a friend of Joseph Ch6nier, Danton,
Camille Desmoulins and other revolutionists. It was in
Chenier's anti-monarchical Charles IX., produced on the 4th of
November 1789, that a prophetic couplet on the destruction
of the Bastille made the house burst into a salvo of applause,
led by Mirabeau. This play was responsible for the politi-
cal dissensions in the Comedie Franchise which resulted in the
establishment, under Talma, of a new theatre known for a time
38o
TALMAGE— TALMUD
as the Theitre de la Republique, on the site of the present
Th6atre Frangais. Here he won his greatest triumphs. Further
development in costume and make-up was shown in his stage
portrait of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1790), pronounced a wonder-
ful likeness in Le journaliste des ombres. In 1801 he divorced
his wife, and in 1802 married Charlotte Vanbove, an actress of
the Comedie Franchise. He made his last appearance on the
nth of June 1826 as Charles VI. in Delaville's tragedy, and he
died in Paris on the igth of October of that year.
Talma was the author of Memmres de Lekain, precedes de reflexions
sur cet acteur et sur I'arl theatral, contributed to the Collection des
memoires sur I' art dramatique, and published separately (1856) as
Reflexions de Talma sur Lekain et I'art theatral.
See Memoires de F. J. Talma, ecrits par lui-meme, et recueillis et
mis en ordre sur les papiers de safamille, by Alex. Dumas (1850).
TALMAGE, THOMAS DE WITT (1832-1902), American
Presbyterian preacher, born at Bound Brook, New Jersey, on
the 7th of January 1832. He was educated at the University
of the City of New York (now New York University) and at
the Reformed Dutch Theological Seminary at New Brunswick,
N.J., from which he was graduated in 1856. Immediately after-
wards he became pastor of a Reformed church at Belleville, N.J.
In 1859 he removed to Syracuse, N.Y.; in 1862 to Philadelphia,
where he was pastor of the Second Reformed Dutch Church;
and in 1869 to the Central Presbyterian Church in Brooklyn,
where a large building known as the Tabernacle was erected for
him in 1870. In 1872 this building was burned down. A
larger one, holding 5000 persons, was built for him in 1873, but
even this could not contain the crowds attracted by his eloquence
and sensationalism. In 1889 this church also was burned to
the ground, only to be succeeded by another and larger one,
which in its turn was burned in 1894. Shortly afterwards he
removed to Washington, where from 1895 to 1899 he was the
associate pastor, with Dr Byron Sunderland (d. 1901), of the
First Presbyterian Church. During the last years of his life
Dr Talmage ceased to preach, and devoted himself to editing,
writing and lecturing. At different periods he was editor of
the Christian at Work (1873-76), New York; the Advance
(1877-79), Chicago; Frank Leslie's Sunday Magazine (1879-89),
New York; and the Christian Herald (1890-1902), New York.
For years his sermons were published regularly in more than
3000 journals, reaching, it is said, 25,000,000 readers. His
books also have had large circulations; among them are The
Almond Tree in Blossom (1870); Every Day Religion (1875);
The Brooklyn Tabernacle (1884); From Manger to Throne (1895);
and The Pathway of Life (1895). His eloquence, while sensa-
tional, was real and striking, and his fluency and the picturesque-
ness of his la.ii^iage and imagery were remarkable. He died
at Washington on the i2th of April 1902.
TALMUD, the great Rabbinical thesaurus which grew up
during the first four or six centuries of the Christian Era,
and, with the Old Testament, became the " Bible " of the
Jews, and the chief subject of their subsequent literary activity.
i. Contents. — The Talmud (Hebrew " teaching, learning ")
consists of the Mishnah (Heb. " [oral] repetition, teaching "),
a systematic collection of religious-legal decisions developing
the laws of the Old Testament, and the Gemara (Aramaic
" completion, decision," or perhaps also " teaching "), supple-
mentary material, legal and otherwise.1 The whole was in two
great recensions, Palestinian and Babylonian. Other material
related to the Mishnah is preserved in the Tosephta (Aram.
" addition ") and the Midrashlm, and since all these, together
with the Targumim, represent the orthodox Rabbinical literature
connecting the Old Testament with medieval and modern
Judaism, the reader should also consult the articles JEWS (parts
ii. and iii.), MIDRASH, TARGUM, and for more detailed and critical
treatment the references given to the Jewish Encyclopedia.
'Mishnah stands in contrast to Miqra ("reading, scripture");
its Aram, equivalent is Mathnltha, from tena, " to repeat,' whence
the appellation Tanna, " teacher " (§ 3 below). These and the
terms Gemara, Talmud, &c., are more fully explained in H. L.
Strack's invaluable Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1908),
pp. 2 sqq.
The Mishnah is a more or less careful arrangement of the
extant Oral Law (see § 2). It forms the foundation of the
Gemara, and is divided into six SUddrim or Orders, each con-
taining a number of Massektoth (" weavings," cf. the etymology
of " text ") or Tractates. These are subdivided into Peraqim
(" sections ") or chapters, and these again into paragraphs or
sentences.
I. Zera'im (" seeds "), the first Order, on agriculture, is intro-
duced by (i) Berakoth (" blessings "), on daily and other prayers
and blessings. (2) Pe'ah (" corner "), deals with Lev. xix. 9 seq.,
xxiii. 22; Deut. xxiv. 19-22, and the rights of the poor. (3) Demai,
or rather Dammai (" doubtful "), on doubtful cases relating to the
tithing of fruit offerings. (4) Kil'ayim (" of two sorts "), on for-
bidden mixtures (Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 9-11). (5) SheWith
(" seventh "), on the sabbatical year (Ex. xxiii. II ; Lev. xxv. 1-8;
Deut. xv. I sqq.). (6) Terumoth (" heave offerings "), on the laws in
Num. xviii. 8 sqq., 25 seq. ; Deut. xviii. 4, (7) Ma'asroth (" tithes ")
or Ma'aser Ri'shon (" first tithe "), with reference to the Levites,
Num. xviii. 21-24. (8) Ma'aser Sheni (" second tithe "), with
reference to the tithe eaten at Jerusalem, Deut. xiv. 22-26. (9)
Hallah ("cake"), on Num. xv. 18-21. (10) 'Orlah ("foreskin"
[of trees]), on Lev. xix. 23-25. (n) Bikkurlm ("first-fruits"),
on Ex. xxiii. 19; Deut. xxvi. I sqq. The fourth chapter of this
treatise, printed in most editions, :s properly a Baraitha.
II. Mo ed (" festival "). (i) Shabbath, on the Sabbath as a day of
rest, Ex. xx. ip, xxiii. 12; Deut. v. 14, &c. (useful edition by Strack,
1890). (2) 'Erubin (" mixtures " or amalgamations), on legitimate
methods of avoiding inconvenient restrictions on the Sabbath.
(3) Pesalnm (" passovers " — sacrifices and meals), on Ex. xii., xiii.
6-8, xxiii. 15; Lev. xxiii. 5 sqq.; Num. xxviii. 1 6 sqq.; Deut. xvi.
I sqq., &c. (4) SheqaMm ("shekels"), on the poll tax (Ex. xxx.
12 sqq.; Neh. x. 33). (5) Yoma (Aram. " the day "), or Kippurlm
(" atonement "), or Y. ha-k. (" the day of atonement "), on Lev.
xvi., xxiii. 26-32 (useful edition by H. L. Strack, Leipzig, 1904).
(6) Sukkah or Sukkoth (" booth[s] ' ), on Lev. xxiii. 34 sqq.; Num.
xxix. 12 sqq.; Deut. xvi. 13-16. (7) Be^ah ("egg," the opening
word) or Yom tab (" good [i.e. feast] day "), general rules for feast-
days. (8) Rosh ha-Sh&nah (" New Year festival "), on the services,
the calendar, and more particularly on the first of the Seventh Month
(cf. Num. x. 10, xxviii. II sqq., &c.). (9) Ta'anilh or Ta'aniyyoth,
i.e. " fast[s]," special observances relating thereunto; in particular
to public fasts appointed in time of drought. (10) Megillah, " roll "
(of Esther), the reading of it at Purim, &c. (11) Mc'ed qa(dn
(" the small M," to distinguish it from the name of this order), or
Mashkln (the first word), regulations for the intermediate festi-
vals at Passover and Tabernacles. (12) Hagigah (" festival "), on
the three principal festivals, Deut. xvi. 16, the duty of pilgrims
and the defilements to be avoided (transl. from Bab. Talm. by A. W.
Streane, Camb., 1891).
III. Nashim ("women"), (i) Yebamoth (" sisters-in-law "), on
the levirate, &c. (2) Kethubdth (" marriage contracts "), rights
and duties of husband and wife. (3) Nedarlm (" vows "), on Num.
xxx. (4) Ndzlr (" Nazirite "), on Num. vi. (5) Giffin (" docu-
ments "), on divorce and separation. (6) Sd(dh (" the faithless
woman"), on Num. v. 11-31. (7) Qiddushln (" sanctifications "
of marriage), on the contraction of legal marriage.
IV. Neziqln (" damages "), also known as Yeshii'dth (" deeds of
help "). (i) Baba qammd (Aram. " the first gate "), on injuries and
compensation; civil law. (2) B. Mesi a (Aram, "the middle
gate "), on sales, leases, lost property. (3) B. Bathra (Aram. " the
last gate "), on real estate, succession, &c. (4) Sanhednn
(avvtSpiav), on procedure and criminal law. (5) Makkoth, "blows,"
on the number to be inflicted (Deut. xxv. 1-3) and for what offence,
&c. (6) Shebu'dth (" oaths "), on Lev. v. 4 sqq. (7) 'Eduyyoth,
" testimonies," viz. of later teachers regarding their predecessors,
on the schools of Hillel and Shammai, 'Aqiba, &c., important for
the problem of the literary growth of the Mishnah. (8) 'Abodah
Zarah (" idolatrous worship ), regulations in reference to heathen
idolatry (useful edition with Germ, transl. by Strack, 1909; and
including that of the Gemara by F. C. Ewald, Nuremberg, 1856).
(9) 'Abolh or Pirqe A. (" sayings of the fathers "), a famous collection
of maxims; the sixth chapter on " the possession of the law " does
not properly belong to the Mishnah (ed. with transl. by C. Taylor,
Camb. 1897, and in German by H. L. Strack, 1901). (10) Horayoth
ficial laws, &c. (2) Menaholh (" meat-offerings "), on Lev. ii. 5,
11-13, vi. 7-16, xiv. 10-20, &c. (3) Hullin or Shefcfath H. (" [the
slaughter of] common things "), on non-sacrificial meat. _ (4)
^3. (7) Kenthoth (" cutting
off "), on excommunication, &c. (8) Me'llah (" trespass "), on
Lev. v. 15 sqq.; Num. v. 6-8. (9) Tamid, on the " continual or
TALMUD
perpetual (daily burnt offering)," Ex. xxix. 38-42; Num. xxviii.
2-8. (10) Middoth (" measures "), an important tractate on the
temple (measurements, gates, halls, &c.). (n) Qinnim ("nests"),
on sacrifices of doves by the poor (cf. Lev. i. 14—17, v. I sqq., xii. 8).
VI. Tohoroth or Teh., " purifications," a euphemism for things
which are ritually or ceremonially " unclean." (l) KeKm
("vessels"), their uncleanness (cf. Lev. xi. 32 sqq.; Num.
xix. 14 sqq., xxxi. 20 sqq.). (2) Ohdloth (" tents ), on defilement
through a corpse (Num. xix. 14-20), &c. (3) Nega'im (" plagues,"
i.e. leprosy), on Ley. xiii. seq. (4) P&r&h (the [red] " heifer '), on
Num. xix. (5) Teharoth (euphemism for impurities), on minor
defilements. (6) Miqwa'oth (ritual baths), bathing for the defiled
(cf. Lev. xiv. 8, xv. 5 sqq.; Num. xxxi. 23; also Mark vii. 4). (7)
Niddah (female " impurity "), on Lev. xv. 19-33. (8) Makshlrln
(" predisposing "), or Mashqin (" liquids "), on defilement caused by
wet unclean things (cf. Lev. xi. 34, 37 seq.). (9) Zatnm (" those with
a discharge "), on Lev. xv. (10) Tebw Ydm (" immersed for [or
on] the day "), on those who have taken a ritual bath and must wait
until sunset before becoming ritually pure (see Lev. xv. 5, xxii.
6 seq.; Num. xix. 19). (n) Yadaylm, "hands," their purification
(cf. Matt. xy. 2, 20; Mark vii. 2-4, &c.). (12) tfqfln (" stems "),
on the relation between fruit and the stems and stalks as regards
defilement, &c.
To Order IV. the Babylonian recension of the Talmud adds seven
treatises, which are of later origin and are regarded as more or less
extra-canonical. (l) Aboth de Rabbi Nathan, an expansion of IV.
9, attributed to a second-century Rabbi, but post-Talmudic (cd. S.
Schechter, 1887). (2) Sophenm (" scribes "), on the writing of the
scrolls of the Pentateuch, grammatical (Massoretic) rules, and (a
later addition) on the liturgy (ed. J. Miiller, Leipzig, 1878). (3)
Ebel Rabbathi (" great weeping "), or, euphemistically, Semaholh
(" joys "), on mourning customs and rules. ($)_Kallah (" betrothed,
bride "), on chastity in marriage, &c. Derek Ere? (5) Rabbah, and
(6) Zufa, a " large " and a " small " treatise on various rules of
" conduct " and social life. (7) Pereq ha-Shalom, a " chapter on
peace " (peacefulness). In addition to these seven, other small
Talmudic treatises are also reckoned (edited by R. Kirchheim,
Frankfort-on-Main, 1850). These deal with (i) the writing of the
rolls of the Law; (2) Mezuzah (Deut. vi. 9, xi. 20); (3) Tephillln
(prayers, phylacteries); (4) the fringes (Num. xv. 38); (5) slaves;
(6) the Samaritans (see J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, pp.
196 sqq.); and (7) proselytes.
The Mishnah itself contains 63 tractates, or, since IV. 1-3 originally
formed one (called NezJqin) and IV. 4, 5 were united, 60. The
number is also given as 70 (cf. 2 Esd. xiv. 44-46), perhaps by in-
cluding the seven smaller treatises appended to IV. There are
523 chapters (or 525, see I. n, IV. 9).
2. The Origin of the Mishnah. — A careful distinction was
drawn between the Written Law, the Mosaic Torah, and the rest
of the Scriptures (^n???* n-jin), and the Oral Law, or Torah
by Mouth (*9 ^i'?? mta). The origin of the latter, which has
become codified in the Mishnah, has often been discussed. It
was supposed that it had been handed down by Ezra; that
it was indebted to Joshua, David or Solomon; that it was as
old as Moses, to whom it had been communicated orally or in
writing, complete or in its essence. The traditional view is
well illustrated in the words ascribed to R. Simeon Lakish,
3rd century A.D.:1 " What is that which is written, ' I will
give thee the tables of stone, and the Law and the Command-
ment, which I have written, that thou mayest teach them
(Ex. xxiv. 12)'? 'Tables,' these are the Ten Words (the
Decalogue); the 'Law' is the Scripture; 'and the command-
ment,' that is the Mishnah: ' which I have written,' these are
the Prophets and Writings (i.e. The Hagiographa) , ' to teach
them,' that is the Gemara — thus instructing us that all these
were given to Moses from Sinai." Literary and historical
criticism places the discussion on another basis when it treats
the Mosaic Torah in its present form as a post-exilic compilation
(about sth century B.C.) from sources differing in date, origin and
history. There is no a priori reason why other legal enactments
should not have been current when the compilation was first
made; the Pentateuchal legislation is incomplete, and covers
only a small part of the affairs of life in which legal decisions
1 For the sake of convenience Ben (" son ") and Rabbi arc, as
usual, abbreviated to b. and R. For the quotation which follows,
see Oesterley and Box, The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue
(London, 1907) p. 51 ; and, on the subject, S. Schechter, Studies in
Judaism (London, 1896), ch. vii. — " the history of Jewish tradition ";
E. Weber,' Judische Theologie (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 91 seq. and 130 sqq. ;
Strack, op. cit., p. 8 seq.; W. Bousset, Relig. d. Judentums (Berlin,
1906), pp. 176 sqq., and Jew. Ency., iv. 423 sqq.; see also G. B.
Gray's art. " Law Literature " in the Ency. Bib.
might be needed. There must have been a large body of usage
to which Jewish society subscribed; customary usage is one of
the most binding of laws even among modern Oriental com-
munities where laws in writing are unknown, and one of the
most interesting features is the persistence in the East of closely-
related forms and principles of custom from the oldest times to
the present day. Laws must be adjusted from time to time to
meet changing needs, and new necessities naturally arose in the
Greek and Roman period for which the older codes and usages
made no provision. Much in the same way as Roman law
was derived from the Twelve Tables, the Jewish written laws
were used as the authority for subsequent modifications, and
the continuity of the religious-legal system was secured by a
skilful treatment of old precedents.2 In the article MIDRASH
it will be seen that new teaching could justify itself by a re-
interpretation of the old writings, and that the traditions of
former authoritative figures could become the framework of a
teaching considerably later than their age. It is probable that
this process was largely an unconscious one; and even if con-
scious, the analogy of the conventional " legal fiction " and the
usual anxiety to avoid the appearance of novelty is enough to
show that it is not to be condemned. By the help of a tradition
— a " haggadic " or " halakic " Midrash (q.v. § i) — contemporary
custom or ideals could appear to have ancient precedents, or
by means of an exegetical process they could be directly con-
nected with old models. In the Old Testament many laws in
the Mosaic legislation are certainly post-Mosaic and the value
of not a few narratives lies, not in their historical or biographical
information, but in their treatment of law, ritual, custom,
belief, &c. Later developments are exemplified in the pseud-
epigraphical literature, notably in the Book of Jubilees, and
when we reach the Mishnah and Talmud, we have only the
first of a new series of stages which, it may be said, culmi-
nate in the 16th-century Shulhan 'Ariik, the great compendium
of the then existing written and oral law. Thus, the problem
of the origin or antiquity of the unwritten Oral Law, a living
and fluid thing, lies outside the scope of criticism; of greater
utility is the study of the particular forms the laws have taken
in the written sources which from time to time embody the
ever-changing legacy of the past.
The course of development between the recognition of the supre-
macy of the Pentateuch and the actual writing down of the Mishnah
and Gemara can be traced only in broad lines. It is known that
a great mass of oral tradition was current, and there are a number
of early references to written collections, especially of haggadah.
On the other hand, certain references indicate that there was a
strong opposition to writing down the Oral Law. It is possible,
therefore, that written works were in circulation among the learned,
and that these contained varying interpretations which were likely
to injure efforts to maintain a uniform Judaism. Philo speaks of
livpla S.jpa.(j>a Wt] KOJ, yA/ti/ia (ed. Mangey, ii. 629), and the oral
esoteric traditions of the Pharisees are attested by Josephus (xiii.
10, 6, cf. 16, 2); cf. in the New Testament, Matt. xv. 1-9, Mark vii.
8, &c. ; and the Sfvrepuaia " repetitions " (cf. the term Mishnah)
of the Christian Fathers. For the written collections, see Strack,
op. cit., pp. 10 sqq.; J. Theodor, Jew. Ency., viii. 552; J. Z. Lauter-
bach, ib., p. 614; W. Bachcr, ib., xii. 19; S. Schechter, Hastings'
Diet. Bible, v. 62; and art. MIDRASH, § 5, in this work. The theory
of an esoteric tradition is distinctly represented in 2 Esdras xiv.,
where Moses receives words which were not to be published, and
Ezra re-writes seventy books which were to be delivered to the wise
men of his people. Also the Book of Jubilees knows of secret
written traditions containing regulations regarding sacrifices, &c.,
and Jacob hands over " all his books and the books of his fathers
to Levi his son that he might preserve them and renew them for his
children (i.e. the priestly caste) unto this day " (xiv. 16).
3. Growth of the Mishnah and Gemara. — According to the
traditional view the canon of the Old Testament closed with
the work of Ezra. He was followed by the SdpMrlm, " scribes "
(or the Men of the great Synagogue), to the Maccabaean age,
and these again by the " Pairs " (zugolh, Gr. fvybv), the reputed
heads of the Sanhedrin, down to the Herodian age (150-30 B.C.).
The last culminate in Hillel (q.v.) and Shammai, the founders
of two great rival schools, and to this famous pair the work
* See W. R. Smith, Old Test, in the Jewish Church, p. 51 seq.,
1 60.
382
TALMUD
of collecting halakoth (" legal decisions ") has been ascribed.
The ensuing period of the Tannd'im, " teachers " (about
A.D. 10-220), is that of the growth of the Mishnah.1 Among
the best known representatives of the schools are Rabban (a
title given to Hillel's descendants) Gamaliel, the Phil-Hellene
and teacher of the apostle Paul (Acts xxii. 3) and his son
Simeon (Josephus, Life, § 38 seq., Wars, iv. 3, 9), and Rabban
Johanan b. Zakkai, founder of the seat of learning at Jamnia
(Jabneh). A little later (about 90-130 A.D.) are the famous
Gamaliel II., Eliezer b. Hyrqanos (at Lydda), and Ishmael b.
Elisha, the last of whom founded the school at Usha and is
renowned for his development of the rules of exegesis framed
by Hillel. With Rabbi Aqiba (q.v.) and the synods of Jamnia
(about 90 and 118 A.D.) a definite epoch in Judaism begins. At
Jamnia, under the presidency of Gamaliel II. and Eleazar b.
Azariah, a collection of traditional halakoth was formed in the
tractate 'Eduyyoth (larger than and not to be identified with
IV., 7 above). Here, too, was discussed the canonicity of the
Song of Songs and of Ecclesiastes, and it is probable that here
Aqiba and his colleagues fixed the official text of the canonical
books. Aqiba had an important share in the early develop-
ment of the Mishnah (Strack, pp. 19, 89) ; and, in the collecting
of material, he was followed notably by the school of Ishmael
(about 130-160 A.D.), which has left its mark upon the early
halakic Midrashim (see MIDRASH, § 5, 1-3) • The more interesting
names include R. Meir, a well-known haggadist, R. Simeon b.
Yohai, R. Jose b. Halaphta and R. Jehudah b. 'El'ai. But, as
collections of decisions were made by prominent teachers from
time to time, confusion was caused by their differences as
regards both contents and teaching (Sotah, 220.; Skabb. 1386).
Consequently, towards the close of the second century a
thoroughly comprehensive effort was made to reduce the
halakoth to order. Judah, grandson of Gamaliel II., known as
the Prince or Patriarch (nasi'), as Rabbenu (" our teacher "),
or simply as " Rabbi " par excellence, was the editor. He
gathered together the material, using Meir's collection as a
basis, and although he did not write the Mishnah as it now is,
he brought it into essentially its present shape. His methods
were not free from arbitrariness; he would attribute to " the
wise " the opinion of a single authority which he regarded as
correct; he would ignore conflicting opinions or those of
scholars which they themselves had afterwards retracted, and
he did not scruple to cite his own decisions.2
The period of the 'Amord'im, " speakers, interpreters," (about
220-500 A.D.), witnessed the growth of the Gemara, when the
now " canonical " Mishnah formed the basis for further ampli-
fication and for the collecting of old and new material which
bore upon it. In Palestine learning flourished at Caesarea,
Sepphoris, Tiberias and Usha; Babylonia had famous schools
at Nehardea (from the 2nd century A.D.), Sura, Pumbeditha and
elsewhere.3 Of their teachers (who were called Rabbi and Rab
respectively) several hundreds are known. R. Hiyya was
redactor of the Siphrd on Leviticus (MIDRASH, § 5, 2); to him
and to R. Hoshaiah the compilation of the Tosephtd is also as-
cribed. Abba Arika or Rab, the nephew of the first mentioned,
founded the school of Sura (219 A.D.). Rab and Shemuel
(Samuel) " the astronomer " (died 254 A.D.) were pupils of
" Rabbi " (i.e. Judah, above), and were famed for their know-
ledge of law; so numerous were their points of difference that
the Talmud will emphasize certain decisions by the statement
that the two were agreed. The Gemara is much indebted to
this pair and to Johanan b. Nappaha (199-279). The latter,
founder of the great school of Tiberias, has indeed been
1 On the various teachers, especially the Haggadists, see W.
Bacher, Agada der Babylon. Amorder (Strassburg, 1879), A. d.
Tannaiten (1884, new edition begun in 1903), A. d. Pal. Amorder
(1892).
2 See the criticisms in Jew. Ency., viii. 612, and J. Bassfreund,
Monatsschrift f. d. Gesch. u. Wissens. d. Judentums, 1907, pp. 427
sqq. On the earlier stages, see Jew. Ency., viii. 610, and Hastings'
Diet. Bible, v. 61, col. 2, with the references.
"On these schools, see art. JEWS, § 42 seq.; and Jew. Ency.,
i. 145-148.
venerated, on the authority of Maimonides, as the editor of the
Palestinian Talmud; but the presence of later material and of
later names, e.g. ManI b. Jona and Jose b. Abin (Abun), refute
this view. The Babylonian Rabbah b. Nahmani (d. c. 330) had
a dialectical ability which won him the title " uprooter of moun-
tains." His controversies with R. Joseph b. ijiyya (known for
his learning as " Sinai "), and those between their disciples Abayi
and Raba are responsible for many of the minute discussions
in the Babylonian Gemara. Meanwhile the persecutions of
Constantine and Constantius brought about the decay of the
Palestinian schools, and, probably in the sth century, their
recension of the Talmud was essentially complete. In Babylonia,
however, learning still flourished, and with Rab Ashi (352-427)
the arranging of the present framework of the Gemara may
have been taken in hand. Under Rabba Tosepha'a (died 470)
and Rabina, i.e. Rab Abina (died 499), heads of the academy of
Sura, the Babylonian recension became practically complete.
Finally, the Sabord'e, " explainers, opiners " (about 500-540),
made some additions of their own in the way of explanations
and new decisions. They may be looked upon as the last
editors of the now unwieldy thesaurus; less probable is the
view, often maintained since Rashi (nth century), that it was
first written down in their age.4
4. The Two Talmuds. — The Palestinian recension of the Mish-
nah and Gemara is called " the Talmud of the Land of Israel,"
or " T. of the West "; a popular but misleading name is " the
Jerusalem Talmud." It is an extremely uneven compilation.
" What was reduced to writing does not give us a work carried
out after a preconcerted plan, but rather represents a series of
jottings answering to the needs of the various individual writers,
and largely intended to strengthen the memory " (Schechter).
Political troubles and the unhappy condition of the Jews
probably furnish the explanation; hence also the abundance
of Palestinian haggadic literature in the Midrashim, whose
" words of blessing and consolation " appealed more to their
feelings than did the legal writings. The Pal. Talmud did not
attain the eminence of the sister recension, and survives in a
very incomplete form, although it was perhaps once fuller. It
now extends only to Orders I.-IV., with the omission of IV.
7 and 9, and with the addition of part of VI. 7.* The Babylonian
Talmud (or Tal. Babli) contains the Gemara to 365 tractates,
but the material is relatively .very full, and it is about three times
as large as the Pal., although the Gemara there extends to 39
tractates. In the latter the Gemara follows each paragraph of
the Mishnah; in the former, references are usually made to the
leaves (the two pages of which are called a and b), the enumera-
tion of the editio princeps being retained in subsequent editions.
The Mishnah is written in a late literary form of Hebrew; but
the Gemara is in Aramaic (except the Baraithas), that of the
Bab. T. being an Eastern Aram, dialect (akin to Mandaitic),
that of the Pal. T. being Western Aram, (akin to Biblical Aram,
and the Targums). Greek was well understood in cultured
Palestine; hence the latter recension uses many Greek terms
which it does not explain; whereas in the Bab. T. they are much
less common, and are sometimes punningly interpreted.6 The
Pal. Tal. is the more concise, but it is remarkable for the
numerous repetitions of the same passages; these are useful
for the criticism of the text, and for the light they throw upon
the incompleteness of the work of compilation. The Bab. Tal.,
on the other hand, is diffuse and freer in its composition, and it
is characterized by the exuberance of Halakah, which is usually
rather subtle and far-fetched. Both Talmuds offer a good
field for research (see below). Especially interesting are the
Baraithas which are preserved in the Gemara in Hebrew; they
are " external " decisions not included in the more authoritative
4 See Strack, p. 1 6 seq. The view has little in its favour, although
memory played a more important part then than now. For early
mnemonic aids to the Mishnah, see Strack, p. 68, Jew. Ency.,idl. 19.
5 The Mishnah was first critically edited by W. H. Lowe (Cam-
bridge, 1883).
6 The Greek words are treated by S. Krauss and I. Low,
Griech. u. Lai. Lehnworter (Berlin, 1898-9). For the Persian elements
in the Bab. T., see Jew. Ency., vii. 313.
TALMUD
383
Mishnah, but they differ from and are sometimes older than
the Mishnic material, with which they sometimes conflict (so
in particular as regards the rejected decisions of the school of
Shammai). They usually begin: " our Masters taught," " it
is taught," or " he taught," the verb tina (cf. Tanna'im,
" teachers ") being employed (see further Jew. Ency., ii. 513 seq.).
Parallel to the Mishnah is the Tosephta, an independent compila-
tion associated with R. Nehemiah (a contemporary of Meir and
Simeon b. Yohai), Hiyya b. Abba and others; it is arranged
according to the Mishnic orders and tractates, but lacks IV. 9
and V. 9-11. The halakoth are fuller and sometimes older than'
the corresponding decisions in the Mishnah, and the treatment
is generally more haggadic.1 The method of making the dis-
cussions part of an interpretation of the Old Testament (halakic
Midrash), as exemplified in the Tosephta, is apparently older than
the abstract and independent decisions of the Mishnah — which
presuppose an acquaintance with the Pentateuchal basis — and,
like the employment of narrative or historical Midrash (e.g. in
the Pentateuch, Chronicles and Jubilees), was more suitable for
popular exposition than for the academies. For other halakic
literature which goes back to the period of the Tanna'im, see
the Mekiltd, Siphra and Siphre, art. MIDRASH, § 5, 1-3.
The Palestinian Talmud, although used by the Qaraites in
their controversies, fell into neglect, and the Babylonian recen-
sion became, what it has since been, the authoritative guide.
With the Geonlm, the heads of Sura and Pumbeditha (about
589-1038), we enter upon another stage. The " canonical "
Mishnah and Gemara were now the objects of study, and the
scattered Jews appealed to the central bodies of Judaism in
Babylonia for information and guidance. The Geonim in their
" Responses " or " Questions and Answers " supplied authorita-
tive interpretations of the Old Testament or of the Talmud,
and regulated the application of the teaching of the past to the
changed conditions under which their brethren now lived.
The legal, religious and other decisions formulated in the
pontifical communications of one generation usually became
the venerated teaching of the next, and a new class of literature
thus sprang into existence. (See GAON.) Meanwhile, as the
Babylonian schools decayed, Talmudic learning was assiduously
pursued outside its oriental home, and some Babylonian Tal-
mudists apparently reached the West. However, the fortunes
of the Talmud in a hostile world now become part of the history
of the Jews, and the many interesting vicissitudes cannot be
recapitulated here. (See JEWS, §§ 44 sqq.) To the use of the
Pal. Talmud by the Qaraites in their controversies with the
Rabbis we owe the preservation of this recension, incomplete
though it is. To the intolerance of Christians are no doubt due
the rarity of old MSS., and the impure state of the text of both
Talmuds. At the same time, the polemics had useful results
since the literary controversy in the i6th century (when Johann
Reuchlin took the part of the Jews) led to the editio princeps of
the Babylonian Talmud (Vienna, 1520-23). A change shows
itself in the second edition (Basel, 1578-81), when the 'Aboddh
Zdrdh (above, § i. IV. 8) was omitted, and passages which
offended the Christians were cancelled or modified.2
Owing to the nature of its contents the Talmud stood sorely in
need of aids and guides, and a vast amount of labour (of varying
value) has been devoted to it by Jewish scholars. Of the many
commentaries the first place must be given to that of R. Solomon
Izhaki of Troves (see RASHI) ; his knowledge of contemporary
tradition and his valuable notes make it a new starting point in
the interpretation of the Talmud. To Rashi's disciples are due the
Tosaphoth " additions," which, with the commentary of " the
Commentator," as he was styled, are often reproduced in printed
editions of the Talmud. This school (France and Germany, I2th to
1 3th century) developed a casuistical and over-ingenious interpre-
tation— in contrast to the Spanish Talmudists who aimed at simpli-
fication and codification — and it drew upon it the saying of
Nahmanides (i3th cent.): " They try to force an elephant through
1 Lat. transl. of Orders I.-III., V., by Ugolinus, Thes., xvii.-xx.,
recent ed. by M. S. Zuckermandel (Pasewalk, 1880); see Jew.
Ency., xii. 207 sqq.
2 On the censorship and burning of the Talmud, see Jew. Ency.,
iii. 642 sqq., xii. 22; Strack, 71 seq., 78 sqq.
the eye of a needle." Important also are the introduction to and
commentary upon the Mishnah by Maimonides (q.v.), and the
commentary of Rabbenu Obadiah di Bertinoro (diea 1510). Both
have often been printed; they were translated by Surenhusius
(Amsterdam, 1698-1703). See Jew. Ency., xii. 27-30.
Systematic abstracts of the legal parts of the Talmud were made
by Isaac Alfazi (or " Riph," 1013-1103), and by Maimonides
(Mishneh Torah, otherwise called Sepher ha- Yad or Yddha-Hdzak&h).
The latter prepared a great summary of all Jewish religious and
civil law, the standard work upon which Christian theologians
from the I6th century onwards based their studies — and also their
criticisms— of early Rabbinism. Jacob b. Asher b. Yebiel in his
fiinm (" rows ") presented a well-arranged collection of those
laws which had not become obsolete together with the addition of
new ones. Most important of all, however, is Joseph Caro's Shulh&n
'Aruk (" prepared table "V which came in the age of printing (1565),
leapt into popularity, and has been, in its turn, the subject of many
commentaries and hand-books. This great work systematized Tal-
mudic law in all its developments, ancient and modern, written and
oral (I. Abrahams, Jew. Lit., London, 1906, p. 147 seq. ; see also Jew.
Ency., iii., 584 sqq.). The lengthy history of the written and oral
law thus reached its last stage in a work which grew out of the
Talmud but had its roots in a more distant past. It was at the
dawn of a period when the ancient codes which had been continu-
ously reinterpreted or readjusted were to be re-examined under
the influence of newer ideas and methods of study.'
The haggadic portions of the Talmud were collected : (a) from the
Bab. recension, in the Haggadoth ha-Talmud (Constantinople, 1511)
and in Jacob ibn Habib's 'En (eye, well of) Jacob (Salonika, 1516);
and (b) from the Pal, by Samuel Yapheh (Venice, 1589), and in
the Yalkut Shimeoni (see MIDRASH, § 5, 9). These are superseded
by the recent translations made by A. Wunsche (jer. T., Zurich,
1880; Bab. T., Leipzig, 1886-9).
The standard lexicon was the 'Aruk(h) of Nathan b. Yebiel of
Rome (c. noo) which underlies all subsequent works, notably the
great Aruch Completum of A. Kohut (Vienna, 1878-1892; supple-
ment, New York, 1892) ; see further Jew. Ency., iv. 580 seq.- Modern
dictionaries of the older Rabbinical writings have been made by
J. Levy (Leipzig, 1876), M. Jastrow (London and New York, 1886),
G. Dalman (Frankfort-on-Main, 1901). More technical is W.
Bacher's Exeget. Terminologie d. jiid. Traditions-lit. (Leipzig, 1905).
The grammatical aids are modern. For Mishnic Hebrew, see
A. Geiger (Breslau, 1845), Strack and Siegfried (Leipzig, 1884),
and M. H. Segal's essay on the relation between Mishnic and Biblical
Hebrew (Jew. Quart. Rev., xx. 647-737); for Western Aramaic,
especially G. Dalman, Jiid. Pal. Aram. (Leipzig, 1905) ; for Eastern
Aram., S. D. Luzzatto (Eng. trans, by Goldammer, 1877), C. Levias
(Cincinnati, 1900), M. L. Margolis (Munich, 1910), and also T.
Noldeke's Manddische Gramm. (Halle, 1875).
The text of the Talmud has been badly preserved; much useful
critical work has been done by R. Rabbinovicz, Variae I^ectiones
(Munich, 1876-86) for the Bab. T., and by B. Ratner, Ahavath Zion
(in Heb., Wilna, 1901-2) for the Ter. T. As regards translations
(a subject critically handled by E. Bischoff, Frankfort-on-Main,
1899) and texts, few are satisfactory; some have already been
mentioned in § I ; for a full list see Strack's Einleitung, pp. 144-155.
One may, however, mention the translations in English by D. A.
de Sola and M. J. Raphall (18 Mishnic tractates; London 1843);
J. Barclay (also a selection of 18; London, 1878), and the
(abbreviated) edition of the Bab. Talm. with text and translation by
M. L. Rodkinson (New York, 1869 sqq.). The Bab. text with a
German translation has been edited by L. Goldschmidt (Berlin,
1897 sqq.). The Palest. Talm. has been translated into French by
M. Schwab (Paris, 1871 sqq.).
5. Features of Interest and Value. — Although the Midrashim
do not hold the authoritative position which the Talmud enjoys,
the two groups cannot be kept apart in any consideration of
the interesting or valuable features of the old Rabbinical writings.
Viewed as a whole they have the characteristics of other Pales-
tinian literature, the merits and defects of other oriental works.
As regards the Talmud, neither the Mishnah nor the subsequent
Gemara aimed at presenting a digested corpus of law. It is
really a large collection of opinions and views, a remarkably
heterogeneous mixture of contents, for which the history of its
growth is no doubt largely responsible. It appals the reader
with its irregularity of treatment, its variations of style, and
its abrupt transitions from the spiritual to the crude and trivial,
and from superstition to the purest insight. Like the Koran it
is often concise to obscurity and cannot be translated literally;
1 It is interesting to compare the development of Jewish law with
that of the Mahommedan, Roman and English systems, the points
of resemblance and difference being extremely suggestive for other
studies. On the" Jewish codifiers generally, see S. Daiches in L.
Simon's Aspects of Heb. Genius (London, 1910), pp. 87 sqq.
384
TALMUD
it presupposes a knowledge which made commentaries a necessity
even, as we have seen, to the Jews themselves. The opening
of Order II. 6, for example, would be unintelligible without a
knowledge of the law in Levit. xxiii. 42: " A booth (the interior
of which is) about 20 cubits high is disallowed. R. Judah
allows it. One which is not ten hands high, one which has not
three walls, or which has more sun than shade is disallowed.
' An old booth ?' (marks of quotation and interrogation must
be supplied). The school of Shammai disallows it; but the
school of Hillel allows it," &c. In the Gemara, the decisions of
the Mishnah are not only discussed, explained or developed, but
all kinds of additional matter are suggested by them. Thus,
in the Bab. Gem. to III. 5, the reference in the Mishnah to the
Zealots (ZtK&pioi) is the occasion for a long romantic account
of the wars preceding the destruction of the Second Temple.
In IV. 3 the incidental prohibition of the cutting up of a roll
of Scripture leads to a most valuable discussion of the arrange-
ment of the Canon of the Old Testament, and other details
including some account of the character and date of Job.
There are numerous haggadic interpolations, some of consider-
able interest. Prose mingles with poetry, wit with wisdom,
the good with the bad, and as one thing goes on to suggest
another, it makes the Talmud a somewhat rambling compilation.
It is scarcely a law-book or a work of divinity; it is almost an
encyclopaedia in its scope, a store-house reproducing the know-
ledge and the thought, both unconscious and speculative, of
the first few centuries of the Christian era.
A good idea of its heterogeneity is afforded by the English trans-
lations of Talmudic and other commentaries by P. I. Hershon
(London, 1880-5). For miscellaneous collections of excerpts, see
H. Polano (in the Chandos Classics) ; Chenery, Legends from the
Midrash; 1. Myers, Gems from the Talmud; S. Rapoport, Tales
and Maxims from the Midrash; E. R. Montague, Tales from the
Talmud. A valuable general introduction to the Rabbinical
literature (with numerous excerpts) is given by J. Winter and
A. Wiinsche, Gesch. d. Jud.-Hellen. u. Talm. Litteratur (Trier, 1894).
The literature has not been fully explored for its contribution to
the various branches of antiquarian research. On the animal
fables, most of them found also in Indian and in classical collections,
see J. Jacobs, Fables of Aesop (London, 1889); for myth, super-
stition and folk-lore, see D. Joel, Aberglaube (Breslau, 1881), and
M. Griinbaum, Semit. Sagenkunde (Leiden, 1893), Ges. Aufsdtze
(Berlin, 1901); for mathematics, see B. Zuckermann (Breslau,
1878); for medicine, J. Bergel (Leipzig, 1885), &c. For these
subjects, and for law, zoology, geography, &c. &c., see the full and
classified bibliographies in M. L. Rodkinson, Hist, of Talmud (New
York, 1903), vol. ii. ch. viii., and Strack's Einleitung, pp. 164-175.
Ordinary estimates of the Talmud are often influenced by
the attitude of Christianity to Judaism and Jewish legalism,
and by the preponderating interest which has been taken in
the religious-legal side of the Rabbinical writings. The canoniza-
tion of oral tradition in the Mishnah brought the advantages
and the disadvantages of a legal religion, and controversialists
have usually seen only one side. The excessive legalism which
pervades the Talmud was the scholarship of the age, and the
Talmud suffers to a certain extent because accepted opinions
and isolated views are commingled. To those who have no
patience with the minutiae of legislation, the prolix discussions
are as irksome as the arguments appear arbitrary.1 But the
Talmudical discussions were often merely specialist and technical
— they were academical and ecclesiastical debates which did
not always touch every-day life; sometimes they were for the
purpose of reconciling earlier conflicting views, or they even
seem to be mere exhibitions of dialectic skill (cf., perhaps, Mk. xii.
18-23). It maY be supposed that this predilection for casuistry
stimulated that spirit which impelled Jewish scholars of the
middle ages to study or translate the learning of the Greeks.2
Once again it was — from a modern point of view — old-fashioned
1 The whole subject of Jewish legalism should be compared with
Islam, where again law and religion are one; as regards the legal
aspect, see the extremely suggestive and instructive study, " The
Relations of Law and Religion, the Mosque el-Azhar," by J. Bryce,
Studies in History and Jurisprudence (1901), ii. No. xiii.
2 Some of the most influential of the Greek works in the middle
ages had passed through Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew translations
before they appeared in their more familiar Latin dress !
scholarship; yet one may now recognize that in the development
of European science and philosophy it played a necessary
part, and one can now realize that again the benefit was for
common humanity rather than for the Jews alone. It may
strike one as characteristically Jewish that extravagant and
truly oriental encomiums were passed upon such legalists and
Talmudists as Isaac Alfazi, Rashi or Maimonides; none the less
the medieval Jews were able to produce and appreciate excellent
literature of the most varied description. In any case, the
Talmud must be judged, like other authoritative.religious litera-
ture, by its place in history and by its survival. From age to
age groups of laws were codified and expanded — the Priestly
law of the Old Testament, the Mishnah, the complete Talmud,
the subsequent codifications of Alfazi, Maimonides, and finally
Joseph Caro. Thus, the Talmud occupies an intermediate place
between the older sources and its later developments. At each
step disintegration was arrested, but not Jewish genius; and
the domination of the Law in Judaism did not as a matter of
fact have the petrifying results which might have been antici-
pated. The explanation may be found partly in the intense
feeling of solidarity uniting the Deity with his worshippers and
his worshippers among themselves. No distinction was drawn
between secular and religious duties, between ceremonial, ethical
or spiritual requirements. Modern distinctions of moral and
ceremonial being unknown, ancient systems must be judged in
the light of those modes of thought which could not view religion
apart from life. The Talmud discusses and formulates rules
upon points which other religions leave to the individual; it
inculcates both ceremonial and spiritual ideas, and often sets
up most lofty ethical standards. The b6nds, rigorous and
strange as they often appear to others, were a sacrament en-
shrined in the imagination of the lowliest follower of the Talmud.
Some of the keenest legalists (e.g. the Babylonian Rab) are
famous for their ethical teaching, and for their share in popular
exposition; one of the best ethical systems of medieval Judaism
(by Bahya ibn Pekuda) is founded upon the Talmud; the last
exponent of Rabbinical legalism, Joseph Caro, was at the same
time a mystic and a pietist; and the combination of the poetical
with the legal temperament is frequent. The Talmud outlived
the reactionary tendencies of the Qaraites (q.v.) and of the
Kabbalah (<?.!>.), and fortunately, since these movements, impor-
tant though they undoubtedly were for the evolution of thought,
had not within them the power to be of lasting benefit to the
rank and file of the community. Finally, no religion has been
without exhibitions of fanaticism and excess on the part of its
followers, and if the Old Testament itself was the authority
for witch-burning among Christians, it is no longer profitable
to ask whether the Talmud was responsible for offences com-
mitted by or alleged against those whose lives were regulated
by it. On the other hand, Judaism has never been without its
heroes, martyrs or saints, and the fact that it still lives is
sufficient to prove that the mechanical legalism of the Talmud
has not hindered the growth of Jewish religion.
Apart from the general interest of the literature for history
and of its contents for various departments of research, the
exegetical methods of the Talmud are especially instructive.
There were rules of interpretation, and they give expression to
one dominant idea: there is an infinite potentiality in the words
of the Old Testament, none is fortuitous or meaningless or
capable of only a single interpretation, they were said for all
time, " for our sake also " and " for our learning " (cf. Paul, in
Romans iv. 24, xv. 4). This was not conducive to critical
inquiry; questions of the historical background of the biblical
passage or of the trustworthiness of the text scarcely found a
place. The interpretation itself is markedly subjective; by
the side of much that is legitimate exegesis, there is much that
appears arbitrary in the extreme. The endeavour was made
to interpret, not necessarily according to the letter, but accord-
ing to individual conceptions of the spirit and underlying
motive. Thus, the same evidence could give rise to widely
differing conflicting interpretations, which may not be directly
deducible from or justified by the Scripture. Hence the value
TALMUD
385
of the teaching, whether halakic or haggadic, rests upon its
intrinsic worth, and not upon the exegetical principles which
were the tools common to the age. Moreover, it was also con-
sidered necessary that teaching should be authenticated, as it
were, by its association with older authority whose standing
guaranteed its genuineness. For this reason anonymous
writings were attributed to famous names, and traditions were
judged (as in Islam), not so much upon their merits, as by the
chain of authorities which traced them back to their sources.
To supplement what has already been pointed out in the
article MIDRASH, it may be noticed that the familiar penalty of
the " forty stripes save one " (2 Cor. xi. 24; Josephus, Ant.,
iv. 8, 23) is discussed in the Mishnah (Makkoth, iv. 5), and is
subsequently explained by an extremely artificial interpretation
of Deut. xxv. 2-3 (as though " to the number 40 "). But the
penalty is obviously older than, and entirely independent of, the
arbitrary explanation by which it is supported. Again, the
rending of clothes on the occasion of a charge of blasphemy
(Matt. xxvi. 65) is actually connected with Joseph b. Qorha of
the 2nd century A.D. (Sanhed., vii. 5), although elsewhere this
halakah is anonymous. Here the effort was made to sub-
stantiate a practice, but the tradition was not unanimous;
and it often happens that the Talmud preserves different tradi-
tions regarding the same teaching, different versions of it, or
it is ascribed to different authorities (see Jew. Ency., xii. p. 15,
col. 2). The fact that certain teaching is associated with a
name may have no real significance for its antiquity, even as a
law ascribed to the age of Moses — the recognized law-giver —
may prove to be of much earlier or of much later inception.
This feature naturally complicates all questions affecting origin
and originality, and cannot be ignored in any study of the
Talmud in its bearing upon the New Testament.1 Similar or
related forms of interpretation and teaching are found in the
Talmud, in Hellenistic Judaism, in the New Testament, in early
Church Fathers and in Syriac writers. As regards the New
Testament itself, the points of similarity are many and often
important. It has been asserted that " the writings of recent
Jewish critics have tended on the whole to confirm the Gospel
picture of external Jewish life, and where there is discrepancy
these critics tend to prove that the blame lies not with the
New Testament originals, but with their interpreters." The
Talmud also makes " credible details which many Christian
expositors have been rather inclined to dispute. Most remark-
able of all has been the cumulative strength of the arguments
adduced by Jewish writers favourable to the authenticity of
the discourses in the Fourth Gospel . . ."2 The points of
contact between the phraseology in the Gospel of John and the
early Midrashim are especially interesting.3 The popularity of
the parable as a form of didactic teaching finds many examples
in the Rabbinical writings, and some have noteworthy parallels
in the New testament.4 It is known that there were theological
controversies between Jews and Christians, and in the Midrash
Bereshilh Kabbah (MIDRASH, § 5, s) is a passage (translated in
Jew. Ency., viii. 558) directed against the Christian view which
found support for the doctrine of the Trinity in Gen. i. 26.
But it is uncertain how far the doctrines of Judaism were influ-
enced by Christianity, and it is even disputed whether the
Talmud and Midrashim may be used to estimate Jewish thought
1 There are many details in the Talmud which cannot be dated ;
if some are obviously contemporary, others find parallels in Ancient
Babylonia, for example in the code of Hammurabi. See L. N.
Dembitz, Jew. Quar.t. Rev., xix. 109-126, and the literature on
the code (see BABYLONIAN LAW). Numerous miscellaneous ex-
amples of the intimate relationship between the Rabbinical and
older oriental material will be found in H. Pick, Assyrisches u.
Talmudisches (Berlin, 1903) ; A. Jeremias, Bab. im N. Test. (Leipzig,
1905)1 Alte Test, im Lichte a. Allen Orients (ib., 1906) ; E. Bischoff,
Bab. aslrales im Weltbilde d. Thalmud u. Midrasch (ib., 1907).
1 I. Abrahams, on " Rabbinic Aids to Exegesis," in Swete's
Camb. Bibl. Essays (1909), p. 181.
3 See the essay of Schlatter, Sprache u. Heimat d. vierten Evan-
galisten (1902).
• See P. Fiebig, Alt-jud. Gleichnisse u. d. Gleichnisse Jesu (Leipzig,
1904); Lauterbach, Jew. Ency., ix. 512 sqq. ; Oesterley and Box,
p. 96 seq.
XXVI. 13
of the ist or znd century A.D. Much valuable work has been done
by modern Jewish scholars on the " higher criticism " of these
writings, which, it must be remembered, range over several
centuries, but it still remains difficult to date their contents.
Moreover, in endeavouring to sketch the theology of early
Judaism it has been easy to find in the heterogeneous and con-
flicting ideas a system which agreed with preconceived views,
and to reject as late or exceptional whatever told against them.
In considering the evidence it is a delicate task to avoid con-
fusing its meaning for its age with that which has appeared the
only natural or appropriate one to subsequent interpreters
(whether Jewish or Christian) who have been necessarily influ-
enced by their environment and by contemporary thought.
At all events, if these writings have many old elements and
may be used to illustrate the background of the New Testament,
they illustrate not only the excessive legalism and ritualism
against which early Christianity contended, but also the more
spiritual and ethical side of Judaism. Upon this latter phase
the pseudepigraphical and apocalyptical writings have shed
much unexpected light in linking the Old Testament with both
Christian and Rabbinical theology. The various problems
which arise are still under discussion, and are of great importance
for the study of Palestinian thought at the age of the parting
of the ways. They touch, on the one hand, the absolute
originality of Christianity and its attitude to Jewish legalism,
and, on the other, the true place of the pseudepigrapha in Jewish
thought and the antiquity of the Judaism which dominates the
Talmud. They do not, however, exclude the possibility that
by the side of the scholasticism of the early Jewish academical
circles was the more popular thought which, forming a link
between Jews and Christians, ultimately fell into neglect as
Judaism and Christianity formulated their theologies.
On the close relation between the thought of the age, see
B. Ritter, Philo u. d. Halacha (Leipzig, 1879) ; M. Griinwald in
Konigsberger's Monatsblatter (Berlin, 1890); N. I. Weinstein, Zur
Genesis d. Agada (Frankfort-on-Main, 1901); W. Bousset, Relig.
d. Judentums, pp. 50 sqq.; R. Graffin's ed. of Aphraates (q.v.)
(Paris, 1894), p. xlix. seq.; S. Funk on the haggadic elements in
Aphraates (Vienna, 1891) ; and art. MIDRASH, § 4. In this respect
the pseudepigraphic lit. is frequently of the greatest interest; thus
Mark. iv. 24 finds a close parallel in " the Testament of Zebulun,"
viii. 3 (R. H. Charles, Test, of xii. Patriarchs, p. 117), and does not
differ essentially from the saying ascribed to Gamaliel II. (Shabb.
516) and others. A close parallel to Matt. vii. 3 is ascribed to
R. Tarpon, latter half of Ist century A.D. (Arak. l6b: " If one
says, take the mote from thy eye, he answers, take the beam from
thy eye ") ; it seems to have been a popular saying (see Baba
Bathra, 156). See further, for the Talmud and Midrashim in
relation to the New Testament generally, the literature in Strack,
pp. 165 sqq. ; also A. Wiinsche, Neue Beitrdge z. Erldul. d. Evangelien
(Gottingen, 1878) ; C. H. Toy, Judaism and Christianity (London,
1890; with Schechter's essay in his Studies [1896], pp. 283-305);
H. Laible, Jesus Christus im Talmud (Berlin, 1891); R. T. Herford,
Christianity in Talmud and Midrash (London, 1903; with W.
Bacher's review in Jew. Quart. Rev., xvii. 171-183); Bousset,
op. cit. ; Oesterley and Box, op. cit. (with C. G. Montefiore's review in
Jew. Quart. Rev., 1908, pp. 347-357); I. Abrahams in Swete's Camb.
Bibl. Essays (1909), pp. 163-192; C. G. Montefiore, Synoptic
Gospels (1909) ; H. L.Strack, Jesus, die Hdretiker u. die Christen (1910).
The Talmud itself is still the authoritative and practical
guide of the great mass of the Jews, and is too closely connected
with contemporary and earlier Palestinian history to ,
•'_, * , Results of
be neglected by Christians. With the progress of crlacisia.
modern research the value of this and of the other old
Rabbinical writings is being re-estimated, and criticism has
forced a modification of many old views.' Thus, an early refer-
ence to the title of a work does not prove that it is that which
is_now current; this applies, for example, to the tractate
' Eduyyoth (see Jew. Ency., viii. 611), and to the Midrash Siphre,
which frequently differs from that as known to the Talmud
(ib., xi. 331). It has been found that a tradition, however
6 The " higher criticism " of these writings affords many useful
hints and suggestions for that of other composite works, e.g. the
Old Testament. It may be noticed also that the references to the
Old lestament sometimes represent a slightly divergent text;
see V. A. Aptowitzer, Schriftuiort in d. Rabb. Lit. (1906) ; I. Abrahams,
Camb. Bibl. Essays, pp. 172 sqq.
386
TALUKDAR— TAMARISK
tenacious or circumstantial, is not necessarily genuine, and that
too in spite of the chain of authorities by which its antiquity
or genuineness appeared to be confirmed. Implicit reliance
can no longer be necessarily placed upon the reputed authorship
or editorship of a work; yet, although many of the views of
medieval Jews in this respect prove to be erroneous (e.g. on the
authorship of the Zohar; see KABBALAH), they may sometimes
preserve the recollection of a fact which only needs restatement
(e.g. R. Johanan as the editor of the Pal. Talmud).
Finally, the Talmud comes at the end of a very lengthy
development of Palestinian thought (see PALESTINE: History).
It is in the direct line of descent from the Old Testa-
Judalsm. ment — intervening literature having been lost — the
essence of which it makes its own. Forced by the
event's of history, this legacy of the past was subjected to suc-
cessive processes and adapted to the needs of successive genera-
tions and of widely different historical and social conditions.
Legal compendiums and systems of philosophy served their age
and gave place to later developments; and the elasticity of
interpretation which characterizes it enabled it to outlive
Karaites and Kabbalists. It also escaped the classicism of the
Renaissance with its insistence upon the test — eitlter fact or
fiction. As an oriental work among an oriental people the
moral and spiritual influence of the Talmud has rested upon its
connexion with a history which appealed to the imagination
and the feelings, upon its heterogeneity of contents suitable for
all moods and minds, and upon the unifying and regulative
effects of its legalism. The relationship of Talmudism to the
Old Testament has been likened to that of Christian theology
to the Gospels; the comparison, whether fitting or not, may at
least enable one to understand the varying attitudes of Jewish
thinkers to their ancient sources. With closer contact to the
un-oriental West and with the inevitable tendencies of modern
western scholarship the Talmud has entered upon a new period,
one which, though it may be said to date from the time of Moses
Mendelssohn (see JEWS, § 48), has reached a more distinctive
stage at the present day. In the weakening of that authority
which had been ascribed almost unanimously to the Talmud,
and invariably to the Old Testament, a new and greater strain
has been laid upon Judaism to reinterpret its spirit once more
to answer the diverse wants of its adherents. This is part of
that larger and pressing psychological problem of adjusting the
" authority " ascribed to past writings to that of the collective
human experience; it -does not confront Judaism alone, and it
must suffice to refer to the writings of " Reformed Judaism ";
see, e.g. C. G. Montefiore, Liberal Judaism (London, 1903);
Truth in Religion (1906); I. Abrahams, Judaism (1907), and
the essays of S. Schechter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E. Deutsch's article on the Talmud in the
Quarterly Review, Oct. 1867 (reprinted in his Literary Remains),
is noteworthy for the great interest it aroused. For ether intro-
ductions, see S. Schiller-Szinessy, articles " Midrash," " Mishnah,"
and " Talmud," in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.; J. Z. Lauterbach, " Mish-
nah," and W. Bacher, " Talmud " in the Jew. Ency.; S. Schechter,
"Talmud," in Hastings' Diet. Bib., vol. v. ; and also S. Funk,
Entstehung des Taimuds (Leipzig, 1910). More comprehensive are
the handbooks of M. Mielziner, Introd. to the Talmud (Cincinnati,
1894), M. L. Rodkinson, History of the Talmud (New York, 1903),
and especially H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig,
1908, very concise, but replete with bibliographical and other
information). The works already cited in this article or in the
art. MIDRASH, cover the most important departments of the Rab-
binical literature, and may be supplemented from the critical
Jewish journals, e.g. the Jewish Quarterly Review, Revue des Etudes
Juives (Paris), and especially the Monatsschrift f. Gesch. u. Wissen-
schaft des Judentums (Breslau).
The writer desires to express his indebtedness to Mr Israel
Abrahams for bibliographical and other suggestions. (S. A. C.)
TALUKDAR (Hind, from taluk, district, and dor, holding),
the name of (i) an official in the state of Hyderabad, India,
equivalent to magistrate and collector, and (2) a landholder
with peculiar tenures in various parts of India, particularly in
Oude (see UNITED PROVINCES).
TALUS (Lat. for the " ankle-bone "), in architecture, the slope
of an embankment wall, which is thicker at the bottom than
at the top, to resist the pressure of the earth behind it.
TAM, JACOB BEN MElR (1100-1171), a grandson of Rashi
(q.v.), was the most famous French glossator (tosafist) on the
text of the Talmud. In 1147 he was attacked and injured by
a disorderly band who had attached themselves to the Crusaders.
He escaped to the neighbouring Troyes, where about 1160 was
held the first of the Jewish Synods, for which the Rhinelands
became celebrated. At this meeting it was laid down that
disputes between Jew and Jew were not to be carried to a
Christian court, but were to be settled by fraternal arbitration.
New conditions of life had arisen owing to the closer terms on
which Jews and Christians lived, and Jacob Tam was foremost
in settling the terms which were to govern the relations, from the
Jewish side. Many others of his practical ordinances (Tak-
kanoth), connected with marriage and divorce, trade and
proselytism, as well as with synagogue ritual, had abiding
influence, and bear invariably the stamp of enlightened
independence within the limits of recognized authoritative
tradition and law. Of his legal work the most important was
collected in his Sefer ha-yashar. He was also a poet and
grammarian.
See Gross, Gallia Judaica (index); M. Schloessinger in Jewish
Encyclopedia, vii. 36-39. (I. A.)
TAMAQUA, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Tamaqua (Little Schuylkill) river, about 20 m.
above its junction with the Schuylkill, about 17 m. E.N.E. of
Pottsville, and about 98 m. N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890)
60545(1900) 7267, (625 foreign-born); (1910) 9462. Tamaqua is
served by the Central railroad of New Jersey, by the Philadelphia
and Reading railway and by an electric line connecting with
Mauch Chunk, Pottsville, and other places. Tamaqua is in a
rich anthracite coal district, and coal-mining is its chief industry.
Among manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products,
powder, stoves, furniture, hosiery, &c. The borough owns the
water- works. The first settlement here was made in 1799 and
anthracite coal was discovered in 1817. In 1829 Tamaqua
was laid out and received its present name, an Indian word
meaning " running water. " It was incorporated as a borough
in 1833. Between 1869 and 1875 the Molly Maguires were
active here.
TAMARIND. This name is popularly applied to the pods of
a leguminous tree, which are hard externally, but within filled
with an acid juicy pulp containing sugar and various acids,
such as citric and tartaric, in combination with potash. The
acid pulp is used as a laxative and a refrigerant, the pods being
largely imported both from the East and the West Indies. The
tree is now widely distributed in tropical countries, but it is
generally considered that its native country is in eastern tropical
Africa, from Abyssinia southward to the Zambezi. The name
(meaning in Arabic " Indian date ") shows that it entered
medieval commerce from India, where it is used, not only for
its pulp, but for its seeds, which are astringent, its leaves, which
furnish a yellow or a red dye, and its timber. The tree (Tama-
rindus indica) attains a height of 70 to 80 ft., and bears elegant
pinnate foliage and purplish or orange veined flowers arranged
in terminal racemes. The flower-tube bears at its summit four
sepals, but only three petals and three perfect stamens, with*
indications of six others. The stamens, with the stalked ovary,
are curved away from the petals at their base, but are directed
towards them at their apices. The anthers and the stigmas are
thus brought into such a position as to obstruct the passage of
an insect attracted by the brilliantly-coloured petal, the inference
of course being that insect visits are necessary for transference
of pollen and the fertilization of the flower.
TAMARISK. The genus Tamarix gives its name to a small
group of shrubs or low trees constituting the tamarisk family
Tamaricaceae. The species of tamarisk and of the very closely
allied genus Myricaria grow in salt-deserts, by the sea-shore,
or in other more or less sterile localities in warm, temperate,
subtropical, and tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere.
Their long slender branches bear very numerous small appressed
leaves, in which the evaporating surface is reduced to a minimum.
The flowers are minute and numerous, in long clusters at the
TAMATAVE— TAMAYO Y BAUS
387
ends of the branches or from the trunk. Each has 4-5 free
sepals, and as many petals springing with the 4-10 stamens
from a fleshy disk. In Tamarix the stamens are free, while in
Myricaria they are united into one parcel. The free ovary is
one-celled, with basal placentas, and surmounted by 3-5 styles.
The fruit is capsular, and contains numerous seeds, each usually
with a long tuft of hairs at one end. The great value of these
shrubs or trees lies in their ability to withstand the effects of
drought and a saline soil, in consequence of which they grow
where little else can flourish. On this account the common
tamarisk, T. gallica, is planted on sea-coasts, and affords shelter
where none other could be provided. Some species produce
galls, valued for their tannin, while the astringent bark of others
has occasionally been used for medicinal purposes. The ashes
of the plant, when grown near the sea, are said to contain soda.
For tamarisk manna, see MANNA.
TAMATAVE (called by the natives Tdamasina), the chief
seaport of Madagascar, situated nearly on the centre of the
eastern coast in 18° 10' S., 49° 32' E. It owes its importance to
the existence of a coral reef, which forms a spacious and fairly
commodious harbour, entered by two openings. The town is
built on a sandy peninsula which projects at right angles from
the general coast-line. On this are crowded together a con-
siderable number of houses, with good shops and merchants'
offices in the main thoroughfares. Tamatave is the seat of
several foreign consuls, as well as of numerous French officials,
and is the chief port for the capital and the interior. Imports
consist principally of piece-goods, farinaceous foods, and iron and
steel goods, and exports of gold dust, raffia, hides, caoutchouc
and live animals. Communication with Europe is maintained
by steamers of the Messageries Maritimes and the Havraise
companies, and also with Mauritius, and from thence to
Ceylon, by the British Union-Castle line. Of the whole foreign
trade of Madagascar, 46 per cent, is through Tamatave. Owing
to the character of the soil and the formerly crowded native
population, the town has often been attacked by epidemics:
the plague broke out in 1898, and again in 1900; but since the
draining of the neighbouring marshes, there has been improve-
ment. Since 1895 the native population has been removed
from the town and settled in a new village to the north-west.
A telegraph, 180 miles in length, connects Tamatave with the
capital. There is also a service, partly by railway and partly
by steamer, along the coast lagoons, connecting the port with
Antananarivo. Pop. about 4600.
TAMAULIPAS, a northern Gulf-coast state of Mexico,
bounded N. by Texas, U.S.A., E. by the Gulf of Mexico, S.E.
by Vera Cruz, S. by San Luis Potosi, W. by Nuevo Leon, and
N.W. by Coahuila. Area 32,128 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 218,948.
The central and southern parts of the state are mountainous,
but there are extensive fertile plains in the N. sloping gently
N.E. toward the Rio Grande, and the coastal zone is sandy,
much broken by lagoons and uninhabited. Except in the N.
this coastal zone is only 5 to 7 m. wide, but the foothills region
back of this is usually well wooded and fertile, and the low
alluvial river valleys penetrate deeply into the sierras. There
are four navigable rivers in the state — the Rio Grande del Norte,
or Rio Bravo, which forms the boundary line with the United
States, the Conchas or Presas, the Soto da Marina, and the
Tamesi. The Panuco forms the southern boundary for a short
distance. A peculiar feature of the hydrography of Tamaulipas
is the series of coastal lagoons formed by the building of new
beaches across the indentations of the coast. The largest of
these is the Laguna de la Madre, 125 m. long, which receives the
waters of the Rio Conchas, and is separated in places from the
Gulf by only a narrow ridge of sand dunes. The climate is
hot, humid and malarial on the coast, but is pleasant on the
more elevated lands of the interior. On the plains bordering
the Rio Grande frosts are frequent. The rainfall is abundant,
especially on the mountain slopes of the south. The principal
industry is agriculture. Sugar, cereals, tobacco, cotton and coffee
are produced, and probably fruit may be raised successfully.
Stock-raising receives some attention and hides and cattle
are exported. The preparation of ixtle fibre for export is be-
coming an important industry. Copper is mined and extensive
•deposits of petroleum and asphalt are being exploited. Railway
communication is provided by the Mexican National which
crosses the northern end of the state, the Belgian line from
Monterrey to Tampico, and a branch of the Mexican Central
from San Luis Potosi to Tampico.
The capital of Tamaulipas is Ciudad Victoria (pop. in 1900,
10,086), a small sierra town on the Monterrey and Tampico railway
about 120 m. from Tampico. Its public buildings arc good
and it has the improvements of a modern town. It has a fine
climate, a good trade, and i3 a summer resort for residents of the
coast. The city is near the Rio Santander, and was once called
Nuevo Santander. Among other towns in the state may be men-
tioned: Matamoros (q.v.), on the Rio Grande; Tampico (q.v.), on
the Panuco, the principal port of the state; Tula (6935 in 1900);
Jaumave (about 10,000 in 1900, chiefly Indians), 38 m. S.W. of
Ciudad Victoria, in the heart of a prominent ixtle-producing region ;
Mier (7114 in 1895), on the Rio Grande, 95 m. E.N.E. of Monterrey;
San Carlos (6871 in 1895), 57 m. N.E. of the capital; Camareo
(6815 in 1895), on the San Juan near the Rio Grande, once the old
Spanish mission of San Augustin Laredo; and Reynosa (6137 in
1895). 54 m- W.N.W. of Matamoros.
TAMAYO Y BAUS, MANUEL (1820-1898), Spanish dramatist,
was born at Madrid on the ijth of September 1829. He came
of a family connected with the theatre, his mother being the
eminent actress Joaquina Baus. It is interesting to note that
she appeared as Genevieve de Brabant in an arrangement from
the French made by Tamayo when he was in his twelfth year.
Through the influence of his uncle, Antonio Gil y Zarate, minister
of education, Tamayo's independence was secured by his nomina-
tion to a post in a government office. The earliest of his printed
pieces, Juana de Area (1847), is an arrangement from Schiller,
and Una Aventura de Richelieu, which the author has not cared
to preserve, is said to be an imitation of Alexandre Duval.
The general idea of his Angela (1852) was derived from Schiller's
Kabale und Liebe, but the atmosphere is Spanish, the situations
are original, and the phrasing is Tamayo's own. His first great
success was Virginia (1853), a dramatic essay in Alfieri's manner,
remarkable for its ingenuity and noble diction. In 1854 Tamayo
was expelled from his post by the new Liberal government, but
was restored before long by Candido Nocedal, a minister who
had been struck by the young man's talent. He collaborated
with Aureliano Fernandez-Guerra y Orbe in writing La Rica-
hembra (1854), a historical drama which recalls the vigour of
Lope de Vega. La Locura de Amor (1855), in which Juana
la loca, the passionate, love-sick daughter of Isabel the Catholic,
figures as the chief personage, established Tamayo's reputation
as Spain's leading playwright. Hija y Madre (1855) is a failure,
and La Bola de Niece (1856) is notable solely for its excellent
workmanship. It is unfortunate that Tamayo's straitened
means forced him to put original work aside and to adapt pieces
from the French. Examples of this sort are fairly numerous.
Lo Positivo (1862), imitated from Adrien-Augustin-Leon Laya's
Due Job, is well-nigh forgotten, though the Spanish version is a
dexterous piece of stagecraft and contains some elements of
original value. Del dicho al hecho (1864) is from La Pierre de
louche of Jules Sandeau and Emile Augier, and a pleasing proverb,
Mds vale Maria que Fuerza (1866) is a great improvement upon
Mme Caroline Berton's Diplomatic du Menage. The revolution
of 1868, which cost Tamayo his post at the San Isidro Library,
is indirectly responsible for No hay mal que par bien no venga
(1868), a clever arrangement of Le Feu au Convent, by Henri
Murger's friend, Theodore Barriere. During these seven years
Tamayo produced only one original piece, Lances de Honor
(1863), which turned upon the immorality of duelling, and led
to a warm discussion among the public. Written in prose, the
piece is inspired by a breath of medieval piety which had not
been felt in the Spanish theatre since the I7th century. This
renascence of an old-world motive has induced many critics
to consider Lances de Honor as Tamayo's best work, but that
distinction should be accorded rather to Un Drama nuevo (1867),
a play in which the author has ventured to place Shakespeare
and Yorick upon the scene. Los H ombres de bien (1870) was
388
TAMBOUR— TAMILS
Tamayo's final contribution to the Spanish stage. His last
years were spent in recasting his Virginia, and the result of his
efforts may be read in the posthumous edition of his Obras
(Madrid, 1898-99). In 1858 Tamayo was elected a member of
the Spanish Academy, to which he afterwards became permanent
secretary; and in 1884 the Conservative minister, Alejandro
Pidal y Mon, appointed him director of the National Library.
He died on the 2oth of June 1898. (J. F.-K.)
TAMBOUR (Fr. for " drum " ), the term in architecture given
to the inverted bell of a Corinthian capital round which were
carved the acanthus leaves decorating it: applied also to the
wall of a circular structure, whether on the ground or raised
aloft on pendentives and carrying a dome; and to the drum of
a column which is built in several courses.
TAMBOURINE (Fr. tambour de Basque; Ger. baskische
Trommel, Tambourin, or Schellen-trommel) , a popular instrument
of percussion of indefinite musical pitch, used for marking the
rhythm in dance or bacchanalian music. The tambourine con-
sists of a flat wooden or metal ring, over one end of which is
stretched a parchment or vellum head; in the circumference
of the ring are fixed nine or ten metal disks or small bells which
jingle as the tambourine is struck by the hand, or merely waved
through the air. A tremolo effect is obtained by stroking the
head with the finger-tips. In a 14th-century MS. (Brit. Mus.
Sloane 3983, fol. 13) a tambourine of modern appearance with
a snare bears the inscription " Tympanum." The tambourine
is of the highest antiquity, and was known at different times
under the names of timbrel or tabret, tympanon or tympanum,
and symphonia. (K. S.)
TAMBOV, one of the largest and most fertile governments
of central Russia, extending from N. to S. between the basins
of the Oka and the Don, and having the governments of Vladimir
and Nizhniy-Novgorod on the N., Penza and Saratov on the E.,
Voronezh on the S., and Orel, Tula and Ryazan on the W. It
has an area of 25,703 sq. m., and consists of an undulating plain
intersected by deep ravines and broad valleys, ranging 450
to 800 ft. above sea-level. Cretaceous and Jurassic deposits,
thickly covered with boulder-clay and loess, are widely spread
over its surface, concealing the underlying Devonian and Car-
boniferous strata. These last crop out in the deeper ravines,
and seams of coal have been noticed at several places. Iron
ore (in the north-west), limestone, clay and gypsum are obtained,
and traces of petroleum have been discovered. The mineral
waters of Lipetsk, similar to those of Franzensbad in their
alkaline elements, and chalybeate like those of Pyrmont and
Spa, are well known in Russia. The Oka touches the north-west
corner of the government, but its tributaries, the Moksha and
the Tsna, are important channels of traffic. The Don also
merely touches Tambov, and of its affluents none except the
Voronezh and the Khoper and the Vorona, a tributary of the
Khoper, are at all navigable. As a whole, it is only in the north
that Tambov is well drained; in the south, which is exposed
to the dry south-east winds, the want of moisture is much felt,
especially in the district of Borisoglyebsk. The climate is
continental, and, although the average temperature at Tam-
bov is 42° F., the winter is comparatively cold (January, 13°;
July, 68°). The rivers remain frozen for four months and a
half. Forests occupy about 7! per cent, of the total area, and
occur chiefly in the west; in the south-east wood is scarce, and
straw is used for fuel. The soil is fertile throughout; in the
north it is clayey and sometimes sandy, but the rest of the
government is covered with a sheet, 2 to 3 feet thick, of black
earth, of such richness that in Borisoglyebsk cornfields which
have not been manured for eighty years still yield good crops.
The estimated population in 1906 was 3,205,200. The
government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of
which are Tambov, Borisoglyebsk, Yelatma, Kirsanov, Kozlov,
Lebedyan, Lipetsk, Morshansk, Shatsk, Spask, Temnikov and
Usman. The inhabitants are Great Russians in the centre, but
there is a notable admixture of Mordvinians and Meshcheryaks
in the west and north-west, as also of Tatars. The Mordvinians
are rapidly becoming Russified. Nonconformity has a relatively
strong hold in the government. Notwithstanding a high birth-
rate (45 in the thousand), the annual increase of population is
but slow (0-5 per cent, annually). The prevailing occupation
is agriculture, modern machinery being used on the steppe
farms. More than two-thirds of the area is arable, and of this
proportion 53 per cent, belongs to the peasant communities,
36 per cent, to private individuals, and 1 1 per cent, to the crown.
The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Grain is exported to a considerable extent from the south,
although the yield is deficient in the north. Hemp and linseed
are also cultivated, and the production of tobacco is yearly
increasing. Beetroot is extensively grown for sugar. Live-
stock breeding, though less extensively carried on than formerly,
is still important. Excellent breeds of horses are met with,
not only on the larger estates, but also in the hands of the
wealthier peasants, those of the Bityug river being most esteemed.
Manufacturers are represented chiefly by distilleries, tallow-
melting works, sugar factories, flour-mills and woollen-cloth
mills. Commerce is brisk, owing to the large grain export —
Kozlov, Morshansk, Tambov and Borisoglyebsk being the chief
centres for this traffic, and Lebedyan for the trade in horses and
cattle. This government is backward educationally. A distinc-
tive feature is its large villages of crown peasants.
The region now included in the north of the government was
settled by Russians during the earliest centuries of the princi-
pality of Moscow, but until the end of the I7th century the
fertile tracts in the south remained too insecure for settlers.
In the following century a few immigrants began to come in
from the steppe, and landowners who had received large grants
of land from the tsars began to bring their serfs from central
Russia. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
TAMBOV, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 300 m. by rail S.E. from Moscow, on the Tsna
river, and on the railway to Saratov. Pop. (1884) 34,000;
(1900) 49,208. The town is almost entirely built of wood,
with broad unpaved streets, lined with low houses surrounded
by gardens; but it is an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox
Greek Church. Woollens, tobacco, oil and various other com-
modities are manufactured. The trade in grain, and in cattle
purchased in the south and sent to Moscow, is far less important
than that of Morshansk and Kozlov.
TAMBURELLO (called in Piedmont Talasso), a court game
popular in Italy, particularly in the northern provinces. It is
a modification of the ancient game of Pallone (q.v.), bearing the
same general relation to it as Squash does to Racquets. A full-
sized Tamburello Court, which need not be as true and even as
that for Pallone, is 90 to 100 yards long and half as wide, divided
laterally through the middle by a line (cordino) into two equal
spaces, the batluta and the rimessa. Three players regularly
form a side, each carrying in one hand an implement called
tamburello, resembling a tambourine (whence the name), which
is a round frame of wood upon which is tightly stretched a cover
of horse-hide. A rubber ball about the size of a lawn-tennis
ball is used. One of the players opens the service (baltuta),
which is made from a small square called the trampoline, situated
at one corner of the battuta but outside the court. The service ,
must be over the middle line. The ball must then be hit from
side to side over the line, the side failing to return it or sending
it out of court losing a point. The game is scored like lawn-
tennis, four points constituting a game, counting 15+15+ 10+ 10.
Tamburello, a less expensive game than Pallone, is popular
with the lower classes, who use it as a medium for betting.
TAMILS. The word Tamil (properly Tamil) has been iden-
tified with Dravida, the Sanskrit generic appellation for the
south Indian peoples and their languages; and the various stages
through which the word has passed — Dramida, Dramila, Damila
—have been finally discussed by Bishop Caldwell in his Com-
parative Grammar of the Dramdian Languages (2d ed., 1875,
p. 10 seq.). The identification was first suggested by Dr Graul
(Reise nach Ostindien, vol. Hi., 1854, p. 349), and then adverted
to by Dr G. U. Pope (Tamil Handbook, 1859, Introduction)
and Dr Gundert (Malayfyma Dictionary, 1872, s.v.). Dr Pope,
TAMILS
3«9
however, believed Tamil to be a corruption of tenmoli, southern
speech, in contradistinction to vatfugu, the northern, i.e., Telugu
language. As in the case of the Kafir, Turkish, Tagala and
other typical languages, the term Tamulic or Tamulian has
occasionally been employed as the designation of the whole
class of Dravidian peoples and languages, of which it is only
the most prominent member. The present article deals with
Tamil in its restricted sense only. The Tamils proper are smaller
and of weaker build than Europeans, though graceful in shape.
Their physical appearance is described as follows: — a pointed
and frequently hooked pyramidal nose, with conspicuous nares,
more long than round; a marked sinking in of the orbital line,
producing a strongly defined orbital ridge; hair and eyes black;
the latter, varying from small to middle-sized, have a peculiar
sparkle and a look of calculation; mouth large, lips thick,
lower jaw not heavy; forehead well-formed, but receding,
inclining to flattish, and seldom high; beard considerable, and
often strong; colour of skin very dark, frequently approaching
to black (Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency,
Madras, 1885, vo^. i., Introd., p. 36; see also Caldwell, Com-
parative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, 1875, pp. 558-79).
The Tamils have many good qualities — frugality, patience,
endurance, politeness — and they are credited with astounding
memories; their worst vices are said to be lying and lascivious-
ness. Of all the South-Indian tribes they are the least sedentary
and the most enterprising. Wherever money is to be earned,
there will Tamils be found, either as merchants or in the lower
capacity of domestic servants and labourers. The tea and coffee
districts of Ceylon are peopled by about 950,000; Tamils serve
as coolies in the Mauritius and the West Indies; in Burma, the
Straits, and Siam the so-called Klings are all Tamils (Graul,
Reise nach Ostindien, Leipzig, 1855, vol. iv. pp. 113-212).
Language. — The area over which Tamil is spoken extends
from a few miles north of the city of Madras to the extreme
south of the eastern side of the peninsula, throughout the country
below the Eastern Ghats, from Pulicat to Cape Comorin, and
from the Ghats to the Bay of Bengal, including also the southern
portion of Travancore on the western side of the Ghats and the
northern part of Ceylon. According to the census of 1901, the
total number of Tamil-speaking people in all India was 16,525,500.
To these should be added about 160,000 in the French posses-
sions. But as of all the Dravidian languages the Tamil shows
the greatest tendency to spread, its area becomes ever larger,
encroaching on that of the contiguous languages. Tamil is a
sister of Malayalam, Telugu, Kanarese, Tulu; and, as it is the
oldest, richest, and most highly organized of the Dravidian
languages, it may be looked upon as typical of the family to
which it belongs. The one nearest akin to it is Malayalam,
which originally appears to have been simply a dialect of Tamil,
but differs from it now both in pronunciation and in idiom, in
the retention of old Tamil forms obsolete in the modern language,
and in having discarded all personal terminations in the verb,
the person being always indicated by the pronoun (F. W. Ellis,
Dissertation on the Malaydlam Language, p. 2; Gundert, Malay-
d(ma Dictionary, Introd.; Caldwell, Comparative Gr., Introd.,
p. 23; Burnell, Specimens of South Indian Dialects, No. 2, p. 13).
Also, the proportion of Sanskrit words in Malayalam is greater,
while in Tamil it is less, than in any other Dravidian tongue.
This divergence between the two languages cannot be traced
farther back than about the loth century; for, as it appears
from the Cochin and Travancore inscriptions, previous to that
period both languages were still substantially identical; whereas
in the Rdmacharitam, the oldest poem in Malayalam, composed
probably in the I3th century, at any rate long before the arrival
of the Portuguese and the introduction of the modern character,
we see that language already formed. The modern Tamil
characters originated " in a Brahmanical adaptation of the old
Grantha letters corresponding to the so-called Vatteluttu," or
round-hand, an alphabet once in vogue throughout the whole
of the Pandyan kingdom, as well as in the South Malabar and
Coimbatore districts, and still sparsely used for drawing up con-
veyances and other legal instruments (F. W. Ellis, Dissertation,
p. 3). It is also used by the Moplahs in Tellicherry. The
origin of the Vatteluttu itself is still a controverted question.
Dr Burnell, the greatest authority on the subject, stated his
reasons for tracing that character through the Pahlavi to a
Semitic source (Elements cf South Indian Palaeography, 2nd ed.,
1878, pp. 47-52, and plates xvii. and xxxii.). In the 8th century
the Vatteluttu existed side by side and together with the Grantha,
an ancient alphabet still used throughout the Tamil country
in writing Sanskrit. During the four or five centuries after the
conquest of Madura by the Cholas in the nth it was gradually
superseded in the Tamil country by the modern Tamil, while in
Malabar it continued in general use down to the end of the I7th
century. But the earliest works of Tamil literature, such as
the Tolkdppiyam and the Kufal, were still written in it. The
modern Tamil characters, which have but little changed for the
last 500 years, differ from all the other modern Dravidian
alphabets both in shape and in their phonetic value. Their
angular form is said to be due to the widespread practice of
writing with the style resting on the end of the left thumb-nail,
while the other alphabets are written with the style resting on
the left side of the thumb.
The Tamil alphabet is sufficiently well adapted for the expression
of the twelve vowels of the language (a, d, i, i, u, u, e, t, o, o, ei, au),
— the occasional sounds of o and u, both short and long, being
covered by the signs for e, e, i, {; but it is utterly inadequate
for the proper expression of the consonants, inasmuch as the one
character k has to do duty also for kh, g, gh, and similarly each
of the other surd consonants ch, (, t, p represents also the remaining
three letters of its respective class. The letter k has, besides,
occasionally the sound of h, and ch that of s. Each of the five
consonants k, ch, (, t, p has its own nasal. In addition to the
four semivowels, the Tamil possesses a cerebral r. and I, and has,
in common with the Malayilam, retained a liquid t, once peculiar
to all the Dravidian languages, the sound of which is so difficult
to fix graphically, and varies so much in different districts,
that it has been rendered in a dozen different ways (Manual
of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, vol. ii. pp. 20 seq.).
Fr. Miiller is probably correct in approximating it to that of the
Bohemian f. There is, lastly, a peculiar n, differing in function
but not in pronunciation from the dental n. The three sibilants
and b of Sanskrit have no place in the Tamil alphabet; but ch
often does duty as a sibilant in writing foreign words, and the
four corresponding letters as well as j and ksh of the Grantha
alphabet a^e now frequently called to aid. It is obvious that
many of the Sanskrit words imported into Tamil at various periods
(Caldwell, loc. cit., Introd., pp. 86 seq.) have, in consequence of the
incongruity of the Sanskrit and Tamil notation of their respective
phonetic systems, assumed disguises under which the original is
scarcely recognizable: examples are ulagu (loka), uruvam (rflpa),
arukken (arka), arpulam (adbhutam), na(chaitiram (nakshatram),
irudi (rishi), lirkam (dirgha), arasen (rijan). Besides the Sanskrit
ingredients, which appear but sparsely in the old poetry, Tamil
has borrowed from Hindustani, Arabic, and Persian a large number
of revenue, political, and judicial terms, and more recently a good
many English words have crept in, such as tira'ti, treaty, patlar,
butler, dk(, act, kulob, club, kavarnar, governor, pinnalkodu, penal
code, sikku, sick, mejastiraftu, magistrate. But, as compared with
its literary sister languages, it has preserved its Dravidian character
singularly free from foreign influence. Of Tamil words which have
found a permanent home in English may be mentioned curry,
(kar.i). mulligatawny (milagu, pepper, and tanntr, cool water),
cheroot (suruttu), pariah (par.eiyan).
The laws of euphony (avoiding of hiatus, softening of initial
consonants, contact of final with initial consonants) are far more
complicated in Tamil than in Sanskrit. But, white they were
rigidly adhered to in the old poetical language (Sen-Tamil, or
" Perfect " Tamil), there is a growing tendency to neglect them
in the language of the present day (Kodun-Tamil). It is true the
Tamil rules totally differ from the prevailing Sanskrit; still the
probability is in favour of a Sanskrit influence, inasmuch as they
appear to follow Sanskrit models. Thus, iru( ntkkindn becomes
irunikkindn; pan pdttiram, porpdttiram; vii((il kanden, vu((ir.
kand&n; vdlsi*umei, vdfsirumei; palan tanddn, palanr.&ndan.
Nouns are divided into high-caste or personal and low-caste or
impersonal,— the former comprising words for rational beings, the
latter all the rest. Only in high-caste nouns a distinction between
masculine and feminine is observed in the singular; both have a
common plural, which is indicated by change of a final n (feminine
f) into r; but the neuter plural termination kaf (gaf) may be super-
added in every case. Certain nouns change their base termination
before receiving the case affixes, the latter being the same both for
singular and plural. They are for the ace. ei, instr. &l, social 64u
(o4u, udan), dat. ku, loc. il (idattil, in), abl. ilirundu (ininru), gen.
udeiya (adu). There is, besides, a general oblique affix in, which
39°
TAMILS
is not only frequently used for the genitive, but may be inserted
before any of the above affixes, to some of which the emphatic
particle & may also be superadded. In the old poetry there is a
still greater variety of affixes, while there is an option of dispensing
with all. Adjectives, when attributive, precede the noun and are
unchangeable; when predicative they follow it and receive verbal
affixes. The pronouns of the 1st person are sing, nan (ydn), in-
flexional base en, plural nam (yam), infl. nam, including, ndngaf,
infl. cnga\, excluding the person addressed; of the 2nd person ni,
infl. un (nin, nun), plural nir (ntyir, nivir), ntngal, infl. um, unga]
(num). To each of those forms, inclusive also of the reflexive pro-
nouns tdn, tdm, t&ngal, a place is assigned in the scale of honorific
pronouns. As in the demonstrative pronouns the forms beginning
with i indicate nearness, those with a distance, and (in the old
poetry) those with u what is between the two, so the same forms
beginning with e (or yd, as in ydr, dr, who?) express the interro-
gative. The verb consists of three elements — the. root (generally
reducible to one syllable), the tense characteristic, and the personal
affix. There are three original moods, the indicative, imperative,
and infinitive (the 2nd singular imperative is generally identical
with the root), as well as three original tenses, the present, past, and
future. The personal affixes are — sing, (i) -en; (2) -dy, honorific
-ir; (3) masc. -An, fern. -d(, honor, -dr, neuter -adu; plural (i)
-5m (-dm, -em); (2) -irkal; (3) masc. fern, -drkaf, neut. -ana. These
affixes serve for all verbs and for each of the three tenses, except
that, in the future, -adu and -ana are replaced by -um (kkum). It
is only in the formation of the tenses that verbs differ, intransitive
verbs generally indicating the present by -kir_- (-kinr-), the past by
-d-, -nd-, or -in-, and the future by -v- (-&-), and transitive verbs
by the corresponding infixes, -kkir- (-kkinr-), -tt- (-nd-), and -pp-;
but there are numerous exceptions and seemingly anomalous forma-
tions. Other tenses and moods are expressed with the aid of special
affixes or auxiliary verbs. Causal verbs are formed by various
infixes (-ppi-, -vi-, -Uu-), and the passive by the auxiliary padii,
to fall, or by un, to eat, with a noun. The following four peculi-
arities are characteristic of Tamil: — first, the tenseless negative
form of the verb, expressed by the infix a, which is elided before
dissimilar vowels; second, the predicative employment of two
negative particles illei and alia, the one denying the existence or
presence, the other denying the quality or essence; third, the
use of two sets of participles, — one, called adjective or relative
participle, which supplies the place of a relative clause, the language
possessing no relative pronouns, and an ordinary adverbial participle
or gerund; and, fourth, the practice of giving adjectives a verbal
form by means of personal affixes, which form may again be treated
as a noun by attaching to it the declensional terminations, thus:
periya, great; periyom, we are great; periydmukku, to us who are
great. The old poetry abounds in verbal forms now obsolete.
Adjectives, adverbs and abstract nouns are derived from verbs by
certain affixes. All post-positions were originally either nouns or
verbal forms. Oratio indirecta is unknown in Tamil, as it is in all
the other Indian languages, the gerund enru being used, like ill
in Sanskrit, to indicate quotation. The structure of sentences is
an exact counterpart of the structure of words, inasmuch as that
which qualifies always precedes that which is qualified. Thus the
attributive precedes the substantive, the substantive precedes the
preposition, the adverb precedes the verb, the secondary clause the
primary one, and the verb closes the sentence. The sentence,
" Having called the woman who had killed the child, he asked why
she had committed such infanticide," runs in Tamil as follows: —
Kujandeiyei kkoarupottavajei al.eippittu
The child her who had killed having 'caused to be called,
ppatta sisu-v-atti seyday enru kcttan.
made child-murder didst?" having said be asked.
Much as the similarity of the structure of the Tamil and its
sister languages to that of the Ugro-Tartar class may have proved
suggestive of the assumption of a family affinity between the two
classes, such an affinity, if it exist, must be held to be at least very
distant, inasmuch as the assumption receives but the faintest
shade of support from an intercomparison of the radical and least
variable portion of the respective languages.
Literature. — The early existence, in southern India, of peoples,
localities, animals and products the names of which, as men-
tioned in the Old Testament and in Greek and Roman writers,
have been identified with corresponding Dravidian terms, goes
far to prove the high antiquity, if not of the Tamil language,
at least of some form of Dravidian speech (Caldwell, loc. cit.,
Introd., pp. 81-106; Madras District Manual, i., Introd., pp.
134 seq.). But practically the earliest extant records of the
Tamil language do not ascend higher than the middle of the
8th century of the Christian era, the grant in possession of the
Israelites at Cochin being assigned by the late Dr Burnell to
about 750 A.D., a period when Malayilam did not exist yet as
a separate language. There is every probability that about the
same time a number of Tamil works sprung up, which are
mentioned by a writer in the nth century as representing the
nt tn ippadi
"Thou why thus
old literature (Burnell, loc. cit., p. 127, note). The earlier- of -
these may have been Saiva books; the more prominent of the
others were decidedly Jain. Though traces of a north Indian
influence are palpable in all of them that have come down to
us (see, e.g., F. W. Ellis's notes to the Kuraf), we can at the same .
time perceive, as we must certainly appreciate, the desire of
the authors to oppose the influence of Brahmanical writings,
and create a literature that should rival Sanskrit books and
appeal to the sentiments of the people at large. But the refine-
ment of the poetical language, as adapted to the genius of Tamil,
has been carried to greater excess than in Sanskrit; and this
artificial character of the so-called Sen-Tamil is evident from a
comparison with the old inscriptions, which are a reflex of the
language of the people, and clearly show that Tamil has not
undergone any essential change (Burnell, loc, cit., p. 142).
The rules of Sen-Tamil appear to have been fixed at a very early
date. The Tolkdppiyam, the oldest extant Tamil grammar, is
assigned by Dr Burnell (On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Gram-
marians, pp. 8, 55) to the 8th century (best edition by C. Y. Tamo-
daram Pillei, Madras, 1885). The Viras6(iyam, another grammar,
is of the nth century. Both have been superseded by the Nannul,
of the 1 5th century, which has exercised the skill of numerous
commentators, and continues to be the leading native authority
(English editions in Pope's Third Tamil Grammar, and an abridg-
ment by Lazarus, 1884). The period of the prevalence of the
Jains in the Pandya kingdom, from the gth or loth to the I3th
century, is justly termed the Augustan age of Tamil literature.
To its earlier days is assigned the Ndladiydr, an ethical poem on
the three objects of existence, which is supposed to have preceded
the Rural of TiruvaJluvan, the finest poetical production in the
whole range of Tamil composition. Tradition, in keeping with
the spirit of antagonism to Brahmanical influence, says that its
author was a pariah. It consists of 1330 stanzas on virtue, wealth
and pleasure. It has often been edited, translated and commented
upon; see the introduction to the excellent edition published by
the Rev. Dr Pope, in which also a comprehensive account of the
peculiarities of Sen-Tamil will be found. To the Awei, or Matron,
a reputed sister of TiruvaUuvan, but probably of a later date,
two shorter moral poems, called Attisudi and Konreiveyndan, are
ascribed, which are still read in all Tamil schools. Chintamani, an
epic of upwards of 3000 stanzas, which celebrates the exploits of a
king Jivakan, also belongs to that early Jain period, and so does
the Divdkaram, the oldest dictionary of classical Tamil. The
former is one of the finest poems in the language; but no more
than the first and part of the third of its thirteen books have been
edited and translated. Kamban's Rdmdyanam (about noo A.D.)
is the only other Tamil epic which comes up to the Chintamani in
poetical beauty. The most brilliant of the poetical productions
which appeared in the period of the Saiva revival (l3th and I4th
centuries) are two collections of hymns addressed to Siva, the one
called Tiruvdsakam, by Manikka-Vasakan, and a later and larger
one called Tivdram, by Sambandhan and two other devotees,
Sundaran and Appan. Both these collections have been printed,
the former in one, the latter in five volumes. They are rivalled
both in religious fervour and in poetical merit by a contemporaneous
collection of Vaishnava hymns, the Nalayira-prabandham (also
printed at Madras). The third section of it, called Tiruvaymoli,
or " Words of the Sacred Mouth," has been published in Telugu
characters, with ample commentaries, in ten quartos (Madras,
1 875-76). After a period of literary torpor, which lasted nearly
two centuries, King Vallabha Deva, better known by his assumed
name Ativirarama Pandyan (second half of the i6th century),
endeavoured to revive the love of poetry by compositions of his
own, the most celebrated of which are the Neidadam, a somewhat
extravagant imitation of Sri Harsha's Sanskrit Naishadham, and
the Verriverkei, a collection of sententious maxims. Though he had
numerous followers, who made this revival the most prolific in the
whole history of Tamil literature, none of the compositions of
any kind, mainly translations and bombastic imitations of Sanskrit
models, have attained to any fame. An exceptional place, however,
is occupied by certain Tamil sectarians called sittar (i.e. siddhas or
sages), whose mystical poems, especially those contained in the
Sivayakyam, are said to be of singular beauty. Two poems of high .
merit, composed at the end of the 1 7th century, also deserve favourable
notice — the NUinerivilakkam, an ethical treatise by Kum&ragurupara
Desikan, and the Prabhulingalilei, a translation from the Kanarese
of a famous text-book of the Vira-Saiva sect. See the analysis in
W. Taylor's Catalogue, vol. ii. pp. 837-47.
The modern period, which may be said to date from the beginning
of the last century, is ushered in by two great poets, one native and
the other foreign. Tayumanavan, a philosopher of the pantheistic
school, composed 1453 stanzas (pddal) which have a high reputation
for sublimity both of sentiment and style: and the Italian Jesuit
Joseph Beschi (d. 1742), under the name Viramamuni, elaborated,
on the model of the Chintamani, a religious epic Tembavani, which.
TAMLUK— TAMMANY HALL
though marred by blemishes of taste, is classed by native critics
among the best productions of their literature. It treats of the
history of St Joseph, and has been printed at Pondicherry in
three volumes, with a full analysis. English influence has here,
as in Bengal and elsewhere in India, greatly tended to create
a healthier tone in literature both as to style and sentiment. As
one of the best Tamil translations of English books in respect of
diction and idiom may be mentioned the Bdlavydpdrikal, or " Little
Merchants," published by the Vernacular Text Society, Madras.
P. Percival's collection of Tamil Proverbs (3rd ed., 1875) should
also be mentioned. The copper-plate grants, commonly called
sasanams, and stone inscriptions in Tamil, many of which have
been copied and translated (Archaeological Survey of Southern India,
vol. iv. ; R. Sewell, Lists of the Antiquarian Remains in the Presidency
of Madras, vols. i., ii.), are the only authentic historical records.
(See also Sir Walter Elliot's contribution to the International Numis-
mata Orientalia, vol. iii. pt. 2.) As early as the time of the Chinese
traveller Hstian Tsang, books were written in southern India on
talipot leaves, and Albiruni mentions this custom as quite prevalent
in his time (1031). It has not died out even at the present day,
though paper imported from Portugal has, during the last three
centuries, occasionally been used. Madras is now the largest
depository of Tamil palm-leaf MSS., which have been described in
Wilson's Catalogue of the Mackenzie Collection (Calcutta, 1828, 2 vols.),
W. Taylor's Catalogue (Madras, 1857, 3 vols.), and Condaswamy
Iyer's Catalogue (vol. i., Madras, 1861). The art of printing, however,
which was introduced in southern India at an early date, while it
has tended to the preservation of many valuable productions of the
ancient literature, has also been the means of perpetuating and
circulating a deal of literary rubbish and lasciviousness which would
much better have remained in the obscurity of manuscript. Dr
Burnell has a note in his Elements of South Indian Paleography
(2nd ed., p. 44), from which it appears that in 1578 Tamil types were
cut by Father Joao de Faria, and that a hundred years later a
Tamil and Portuguese dictionary was published at Ambalakkadu.
At present the number of Tamil books (inclusive of newspapers)
printed annually far exceeds that of all the other Dravidian verna-
culars put together. The earliest Tamil version of the New Testa-
ment was commenced by the Dutch in Ceylon in 1688; Fabricius's
translation appeared at Tranquebar in 1715. Since then many new
translations of the whole Bible have been printed, and some of
them have passed through several editions. The German missionary
B. Ziegenbalg was the first to make the study of Tamil possible in
Europe by the publication of his Grammatica Damuhca, which
appeared at Halle in 1716. Some time later the Jesuit father
Beschi devoted much time and labour to the composition of
grammars both of the vulgar and the poetical dialect. The former
is treated in his Grammatica Latino-Tamulica, which was written
in 1728, but was not printed till eleven years later (Tranquebar,
I739)- It was twice reprinted, and two English translations have
been published (1831, 1848). His Sen-Tamil Grammar, accessible
since 1822 in an English translation by Dr Babington, was printed
from his own MS. (Clams humaniorum literarum sublimioris Tamulici
idiomatis) at Tranquebar in 1876. This work is especially valuable,
as the greater portion of it consists of a learned and exhaustive
treatise on Tamil prosody and rhetoric. (See, on his other works,
Graul's Reise, vol. iv. p. 327.) There are also grammars by Anderson,
Rhenius, Graul (in vol. ii. of his Bibliotheca Tamulica, Leipzig, 1855),
Lazarus (Madras, 1878), Pope (4th edition in three parts, London,
1883-85), and Grammaire Franc,aise-Tamoule, by the Abbe Dupuis
(Pondicherry, 1863). The last two are by far the best. The India
Office library possesses a MS. dictionary and grammar " par le
Rev. Pere Dominique " (Pondicherrv, 1843), and a copy of a MS.
Tamil-Latin dictionary by the celebrated missionary Schwarz, in
which 9000 words are explained. About the like number of words
are given in the dictionary of Fabricius and Breithaupt (Madras,
1779 and 1809). Rottler's dictionary, the publication of which
was commenced in 1834, is a far more ambitious work. But neither
it nor Winslpw's (1862) come up to the standard of Tamil scholar-
ship; the Dictionnaire Tamoul-Franc,ais, which appeared at Pondi-
cherry in 2 vols. (1855-62), is superior to both, just as the Diction-
arium Latino-Gallico-Tamulicum (ibid., 1846) excels the various
English-Tamil dictionaries which have been published at Madras.
See A. T. Mondiere and J. Vinson in Dictionnaire des Sciences
Anthropologiques, s.v. " Dravidiens " ; S. C. Chitty, The Tamil
Plutarch, Jaffna, 1859; J. Murdoch, Classified Catalogue of Tamil
Printed Books, Madras, 1865; C. E. Cover, Folk-Songs of Southern
India, Madras, 1871; Bishop Caldwell's Comparative Grammar of
the Dravidian Languages, 2nd ed., London, 1875; Graul's Reise nach
Ostindien, vols. iv. and v. ; the quarterly Lists of Books registered
in the Madras Presidency; [Dr. Maclean's] Manual of the Adminis-
tration of the Madras Presidency, vols. i. and ii., Madras, 1885, folio;
F. Muller, Grundriss der Sprachivissenschaft, Vienna, 1884, iii. i.
162-246; G. U. Pope, First Lessons in Tamil, 7th ed., Oxford, 1904,
and The Naladiyar, Oxford, 1893; and J. Vinson, Manuel de la
Langue Tamoule, Paris, 1903. (R. R.)
TAMLUK, an ancient town of British India, in the Midnapore
district of Bengal, on the river Rupnarayan. Pop. (1901)
8805. Under the name of Tamralipta was the capital of the
Peacock dynasty, and a seaport at which the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims embarked. It is now 60 m. from the sea, and the ruins
of the old city lie deep beneath river silt. It contains the palace
of a local raja, and some temples of peculiar construction.
TAMMANY HALL, a political organization in New York
City, U.S.A., claiming to be the regular representative of the
Democratic party in that city. It takes its name from a sachem
or chief of the Delaware Indians, Tamanend or Tammany, the
name itself meaning " the Affable." Before the War of Inde-
pendence there were Whig societies called " Sons of St Tam-
many " and " Sons of Liberty," with rituals in which Indian
words were used to suggest the American character of the
lodges. On the izth of May 1789 William Mooney (d. 1832),
an upholsterer, of Irish birth, who had probably been a member
of an earlier Tammany society, founded in New York City
the " Society of St Tammany" or " Columbian Order" as a
patriotic, benevolent and non-political organization, with the
intent to counteract the influence of what was believed to be
the aristocratic Order of the Cincinnati. A few short-lived
societies of a similar kind were founded in other states. In
1805 the New York Society was incorporated as a benevolent
society, in 1811 it built its first wigwam, or hall, in Frankfort
Street near the City Hah1, and in 1867 it moved to its present
hall in Fourteenth Street. The society was a secret organiza-
tion, divided into tribes, with sachems (the most important
being the Grand Sachem) as the chief officials, a sagamore, or
master of ceremonies, and a winskinskie, or door-keeper, and
with a ritual of supposedly Indian character. This " Tammany
Society" is not itself the well-known political organization,
but rents its hall to the Tammany Hall General Committee, the
" Tammany Hall " of political notoriety; the leading members,
however, of the "Society" and of the "Hall" are identical,
and the " Society " controls the meeting-place of the " Hall,"
so that the difference between the two is little more than nominal.
Almost from the beginning Tammany has been actively engaged
in politics, being part of, and during the greater period of its
existence actually representing in New York City, the Demo-
cratic party, though always subordinating the interests of the
party as a whole to its own selfish interests. It has had local
rivals at different times, but these, though successful for a
while, have not lived long; on the other hand, the Hall has
not generally been regarded with favour by the Democratic
party throughout the country at large.
Soon after its founding, Tammany came under the influence of
Aaron Burr. In 1800 it worked for the election of Jefferson as
President. It bitterly opposed De Witt Clinton for many years
and was hostile to his large Irish constituency; but, after it
secured in 1822 the constitutional amendments providing for
manhood suffrage and for the abolition of imprisonment of
debtors, and especially after 1827 when Tammany first tried
to reduce the five-year period of residence necessary for naturali-
zation, the foreign-born element gradually came into control
of the "Society" and of the " Hall." About 1842 Irish
" gangs," which used physical violence at election time, became
a source of Tammany strength. It reached its height of power
about 1870, under the leadership of William Marcy Tweed
(1823-78), who used his popularity as a volunteer fireman
to advance himself in Tammany and who was the first " boss "
of the organization, which had formerly been controlled by
committees. In the mayoralty and the other administrative
offices and in the common council of the city, in the chief
executive office of the state, in the state legislature, and even
in some of the judges' seats, Tweed had placed (or had secured
the election of) accomplices or tools, or else controlled votes by
purchase. In April 1870 Tweed secured the passage of a city
charter which put the control of the city into the hands of the
mayor, the comptroller, and the commissioners of parks and
public works. A system of official plunder then began that
has had few parrallels in modern times. How much was actually
stolen can never be known; but the bonded debt of the city,
which was $36,000,000 at the beginning of 1869, was $97,000,000
in September 1871, an increase of $61,000,000 in two years and
392
TAMMERFORS— TAMPA
eight months; and within the same period a floating debt of
$20,000,000 was incurred, making a total of $81,060,000. For
this vast sum the city had little to show. The method of
plunder was the presentation of excessive bills for work done,
especially in connexion with the new court-house then being
erected. The bills were ostensibly paid in full, but in reality
only in part, the rest being retained by Tweed, and divided
amongst his followers in proportion to their importance. The
total cost of the court-house to the city was about $13,000,000
— many times the actual cost of construction. The amount
paid ia these two years for the city printing and stationery was
nearly $3,000,000. The end came through a petty quarrel over
the division of the spoils. One of the plunderers, dissatisfied
with the office he had received, gave to the New York Times
a copy of certain swollen accounts which showed conclusively
the stealing that had been going on. When Tweed was inter-
viewed about the frauds his only reply was, " What are you
going to do about it?" The better classes, however, were now
thoroughly aroused, and with Samuel J. Tilden, afterwards
governor of the state, at their head, and with the assistance of
the Times and of Harper's Weekly, in the latter of which the
powerful cartoons of Thomas Nast appeared, completely over-
threw the ring and rescued the city. Tweed was tried and con-
victed, but was afterwards released on a technicality of law;
he was re-arrested, but managed to escape and fled to Spain;
he was identified and was brought back to gaol, where he died.
The rest of the gang fared little better. Within a few years and
under a new leader, John Kelly, Tammany was again in control
of the city. Kelly was succeeded by Richard Croker, whose
reign as " boss " continued until 1901. Since 1881 Tammany
has been in virtual control of the city government about one-
half the time, a Tammany and a reform mayor often alternating.
There were elaborate investigations of Tammany's control of
the city by committees of the legislature in 1890, 1894, and
1899. The most conspicuous overthrows of Tammany since
the days of Tweed were in 1894, in 1901, when practically the
whole reform ticket from mayor to alderman was elected, and
in 1909, when the mayor (not a member of Tammany) was the
only Tammany nominee on the general ticket elected. The
grosser forms of corruption that prevailed under Tweed did not
as a rule prevail in later years. Instead, the money raised by
and for the Hall and its leaders has come from the blackmailing
of corporations, which find it easier to buy peace than to fight
for their rights; from corporations which desire concessions
from the city, or which do not wish to be interfered with in
encroachments on public rights; from liquor-dealers, whose
licences are more or less at the mercy of an unscrupulous party
in power; from other dealers, especially in the poorer parts
of the city, whose business can be hampered by the police;
from office-holders and candidates for office; and, lastly, in-
directly through corrupt police officials, from the criminal classes
and gambling establishments in return for non-intervention on
the part of the police. The power of Tammany Hall is the
natural result of the well-regulated machine which it has built
up throughout the city, directed by an omnipotent " boss."
Each of the " assembly districts " into which the city is divided
sends a certain number of representatives to the General Com-
mittee of Tammany Hall. Each district also has a " boss "
or leader and a committee, and these leaders form the Executive
Committee of the Hall. There is also a " captain " for each of
the voting precincts, over 1000 in number, into which the city
is divided. The patronage of the city filters down from the
real " boss " of the Hall to the local precinct leader, the latter
often having one or more small municipal offices at his disposal;
he also handles the election money spent in his precinct. The
party headquarters in the different assembly districts are largely
in the nature of social clubs, and it is in considerable degree
through social means that the control of the Hall over the poorer
classes is maintained. The headquarters are generally over or
near a saloon, and the saloon-keepers throughout Manhattan
belong as a rule to the Hall — in fact, are its most effective allies
or members. It should be remembered too that the Hall is
not subject to divided counsels, but is ruled by one man, a
" boss " who has risen to his position by sheer force of ability,
and in whose hands rest the finances of the Hall, for which he
is accountable to no one. When the " Greater New York "
was incorporated the power of Tammany seemed likely to grow
less because it was confined to the old city (Boroughs of
Manhattan and the Bronx), and the Democratic organiza-
tions in the other boroughs were hostile to it. The power
of the organization in the state and in the nation is due to
its frequent combination with the Republican organization,
which controls the state almost as completely as Tammany
does the city.
See Gustavus Myers, The History of Tammany Hall (New York,
1901). (F. H. H.)
TAMMERFORS (Finnish Tampere], the chief industrial city
of Finland, capital of the province of Tavastehus, on the rapids
connecting Lakes Nasi-jarvi and Pyha-jarvi, 125 m. by rail
N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1904) 40,261. Tammerfors is an
important centre for the manufacture of cotton, linen, and
woollen goods, leather and paper. The town owes its existence
as a manufacturing centre to the tsar Alexander I.
TAMPA, a city and the county seat of Hillsboro county,
Florida, U.S.A., in the western part of the state, at the head of
Hillsborough Bay (the E. branch of Tampa Bay), at the mouth
of the Hillsborough river. Pop. (1880) 720; (1890) 5532;
(1900) 15,839, of whom 5085 were foreign-born and 4382 were
negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 37,782. It is served by the Tampa
Northern, the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line
railways, and by lines of steamers to the West Indies and to
the Gulf and Atlantic ports of the United States. The larger
vessels enter at Port Tampa (pop. in 1905, 1049), 9 m. from the
city, on the W. side of the peninsula separating Hillsborough Bay
from Old Tampa Bay, the W. branch of Tampa Bay. In order
to reach water sufficiently deep for the steamers, the railway
tracks have been carried by earth filling about seven-eighths of
a mile into the bay.- The United States government has greatly
improved the harbour, and in 1899 adopted a project (modified
in 1905) for constructing a channel 26 ft. deep and 300 ft. wide
(500 ft. across the bar) from Port Tampa to the Gulf of Mexico;
in July 1909 80 per cent, of this work had been completed. In
1905-1908 the channel of Hillsborough Bay was made 20 ft.
deep at mean low water and 150 ft. wide from the lower bay
to the mouth of Hillsborough river, with a turning basin at the
inner end 450 ft. wide and 1050 ft. long. Tampa Bay has
permanent sea-coast defences. Tampa is the principal gateway
for trade and travel between the United States and the West
Indies. Owing to its delightful climate and its attractive situa-
tion it has become a favourite health resort. Many visitors
are attracted by the fishing (especially for tarpon) and
shooting in the vicinity, water-fowl being plentiful in the Bay,
and deer, quail and wild turkeys being found in the vicinity
inland. There are large prehistoric shell-mounds at Indian
Hill, about 20 m. S.E. Tampa is an important shipping point
for naval stores and phosphate rock, for vegetables, citrus fruit
and pineapples, raised in the vicinity, and for lumber, cattle
and fuller's earth. The Florida Citrus Exchange has its head-
quarters here. After the Spanish- American War (1898) a large
trade with the West Indies developed. Cattle and pine lumber
are sent to Cuba, and Havana tobacco and fine grades of Cuban
timber are imported. There is a large trade with Honduras
also. The imports increased from $755,316 in 1897 and $490,093
in 1898 (an extremely unfavourable year owing to the Spanish-
American War) to $4,179,464 in 1909; the exports from
$820,792 in 1897 and $521,792 in 1898 to $1,344,786 in 1899
and $4,492,498 in 1909; a part of the custom-house clearings
of Key West are actually shipped from Tampa. In
1905 the value of the factory product was $11,264,123, an
increase of 59 per cent, since 1900. The principal product is
cigars; most of the tobacco used is imported from Cuba, and
the manufacturing is done chiefly by Cubans who live in a
district known as Ybor City. It is said that more clear Havana
cigars are manufactured in Tampa than in Havana. Other
TAMPICO— TANAGER
393
manufactures are boilers, foundry products, lumber and fer-
tilizers; and there are two shipyards.
Tampa Bay was the landing-place of the expeditions of the
Spanish explorers, Pamfilo de Narvaez and Hernando de Soto.
(See FLORIDA.) In January 1824 the United States govern-
ment established here a fort, Fort Brooke, which was an im-
portant base of supplies during the second Seminole War, and
around it a settlement gradually developed. The fort was
abandoned in 1860, and its site is now a public park. During
the early part of the Civil War a small Confederate force was in
possession, but in November 1862 it was driven out by United
States gunboats. Tampa grew rapidly after the completion of
the first railway thither in 1884, and in 1886 it was chartered
as a city and became a port of entry. During the Spanish-
American War United States troops were encamped in
De Soto Park in Tampa, and Port Tampa was the point of
embarkation for the United States army that invaded Cuba.
TAMPICO, a city and port of Mexico, in the state of Tamauli-
pas, on the N. bank of the Panuco river, about 6 m. from the
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1906) 17,569, including the neighbouring
settlements connected with the port works. The climate is hot,
humid and unhealthy, and the city has suffered frequently from
epidemics of yellow fever. A modern sewer system and water-
works, constructed in 1903-1906, have improved its sanitary
condition and will in time reduce its heavy death-rate^about
78 per 1000 in 1903, when an epidemic of yellow fever caused
327 deaths, and the births numbered 512 against 1335 deaths.
The eastern and poorer part of the town stands on low ground
only 2 or 3 ft. above the river, and is subject to inundations.
The western part rises about 150 ft., consists largely of private
residences, and is provided with water and good drainage. The
business section is well built, largely of stone and brick, and its
streets are well paved and provided with gas and electric light.
The neighbourhood is swampy and malarial. Tampico has two
important railway connexions: the Monterrey and Gulf line
running N.N.W. to Ciudad, Victoria and Monterrey, and a
branch of the Mexican Central running westward to San Luis
Potosi. There is also a line of river boats on the Panuco running
up to the mouth of the Tamazunchale about 135 m., and another
running to Tamiahua on the lagoon of that name by way of
the Tuxpam canal, about 77 m. Industries include an electric
light and power plant, factories for making ice, clothing, and
fruit conserves, saw-mill, oil refinery, and a shipyard for small
river boats. The modern port works, which have made Tampico
accessible to a larger class of steamers, include two stone jetties
at the mouth of the Panuco, which have increased the depth of
water on the bar to 23 ft. at low water and 26 ft. at high water;
seven wharves on the N. bank of the river to accommodate
fourteen steamers at a time; steel sheds with railway tracks,
and railway connexions at the wharves. The depth of water at
the wharves varies from 18 to 25 ft. The exports include silver
bullion (from San Luis' Potosi, Aguascalientes, Torreon and
Monterrey), ixtle fibre, sugar, hides, live cattle, cotton-seed
cake, deer skins, honey, fustic, sarsaparilla, coffee, rubber,
broom-root, copper ores and asphalt.
TAMWORTH, a municipality of Inglis county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the Peel and Cockburn rivers, 285 m. by
rail N. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5799. It is an attractive town
in a pleasant situation, with fine broad streets lined with shady
trees, and was the first town in Australia to be lighted by
electricity. Tamworth is the centre of several goldfields, at
one of which, Bingera, diamonds are found. It is also the
market of a pastoral and agricultural district. Brewing, malting,
steam, saw and flour milling, coach building and the manufac-
ture of boots and galvanized iron are its principal industries.
TAMWORTH, a market town and municipal borough of
England, in the Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire
and the Tamworth division of Warwickshire, on the river Tame,
a southern tributary of the Trent. Pop. (1901) 7271. It is
no m. N.E. from London by the London and North-Western
railway, and is also served by the west and north line of
the Midland railway (Bristol-Birmingham-Derby). The castle,
situated on a height above the Anker near its junction with
the Tame, is chiefly of the Jacobean period, but is enclosed by
massive ancient walls. Here was a residence of the Mercian
kings, and, after being bestowed on the Marmions by William
the Conqueror, the castle remained for many years an important
fortress. Formerly the town was surrounded by a ditch called
the King's Dyke, of which some trace remains. The church of
St Editha, originally founded in the 8th century, was rebuilt,
after being burned by the Danes, by Edgar, who made it col-
legiate, but the existing Decorated building, was erected after
a fire in 1345. The free grammar school, refounded by
Edward IV., was rebuilt in 1677, and again in 1867. The
charities include Guy's almshouses, endowed in 1678 by
Thomas Guy, founder of Guy's Hospital, London. On the
commons or moors burgesses have rights of pasture. Coal,
fireclay and blue and red brick clay are dug in the neighbour-
hood; and there are also market gardens. In the town are a
clothing factory, paper-mills, and manufactures of small wares.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area, 285 acres.
Tamworth (Tamwurda, Thamworth, Tomwortti) is situated
near the Roman Watling Street. It was burned by the Danes
and restored in 913 by Aethelflead, lady of the Mercians,
who built the fort which was the origin of the later castle.
The town was again destroyed by the Danes in 943. There
is no description of Tamworth in Domesday, but its burgesses
are incidentally mentioned several times. In Anglo-Saxon and
Norman times it possessed a mint, and it is called a borough
in the Pipe Rolls of Henry II., but it was not then in a flourishing
condition. Tamworth was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1560
by letters patent, which state that it is an " ancient mercate
town," and suggest that the charters have been lost or burned.
The governing charter in 1835 was that of Charles II., incorpo-
rating it under the title of the bailiffs and commonalty of the
borough of Tamworth in the counties of Stafford and Warwick.
Edward III. granted two fairs, still kept up in 1792, to be held
respectively on St George's day and the day of the Translation
of St Edward; another ancient fair, in honour of St Swithin,
or perhaps originally of St Editha, is still held (July 26).
Tamworth sent two members to parliament from 1562 to 1885,
when its representation was merged in that of the county.
TANA, a river of British East Africa, which gives its name
to the Tanaland province of that protectorate. It has a
course, following the main windings only, of over 500 m. Its
sources are along the watershed close to the eastern wall of
the eastern rift- valley, and it enters the Indian Ocean in 2° 40' S.,
about 1 10 m. N. by E. of Mombasa. One series of its numerous
headstreams traverses the Kikuyu plateau north of the Athi,
while others flow down the southern and eastern slopes of
Kenya. The main stream, from about 37° E. i° S., where it
runs close to the upper waters of the Athi, flows in a wide curve
N.E., nearly reaching the equator. About 39° E. it turns S.,
and from this point is not known to receive any tributary of
importance. Its course is very tortuous, the current rapid,
and the channel much obstructed by snags. Its width varies,
as a general rule, between 100 and 200 yds. The banks are
usually low, in part forested and inundated at high water,
but away from the river the country appears to consist of dry
plains covered with mimosa scrub. Adjoining the lower Tana
are many backwaters, which seem to show that the course has
been subject to great changes. In 2 ° 20' S. the river again turns
east, but during the last 10 m. it flows south-west, parallel to
the coast, entering the sea across a dangerous bar. The Tana
has been navigated in a steam-launch for some 300 m. from
the mouth. North of the Tana is the Ozi, a small river con-
nected with the Tana by the Belazoni canal.
TANAGER, a word adapted from the quasi-Latin Tanagra
of Linnaeus, which again is an adaptation, perhaps with a
classical allusion, of Tangara, used by M. J. Brisson and G. L. L.
Buffon, and said by G. de L. Marcgrave (Hist. Rer. Nat. Brasiliae ,
p. 214) to be the Brazilian name of certain birds found in that
country. From them it has since been extended to a great
394
T AN AQ U IL— T ANCRED
many others mostly belonging to the southern portion of the
New World, now recognized by ornithologists as forming a
distinct family Tanagridae of the Oscines division of Passerine
birds allied to the Fringillidae (see FINCH) ; and distinguished
from them chiefly by their feebler conformation and more
exposed nostrils. They are confined to the New World, and
are specially characteristic of the tropical forests of Central
and South America.
The tanagers have been examined systematically by P. L. Sclater,
and in the British Museum Catalogue (xi. pp. 49-307) he admits
the existence of 375 species, which he arranges in 59 genera, forming
six subfamilies, Procniatinae, Euphoniinae, Tanagrinae, Lamprotinae,
Phoenicophilinae, and Pitylinae. These are of very unequal extent,
for, while the first of them consists of but a single species, Procnias
tersa — the position of which may be for several reasons still open
to doubt — the third includes more than 200. Nearly all are birds
of small size, the largest barely exceeding a song-thrush. Most of
them are remarkable for their gaudy colouring, and this is especially
the case in those forming the genus called by Sclater, as by most
other authors, Calliste, a term inadmissible through preoccupation,
to which the name of Tanagra of right seems to belong, while that
which he names Tanagra should probably be known as Thraupis.
The whole family is almost confined to the Neotropical region, and
there are several forms peculiar to the Antilles; but not a tenth
of the species reach even southern Mexico, and not a dozen appear
in the northern part of that country. Of the genus Pyranga, which
has the most northern range of all, three if not four species are
common summer immigrants to some part or other of tne United
States, and two of them, P. rubra and P. aestiva, known as the
scarlet tanager and the summer redbird, reach Canada and
Bermuda. P. aestiva has a western representative, P. cooperi,
which by some authors is not, recognized as a distinct species. The
males of all these are clad in glowing red, P. rubra having, however,
the wings and tail black. The remaining species, P. ludoviciana,
the males of which are mostly yellow and black, with the head
only red, does not appear eastward of the Missouri plains, and
has not so northerly a range. Another species, P. hepatica, has
shown itself within the limits of the United States. In all these
the females are plainly attired; but generally among the Tanagers,
however bright may be their coloration, both sexes are nearly
alike in plumage. Little has been recorded of the habits of the
species of Central or South America, but those of the north have
been as closely observed as the rather retiring nature of the birds
renders possible, and it is known that insects, especially in the larval
condition, and berries afford the greater part of their food. They
have a pleasing song, and build a shallow nest, in which the eggs,
generally three in number and of a greenish-blue marked with brown
and purple, are laid. A few species are regularly but sparingly
imported into Europe alive, and do well as cage birds.
On the whole the Tanagridae may perhaps be considered to hold
the same relation to the Fringillidae as the Icteridae do to the
Sturnidae and the Mniotiltidae to the Sylminae or Turdinae, in each
case the purely New- World Family being the " feebler " type.
(A. N.)
TANAQUIL. the Etruscan name of the wife of Tarquinius
Priscus, or of one of his sons. After her immigration to Rome
she is said to have received the name Gaia Caecilia. She was
famous for her shrewdness and prophetic gifts, which enabled
her to foretell the future greatness of her husband and of Servius
Tullius. There was a statue of her as Gaia Caecilia in the
temple of Sancus, which possessed magical powers. She was
celebrated as a spinner of wool, and was supposed to exercise
influence over Roman brides. Tanaquil and Gaia Caecilia are,
however, really distinct personalities. The anecdotes told of
Gaia Caecilia are aetiological myths intended to explain certain
usages at Roman marriages.
See Livy, i. 34, 41; Pliny, Nat. Hist., viii. 74, xxxvi. 70;
Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. 8.
TANAUAN, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, about 38 m. S.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903)
18,263. Tanauan is situated on a rolling upland plain. It
formerly produced much sugar, but its inhabitants are now
engaged chiefly in the cultivation of rice, Indian corn and fruit.
Oranges and hogs are sent from Tanauan to the Manila market.
The language is Tagalog.
TANCRED (d. 1112), nephew of Bohemund and a grandson of
Robert Guiscard on the female side, was the son of a certain
Marchisus, in whom some have seen a marquis, and some an
Arab (Makrizi). He took the Cross with Bohemund in 1096,
and marched with him to Constantinople. Here he refused
to take an oath to Alexius, escaping across the Bosphorus in
the disguise of a peasant; but after the capture of Nicaea he
consented to follow the example of the other princes, and
became the man of Alexius. At Heraclea, in the centre of Asia
Minor, he left the main body of the Crusaders, and struck into
Cilicia, closely followed by Baldwin of Lorraine. He may
have been intending, in this expedition, to prepare a basis for
Bohemund's eastern principality; in any case, he made himself
master of Tarsus, and when he was evicted from it by the
superior forces of Baldwin, he pushed further onwards, and
took the towns of Adana and Mamistra. He joined the main
army before Antioch, and took a great part in the siege. When,
in the spring of 1098, two castles were erected by the crusaders,
it was Tancred who undertook the defence of the more exposed
castle, which lay by St George's Gate, on the west of the city.
In the beginning of 1099 he was serving in the ranks of Ray-
mund's army, whether to observe his movements in the interests
of Bohemund, or only (as is more probable) to be in the front
of the fighting and the march to Jerusalem. But he soon left
the count, like so many of the other pilgrims (see under RAY-
MUND); and he joined himself to Godfrey of Lorraine in the
final march. In June 1099 he helped Baldwin de Burg (his
future rival) in the capture of Bethlehem; and he played his
part in the siege of Jerusalem, gaining much booty when the
city was captured, and falling into a passion because the security
he had given to the fugitives on the roof of Solomon's temple
was not observed by the crusaders. After the capture of
Jerusalem he went to Naplous, and began to found a principality
of his own. He took part in the battle of Ascalon in August;
and after it he was invested by Godfrey with Tiberias and the
principality of Galilee, to the north of Naplous. In noo he
attempted, without success, to prevent Baldwin of Lorraine
(his old enemy in Cilicia) from acquiring the throne of Jerusalem,
possibly having ambitions himself, and in any case fearing the
foundation of a strong non-Norman power in Palestine. Failing
in this attempt, and being urgently summoned from the North
to succeed Bohemund (now a prisoner with Danishmend) in the
government of Antioch, he surrendered his smaller possessions
to Baldwin, on condition that they should be restored if he
returned in a year and three months, and finally left the kingdom
of Jerusalem. He acted as regent in Antioch from noo to 1103,
when Bohemund regained his liberty. During these years he
succeeded in regaining the Cilician towns for Antioch (noi),
and in recapturing Laodicea (1103); he imprisoned Raymund
of Toulouse, and only gave him his liberty on stringent condi-
tions; and he caused the restoration of the deposed patriarch
of Jerusalem, Dagobert, if only for a brief season, by refusing
to aid Baldwin I. on any other terms. When Bohemund was
set free, Tancred had to surrender Antioch to him; but he soon
found fresh work for his busy hands. In 1104 he joined with
Bohemund and Baldwin de Burg (now count of Edessa in
succession to Baldwin of Lorraine) in an expedition against
Harran, in which they were heavily ' defeated, and Baldwin
was taken prisoner. Tancred, however, profited doubly by the
defeat. He took over the government of Edessa in Baldwin's
place; and in 1105 Bohemund surrendered to him the govern-
ment of Antioch, while -he himself went to Europe to seek
reinforcements. Ruler of the two northern principalities,
Tancred carried on vigorous hostilities against his Mahommedan
neighbours, especially Ridwan of Aleppo; and in 1106 he suc-
ceeded in capturing Apamea. In 1107, while Bohemund was
beginning his last expedition against Alexius, he wrested the
whole of Cilicia from the Greeks; and he steadfastly refused,
after Bohemund's humiliating treaty at Durazzo in 1108, to
agree to any of its stipulations with regard to Antioch and
Cilicia. To the hostility of the Mahommedans and the Greeks,
Tancred also added that of his own fellow Latins. When
Baldwin de Burg regained his liberty in 1108, it was only with
difficulty that he was induced to restore Edessa to him, and the
two continued unfriendly for some time; while in 1109 he also
interfered in the civil war in Tripoli between the nephew and
the eldest son of Raymund of Toulouse. But it was against the
emirs of Northern Syria that his arms were chiefly directed;
TANCRED— TANDY
395
and he became the hammer of the Turks, restlessly attacking
the emirs on every side, but especially in Aleppo, and exacting
tribute from them all. He died in 1112, leaving the govern-
ment to his brother-in-law, Roger de Principatu, until such time
as Bohemund II. should come to his inheritance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Tancred's Gesta were recorded by Ralph of
Caen, who drew his information from Tancred's own conversation
and reminiscences. Kugler has written a work on Bohemund und
Tancred (Tubingen, 1862); and Tancred's career is also described
by Rey, in the Revue de I' Orient Latin, iv. 334-340. (E. BR.)
TANCRED (d. 1194), King of Sicily, an illegitimate son of
Roger, the eldest son of King Roger II., was crowned in January
1190 in succession to William II. (q.v.). He was supported by
the chancellor Matthew d'Ajello and the official class, while
the rival claims of Roger II. 's daughter Constance and her
husband, Henry VI., king of the Romans and emperor, were
supported by most of the nobles. Tancred was a good soldier,
though his tiny stature earns from Peter of Eboli the nick-
name " Tancredulus." But he was ill-supported in his task of
maintaining the Norman kingdom, faced with general apathy,
and threatened by a baronial revolt, and, in addition, Richard
Coeur-de-Lion, at Messina, 1190, threatened hjm with war.
Henry, skilfully winning over Pisa, Genoa and the Roman
Commune, isolated Tancred and intimidated Celestine III., who,
on the i4th of April 1191, crowned him emperor at Rome. He,
however, failed to capture Naples in August and retired north,
leaving garrisons along the frontiers of the Regno. Tancred
now sought to win over the towns by extensive grants of privi-
leges, and at Gravina (June 1192) was recoenized by the pope,
whose ineffectual support he gained by surrendering the royal
legateship over Sicily. In 1192 and 1193 he commanded per-
sonally and with success against the Apulian barons, but his
death at Palermo (2oth of February 1194) a. few days after that
of Roger, his son and joint-king, made Henry's path clear. His
wife Sibilla indeed maintained a regency for her second son
William III., but on Henry's final descent, Naples surrendered
almost without a blow in May 1194, and the rest of the Regno
followed. Sibilla and the loyal Margarito prepared to defend
Palermo, but the citizens admitted the emperor on the 2oth of
November 1194. Tancred's family fell into Henry's hands,
and William III. seems to have died in Germany in 1198.
TANDY, JAMES NAPPER (1740-1803), Irish rebel, son of a
Dublin ironmonger, was born in Dublin in 1740. He started
life as a small tradesman; but turning to politics, he became a
member of the corporation of Dublin, and made himself popular
by his denunciation of municipal corruption and by his proposal
of a boycott of English goods in Ireland, in retaliation for
the restrictions imposed by the government on Irish commerce.
In April 1780 Tandy was expelled from the Dublin volunteers
(see FLOOD, HENRY) for proposing the expulsion of the duke of
Leinster, whose moderation had offended the extremists. He
was one of the most conspicuous of the small revolutionary
party, chiefly of the shopkeeper class, who formed a permanent
committee in June 1784 to agitate for reform, and called a con-
vention of delegates from all parts of Ireland, which met in
October 1784. Tandy persuaded the corporation of Dublin to
condemn by resolution Pitt's amended commercial resolutions
in 1785. He became a member of the Whig club founded by
Grattan; and he actively co-operated with Theobald Wolfe
Tone in founding the Society of the United Irishmen in 1791,
of which he became the first secretary. The violence of his
opinions, strongly influenced by French revolutionary ideas,
now brought Tandy prominently under the notice of the govern-
ment. In February 1792 an allusion in debate by Toler (after-
wards earl of Norbury) , the attorney-general, to Tandy's personal
ugliness, provoked him into sending a challenge; this was
treated by the House of Commons as a breach of privilege, and
a Speaker's warrant was issued for his arrest, which however
he managed to elude till its validity expired on the prorogation
of parliament. Tandy then took proceedings against the lord
lieutenant for issuing a proclamation for his arrest; and although
the action failed, it increased Tandy's popularity, and his
expenses were paid by the Society of the United Irishmen.
Sympathy with the French Revolution was at this time rapidly
spreading in Ireland. A meeting of some 6000 persons in
Belfast voted a congratulatory address to the French nation in
July 1791. In the following year Napper Tandy took a leading
part in organizing a new military association in Ireland modelled
after the French National Guards; they professed republican
principles, and on their uniform the cap of liberty instead of
the crown surmounted the Irish harp. Tandy also, with the
purpose of bringing about a fusion between the Defenders and
the United Irishmen, took the oath of the Defenders, a Roman
Catholic society whose agrarian and political violence had been
increasing for several years; but being threatened with prose-
cution for this step, and also for libel, he fled to America, where
he remained till 1798. In February 1798 he went to Paris,
where at this time a number of Irish refugees, the most prominent
of whom was Wolfe Tone, were assembled, planning rebellion
in Ireland to be supported by a French invasion, and quarrelling
among themselves. None of these was more quarrelsome than
Napper Tandy, who was exceedingly conceited, and habitually
drunken; his vanity was wounded to find himself of less
account than Tone in the councils of the conspirators.
Wolfe Tone, who a few months before had patronizingly
described him to Talleyrand as " a respectable old man whose
patriotism has been known for thirty years," was now disgusted
by the lying braggadocio with which Tandy persuaded the
French authorities that he was a personage of great wealth and
influence in Ireland, at whose appearance 30,000 men would
rise in arms. Tandy was not, however, lacking in courage.
He accepted the charge of a corvette, the " Anacreon," placed
at his disposal by the French government, in which, accom-
panied by a few leading United Irishmen, and supplied with a
small force of men and a considerable quantity of arms and
ammunition for distribution in Ireland, he sailed from Dunkirk
and arrived at the isle of Aran, off the coast of Donegal, on the
i6th of September 1798. The populace showed no disposition
to welcome the invaders. Napper Tandy, who was drunk
during most of the expedition, took possession of the village of
Rutland, where he hoisted an Irish flag and issued a bombastic
proclamation; but learning the complete failure of Humbert's
expedition, and that Connaught instead of being in open rebellion
was perfectly quiet, the futility of the enterprise was apparent
to the French if not to Tandy himself; and the latter having
been carried on board the " Anacreon " in a state of intoxica-
tion, the vessel sailed round the north of Scotland to avoid the
English fleet, and reached Bergen in safety, whence Tandy
made his way to Hamburg with three or four companions. In
compliance with a peremptory demand from the English govern-
ment, and in spite of a counter-threat from the French Directory,
the refugees were surrendered. Tandy remained in prison till
April 1 80 1, when he was tried, pleaded guilty, and was sentenced
to death; he was, however, reprieved and allowed to go to
France. This leniency may have been partly due to doubts
as to the legality of the demand for his surrender by the Hamburg
authorities; but the government was probably more influenced
by Cornwallis's opinion that Tandy was " a fellow of so very
contemptible a character that no person in this country (Ireland)
seems to care the smallest degree about him." Moreover,
Bonaparte vigorously intervened on his behalf, and is even said
to have made Tandy's release a condition of signing the treaty
of Amiens. Notwithstanding his vices and his lack of all
solid capacity, there is no reason to suppose that Napper Tandy
was dishonest or insincere; and the manner in which his name
was introduced in the well-known ballad, "The Wearing of the
Green," proves that he succeeded in impressing the popular
imagination of the rebel party in Ireland. In France, where
his release was regarded as a French diplomatic victory, he was
received, in March 1802, as a person of distinction; and when he
died on the 24th of August 1803 his funeral was attended by
the military and an immense number of the civil population.
See R. R. Madden, The Lives of the United Irishmen, 7 vols.
(Dublin, 1842-46) ; W. J. MacNeven, Pieces of Irish History (New
396
TANEGA-SHIMA— TANGANYIKA
York, 1807); T. Wolfe Tone, Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry
O'Brien, 2 vols. (London, 1893); W. J. Fitzpatrick, Secret Service
under Pitt (London, 1892); Sir Richard Musgrave, Memoirs of
Rebellions in Ireland, 2 vols. (Dublin, 1802); J. A. Froude, The
English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, 3 vols. (London,
1872-74); Castlereagh Correspondence, i., ii.; Cornwallis Corre-
spondence, ii., iii. (R- J- M.)
TANEGA-SHIMA, an island lying to the south of Kiushiu,
Japan, in 30° 50' N. and 131° E., 36^ m. long and ;£ m. broad at
its widest part. It is a long low stretch of land, carefully culti-
vated, and celebrated as the place where Mendez Pinto landed
when he found his way to Japan in 1543. Until modern times
firearms were colloquially known in Japan as " Tanega-shima,"
in allusion to the fact that they were introduced by Pinto.
TANEY, ROGER BROOKE (1777-1864), American jurist,
was born in Calvert county, Maryland, on the i7th of March
1777, of Roman Catholic parentage. He graduated from
Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1795, began the
study of law at Annapolis in 1796, and was admitted to the
bar in 1799. In 1806 he married Anne Phebe Key, sister of
Francis Scott Key. He entered politics as a Federalist, and was
a member of the Maryland House of Delegates in 1799-80. His
faith in Federalism was weakened by the party's opposition
to the War of 1812, and he gradually became associated with
the Jacksonian wing of the Republican party. He served in
the state Senate in 1816-21, was attorney-general of Maryland
in 1827-31; and in July 1831 entered President Jackson's
cabinet as attorney-general of the United States. He was the
President's chief adviser in the attack on the United States
Bank, and was transferred to the treasury department in
September 1833 for the special purpose of removing the govern-
ment deposits. This conduct brought him into conflict with
the Senate, which passed a vote of censure, and (in June 1834)
refused to confirm his appointment as secretary of the treasury.
He returned to his law practice in Baltimore, but on the 28th
of December 1835 was nominated Chief -Justice of the United
States Supreme Court to succeed John Marshall. After strong
opposition the nomination was confirmed, on the 1 5th of March
1836, by the Senate. Under the guidance of Judges John Jay,
Marshall, and Joseph Story, the judiciary from 1790 to 1835
had followed the Federalist loose construction methods of
interpreting the constitution. The personnel of the supreme
bench was almost entirely changed during President Jackson's
administration (1820-37). Five of tne seven judges in 1837
were his appointees, and the majority of them were Southerners
who had been educated under Democratic influences at a time
when the slavery controversy was forcing the party to return
to its original strict construction views. In consequence,
although the high judicial character of the men appointed and
the lawyers' regard for precedent served to keep the court in the
path marked out by Marshall and Story, the state sovereignty
influence was occasionally manifest, as, for example, in the
opinion (written by Taney) in the Dred Scott case (1857, 19
Howard, 393) that Congress had no power to abolish slavery in
territory acquired after the formation of the national govern-
ment. During the Civil War, Judge Taney struggled unsuc-
cessfully to protect individual liberty from the encroachments
of the military authorities. In the case of ex parte John
Merryman (1861, Campbell's Reports, 646), he protested against
the assumption of power by the President to suspend the
privileges of the writ of habeas corpus or to confer that power
upon a military officer without the authorization of Congress.
The delivering of this opinion, on circuit, in Baltimore, in
May 1861, was one of the judge's last public acts. He died
on the 1 2th of October 1864.
An authoritative biography is Samuel Tyler's Memoir of Roger
Brooke Taney (Baltimore, 1872).
TANGA (" the sail "), a seaport of German East Africa, lying
opposite the island of Pemba in 5° 6' S., 39° 7' E. The town is
regularly laid out on elevated ground on the southern shore of
Tanga Bay, and has a population of about 6000. Among the
public buildings are the administrator's residence, the hospital,
the boma (barracks), Protestant and Catholic churches and the
government and mission schools. Tanga is the port of the
Usambara district, where are many thriving plantations. The
harbour is entered by a broad channel five to eight fathoms
deep. It is a port of call for the German mail steamers, and
the starting-point of a railway to the Usambara highlands.
TANGANYIKA (a name said by V. L. Cameron to signify a
" mixing-place "), a vast lake in East-Central Africa, the longest
freshwater lake in the world, measuring just over 400 m., with
a general breadth varying from 30 to 45 m., and an area of
about 12,700 sq. m. It lies at an altitude of about 2600 ft.
above the sea, and occupies the southern end of the great central
rift-valley, which terminates suddenly at its southern point,
the line of depression being represented farther south by the
more easterly trough of Lakes Nyasa and Rukwa, from which
Tanganyika is separated by the Fipa plateau, composed of old
granitoid rocks; though even here traces of old valley-walls
are said by Dr Kohlschutter to exist. North of Tanganyika
the valley is suddenly interrupted by a line of ancient eruptive
ridges, which dam back the waters of Lake Kivu (q.v.), but have
been recently cut through by the outlet of that lake, the Rusizi,
which enters Tanganyika by several mouths at its northern end.
The flat plain traversed by the lower Rusizi was evidently once
a portion of the lake floor. Tanganyika has been formed by
the subsidence of a long narrow tract of country relatively to
the surrounding plateaus, which fall to the lake in abrupt cliffs,
some thousands of feet high in places. The geological forma-
tions thus exposed show that the plateaus are composed of a
base of eruptive material, overlaid by enormous deposits of
reddish sandstones, conglomerates and quartzites, exposed in
parts to a depth of 2000 feet. Besides the plain to the north,
a considerable area to the west, near the Lukuga outlet (see
below), shows signs of having been once covered by the lake,
and it is the opinion of Mr J. E. S. Moore that the sandstone
ridges which here bound the trough have been recently elevated,
and have been cut through by the Lukuga during the process.
The past history of the lake has long been a disputed question,
and Mr Moore's view that it represents an old Jurassic arm of
the sea is contested by other writers. This idea originated in
the discovery of a jelly-fish, gasteropods, and other organisms
of a more or less marine type, and presenting some affinity with
forms of Jurassic age. This fauna, to which the term " halo-
limnic " has been applied, was known to exist from specimens
obtained by Mr E. C. Hore and other early travellers, but has
been more systematically studied by Mr Moore (during expedi-
tions of 1896 and 1898-99) and Dr W. A. Cunnington (1904-5).
Various considerations throw doubt on Mr Moore's theory,
especially the almost entire absence of marine fossiliferous
beds in the whole of equatorial Africa at a distance from the
sea, of any remains of Jurassic faunas which might link the
Tanganyika forms with those of undoubted Jurassic age in
neighbouring regions. The formation of the existing rift-valley
seems in any case to date from Tertiary times only.
Although drinkable, the water of the lake seems at times at least
to be very slightly brackish, and it was supposed by some that no
outlet existed until, in 1874, Lieutenant Cameron snowed that the
surplus water was discharged towards the upper Congo by the
Lukuga river, about the middle of the west coast. The outlet
was further examined in 1876 by Mr (afterwards Sir Henry)
Stanley, who found that a bar had formed across the outlet, and it
has since been proved that the outflow is intermittent, ceasing
almost entirely after a period of scanty rainfall, and becoming
again established when the lake-level has been raised by a series
of rainy years. About 1880 it was running strongly, but about
this time a gradual fall in the lake-level set in, and was continued,
with occasional pauses, for some twenty years, the amount being
estimated by Wissmann at 2 feet annually. In 1896 Captain
H. Ramsay found that a wide level plain, which had before been
covered by water, intervened between Ujiji and the lake, but
stated that no further sinking had taken place during the two
previous years. Near Tembwe Head Mr L. A. Wallace found
recent beaches 16 feet above the existing level. The Lukuga
was reported blocked by a bar about 1897, bat a certain amount
of water was found flowing down by Mr Moore in 1899; while
in 1901 Mr Codrington found the level 4 or 5 feet higher than in
I poo, the outlet having again silted up. A continued rise was
also reported in 1907. In any case, the alterations in level appear
TANGERMUNDE— TANGIER
397
to be merely periodic, and due to fluctuations in rainfall, and do not
point, as some have supposed, to a secular drying up of the lake.
The lake is fed by a number of rivers and small streams which
descend from the surrounding highlands. The Mlagarazi (or
Malagarasi), perhaps the largest feeder, derives most of its water
from the rainy districts east of the strip of high ground which
shuts in the lake on the north-east. The main stream, in fact,
has a nearly circular course, rising in 4° 40' S., only some 10 miles
from the lake shore and less than 40 miles from its mouth, though
its length is at least 220 miles. The other branches of the
Mlagarazi, which traverse the somewhat arid granite plateaus
between the lake and 33° E., bring comparatively little water to
the main stream. In its lower course the river is a rapid stream
flowing between steep jungle-clad hills, with one fall of 5° feet,
and is of little use for navigation. The various channels of its delta
are also obstructed with sand-banks in the dry season. The
Rusizi, the next (or perhaps equal) in importance among the
feeders of the lake, has already been spoken of. It receives many
tributaries from the sides of the rift-valley, and is navigable for
canoes. The remaining feeders are of distinctly less importance,
the Lofu, which enters in the south-west, being probably the largest.
Tanganyika has never been sounded systematically, but the
whole configuration of its valley points to its being generally deep,
and this has been confirmed by a few actual measurements. Dr
Livingstone obtained a depth of 326 fathoms opposite Mount
Kabogo, south of Ujiji. Mr Hore often failed to find boftom with
a line of 168 fathoms. The French explorer, Victor Giraud, re-
ported 647 metres (about 350 fathoms) off Mrumbi on the west
coast, and Moore depths of 200 fathoms and upwards near the
south end. The shores fall rapidly as a rule, and there is a marked
scarcity of islands, none occurring of any size or at a distance from
the coast line. The lake is subject to occasional storms, especially
from the south-south-east and south-west, which leave a heavy
swell and impede navigation. The cloud and thunder and light-
ning effects are spoken of as very impressive, and the scenery of
the lake and its shores has been much extolled by travellers.
Vegetation is generally luxuriant, and forest clothes portions
of the mountain slopes. The lake lies on the dividing line between
the floral regions of East and West Africa, and the oil-palm
characteristic of the latter is found on its shores. The largest
timber tree is the mvule, which attains vast dimensions, its trunk
supplying the natives with the dug-out canoes with which they
navigate the lake. The more level parts of the shores have a
fertile soil and produce a variety of crops, including rice, maize,
manioc, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, &c., &c. The waters dispjay
an abundance of animal life, crocodiles and hippopotami occurring
in the bays and river mouths, which are also the haunts of water-
fowl of many kinds. Fish are also plentiful. Various sections
of the Bantu division of the Negro race dwell around the lake,
those on the west and south-west showing the most pronounced
Negro type, while the tribes on the east exhibit some intermixture
with representatives of the Hamitic stock, and (towards the south)
some traces of Zulu influence. The surrounding region has been
overrun by Arabs and Swahili from the East African coast.
Though rumours of the existence of the lake had previously
reached the east coast, Tanganyika was not visited by any
European until, in 1858, the famous expedition of Burton and
Speke reached the Arab settlement of Ujiji and partially ex-
plored the northern portion. Ujiji became famous some years
later as the spot where Dr Livingstone was found by Stanley
in 1871, after being lost to sight for some time in the centre of
the continent. The southern half of the lake was first circum-
navigated by Lieutenant V. L. Cameron in 1874, and the whole
lake by Stanley in 1876. The mapping of Tanganyika, which
lone rested on the surveys of Mr E. C. Hore, published in 1882,
received considerable modification, about 1899-1900, from the
work of Fergusson, Lemaire, Kohlschutter and others, who
showed that while the general outline of the coasts had been
drawn fairly correctly, the whole central portion, and to a lesser
degree the northern, must be shifted a considerable distance
to the west. At Mtowa, in 5° 43' S., the amount of shifting of
the west coast was about 30 miles. At Ujiji, on the east coast,
the longitude was given by Kohlschutter as 29° 40' 2" E. as
compared with 30° 4' 30" E. of Cameron, a difference of some
25 miles.
In the partition of Africa among the European Powers, the
shores of Tanganyika have been shared by Belgium, Great
Britain and Germany, Great Britain holding the southern
extremity, Germany the east, and Belgium the west. Stations
have been established on the lake by all three Powers, the
principal being — German: Bismarckburg in the south and
Ujiji in the north; British: Sumbu and Kasakalawe, on
Cameron Bay; Belgian: Mtowa or Albertville in 6° S. Mis-
sionaries, especially the Catholic " White Fathers," are also
active on its shores. A small steamer, the " Good News," was
placed on the lake by the London Missionary Society in 1884,
but afterwards became the property of the African Lakes Corpo-
ration; a larger steamer, the " Hedwig von Wissmann," carrying
a quick-firing Krupp gun, was launched in 1900 by a German
expedition under Lieutenant Schloifer; and others are owned
by the " Tanganyika Concessions " and Katanga companies.
The greater part of the trade with Tanganyika is done by the
African Lakes Corporation by the Shire-Nyasa route, but the
Germans have opened up overland routes from Dar-es-Salaam.
AUTHORITIES. — The narratives of Burton, Livingstone, Cameron
and Stanley; E. C. Hore, Lake Tanganyika (London, 1892);
J. E. S. Moore, in Geogr. Journal, September 1897 and January
1901; To the Mountains of the Moon (London, 1901); The Tangan-
yika Problem (London, 1903); L. A. Wallace, Geogr. Journal, June
1899; H. Ramsay, in Verhandl. d. Gesell. fur Erdkunde Berlin,
No. 7, 1898; H. Glauning and E. Kohlschutter, in Mitt, aus den
Deutschen Schutzgebieten, Nos. I and 2, 1900 ; E. Kohlschutter, in
Verhandl. 13 Deutsch. Geographentages, 1901 ; M. Fergusson, in
Geol. Mag., August 1901 ; E. Stromer, in Petermanns Mitteil.,
December 1901; R. Codrington, in Geogr. Journal, May 1902;
W. H. Hudleston, in Transactions Victoria Inst., 1904; also papers
on the results of Dr W. A. Cunnington's expedition in Proceedings
of the Zoological Society, 1906, &c. ; Journal of the Linnean Society,
1907. (E. HE.)
TANGERMUNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Saxony, on the Elbe, 43 m. N.E. from Magdeburg
by rail via Stendal. Pop. (1905) 12,829. It contains iron
foundries, shipbuilding yards, refineries, and other industrial
establishments, and enjoys a considerable river trade in grain
and coal. It is ornamented by numerous brick buildings
of the i4th and I5th centuries, including the turreted walls,
the church of St Stephen (1376), and the late Gothic town hall.
The castle, built in the I4th century, was the chief residence of
the margraves of Brandenburg.
See Gotze, Geschicnte der Burg Tangermunde (Stendal, 1871).
TANGIER (locally TANJAH), a seaport of Morocco, on the
Straits of Gibraltar, about 14 m. E. of Cape Spartel, nestles
between two eminences at the N.W. extremity of a spacious bay.
The town, which has a population of about 40,000, presents a
picturesque appearance from the sea, rising gradually in the
form of an amphitheatre, with the citadel, the remainder of the
English mole and York Castle to the right: in the central valley
is the commercial quarter, while to the left along the beach runs
the track to Tetuan. Though rivalry between European Powers
led to many public works being delayed, through the action of
the public Sanitary Association the streets, which are narrow
and crooked, have been re-paved as well as cleaned and partially
lighted, and several new roads have been made outside the
town. In some of the older streets European shops have
replaced the picturesque native cupboards ; drinking dens have
sprung up at many of the corners, while telephones and electric
light have been irtroduced by private companies, and European
machinery is used in many of the corn-mills, &c. The main
thoroughfare leads from Bab el Marsa (Gate of the Port) to
the Bab el Sok (Gate of the Market-place) known to the English
as Port Catherine. The sok presents a lively spectacle, espe-
cially upon Thursdays and Sundays.
Tangier is almost destitute of manufactures, and while the
trade, about £750,000 a year, is considerable for Morocco, it is
confined chiefly to imports, about two-fifths of which come from
Great Britain and Gibraltar, and one quarter from France.
The exports are chiefly oxen, meat, fowls and eggs for Gibraltar
and sometimes for Spain, with occasional shipments of slippers
and blankets to Egypt. Most of the trade, both wholesale and
retail, is in the hands of the Jews (see further MOROCCO).
The harbour formed by the Bay of Tangier is an extensive
one, the best Morocco possesses, and good in all weathers except
during a strong east wind, but vessels of any size have to anchor
a mile or so out as the shore to the west is shallow and sandy,
and to the east, rocky and shingly. Since 1907 a basin with an
outer and inner mole has been built. It does not, however,
TANGYE— TANJORE
accommodate large vessels. The climate is temperate and
healthy, and good for consumptives.
As the seaport nearest to Europe, Tangier is the town in the
empire in which the effects of progress are most marked, and
since the end of the i8th century it has been the diplomatic
headquarters. The nucleus of a cosmopolitan society thus
formed has expanded into a powerful community enjoying
privileges and immunities unknown to natives not receiving
its protection. The steadily increasing number of visitors
has induced the opening of first-class hotels, and necessitated
extensive building operations, resulting in the immigration of
some thousands of artisans, chiefly Spanish. The number of
European inhabitants (1905) was about 9000 (7500 Spaniards);
of Jews about 10,000.
The Roman Tingis, which stood in the immediate vicinity of
the site of Tangier, was of great antiquity; under Augustus it
•became a free city, and when Otho placed the western half of
Mauretania under a procurator, he called it Mauretania Tingitana
after its capital Tingis. It was held by Vandals, Byzantines and
Arabs, and when Mulai Idris passed from Tlemcen to Fez in
788, Tangier was " the oldest and most beautiful city " of the
Maghrib. After many futile attempts the Portuguese obtained
possession of it in 1471, but it passed to Spain in 1580, returning
again to the Portuguese in 1656. In 1662 as part of the dowry
of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to Charles II., it came
into the possession of the English, and they defended it against
Mulai Ismail in 1680, but in 1684 it was decided, on account of
expense, to abandon the place to the Moors. El Ufrani writes
that " it was besieged so closely that the Christians had to flee
on their vessels and escape by sea, leaving the place ruined
from bottom to top." It was bombarded in 1844 by the French,
then at war with Morocco. In the early years of the 2Oth
century the sharif Raisuli terrorized the district round Tangier
and made captive several Europeans. As one result of the
Algefiras conference of 1906 a regular police force was organized,
and the control of the customs passed into European hands
(see MOROCCO: § History).
See A. Cousin, Tanger (Paris, 1902); Archives Marocaines (Paris,
1904-6).
TANGYE, SIR RICHARD (1833-1906), British manufacturer,
was born at Illogan, near Redruth, Cornwall, on the 24th of
November 1833, the son of a small farmer. As a young boy
he worked in the fields, but when he was eight years old he was
incapacitated from further manual labour by a fracture of the
right arm. His father then determined to give him the best
education he could afford, and young Tangye was sent to the
Friends' School at Sidcot, Somersetshire, where he progressed
rapidly and became a pupil-teacher. Tangye was not long con-
tented with this position, and through an advertisement in
The Friend obtained a clerkship in a small engineering firm in
Birmingham, where two of his brothers, skilled mechanics,
subsequently joined him. Here Richard Tangye remained four
years, obtaining a complete mastery of the details of an engineer-
ing business, and introducing the system of a Saturday half-
holiday which was subsequently adopted in all English industrial
works. In 1856 he started business in a small way in Birming-
ham as a hardware factor and commission agent. His first
customers were the Cornish mine-owners in the Redruth district,
and, the business prospering, he was able before long to start
manufacturing hardware goods on his own account, his two
brothers joining him in the enterprise. The speciality of the
brothers Tangye was the manufacture of machinery, and their
hydraulic lifting jacks were successfully employed in the launch-
ing of the steamship " Great Eastern." In 1858 the firm, who
now confined themselves to making machinery, built their own
works, and shortly afterwards secured the sole right of manu-
facturing the newly invented differential pulley-block, thereby
materially adding to their business, which came to include
every kind of power-machine — hydraulic, steam, gas, oil and
electricity. The business was subsequently turned into a
limited company, and in 1894 Richard Tangye was knighted.
He died on the I4th of October 1906.
TANISTRY (from Gaelic tana, lordship), a custom among
various Celtic tribes, by which the king or chief of the clan was
chosen from among the heads of the septs and elected by them
in full assembly. He held office for life and was required by
custom to be of full age, in possession of all his faculties and
without any remarkable blemish of mind or body. At the same
time, and subject to the same conditions, a tanist or next heir
to the chieftaincy was elected, who if the king died or became
disqualified, at once became king. Usually the king's son became
tanist, but not because the system of primogeniture was in any
way recognized; indeed, the only principle adopted was that
the dignity of chieftainship should descend to the eldest and
most worthy of the same blood. These epithets, as Hallam says,
were not necessarily synonymous, but merely indicated that
the preference given to seniority was to be controlled by a
due regard to desert (Constit. Hist., vol. iii. c. xviii.). This
system of succession left the headship open to the ambitious, and
was -a. frequent source of strife both in families and between the
clans. Tanistry was abolished by a legal decision in the reign
of James I. and the English land system substituted.
TANJ6RE, a city and district of British India in the Madras
presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river
Cauvery, and is an important junction on the South Indian
railway, 218 m. S. of Madras. Pop. (1901) 57,870. As the
last capital of the ancient Hindu dynasty of the Cholas, and in
all ages one of the chief political, literary and religious centres
of the south, the city is full of interesting associations. It was
the scene of the earliest labours of Protestant missionaries in
India. The modern history of Tanjore begins with its conquest
by the Mahrattas in 1674 under Venkaji, the brother of Sivaji
the Great. The British first came into contact with Tanjore by
their expedition in 1749 with a view to the restoration of a
deposed raja. In this they failed, and a subsequent expedition
was bought off. The Mahrattas practically held Tanjore until
1799. In October of that year the district was ceded to the
East India Company in absolute sovereignty by Raja Sharab-
hoji, pupil of the missionary Schwarz. The raja retained only
the capital and a small tract of country round. He died in
1833 and was succeeded by his son Sivaji, on whose death in
1855 without an heir the house became extinct. The mission
at Tanjore was founded in 1778 by the Rev. Christian F. Schwarz
or Schwartz (1726-1798). The mission establishments were
taken over in 1826 by the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel, which subsequently founded new stations in several
parts of the district. Roman Catholic missions date from the
first half of the i7th century. St Peter's College, founded by
Schwarz as a school, is now a first-grade college affiliated to the
university of Madras. His church dates from 1779. Among
interesting ancient buildings may be mentioned the palace
within the fort, containing an armoury and fine library; and
the Brihadiswaraswami temple, of the nth century, enclosed
in two courts, surmounted by a lofty tower and including the
exquisitely decorated shrine of Subrahmanya. Though the
city has specialities of jewelry, carpets, modelling in pith, &c.,
there are no large industries.
The DISTRICT OF TANJORE has an area of 3710 sq. m. On
account of its fertility it has been called the " Gaiden of
Southern India." It is irrigated by an elaborate system of
dams, cuts and canals in connexion with the rivers Cauvery
and Coleroon, and the soil is exceedingly productive. The delta
of the Cauvery occupies the flat northern part, which is highly
cultivated, dotted over with groves of coco-nut trees, and is
one of the most densely populated tracts in India. The staple
crop is rice, which is grown on 77 per cent, of the cultivated
area. Tanjore is a land of temples, many of them being of very
early date. The district is traversed by the main line and several
branches of the South Indian railway, some of which have been
constructed by the district board. The chief seaport is Nega-
patam, and the principal export is rice to Ceylon. The popula-
tion in 1901 was 2,243,029.
See Tanjore District Gazetteer (Madras, 1906).
TANKARD— TANNIN
399
TANKARD, a type of drinking vessel. The word was formerly
used loosely of many sizes, usually large, of vessels for holding
liquids; thus it was applied to such as held two or more gallons
and were used to carry water from the conduits in London in
the i6th and early I'jth centuries. The word is now generally
applied to a straight, flat-bottomed drinking vessel of silver,
pewter or other metal, or of glass or pottery mounted on metal,
with a hinged cover and handle, holding from a pint to a quart
of liquor (see DRINKING VESSELS). The derivation is obscure.
It appears in O. Fr. as lanquart and in O. Du. as tanckaert. It
may have been, as is suggested, metathesized from Gr. Kavdapos,
Lat. cantharus, a large vessel or pot. It is used to gloss amphora
in the Promptorium Parvulorum (c. 1440). It is not connected
with " tank," a cistern or reservoir for water, which was formerly
" stank," and is from Port, tanque, O. Fr. estang, mod. Hang,
pool; Lat. stagnum, whence Eng. " stagnant."
TANNA (Aramaic, "teacher"). The root teni or tena cor-
responds philologically to the Hebrew shana, from which comes
the word Mishnah (see MIDRASH and TALMUD), the great
Rabbinic code which (with certain parts of the Midrash and
other Rabbinic books) was the main literary product of the
activity of the tannaim (plural of tanna). The term tanna is
used in the Talmud of those teachers who flourished in the first
two centuries of the Christian era. The tannaim from the date
of the destruction of the Temple may be grouped: (i) 70-100,
representative name Johanan ben Zaqqai (q.v.)', (2) 100-130,
representative name Aqiba (q.v.); (3) 130-160, representative
name Judah the Prince, compiler of the Mishnah. The suc-
cessors of the tannaim were called 'amoraim (see 'AMORA).
See W. Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten. An alphabetical list
of tannaim and 'amoraim is given in the Jewish Encyclopedia, xii.
49-54. (I. A.)
TANNAHILL. ROBERT (1774-1810), Scottish song-writer,
son of a Paisley silk- weaver, was born on the 3rd of June 1774.
He was apprenticed to his father's trade at the age of twelve,
and, inspired by the poetry of Robert Burns, he wrote verses
as he drove the shuttle to and fro, with shelf and ink-bottle
rigged up on his loom-post. He was shy and reserved, of small
and delicate physique, and took little part in the social life of
the town. The steady routine of his trade was broken only by
occasional excursions to Glasgow and the land of Burns, and a
year's trial of work at Bolton. He began in 1805 to contribute
verses to Glasgow and Paisley periodicals, and published an
edition of his poems by subscription in 1807. Three years later,
on the i7th of May 1810, the life of the quiet, gentle, diffident
and despondent poet was brought by his own act to a tragic end.
TannahiU's claims to remembrance rest upon half a dozen songs,
full of an exquisite feeling for nature, and so happily set to
music that they have retained their popularity. " London's
Bonnie Woods and Braes," " Jessie, the Flower o' Dunblane,"
and " Gloomy Winter's Noo Awa " are the best of them.
" Jessie, the Flower o' Dunblane " and " The Farewell " tell
the story of the poet's own unhappy love for Janet Tennant.
TannahiU's centenary was celebrated at Paisley in 1874. See
edition by D. Semple (1876) for details of his life.
TANNER, HENRY OSSAWA (1850- ), American artist,
of negro descent, was born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the
2ist of June 1859. He was the son of Benjamin Tucker Tanner
(b. 1835), who became bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal
Church in 1888, edited the Christian Recorder, the organ of his
church, from 1867 to 1883, founded, and from 1884 to 1888
edited, the African Methodist Episcopal Church Review, and
published several pamphlets, poems and hymns, and an Apology
for African Methodism (1867). The son was a pupil of Thomas
Eakins, in Philadelphia, and of J. P. Laurens and Benjamin
Constant in Paris. He first exhibited at the Salon in 1895.
His " Daniel in the Lions' Den " received an honourable mention
at the Salon of 1896. " The Raising of Lazarus," which received
a third-class medal in 1897, was purchased by the French govern-
ment for the permanent collection of the Luxembourg. Other
pictures are, "The Annunciation" (Salon, 1898), "Nicodemus
Coming to Christ " (1899), " The Jews' Wailing Place," and
" Christ in the Temple."
TANNER, THOMAS (1674-1735), English antiquary and pre-
late, was born at Market Lavington in Wiltshire on the 2Sth
of January 1674, and was educated at Queen's College, Oxford,
taking holy orders in 1694. Next year he became chaplain and
then fellow of All Souls College, and a few years later private
chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), bishop of Norwich and
afterwards of Ely, who appointed him chancellor of the diocese
of Norwich. In 1706 he became rector of Thorpe, near Norwich,
in 1713 a canon of Ely, in 1724 a canon of Christ Church, Oxford,
and in 1732 bishop of St Asaph. He died in Oxford, where be
had passed most of his life, on the I4th of December 1735.
Tanner's chief work is his Notilia Monastica, a short account of
all the religious houses in England and Wajes. This was pub-
lished at Oxford in 1695; it was reprinted with additions by the
author's brother, John Tanner, in 1744; and was reprinted again
with further additions by James Nasmith (1740-1808) in 1787.
He also wrote Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica, a dictionary of
all the authors who flourished in England, Scotland and Ireland
before the opening of the 1 7th century, at which he laboured for
forty years. This was not published until 1748, thirteen years
after the author's death. The bishop collected materials for a
history of Wiltshire and worked for some time on a new edition
of the works of John Leland. His valuable collection of books and
manuscripts is in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
Another writer of this name was THOMAS TANNER (1630-1682),
the author of The Entrance of Mazzarini (Oxford, 1657-58).
Educated at St Paul's School, London, and at Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, he became a barrister and later a clergyman, being
vicar of Colyton, Devon, and afterwards of Winchfield, Hants.
TANNHAUSER, or TANHUSER, German Minnesinger of the
i3th century, who lived for a time at the court of Frederick II.,
duke of Austria. After Duke Frederick's death he was received
at the court of Otto II., duke of Bavaria; but, being of a restless
disposition, and having wasted his fortune, he spent much time
in wandering about Germany. He also went as a Crusader to
the Holy Land. His poems belong to the decadence of the
Minnesang, and combine a didactic display of learning with
descriptions of peasant-life in a somewhat coarse tone. His
adventurous life led him to be identified, in the popular imagina-
tion, with the knight Tannhauser who, after many wanderings,
comes to the Venusberg, or Horselberg, near Eisenach. He
enters the cave where the Lady Venus — the Frau Hulda of
German folk-lore — holds her court, and abandons himself to a
life of sensual pleasure. By and by he is overcome by remorse,
and, invoking the aid of the Virgin Mary, he obtains permission
to return for a while to the outer world. He then goes as a
pilgrim to Rome, and entreats Pope Urban to secure for him
the forgiveness of his sins. The pope declares it is as impossible
for him to be pardoned as for the staff he has in his hand to
blossom. Tannhauser departs in despair, and returns to the
Venusberg. In three days the staff begins to put forth green
leaves, and the pope sends messengers in all directions in search
of the penitent, but he is never seen again. This legend was
at one time widely known in Germany, and as late as 1830 it
survived in a popular song at Entlebuch in Switzerland, a
version of which was given by Uhland in his Alte hoch- und
niederdeutsche Volkslieder. Among the attendants of Hulda
was the faithful Eckhart, and in the preface to the Heldenbuch
he is said to sit before the Venusberg, and to warn passers-by
of the dangers to which they may be exposed if they linger in
the neighbourhood. The legend has been reproduced by several
modern German poets, and by R. Wagner in an opera.
For Tannhauser's lyric poetry, see F. H. von der Hagen's Minne-
singer, ii. (1838); K. Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter des 12; bis
14. Jahrhunderts (3rd ed. 1893), No. 47. See also F. Zander, Die
Tannhauser sage und der Minnesinger Tannhauser (1858); J. G. T.
Grasse, Die Sage von Tannhauser (1846; 2nd ed. 1861); A. Ohlke
Zu Tannhauser s Leben und Dichten (1890); J. Siebert, Tannhause%
Inhalt und Form seiner Gedichte (1894).
TANNIN, or TANNIC ACID, the generic name for a widely
disseminated group of vegetable products, so named from
their property of converting raw hide into leather (q.v.). They
400
TANN-RATHSAMHAUSEN— TANTALUM
are soluble in water, their solutions having an acid reaction
and an astringent taste; the solutions are coloured dark blue
or green by ferrous salts, a property utilized in the manufacture
of ink (<?.».)• Their chemistry is little known. Some appear
to be glucosides of gallic acid, since they yield this acid and a
sugar on hydrolysis, e.g. oak tannin; whilst others yield proto-
catechuic acid and phloroglucin, e.g. moringa-tannin; common
tannin, however, is a digallic acid.
Common tannin, or tannic acid, CuHmCVaHiO, occurs to the
extent of 50% in gall-nuts, and also in tea, sumach and in other
plants. It may be obtained by extracting powdered gall-nuts
with a mixture of ether and alcohol, whereupon the tannin is taken
up in the lower layer, which on separation and evaporation yields
the acid. When pure the acid forms a colourless, amorphous mass,
very soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and practically insoluble
in ether. Common salt precipitates it from aqueous solutions.
It forms a penta-acetate. It may be obtained artificially by heating
gallic acid with phosphorus oxychloride or dilute arsenic acid
(cf. P. Biginelli, Gazetta, 1909, 39, ii. pp. 268 et seq.) ; and con-
versely on boiling with dilute acids or alkalis it takes up a molecule
of water and yields two molecules of gallic acid, CyHeOs. It is
optically active — a fact taken account of in J. Dekker's formula
(Ber., 1906, 39, p. 2497). The chemistry has also been investigated
by M. Nierenstein and ,L. F. Iljin (see papers in the Ber., 1908,
et seq.).
The tannin of oak, CisHieOio, which is found, mixed with gallic
acid, ellagic acid and quercite, in oak bark, is a red powder; its
aqueous solution is coloured dark blue by ferric chloride, and boiling
with dilute sulphuric acid gives oak red or phlobaphene. The
tannin of coffee, CaoHisOic, found in coffee beans, is not pre-
cipitated from its solutions by gelatin. Hydrolysis by alkaline
solutions gives a sugar and caffeic acid; whilst fusion with
potassium hydroxide gives protocatechuic acid. Moringa-tannin
or maclurin, CisHioOe'HjO, found in Morus tinctoria, hydrolyses
on fusion with caustic potash to phloroglucin and protocatechuic
acid. Catechu-tannin occurs in the extract of Mimosa catechu;
and kino-tannin is the chief ingredient of kino (q.v.).
MEDICINE. — Tannic acid is official in both the British and United
States Pharmacopoeias. It is incompatible with mineral acids,
alkalis, salts of iron, antimony, lead and silver, alkaloids and
gelatin. The British pharmacopoeia! preparations are (i) glycerinum
acidi tannici; (2) suppositoria acidi tannici; (3) trochiscus acidi
tannin. The United States also has a collodium stypticum and an
ointment. From tannic acid is also made gallic acid, which re-
sembles tannic acid but has no astringent taste. When applied
to broken skin or exposed surfaces it coagulates the albumen in
the discharges, forming a protecting layer or coat. It is moreover
an astringent to the tissues, hindering the further discharge of
fluid. It is a powerful local haemostatic, but it only checks
haemorrhage when brought directly in contact with the bleeding
point. It is used in the treatment of haemoptysis in the form of
a fine spray, or taken internally it will check gastric haemorrhage.
In large doses, however, it greatly disorders the digestion. In the
intestine tannic acid controls intestinal bleeding, acting as a power-
ful astringent and causing constipation; for this reason it has
been recommended to check diarrhoea.
Tannic acid is largely used in the treatment of various ulcers,
sores and moist eruptions. The glycerin is used in tonsillitis and
the lozenges in pharyngitis. For bleeding haemorrhoids tannic
acid suppositories are useful, or tannic acid can be dusted on
directly. The collodium stypticum is a valuable external remedy.
Tannic acid is absorbed as gallic acid into the blood and eliminated
as gallic and pyrogallic acids, darkening the urine. Gallic acid
does not coagulate albumen when used externally. It has been
used internally in haemoptysis and haematuria. Combined with
opium it is an efficient remedy in diabetes insipidus.
TANN-RATHSAMHAUSEN, LUDWIG SAMSON ARTHUR,
FREIHERR VON UNO zu DEE (1815-1881), Bavarian general,
was born at Darmstadt on the i8th of June 1815, the day of
Waterloo. He was descended from the old family of von der
Tann, which had' representatives in Bavaria, Alsace and the
Rhine countries, and assumed his mother's name (she being
the daughter of an Alsatian, Freiherr von Rathsamhausen) in
1868 by licence of the king of Bavaria. Ludwig, the first king
of Bavaria, stood sponsor for the child, who received his name
and in addition that of Arthur, in honour of the duke of
Wellington. He received a careful education, and in 1827
became a page at the Bavarian court, where a great future was
predicted for him. Entering the artillery in 1833, he was after
some years placed on the general staff. He attended the
manoeuvres of the Austrian army in Italy under Radetzky
(q.v.) and, in the spirit of adventure, joined a French military
expedition operating in Algiers against the Tunisian frontier.
On his return he became a close personal friend of the Crown
Prince Maximilian Joseph (afterwards King Maximilian). In
1848 he was made a major, and in that year he distinguished
himself greatly as the leader of a Schleswig-Holstein light corps
in the Danish war. At the close of the first campaign he was
given the order of the Red Eagle by the king of Prussia, and his
own sovereign gave him the military order of Max-Joseph
without his asking for it, and also made him a lieutenant-colonel.
In 1849 he served as chief of staff to the Bavarian contingent
at the front, and distinguished himself at the lines of Diippel,
after which he visited Haynau's headquarters in the Hungarian
war, and returned to Schleswig-Holstein to serve as v. Willisen's
chief of staff in the Idstedt campaign. Then came the threat
of war between Prussia and Austria, and von der Tann was
recalled to Bavaria. But the affair ended with the " surrender
of Olmiitz," and he saw no further active service until 1866,
rising in the usual way of promotion to colonel (1851), major-
general (1855), and lieutenant-general (1861). In the earlier
years of this period he was the aide-de-camp and constant com-
panion of the king. In the war of 1866 he was chief of the staff
to Prince Charles of Bavaria, who commanded the South
German contingents. The almost entirely unfortunate issue
of the military operations led to his being vehemently attacked
in the press, but the unreadiness and unequal efficiency of the
troops and the general lack of interest in the war on the part of
the soldiers foredoomed the South Germans to failure in any
case. He continued to enjoy the favour of the king and received
promotion to the rank of general of infantry (1869), but the
bitterness of his disappointment of 1866 never left him. He
was grey-haired at forty-two, and his health was impaired. In
1869 von der Tann-Rathsamhausen, as he was now called, was
appointed commander of the I. Bavarian corps. This corps he
commanded in the Franco-German War, and therein he retrieved
his place as one of the foremost of German soldiers. His
gallantry was conspicuous at Worth and Sedan. Transferred
in the autumn to an independent command on the Loire, he
conducted the operations against d'Aurelle de Paladines, at
first with marked success, and forced the surrender of Orleans.
He had, however, at Coulmiers to give way before a numerically
larger French force; but reinforced, he fought several successful
engagements under the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg near
Orleans. On the termination of the war he was reappointed
commander-in-chief of the I. Bavarian corps, a post which he
held until his death at Meran on the 26th of April 1881. He
had the grand cross of the Bavarian military orders, and the
first class of the Iron Cross and the pour le merite from the king
of Prussia. In 1878 the emperor named von der Tann chief
of a Prussian infantry regiment, decreed him a grant, and
named one of the new Strassburg forts after him.
See Life by Lieutenant-colonel Hugo von Helvig in Mil. Wochen-
blatt, Supplement, 1882.
TANSA, a small river in Salsett island, in the Thana district
of Bombay, which provides the city of Bombay with its water-
supply. It is embanked by one of the largest masonry dams in
the world, built in 1892. The embankment is nearly 2 m. long,
118 ft. high, and no ft. thick at the base.
TANTA, a town of Lower Egypt, in a central position nearly
midway between the two main branches of the Nile, and con-
verging-point of several railways traversing the Delta in all
directions. It has a population (1907) of 54,437, is the capital
of the rich province of Gharbia, and is noted for its fairs and
Moslem festivals, which are held three times a year in honour
of Seyyid el-Bedawi, and are sometimes attended by 200,000
pilgrims and traders. There are a large railway station, a very
fine mosque (restored), and a palace of the khedive. Seyyid
el-Bedawi, who lived in the I3th century A.D., was a native of
Fez who, after a pilgrimage to Mecca, settled in Tanta. He is
one of the most popular saints in Egypt.
TANTALUM [symbol Ta, atomic weight 181-0 (0=i6)], a
metallic chemical element, sparingly distributed in nature and
then almost invariably associated with columbium. Its history
TANTALUS— TANTIA TOPI
401
is intermixed with that of columbium. In 1801 C. Hatchett
detected a new element, which he named columbium, in a mineral
from Massachusetts, and in 1802 A. G. Ekeberg discovered an
element, tantalum, in some Swedish yttrium minerals. In
1809 W. H. Wollaston unsuccessfully endeavoured to show that
columbium and tantalum were identical. In 1844 H. Rose
detected two new elements in the columbites of the Bodenmais,
which he named niobium and pelopium; dianium was discovered
by W. X. F. von Kobell in various columbites; and ilmenium
and neptunium were discovered by R. Hermann. The researches
of C. W. Blomstrand, and others, especially of Marignac, proved
the identity of columbium, dianium and niobium, and that
ilmenium was a mixture of columbium and tantalum. It is very
probable that neptunium is a similar mixture. Berzelius, who
prepared tantalic acid from the mineral tan tali te in 1820, ob-
tained an impure metal by heating potassium tantalofluoride
with potassium. In 1902 H. Moissan obtained a carbon-bearing
metal by fusing the pentoxide with carbon in the electric furnace.
The preparation of the pure metal was successfully effected by
Werner von Bolton in 1905, who fused the compressed product
obtained in the Berzelius process in the electric furnace, air
being excluded. An alternative method consisted in passing an
electric current through a filament of the tetroxide in a vacuum.
The metal is manufactured, for use as filaments in electric lamps,
by the action of sodium on sodium tantalofluoride.
The pure metal is silver-white in colour, is very ductile, and
becomes remarkably hard when hammered, a diamond drill
making little impression upon it. Its tensile strength is higher
than that of steel. It melts between 2250° and 2300°, its
specific heat is 0-0365, coefficient of expansion 0-0000079, and
specific gravity 16-64. When heated in air the metal burns
if in the form of thin wire, and is superficially oxidized if more
compact. At a red heat it absorbs large volumes of hydrogen
and nitrogen, the last traces of which can only be removed
by fusion in the electric furnace. These substances, and also
carbon, sulphur, selenium and tellurium, render the metal
very brittle. Tantalum is not affected by alkaline solutions,
but is disintegrated when fused with potash. Hydrofluoric
acid is the only acid which attacks it. It alloys with
iron, molybdenum and tungsten, but not with silver or
mercury.
In its chemical relationships tantalum is associated with
vanadium, columbium and didymium in a sub-group of the
periodic classification. In general it is pentavalent, but divalent
compounds are known.
Tantalum tetroxide, Ta2O4, is a porous dark grey mass harder than
glass, and is obtained by reducing the pentoxide with magnesium.
It is unaffected by any acid or mixture of acids, but burns to the
pentoxide when heated
Tantalum pentoxide, TajOs, is a white amorphous infusible
powder, or it may be crystallized by strongly heating, or by fusing
with boron trioxide or microcosmic salt. It is insoluble in all
acids. It is obtained from potassium tantalofluoride by heating
with sulphuric acid to 400°, boiling out with water, and decom-
posing the residual compound of the oxide and sulphuric acid by
ignition, preferably with the addition of ammonium carbonate.
Tantalic acid, HTaO3, is a gelatinous mass obtained by mixing
the chloride with water. It gives rise to salts, termed the tanta-
lates. The normal salts are all insoluble in water; the complex
acid, hexatantalic acid, HaTaeOis (which does not exist in the free
state), forms soluble salts with the alkaline metals. Pertantalic acid,
HTaO<, is obtained in the hydrated form as a white precipitate by
adding sulphuric acid to potassium pertantalate, KsTaOa- \ H2O, which
is formed when hydrogen peroxide is added to a solution of potassium
hexatantalate.
Tantalum pentaftuoride, TaF6, for a long time only known m
solution, may be obtained by passing fluorine over an alloy of
tantalum and aluminium, and purifying by distillation in a vacuum.
It forms colourless, very hygroscopic prisms, which attack glass,
slowly at ordinary temperatures, more rapidly when heated (Ber.,
1909, 42, p. 492). Its double salts with the alkaline fluorides are
very important, and serve for the separation of the metal from
columbium and titanium. Tantalum pentachloride, Tads, is ob-
tained as light yellow needles by heating a mixture of the pent-
oxide and carbon in a current of chlorine. By heating with sodium
amalgam and separating with hydrochloric acid, the dichloride,
TaCl2-2HsO, is obtained as emerald green hexagonal crystals.
The pentabromide exists, but tantalum and iodine apparently do
not combine. Tantalum forms a sulphide, TaS,, and two nitrides,
TaN» and Ta>Nj, have been described.
Marignac determined the atomic weight to be 181, but Henrichsen
and N. Sahlbom (Ber., 1906, 39, p. 2600) obtained 179-8 (H-l)
ay converting the metal into pentoxide at a dull red heat.
TANTALUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus (or Tmolus) and
Pluto (Wealth), daughter of Himantes, the father of Pelops and
Niobe. He was the traditional king of Sipylus in Lydia (or of
Phrygia), and was the intimate friend of Zeus and the other
gods, to whose table he was admitted. But he abused the
divine favour by revealing to mankind the secrets he had learned
in heaven (Diod. Sic. iv. 74), or by killing his son Pelops (g.v.)
and serving him up to the gods at table, in order to test their
powers of observation (Ovid, Metam. vi. 401). Another story
was that he stole nectar and ambrosia from heaven and gave
them to men (Pindar, Ol. i. 60). According to others, Pan-
dareus stole a golden dog which guarded the temple of Zeus in
Crete, and gave it to Tantalus to take care of. But, when
Pandareus demanded the dog back, Tantalus denied that he
had received it. Therefore Zeus turned Pandareus into a stone,
and flung down Tantalus with Mount Sipylus on the top of him
(Antoninus Liberalis, 36). The punishment of Tantalus in the
lower world was famous. He stood up to his neck in water,
which flowed from him when he tried to drink of it; and over his
head hung fruits which the wind wafted away whenever he tried
to grasp them (Odyssey, xi. 582). This myth is the origin of
the English word " tantalize," and also of the common name
tantalus " for a set of spirit decanters kept under lock and
key. Another story is that a rock hung over his head ready to
fall and crush him (Euripides, Orestes, 5). The sins of Tantalus
were visited upon his descendants, the Pelopidae. Ancient
historical reminiscences and natural phenomena, especially
volcanic catastrophes, are at the bottom of the legend. The
tomb of Tantalus on Mount Sipylus was pointed out in antiquity,
and has been in modern times identified by C. F. Texier with
the great cairn beneath Old Magnesia; but Sir W. M. Ramsay
inclines to a remarkable rock-cut tomb beside Magnesia.
The story of Tantalus is an echo of a semi-Greek kingdom,
which had its seat at Sipylus, the oldest and holiest city of
Lydia, the remains of which are still visible. There was a
tradition in antiquity that the city of Tantalus had been
swallowed up in a lake on the mountain; but the legend may,
as Ramsay thinks, have been suggested by the vast ravine which
yawns beneath the acropolis. According to S. Reinach (Revue
archeologique, 1903), Tantalus was represented in a picture
standing in a lake and clinging to the branches of a tree, which
gave rise to the idea that he was endeavouring to pluck its
fruit. The punishment of the overhanging rock refers to the
dangerous position of the town of Tantalis below the summit
of Mount Sipylus.
See PELOPS, PHRYGIA; Sir W. M. Ramsay in Journal of
Hellenic Studies, iii.; Frazer's Pausanias, iii. p. 555, v., p. 392;
J. Hylen, De Tantalo (Upsala, 1896), who considers the story of
the thirst of Tantalus in the underworld to be due to the Orphic
interpolator in the Nkuia of the Odyssey, and the Pandareus story
to be an innovation of the Alexandrine poets. The essay contains
a copious list of authorities and a history of the legend. According
to V. Henry (Revue des iLtudes grecques, 1892), Tantalus is the sun:
the fruits which elude his grasp are the stars suspended on the tree
of heaven, which disappear at the rising of the sun; the water into
which the sun descends without drinking, is the sea. Tantalus's
betrayal of the secrets of the gods refers to the sun unveiling the
secrets of heaven; the slaying of Pelops denotes the going-down
of the sun, Pelops meaning the " gray one," an epithet of the gloomy
sky in which the last rays of the sun are extinguished.
TANTIA TOPI (c. 1810-1859), rebel leader during the Indian
Mutiny, was a Mahratta Brahman in the service of Nana Sahib.
He instigated the massacre of Cawnpore, and commanded at the
battle of Bithur, where he was defeated by General Havelock.
With the aid of the Gwalior contingent he pressed General
Windham hard at Cawnpore on the 2?th and 28th of November
1857, but was defeated by Sir Colin Campbell on the 6th of
December. Together with the Rani of Jhansi he was besieged
by Sir Hugh Rose in the Jhansi fort, but escaped and collected
a force of 20,000 men which Sir Hugh defeated without relaxing
402
TAOISM— TAPACULO
the siege. This was the decisive action of the campaign in
Central India, and Tantia Topi was obliged to seek refuge in
the jungles of Rajputana and Bundelkhand, where he was
taken by Major Meade, condemned, and executed on the i8th
of April 1859. He was the only rebel leader in the Mutiny who
showed any conspicuous military talent.
TAOISM, a form of religion in China, the name of which is
taken from the ancient treatise called Tdo Teh King, supposed
to be the work of the sage Lao-tsze (q.v.). The later charac-
teristics of Taoism as a form of worship represent a corruption
of the earlier doctrines of Lao-tsze, and the infusion of Buddhist
and other ideas.
TAORMINA (ancient Tauromenium), a town on the E. coast
of Sicily, in the province of Messina, from which town it is 30 m.
S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 4110. It has come into great
favour as a winter resort, especially with British and German
visitors, chiefly on account of its fine situation and beautiful
views. It lies on an abrupt hill 650 ft. above the railway station,
and was founded by the Carthaginian Himilco in 397 B.C. for
a friendly tribe of Sicels, after the destruction, by Dionysius
the Elder of Syracuse, of the neighbouring city of Naxos. In
395 Dionysius failed to take it by assault on a winter's night,
but in 392 he occupied it and settled his mercenaries there. In
358 the exiles from Naxos, after wandering up and down Sicily,
at last found a home there. Its commanding site gave it con-
siderable importance. It was the city at which both Timoleon
and Pyrrhus first landed. During the First Punic War it belonged
to the kingdom of Hiero, and after his death it enjoyed an
exceptionally favoured position with regard to Rome, being
like Messana and Netum, a civitas foederata. During the first
Servile War it was occupied by Eunous and some of his followers,
but was at length taken by the consul Publius Rupilius in 132.
It was one of the strongholds of Sextus Pompeius, and after
defeating him Augustus made it into a colonia as a measure of
precaution, expelling some of the older inhabitants. In the
time of Strabo it was inferior in population, as we should expect,
to Messana and Catana; its marble, wine and mullets were
highly esteemed. In A.D. 902 it was taken and burnt by the
Saracens; it was retaken in 962, and in 1078 fell into the hands
of the Normans.
The ancient town seems to have had two citadels; one of
these was probably the hill above the town to the W. now
crowned by a medieval castle, while the other was the hill
upon which the theatre was afterwards constructed (E. A. Free-
man, History of Sicily, iv. 506). There are some remains of
the city walls, belonging to more than one period. It is
indeed possible that one fragment of wall belongs to a period,
before the foundation of the city, when the Naxians had a
fortified port here (Evans in Freeman, op. cit., iv. 109 n. i).
The church of San Pancrazio, just outside the modern town, is
built into a temple of the 3rd century B.C., the S. wall of the
cella of which is alone preserved. Inscriptions prove that it
was dedicated to Serapis. The other ruins belong in the main
to the Roman period. The most famous of them is the theatre,
largely hewn in the rock, which, though of Greek origin, was
entirely reconstructed. The seats are almost entirely gone,
but the stage and its adjacent buildings, especially the wall,
in two storeys, at the back, are well preserved: some of its marble
decorative details were removed for building material in the
middle ages, but those that remained have been re-erected.
The view from the theatre is of exceptional beauty, Mount Etna
being clearly seen from the summit to the base on the S.W.,
while to the N. the rugged outlines of the coast immediately
below, and the mountains of Calabria across the sea to the N.E.
make up one of the most famous views in the world. There are
also remains of a much smaller theatre (the so-called Odeum),
and some large cisterns; a large bath or tank which was ap-
parently open, known as the Naumachia, measures 4265 ft. in
length and 395 in width: only one of its long sides is now visible,
and serves as a foundation for several houses in the main street
of the modern town. The aqueducts which supplied these
cisterns may be traced above the town. There are remains
of houses, tombs, &c., of the Roman period, and fine speci-
mens of Romanesque and Gothic architecture in the modern
town.
See Rizzo, Guida di Taormina e dintorni, Catania, 1902. (T. As.)
TAPACULO, the name ' given in Chile to a bird of singular
appearance — the Pteroplochus albicollis of ornithology, and
applied in an extended sense to its allied forms, which constitute
a small family, Pteroptochidae, belonging to the Clamatores
division of Passeres, peculiar to South America. About 20
Tapaculo.
species, disposed by P. L. Sclater (Ibis, 1874, pp. 189-206)
in 8 genera, are believed to belong to this group.
The species of the Family first made known is Scytalopus
magellanicus, originally described in 1783 by J. Latham (Synopsis,
iv. p. 464) as a Warbler. Even in 1836 J. Gould not unnaturally
took it for a Wren, when establishing the genus to which it is
now referred; but some ten years after Johannes Muller found
that Scytalopus, together with the true Tapaculo, which was first
described by Kittlitz in 1830, possessed anatomical characters that
removed them far from any position previously assigned to them,
and determined their true place as above given. In the meanwhile
a kindred form, Hylactes, also first described in 1830, had been
shown by T. C. Eyton to have some very exceptional osteological
features, and these were found to be also common to Pteroptochus
and Scytalopus. In 1860 J. Cabanis recognized the Pteroptochidae
as a distinct Family, but made it also include Menura (see LYRE-
BIRD), and in 1874 P. L. Sclater (ut supra) thought that Atrichia (see
SCRUB-BIRD) might belong here. It was A. Garrod in 1876 and 1877
who finally divested the Family of these aliens, but until examples
of some of the other genera have been anatomically examined it may
not be safe to say that they all belong to the Pteroptochidae.
The true Tapaculo (P. albicollis) has a general resemblance in
plumage to the females of some of the smaller Shrikes (Lanius),
and to a cursory observer its skin might pass for that of one; but
its shortened wings and powerful feet would on closer inspection
at once reveal the difference. In life, however, its appearance
must be wholly unlike, for it rarely flies, hops actively on the ground
or among bushes, with its tail erect or turned towards its head, and
continually utters various and strange notes, — some, says Darwin,
are " like the cooing of doves, others like the bubbling of water,
and many defy all similes." The " Turco," Hylactes megapodius,
is larger, with greatly developed feet and claws, but is very similar
in colour and habits. Two more species of Hylactes are known, and
1 Of Spanish origin, it is intended as a reproof to the bird for the
shameless way in which, by erecting its tail, it exposes its hinder
parts. It has been sometimes misspelt " Tapacolo," as by C. Darwin,
who gave (Journal of Researches, chap, xii.) a brief but entertaining
account of the habits of this bird and its relative, Hylactes mega-
podius, called by the Chilenos " El Turco."
TAPER— TAPESTRY
403
one other of Pteroptochus, all of which are peculiar to Chile or
Patagonia. The species of Scytalopus are as small as Wrens,
mostly of a dark colour, and inhabit parts of Brazil and Colombia,
one of them occurring so far northward as Bogota. (A. N.)
TAPER (probably of Celtic origin, cf. Irish tapar, Welsh
tampr, taper, torch), a small thin candle of tallow or wax (see
CANDLE); from its early shape, in -which the circumference of
the top was smaller than that of the base, the word came to
be used in the sense of " slender," particularly of something
diminishing in size at one end. In architecture the word is
used of the gradual diminishing of a spire or column as it rises.
The spire tapers almost to a point, where it is terminated by a
finial or vane: the column tapers only to a less diameter at
the top, and as a general rule the more ancient the column the
greater its diminution or taper; thus in one of the early temples
at Selinus in Sicily the upper diameter is about half the lower
diameter, while in the Parthenon it is about one-fifth.
TAPESTRY. The Gr. rdTnjj and Lat. tapesium, from which
our word " tapestry " is descended, implied a covering to
both furniture and floors, as well as curtains or wall hangings,
and neither of them really defines the particular way in which
such articles were made. The decorations on these Greek and
FIG. I. — Gobelins high-warp tapestry frame, with weaver (l8th
century), holding in right hand (a) bobbin with weft thread wound
round its thick end, and with his left hand taking (e) some of the
lisses of strings with a loop at one end of each of them, through
which a warp thread is passed, and thus pulling forward those
warp threads in between which he will pass his weft, mm is
the tapestry he has woven, which has been wound round (p ) the
cylinder. The other letters in this diagram relate to details in
the frame which are of subsidiary 'interest. The description of
them would not further elucidate the act of weaving which is here
in question.
Roman coverings were effected by painting, printing, embroidery,
or a method of weaving with coloured threads; and specimens
and other conclusive evidence show that early Egyptians,
Babylonians, Chinese, Indians, Greeks and Romans employed
some at least of the means above-named.
Process The purpose of this article is to give some account
oftapes- of those decorated stuffs which are produced by
weaving coloured threads on to warp threads in a
weaving. manner tnat differs from shuttle-weaving, and at
the present day is called tapestry-weaving, such for instance
as is practised at the famous Gobelins and Beauvais tapestry
manufactories in France. At the Gobelins, the warp threads
are stretched in frames standing vertically (high warp or haute
lisse) : at Beauvais in frames placed horizontally with the ground
(low warp or basse lisse). In the one case the worker sits up to
his work, in the other he bends over it. In each he is supplied
with the design according to which he weaves, and notwithstand-
ing the varied positions the method of weaving is the nigh aaa
same. The thread-supply of each separate colour re- low warp
quired in the design is wound upon its appointed peg frame*.
or bobbin, which is a simpler implement or tool than a loom
weaver's shuttle. Fig. i shows a Gobelins high-warp tapestry
weaver of the i8th century at work. With his left- hand he is
pulling above his head a few of the looped strings (lices or lisses)
through which the warp threads (chaine) pass, so as to bring
forward the particular warp threads, in between and around
which he has to place the weft threads of the selected colour.
In fig. 2 the workman's left hand pulls forward groups of warp
threads upon the lower part of which the weaving has been
finished; and with a comb-like implement in his right hand he
presses down and compacts the weaving. In the story of the
competition between Minerva and Arachne (Metamorphoses,
vi. 55-69), Ovid appears to be describing this very process, and
a great number of specimens of 2nd to 5th century Egypto-
Roman workmanship corroborate the presumption of its
existence in Ovid's time. The absence of evidence to show that
loom and shuttle weaving was capable at that period of pro-
ducing elaborate figured fabrics is remarkable, and supports
the probability that the tapestry- weaving process was that
FIG. 2. — Gobelins tapestry-weaving, showing (a) the left hand
of the weaver pulling forward (c) a group of warp threads, into
which with (6) the comb in his right hand he is compressing at
point (d) the weft threads which have been passed around and in
between the warp threads; (e) are various bobbins, hanging at
rest, suspended by their weft threads; and (/) is the tapestry as
woven and compressed.
commonly known and practised for most if not all woven decora-
tion and ornament. It was certainly as freely used for costumes
as for hangings, couch and cushion covers and the like (see
CARPET). The frames in which the work was done varied ac-
cording to size from small and easily handled ones to large and
substantially constructed frames. As mentioned in the article
EMBROIDERY, ornament of tapestry-weaving occurs in a frag-
ment of Egyptian work 1450 B.C., and Greeks in the jrd or 4th
century B.C. also worked in this method, as is demonstrated by
specimens, now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, which were
found in the tomb of the Seven Brothers at Temriouck, formerly
a Greek settlement in the province of Kouban on the north-
eastern shore of the Black Sea.1 The simplicity of the process
is so obvious that it is found to be widely employed in expressing
a variety of primitive textile decoration of which pieces from
Borneo, Central Asia, Tibet, the Red Indians of America, and
the ancient inhabitants of Peru J (see fig. 10) are to be seen in
museums.
1 See Compte rendu. Com. Arch., 1878-79.
1 See Account of Craves at Ancon, Asher & Co. ; see also specimens
from Graves at Lima in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
404
TAPESTRY
As regards the antiquity of the two sorts of frames (the low
and high warp) the Beni Hassan wall paintings (1600 B.C.) include
diagrams of horizontal (low warp)frames, with weavers squatting
on the ground at work on them; while a vertical or high warp
frame is represented on a Greek vase of the 5th century B.C.
found at Chiusi (fig. 3), and corresponds with frames used in
Scandinavian countries.1 In both these last-named the lower
ends of the warp threads are merely weighted, thus presenting
FIG. 3. — Penelope's tapestry-weaving frame, from a Greek vase
of the 5th century B.C. The standing figure is that of Telemachus.
some difficulty to the act of weaving, and of subsequently com-
pacting the weft upwards, the warp not being taut and fastened
to a beam, according to more ordinary usage, as, for instance,
in the high warp frame illustrated in the codex of Rabanus
Maurus, gth century A.D., preserved at Monte Cassino (fig. 4).
The words " de Geneceo " in this illustration point to a medieval
survival of the earlier gunaikonites of the Greeks and the
gynaecea of the Romans, which were the quarters set apart in
the house of the well-to-do for the spinning, weaving and
embroidery done by women for the household. From such
ancient frames to similar haute and basse lisse frames of the
French tapissiers nostrez and tapissiers sarrasinois governed
under edicts (1226-70) of Louis IX., and so on to present-day
Gobelins and Beauvais frames, the transition can be easily
realized. The texture of all tapestry weavings presents no
radical difference in appearance, no matter when or where
produced.
Within reasonable limits it is not practicable to sketch in a
complete form the history, from the middle ages onwards, of the
prosecution of the art by each of the many European towns that
have become engaged in tapestry weaving. But the foregoing
remarks will suggest, what seems to have been the fact, that a
continuity in the knowledge of the art was kept up so that as
favourable conditions occurred it would be called
Roman into practice. Artificers (male and female) such as
tapestry- the Roman plumarii wove tapestries with figures of
weaving. Britons (Virgil, Georg., iii. 25) — " Purpurea intexti tollant
aulaea Britanni," — others with scenes from the story
of Theseus and Ariadne (Catullus, Argon., xlvi. 267), besides many
more for emperors and the wealthy. The demand for such pro-
duction of the textrinae or trade workshops, and of the more private
gynaecea, as well as the organization of workmen's societies, collegia
opificum, are evidence of circumstances lasting for some centuries
in Rome that were favourable to tapestry-weaving there. Sug-
gestive of Roman designs are the illustrations of part of a curtain
or wall hanging (fig. 5), and of a hanging or couch cover (fig. 6) ;
whilst the daintiest quality of tapestry- weaving for the ornamenta-
tion of a tunic is displayed in fig. 7. The ornamentation in fig. 5
— a hanging 5 ft. 3 in. by 19! in. — consists of a series of horizontal
leafy bands or garlands and other devices: between the upper
bands on a red ground is a bird on a leafy twig. This is Egypto-
Roman wo/k of about the 3rd century A.D. A portion of a linen
cloth or couch cover ornamented with tapestry woven in coloured
'See modern Faroese frame figured by Worsaae. Afbildinger
fra del K. Museum for Nordiske Old Sager. Copenhagen, 1854,
p. 123.
wools and linen thread is shown in fig. 6. At the top there is a
fragment of a horizontal border of floral and leaf ornament be-
neath which, and enclosed by festoons of leaves, are two boys
floating in the air and holding ducks; elsewhere are figures of boys
running and carrying baskets of fruit, and large and small blossom
forms or rosettes. This also is Egypto-Roman work, about the
4th century, and is 4 ft. 5 in. by 4 ft. I in. Fig. 7 presents a square
(from a small tunic) of very fine warp and weft tapestry-weaving,
with a child mounted on a white horse: in the border about him
are ducks, fish and (?) peaches. This too is Egypto-Roman work
of about the 2nd or 3rd century and is about 4 inches square. The
square in fig. 8 is from a tunic or robe and is of tapestry-weaving
in bright-coloured wools, with a representation of Hermes holding
the caduceus in one hand and a purse in the other. About his
head is a nimbus and his name in Greek characters. This again is
Egypto-Roman work of about the 1st or 2nd century and is 6J
inches square. The panel of tapestry-weaving in fig. 9 is from a
couch or bed covering, and is wrought in purple wools and linen
threads. The design recalls the description of the toralia or couch-
covering alluded to in Petronius Arbiter's account of Trimalchio's
banquet, " on which were depicted men in ambush with hunting
poles and all the apparatus of the chase." This piece is also of
Egypto-Roman work about the 2nd or 3rd century, about 12 in.
by 10 in.
The well-known 6th-century Ravenna mosaics of the Emperor
Justinian and the Empress Theodora are rich with hangings and
costumes decorated presumably with tapestry weavings similar
to those just described. From the 5th century and
for many centuries later, monasteries,2 nunneries and Tapestry-
the like, under ecclesiastical control or influence, weavlogln
became centres of activity in this and cognate arts, monas-
stimulated by the patronage of the Church and teries,
courts; and in the 8th and gth centuries the Em- 5th to 9th
peror Charlemagne's body of travelling inspectors, century.
missi dominici, appears to have exercised for a time
a helpful influence upon such centres throughout France
and in parts of Germany. Two centuries later, free, as distinct
from bond, handicraftsmen were forming local associations for
their industries, and in this movement the weavers took the jead
throughout England, Flanders and Brabant, France being a little
later.3 The gilds of weavers in London and Oxford
were granted charters by Henry I. In the nth century alias of
gilds of wool weavers existed at Cologne and Mainz, weavers.
and in the following century there was a similar
gild at Spires: it is quite probable that some of their
weaving would be of tapestry.4 The fragment in fig. II is con-
sidered by authorities to be of 12th-century north European work,
possibly from some Rhenish place. At one time the whole piece
FIG. 4. — High warp frame from MS. Codex by Rabanus Maurus
(9th century).
* See Recherches sur I'usage et I'origine des lapisseries a personnages,
by A. Jubinal, 1840, p. 13.
3 See L. Brentano's History and Development of Guilds, § IV.
" The Craft Guilds."
4 Eugene Miintz quotes a deed (between 1 164 and 1200) witnessed
by " Meginwart of Welt in burch," a tapetiarius, as well as another
(1177) in which mention is made of Fredericus, tapifex de familia
ecclesiae.
TAPESTRY
PLATE I.
FIGS. 5-9. — Specimens of Egypto-Roman tapestry weaving of about the 2nd to 5th century A.D. Victoria and Albert Museum.
XXVI. 404.
PLATE II.
TAPESTRY
FIG. 10. — Fragment of coarse linen material with a large
diamond panel of tapestry weaving in coloured
threads — Peruvian-made, before the conquest of
Peru by Pizarro. About 3 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in.
FIG. ii.— Portion of wall-hanging from the church of St Gereon, Cologne.
North French or German manufacture of the nth or I2th century.
About 2 ft. by 2 ft. 6 in.
FIG. 12. — An antependium, or altar hanging of tapestry woven in coloured wools, with the Adoration of the Magi, probably from a design
by Wohlgemuth (1434-1519). The tapestry is reputed to have been executed in a convent at Bamberg; below the folds of the
Virgin's cloak, to the right, the "tapissiere" has woven a figure of herself at work. German, isth century. This interesting piece
is in the museum at Munich. About 5 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft.
TAPESTRY
PLATE III.
FIG. 13. — One of a series of designs (the Trojan War) by Jean Foucquet (1415-1485) from which tapestry
hangings were woven, probably at Arras in the middle of the I5th century.
FIG. 14. — Part of the tapestry (13 ft. high) woven from the FIG. 15. — Part of the tapestry (10 ft. high) woven from the design
design in Fig. 13. Arrival of Queen Penthesilea at the in Fig. 13. Queen Penthesilea overcoming Diomedes.
court of King Priam.
FIG. 16. — Long and narrow tapestry (8 ft. 10 in. by 22 in.), German work of the 15th century. Field labours, &c.
PLATE IV.
TAPESTRY
FIG. 17. — Part of a wall hanging of tapestiy woven (probably at Brussels early in the i6th century) with coloured wools and silks,
which is one of a series designed, probably by some member of the school of Roger van der Weyden, to illustrate the Triumphs
written by Petrarch. The episode represented is the Triumph of Chastity over Love. Falling from a triumphal car fitted with
flaming altars or torches of love, and drawn by four winged white horses, is Cupid, whose left arm is grasped by Chastity mounted
on a unicorn and carrying the column symbolizing Strength or Constancy. Foremost in the multitude about the car of Love are
Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. In another part of this hanging is the date 1507. The height of this piece is 14 ft. This, with tapestries
of the Triumph of Death and Fame, is in the Victoria and Albert Museum : one hanging of the Triumph of Time is at Hampton Court.
TAPESTRY
405
belonged to the church of St. Gereon at Cologne; a large bit of it
is now in the museum at Lyons; another at Nuremberg; whilst
a small part of the border only is in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington. The pattern consists of repeated roundels
within each of which is a chimerical bird and bull (? St. Luke),
elsewhere is a small eagle (? St. John). The style of design, strong
in oriental and Byzantine character, is frequently found in shuttle-
woven silks of the period.
The renaissance of literature in the 1 2th century, infused with
romantic, mystical and religious tendencies, supplied subjects for
wall decoration by fresco painting, the practice of
Tapestries which was revived then and came into vogue in Italy
from the and the south, whilst its analogue in the northern and
13th cen- more weather- wearing countries is to be found chiefly
tury in decorative tapestry weavings. Much tapestry is
onwards, certainly indebted for its cartoons to wall painting, but
illustrations in MSS. also furnished subjects from which
tapestry was made by the tapissiers nostrez and tapissiers de la haute
lisse in France, Germany and Flanders.1 The earlier tapestries
usually seem to have been narrow and long, e.g. the " toile a broderie "
of Bayeux (see EMBROIDERY) and the 12th-century tapestries of
Halberstadt cathedral. Although the making such narrow, long
tapestries survived into the I4th and I5th centuries (see fig. 16),
larger shapes (see figs. 14 and 15) suitable as curtains and as hang-
ings to cover large wall-spaces became the more frequent. From
this time forward the output from many European towns of big
pieces, mostly woven with coloured wools, was continuous and
-considerable. The more sumptuous examples from the I4th to
the i yth century were enriched with gleaming silks and metallic
threads.2
The subjects of the cartoons from which tapestries were woven
varied of course with the tastes of the times, the more frequent of
the earlier ones being religious (see fig. 12) or illus-
Varlety of trative of moralities. Types of romantic, legendary
designs la subjects are displayed in figs. 14 and 15 of the Siege
tapestries, of Troy, and fig. 23 of Dido and Aeneas. Historical
design occurs in fig. 20, which is one of a set of
tapestries woven possibly at the royal factory of Fontainebleau
about 1540, to commemorate the fetes on the occasion of the
marriage of Henri II. with Catherine de Medicis; and again in
fig. 25, of the " Glorious Defence of Londonderry." Pastoral
incidents are shown in fig. 16, and social life episodes and incidents
in fig. 22, which was woven at the celebrated Medici factory,
Florence, in 1639 by a French weaver — Pierre Fevre — from a
design in the style of F. d'Albertino (11 Bacchiaca), i6th century,
entitled " L'inverno " (winter). Less human in interest are
tapestries, mostly of the late I5th century, wrought from leafy
designs, usually termed " verdures," of which several were made at
Brussels during the i6th century. Heraldic and floral devices
were also frequently used, see fig. 19, from a piece of the late
1 5th century in Winchester College, and fig. 1 8, which is at Haddon
Hall and was woven early in the l6th century. It is very similar
to hangings which are at Bern and are said to have been captured
from Charles the Bold at the battle of Granson. Many curiously
designed tapestries of German 15th-century origin are to be seen
in the museum at Basel — one of them (fig. 21) displays strange
beasts, unicorns, stags in the midst of Gothic foliage, and labels
with legends. Other tapestries, worked from still later phases of
ornamental design, are fantastic with schemes of abstract orna-
ment into which are introduced as subsidiary details figure subjects
set in panels and medallions.
The treatment of the compositions in cartoons for tapestry
follows that adopted by painters. Thus examples from the nth
to the end of the 1 5th century are formal in the drawing of the forms
introduced into them, and comparatively limited in range of colours,
lights and shades, in accordance with the mannerisms of the earlier
painters whether illuminators of MSS. or wall and panel painters.
It has been argued from this that the designers of such early
tapestry work possessed a sense of the limitations imposed by the
process and materials. But in their day the relatively small
number of dyes available involved conventionality in colour,
quite as much as the earlier styles of drawing involved conven-
tionality in form.
Fig. 13 is from an interesting design by Jehan Foucquet
(1415-1485): and is one of a set, made by him to illustrate the
1 Guiffrey's Nicolas Bataille contains particulars of the loan
by Charles V. of France to his brother Louis, duke of Anjou, of an
illuminated MS. from which Hennequin or Jean of Bruges, painter
in ordinary and valet de chambre to the king, made the cartoons
used by Nicolas Bataille (lapissier de Paris) in weaving two hangings
representing the Apocalypse (1377).
2 " Tapis de haute lice de fin fil d'arras owork (L or de Chipre "
(A.D. 1395). One of the largest and most delicately wrought
tapestry hangings in which gold and silver threads are freely used
is that of the Adoration of the Eternal Father: on the left of this
is the story of the Emperor Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl : on
the right the story of Esther and Ahasuerus. It was bought by
Mr Pierpont Morgan.
Trojan War, now in the Louvre. From these drawings tapestries
were woven at Arras probably in the middle of the isth century.
One of these hangings in the Victoria and Albert Museum (see
figs. 14 and 15) is from Foucquet's design, representing the arrival
of Queen Penthesilea and her warrior women at Troy and the part
she took in a fight in which she vanquished Diomedes. This
episode was introduced by Quintus Calaber (or Smyrnaeus), a 4th-
century writer, in his version of the Homeric story. A tapestry
from another of Foucquet's designs displaying King Priam in the
midst of his court is in the Palais de Justice at Issoire.
When Raphael, master of a freer and more realistic style in
rendering form and colour, produced his cartoons of the Acts of the
Apostles for a set of hangings for Pope Leo X., a new con-
dition naturally came into play, and practically became Introduc-
a principal source of the contrast which is observable tloa of
between the designs of tapestries made before his time and realism In
those made after the early part of the l6th century, designs for
The provision of a bigger scale of dyes for the wools and tapestrle*.
silks was stimulated to secure success in weaving these
more realistic representations of forms and greater subtleties in
colour, as well as the developed effects of perspective: compare, for
instance, the treatment in fig. 14 with that in fig. 22. The re-
straint or limitations of the earlier styles were thus gradually
supplanted by the comparative complexities of the later; and it
is a rxiint of interest to note that provision for still further inventing
and improving dyes and so helping tapestry to assimilate to paint-
ing is specially included in the regulations (1667) of the state
manufactory of the Gobelins, where under M. Chevreul (director
of the dye-works for more than fifty years during the igth century)
14,400 tones of colour have been used.
A chronological succession of styles may also be traced in the
borders enclosing such varieties of design as those just referred
to. As a rule borders consisting of a selvage or plain
band come first (see fig. 12), followed by those in which Size* of
labels with block-letter legends (figs. 14 and 15 and border*
fig. 17) are features; after them are narrow borders Indication*
filled in with closely and well-arranged floral forms (see of date.
lower border in fig. 17), to which succeed borders of greater
width containing elaborate detail (fig. 20). Such as these date
from soon after the beginning of the i6th century, and those rather
wider and more extravagant in ornament follow on somewhat
later (see figs. 22 and 23). In the i8th century massive rococo
proscenium Frames, as in fig. 25, are sometimes adopted.
Of the notable centres where the industry of tapestry-weaving
has been in considerable practice, Arras in the I4th and i§th centuries,
Brussels in the 15th and i6th, Middelburg and Delft in
the late l6th and early I7th centuries,8 Paris in the I6th Notable
and 1 7th centuries and down to the present time, with centres
Mortlake in the I7th century, probably stand foremost; of the
and from them the services of experienced workmen Industry.
equipped with frames and implements were requisitioned
and secured at most of the short-lived contemporaneous centres
in almost all parts of Europe. Several names of tapestry-weavers
working during the first half of the I4th century in Arras, Paris.
Valenciennes, St. Omer and Reims, for Burgundian, Flemish and
French nobles, have been recorded.4 Throughout that century a
few weavers and many tapestries came from Arras into England,
where the term " arras " became the generic name for woven wall-
hangings. Arras tapestries also went in quantities into Italy
where they were called " Arazzi," and into Spain where they bore
the name " pannos de raz." The tapicers of London received their
statutes in 1331, and Edward III. caused an inquiry to be held
into the mistera tapiciarorum.* The industry at Arras began to
decline soon after 1460, and was succeeded about this date by works
at Bruges, Ghent, Tournai, Lille, Oudenarde, but more especially
at Brussels, at which last city the industry grew to an importance
even greater than it had enjoyed previously at Arras or elsewhere.
The regulations of the Brussels corporation of tapissiers were
framed in 1451. Under them tapissiers might draw for one another
the stuffs of hangings or of costumes in their figure compositions,
trees, animals, boats, grasses, &c., in their " verdures," or leafy
3 Only one or two of the tapestries representing the several
engagements between the English and Spanish fleets in 1588 which
used to hang in the House of Lords (see rine, Tapestry of the House
of Lords, London, 1739) were saved from the fire (1835), and are
now at Hampton Court. They closely correspond with a set com-
memorating engagements between the Dutch and Spanish fleets
(1572 and 1576) which are in the great Assembly Hall of the Pro-
vincial States of Zeeland. These latter were woven chiefly at the
tapestry works at Middelburg, 1595-1629; the former were woven
at Francis Spiring's works (or Spierincx) at Delft. Both, it appears,
were designed by H. Cornelius Vroom of Harlem. For interesting
details of the Middelburg works see van der Graft's De Tapiit-
Fabrieken (Middelburg, 1869), and supplementary documents by
De Waard (Oud-Holland, xv., 65, 1897).
4 See lists in W. G. Thomson's History of Tapestry.
* Rot. Pat. 38 Ed. III., Hardy's Record Kymer, vol. 3,
part 2,
406
TAPESTRY
compositions, and the flowers, &c., as in the ground of Fig. 18,
and might complete or correct their cartoons with charcoal or
chalk, but for every other style of work they were bound to apply
to professional painters under pain of fine.1
In 1528 the Brussels tapissiers and dealers in tapestries were
required to mark their weavings, and Charles V. ordered all tapestry
makers in the Low Countries to do the same.2 This
Tapestry practice was followed in other countries into which
makers' emigrant Flemish or French weavers had carried the
marks. industry, making their tapestries very often from
copies they took with them of cartoons designed by
noted Italian and Flemish painters. Makers' marks have in so
many cases been cut from tapestries that it becomes practically
impossible to identify the places where they were made, and the
dates of their production can only be conjectured from the styles
of designs, supplied for instance by such artists (or their
Artists followers) as the Van Eycks, Roger van der Weyden,
wliode- Mantegna, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Bernard van
signed Orley, Lancelot Blondeel and John van der Straaten or
cartoons Stradanus; this last-named was for many years em-
for tapes- ployed in connexion with the important " Arrazeria
tfy- Medici" f ou nded in Florence by Cosmo I ., duke of Tuscany
(1537), which lasted until the beginning of the l8th century; Strad-
anus's style of design is similar to that of episodes in the story of Dido
and Aeneas shown in fig. 23 from an Oudenarde tapestry of the
early iyth century. Reverting to the i6th century, reference
must be made to Cardinal Wolsey and Henry VIII., who possessed
enormous quantities of the best Flemish tapestries of their time and
earlier, and a fair number of them are still preserved at Hampton
Court Palace.3 The king had in his service not only agents especially
in Brussels to buy hangings, but also a considerable staff of " Arras-
makers." In Ireland, the taste for tapestry was evidenced by a
manufactory at Kilkenny of " tapestry, Turkey carpets and
diapers," founded early in the l6th century at the instance of Piers,
8th earl of Ormond and his ladv, Margaret FitzGerald, and giving
employment to workmen introduced by him from Flanders.4 At
a rather later date tapestry works were established by William
Sheldon at Weston and Barcheston in Warwickshire, with a yiew
to which he previously sent Richard Hickes to the Low Countries
to learn tapestry- weaving. A few Flemings were probably brought
over by him and set to work at Barcheston and Weston, where he
was appointed " master weaver." In his will (1569) Sheldon calls
Hickes, somewhat erroneously perhaps, " the only auter and be-
ginner of tapestry and Arras within this realm." His son, Francis
Hickes, was educated at St Mary Hall, Oxford (1579-83), and
about 1640 he caused some tapestry maps to be woven.6 Made
before them are a set of hangings of the " Four Seasons," now
preserved at Hatfield. These are most probably from designs by
Francis Hickes. They were bought by the marquis of Salisbury
very shortly before the first visit of Queen Victoria to Hatfield.
The borders of these pieces with small medallions and Latin mottoes
are attractively amusing and interesting. In the lower border
(fig. 24) one may read " VIA. VIRTUTI. ENCYCLOPEDIA "; in the
upper border a date, " 1611," occurs in one medallion. In the
upper border of each hanging is an important coat of arms with
several quarterings, chief of which are those of Tracey of Tpddington
in Gloucestershire impaling those of Shirley of Wiston in Sussex.
The designer's inventiveness and fancy in illustrating attributes, &c.,
of the " Seasons " are almost exuberant, however restricted and
quaint his graphic power seems to be.
Philip II. is mentioned as having encouraged a manufacture of
tapestry by Flemings in Madrid in 1582. In 1539, Francis I.
started a royal factory for tapestry at Fontainebleau (see fig. 20),
and employed Primaticcio amongst other artists to furnish the
necessary designs. Henry II., whilst continuing work at Fontaine-
bleau, caused a second factory to be set going in Paris at the H6pital
de la Trinit6. Henry IV. continued this royal patronage in lavish
fashion and added yet another factory, that in the Faubourg St.
Antoine, which in 1603 was transferred to workrooms in the Louvre.
As Paris thus came to the fore, so Brussels gradually declined.
Upon the death of Henry IV. in 1610 Pans tapestry-making
suffered a check, which may perhaps have contributed somewhat
favourably to the start made by James I. to organize the Mortlake
works, where several foreign workmen were employed under the
direction of Sir Francis Crane.6 Both James I. and Charles I.
1 Bulletin des commissions royales d'art et d'archeologie. Wauters,
Les tapissiers de haute et basse lisse a Bruxelles,
2 See list of tapestry marks, pp. 472-81 in Thomson's History
of Tapestry.
* See Law's Hampton Court Palace, 1885.
4 See Transactions of the Kilkenny Archaeological Society, 1852,
" Ancient Tapestry at Kilkenny Castle," by the Rev. James Graves.
6 See " Tapestry Maps in the Museum at York " (paper read before
Royal Geographical Society by Rev. W. K. R. Bedford, printed
loth Dec. 1896, and included in vol. i. of the society's Transactions
for 1897), also in Bodleian Library.
* A half-length portrait by Van Dyck of Sir Francis Crane
worked in tapestry, and one or two small fine-warp tapestry panels
supplied considerable sums of money for the Mortlake works, and
tapestries were made there, as fine as any contemporaneously
at Paris or Brussels, e.g. those from Raphael's cartoons of " the
Acts of the Apostles,"7 Rubens's "Story of Achilles," and por-
traits by Van Dyck. After the execution of Charles I., Mortlake
declined, and new life was infused into the industry at Paris under
the influence of Colbert, to whose strong personal interest in the
arts is due the organization in 1667 of the Hotel des Gobelins under
the painter Charles le Brun as the Manufacture Royale des Meubles
de la Couronne, which for large hangings became the premier
tapestry-weaving centre in Europe. Three years previously Colbert
had initiated a similar manufactory, chiefly with low-warp frames,
at Beauvais, which is noted for sofa and chair seats and backs,
screens and small panels.
Efforts to establish the industry in Rome were made during the
I7th century, but it is only since the pontificate of Clement XI.
in 1702 that a papal factory has been successfully conducted and
is still carried on in the Vatican. The manufactory of Santa
Barbara in Madrid was founded by Philip V. in 1720, and
although it was closed in 1808 it re-opened in 1815 and is still
at work.
Tapestry-weaving during the iSth century under private enter-
prise was pursued with success and still continues at Aubusson,
Felletin; it was carried on for a short time only at
Fulham, Soho, Exeter, and for rather longer periods at isth and
Lille, Cambrai, Gisors, Nancy, Naples, Turin, Venice, 19th ceo-
Seville, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Heidelberg and St tuty
Petersburg, maintaining, however, no very prolonged tapestry-
existence at any of these latter places. In more modern weaving.
times English tapestries woven after 1878 at the Merton
works from designs by William Morris (see fig. 26), as well as by Sir
Edward Burne-Jones8 and Mr Walter Crane, have great dis-
tinction in vigorous style reminiscent of virile medieval work.
In mere technique of weaving with fine warp and weft they are
outdone by the comparatively effeminate and delicate painting-
like fabrics now made at the Gobelins and Aubusson.
Towards the end of the iyth century as well as early in the i8th
century some tapestry-weaving was carried on in Ireland. For
about twenty years at Chapelizod, near Dublin, tapestry frames
were worked by Christopher and John Lovett, the latter of whom
had to leave Dublin, bringing with him into England some thirty-
eight pieces of tapestry of " Their Majesties' Manufacture of
Ireland." In the Bank of Ireland, in College Green, Dublin, are
two large hangings which were executed by Robert Baillie, who
is said to have held the appointment of upholsterer to the Irish
government in 1716.' One of them represents the Battle of the
Boyne, the other the " Glorious Defence of Londonderry " (see
fig. 25). Lough Foyle and the hill surmounted by the city of
Londonderry are represented in the landscape: to the left in the
foreground is James II., by whom is the Commander Hamilton
with his hat off, and near at hand cavalry : on the right are mortars,
cannon and foot soldiers. The border of this tapestry is fantastic
in design and rather in the style of an over-elaborated theatre
proscenium, upon which hang medallions containing portraits
of Captain Baker, the Rev. Dr Walker and the captain of the
frigate " Dartmouth," in which the supplies were brought to the be-
sieged which led to the relief of the city and the defeat of the in-
vesting army. The designs for these Dublin tapestries are credited
to John Vanbeaver, a Flemish weaver, who seems to have been a
moderate draughtsman. They are clearly adaptations of designs
of historical events, by Le Brun and van der Meulen, from which
tapestries were woven at the Gobelins factory to the order of
Louis XIV. at the end of the I7th century. These Dublin
hangings were woven about 1735, and Baillie was commissioned
to make four others representing the landing of the prince of
Orange, his army at Carrickfergus, the Battle of Aughrim,
and the taking of Cork and Kinsale by Marlborough.10 These,
however, were not completed, and Baillie was paid £200 as
compensation.
Tapestry-weaving as a possible cottage or home industry is
practised in a few places in Ireland and England. In the Far East,
China and Japan, the art, adopted presumably from western Asia,
is sometimes resorted to in making silken robes and intricately
figured hangings. The Japanese call their tapestry-weaving tsu-
of the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, hang at Lord Petre's, Thorndon
Hall, Brentwood. Ancestors of the late Lady Petre were related
to the Crane family, as well as to the Markham family with which
Edward Sheldon by his marriage early in the 1 7th century became
connected. The Sheldon and Markham arms occur in the border
of one of the map tapestries in the Bodleian Library.
7 The original cartoons, the property of the Crown, are exhibited
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
8 A very fine set of Merton tapestries made from Burne-Jones's
designs are in the Municipal Museum at Birmingham.
9 References to his employment in making tapestries occur in
the Journal of the Irish House of Lords.
10 See Gilbert's History of Dublin, vol. iii. p. 79.
TAPESTRY
PLATE V.
FIG. 18. — Brussels, early
XXVI. 406.
l6th century, hanging, covered
Now at Haddon Hall.
with masses of flowers, on which are
The property of the duke of Rutland.
shields bearing the royal arms.
PLATE VI.
TAPESTRY
FIG. 2o. — Tapestry hanging (about 10 ft
Fontainebleau manufacture about 1540.
Henri II. and Catherine de Medicis.
high) possibly of
Fetes in honour of
FlG. 19. — Brussels tapestry (about 6 ft. high), late I5th century,
with a shield bearing three crowns, red and white roses,
and the monogram I.H.S. repeated three times. From
Winchester College.
FlG. 21. — German tapestry hanging (about 4 ft. 6 in. long by
3 ft. high) for a sideboard or buffet, middle of the I5th
century. In the museum at Basel.
FlG. 22. — Tapestry hanging (about 10 ft. high) made at the Medici
factory in Florence, 1639. Domestic scene, I'lnverno, winter.
TAPESTRY
PLATE VLL
FIG. 23. — Oudenarde tapestry, early i;th century. The design, " Dido and Eneas," rather in the
style of J. van Straeten.
FIG. 24. — One of the four tapestry hangings of the "Seasons," of Winter with Aeolus in the centre, probably woven under the
direction of Francis Hickes at William Sheldon's manufactory at Barcheston, in Warwickshire, early in the iyth century, and
now at Hatfield House.
PLATE VIII.
TAPESTRY
FIG. 25. — Defence of Londonderry. Irish (Dublin) tapestry, early i8th century.
FIG. 25. — Tapestry woven at Merton Abbey, from a design by William Morris (1834-1896). The subject is from his poem
"The Orchard." Victoria and Albert Museum.
TAPEWORMS
407
Fine examples of early and later European tapestries are to be
seen in the cathedrals of Reims, Bruges, Tournai, Angers, Beauvais,
Aix, Sens, in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London,
Places Windsor Castle, Hampton Court, StMary'sHall Coventry,
where floe the Louvre and Cluny Museums in Paris, at Chantilly,
tapestries Chartres, Amiens, Dijon, Orleans, Auxerre, Nancy, Bern,
are now Brussels, Basel, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna and
preserved. Nuremberg. In Italy the largest collections (mostly of
l6th and I7th century work) are those of the Vatican
at Rome, and the Reale Galleria degli Arazzi at Florence. Many fine
pieces are in the royal palace at Turin, the Palazzo del Te at Mantua,
the royal palace at Milan, in the cathedral of Como, and the museum
at Naples. The collection at the palace of Madrid is one of the
largest in Europe, and comprises more than one thousand examples,
the older of which, of splendid Flemish design and weaving, be-
longed to Ferdinand and Isabella, Philippe le Bel and the Emperor
Charles V.1 The principal cathedrals of Spain also possess im-
portant tapestries; those preserved at the cathedral of Toledo
are more than enough to supply hangings for the outside and inside
of that building on the feast of Corpus Christ!. Throughout the
European continent, in the United States of America, and in Great
Britain almost uncountable tapestries are displayed or stored in
mansions, castles, chateaux and palazzi, belonging to noble and
wealthy families. A large number of books have been written
and published on the subject generally, and many of them, contain-
ing good illustrations, are of recent date.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The following works may be mentioned as
likely to prove useful for investigating the history and character
of Egypto- Roman and Coptic textiles: — J. Karabacek, Die Theodor
Grafschen Fiinde in Aegypten (" Die Textilien-Grdberfunde "), 8vo,
Vienna, 1883; Alan S. Cole, Catalogue of a Collection of Tapestry
Woven and Embroidered Egyptian Textiles in the South Kensington
Museum, London, 1887; "Egyptian Tapestry," Society of Arts,
Cantor Lectures, London, 1889; A. Riegl, Die dgyptischen Textil-
funde im K. K. Osterreich. Museum, 13 photo-lithographs, 4to,
Vienna, 1889; E. Gerspach, Les tapisseries copies, 153 (some
coloured) illustrations, 410, Paris, 1890; R. Forrer, Mein Besuch
in El-Achmim, I phototype and 36 process illustrations, 8vo,
Strassburg, 1895; Romische und Byzantinische Seiden-Textilien aus
dem Grdberfelde von Achmim-Panopolis, 28 pp., 17 (15 coloured)
plates, and illustrations in the text, 4to, Strassburg, 1891 ;
Wladimar Bock, Coptic Art; Coptic Figured Textiles (in Russian),
32 pp., 6 phototype plates, 4to, Moscow, 1897; W. Lowrie, Christian
Art and Archaeology (pp. 362-82, " Textile Art "), process illustra-
tions, 8vo, New York and London, 1901 ; A. Gayet, L'art copte (pp.
317-27, " Les tissus "), process illustrations, 8yo. Paris, 1902.
In respect of medieval and later tapestries the titles of the
following works are quoted: — Jubinal, Anciennes tapisseries, Paris,
'838-39; Ronchaud, La tapisserie dans I'antiauM; Le peplos
d'Anthene, Paris, 1884; Miintz, La tapisserie, Paris, 1882; Boileau,
Les metiers et corporations de la ville de Paris au xiii' si'ecle, Paris,
1879; Barbier de Montault, Tapisseries du sacre d' Angers, Paris,
1863; De Farcy on the same subject, 1875; Barraud, Tap. de la
cath. de Beauvais, Beauvais, 1853; Pinchart, Roger van der Weyden
. . . et les tapisseries de Berne, Brussels, 1864; Loriquet, Tap. de la
cathedrale de Reims, Reims, 1882; Guiffrey, Pinchart and Miintz,
Histoire genetale de la tapisserie, 1878; Miintz, Les fabriques de
tapisseries de Nancy, 1883; Voisin, Tap. de la cath. de Tournay,
Tournai, 1863; Van Drival, Tap. d'Arras, Arras, 1864; Gorse,
Tap. du chateau de Pau, Paris, 1881; De la Fons-Melicoq, Haut-
lisseurs des xivme au xvim* siecles, Paris, 1870; Notice sur les Tap.
de Beauvais, Clermont, 1842; Deville, Statuts, etc., relatifs a la corp.
des tap. de 1258 a 1275, Paris, 1875; Darcel, Les manufactures
nationales de tapisserie des Gobelins de Paris, 1885; van de Graft,
De Tapijt-Fabrieken der xvi. en xvii. Eeuw, Middelburg, 1869; De
Montault, Tap. de haute lisse a Rome, Arras, 1879; Conti, L'arte
degli arazzi in Firenze, Florence, 1875; Campori, L'arazzeria
Estense, Modena, 1876; Braghirolli, Arazzi in Mantova, Mantua,
1879; Farabulini, L'arte degli arazzi, Rome, 1884; Gentili, L'art
des tapis, Rome, 1878; Miintz, Tap. Italiennes, Paris, 1880;
Dorregaray, Museo Espanol de Antiguedades (Flemish Tapestry,
vol. vii. p. 47), Madrid, 1871-76; Darcel and Guichard, Les tap.
decoratives, Paris, 1877; Lacordaire, Notice sur V origins des tapis-
series des Gobelins, &c., Paris, 1855; Guillaumot, Manufacture . . .
des Gobelins, Paris, 1800; Rahlenbeck, Les Tapisseries des Rois de
Navarre (in Messager des Sciences Historiques, Gand, 1868); Pera-
thon, Tap. d'Aubusson, de Felletin, et de Bellegarde, Paris, 1857;
Roy-Pierrefitte, Les tap. de Felletin, Limoges, 1855; Durieux,
Tap. de Cambrai, Cambrai, 1879; About and Bauer, Tap. apres les
cartons de Raphael, Paris, 1875; Houdoy, Tap. de la fabrication
Littoise, Lille, 1871; Vergnaud-Romagnesi, Tap. au Musee
d' Orleans, Orleans, 1859; De St Genois, Tap. d'Oudenarde, Paris,
1864; Guiffrey, Hist, de la tapisserie, Tours, 1886; Pine, Tapestry
of the House of Lords, London, 1739; Vallance Aymer, The Art of
William Morris (see pp. 83-92); W. G. Thomson, A History of
Tapestry from the earliest times until the present day, London, 1906.
(A. S. C. )
1 See Report of Senor I. F. RiaRo to the Director of the South
Kensington Museum, 1875.
TAPEWORMS. The Cestodes or Tapeworms form a class
of purely endoparasitic Platyelmia, characterized by their
elongate shape, segmented bodies, and the absence of a digestive
system. With few exceptions they are composed (i) of a
minute organ of fixation (the scolex), which marks the proximal
attached end of the body; (2) of a narrow neck from which
(3) a number of segments varying from three to several thousands
are budded off distally. These segments, or " proglottides,"
become detached in groups, and if kept moist retain their powers
of movement and vitality for a considerable time. This fact
gave rise in ancient times to the false idea that the tapeworm
originated from the union of these segments; and in modern
times it has led to the view that the tapeworm is not a seg-
mented organism (the monozoic view), but is a colony composed
of the scolex which arises from the embryo and of the pro-
glottides, which are asexually produced buds that, upon or
before attaining their full size and maturity, become separated,
grow, and, in some cases, live freely for a time, just as the
segments of a strobilating jelly-fish grow, separate and become
sexual individuals (the polyzoic view). Whether this view is
soundly based is discussed below; the fact remains, however,
that a tapeworm is, with few and rare exceptions, not directly
comparable at all points with a liver-fluke or indeed with any
other organism. The influence of parasitism has so profoundly
influenced its structure that its affinities are obscured by the
development of specialized and adaptive features.
In contrast to these segmented or " merozoic " Cestodes, a
few primitive forms have preserved a unisegmental character
and form the Monozoa or Cestodaria. We may therefore
divide Cestodes into the Monozoa and the Merozoa.
Order I. — MONOZOA
This order comprises a few heterogeneous forms which probably
constitute at least three families.
Family I. Amphilinidae. — Oval or leaf-shaped animals found
in the sturgeon and
certain other fish.
Amphilina foliacea
(fig. i) is in many
ways closely allied to
the Trematoda, from
which, however, it is
distinguished by the
want of a digestive
system. One end of
the body (usually
designated anterior)
is provided with a
glandular pit (fig. I,
Aa) which is regarded
as a sucker or as re-
lated to the uterine
opening (birth-pore).
The excretory system
consists of peculiar
cells, each of which
bears several"flames"
or bunches of syn-
chronously vibrating
cilia. These cells are /-
imbedded in the peri-
pheral parenchyma,
and lead into convo-
luted excretory tubes
that form an anasto-
mosis opening to the
exterior by a pore at FlG. i.— A, reproductive system of Amphilina
the hinder end of foliacea: a, glandular pit; b, opening of
the body. The epi- uterus; b', uterus (black) ; c, yolk-gland and
dermis consists of jts duct ; d, ovary ; e, e', opening and duct of
pynform cells, which vagina; /, spermotheca; g, male genital
send richly branched opening (gonopore) ; h, penis ; *', vasdeferens ;
processestpthesuper- jt testes; k, shell-gland. B, Amphi-ptyches
(Gyrocotyle) urna. Outline of the ventral
surface to show the external apertures and
nervous system ; a, rosette-organ ; 6, uterine
pore; c, terminal sucker; e, vaginal pore;
g, male gonopore; n, o, p, nervous system.
(From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology,
part iv.)
ficial cuticle. The pa-
renchyma is made
up of stellate cells the
processes of which
formareticulum. The
reproductive organs
consist of the parts
shown in fig. I, A,
in hg. i, .
and it will be seen that, in addition to the openings of the male
TAPEWORMS
and of the female (vaginal) ducts, there is a distinct uterine opening
at the opposite end of the body (6). Moreover, in Amphilina
liguloidea a fourth duct (the anterior vagina) begins close to the
origin of the female duct, and after running forward a short
distance ends blindly (see fig. 7, C). The egg gives rise to an oval
larva, one half of which is ciliated and bears gland-cells, the opposite
end carrying ten hooks. The fate of the larva is unknown.
Family II. Gyrocotylidae. — Leaf-shaped animals with crenate
margins. One extremity carries a pedunculate rosette-organ. It
is traversed by a canal from which a peculiar proboscis-like structure
can be exserted. The opposite end is pointed and provided with
a terminal sucker. Amphiptyches ( = Gyrocotyle) urna (fig. I, B)
is found in the intestine of Chimaera and Callorhynchus, and has
been almost fully described by Spencer (7). The embryo is pro-
vided with ten hooks, and appears to select Lamellibranchs
(Mactra) for its intermediate host.
Family III. Caryophyllaeidae. — Elongated cylindrical animals
either with a single subterminal sucker at the proximal end, or
with the corresponding end of the body converted into a mobile
undulatory fold. Caryophyllaeus mutabilis occurs in the roach
and other fresh-water fish, and passes its earlier stages of develop-
ment in fresh-water Oligochaets (Tubifex). Archigetes appendi-
culatus lives throughout life in the coelom of Tubifex and of
Limnodrilus.
Archigetes and Caryophyllaeus are the only Cestodes that become
fully differentiated in an invertebrate host. The former indeed
FIG. 2. — Various Forms of Tapeworms. A, Taenia echinococcus ;
X 12 (from Leuckart). B, Archigetes sieboldi; X 60 (from
Leuckart). C,Echinobothriumtypus; X io(from Van Beneden).
D, Caryophyllaeus mutabilis; X about 5 (from Carus).
is said to produce fully developed gonads, and if kept in aquaria
with Tubifex, the number of infected worms steadily increases,
a fact pointing to the whole cycle being passed through, without
the intermediation of a vertebrate host. Conclusive evidence,
however, has not yet been adduced to prove this point. The two
genera agree closely in form and structure and may possibly belong
to the cycle of the same or of allied species. Archigetes (3 mm.
long) consists of a subcylindrical body and a caudal appendage.
The former bears two terminal suckers on the flattened dorsal
and ventral surfaces, the latter six hooks near the tip of the tail.
The finer structure of the animal has been investigated by Mrazek
(10), whose account, however, is published in the Hungarian lan-
guage. It shows a close agreement with that of Caryophyllaeus.
A well-developed cellular parenchyma forms a matrix in which
the muscular, excretory and generative organs are imbedded.
The nervous system consists of a ring below the suckers and of a
large number of radially arranged tracts running forwards and
backwards. Caryophyllaeus is an elongated, flattened worm pro-
vided with one extremely mobile extremity, the other being drawn
out during the animal's sojourn in Tubifex into a short hexacanth
tail. It becomes fully developed in its invertebrate host, but ap-
parently cannot produce eggs until transferred into the intestine
of a fish.
Order II. — MEROZOA
The Merozoa, to which the ordinary tapeworms of man and
domestic animals belong, includes the great majority of the Cestodes.
They occur in vertebrate animals throughout the globe, though
varying in abundance in different districts and at different times.
With few exceptions tapeworms select the small intestine for their
station, and in this situation execute active movements of ex-
tension and contraction. The body, or " strobUa," consists of a
usually minute organ of attachment (scolex or its representative)
which is imbedded in the intestinal membrane, and of a series of
segments that arise from the base of the scolex and increase in
size distally. In one family (Ligulidae) the segmentation is only
expressed in the metameric distribution of the generative organs
and the worm is externally unisegmental. In the remainder the
segmentation involves primarily the genitalia and includes the
integument, muscles and part of the excretory system. The
nervous system is, however, not segmented, and the excretory
system is continuous throughout the worm.
Scolex. — The scolex is biradially constructed, the proglottides
flattened, quadrangular and bilaterally symmetrical. In them a
ventral surface containing the usually median male and female
genital apertures is generally distinguishable from the smooth
o.d.
FIG. 3. — Anatomy of Taenia (from Leuckart). A, portions of Taenia
saginata; X |. B, head of the same; X 8. C. head of T. solium,
showing the crown of hooks; X 22. D, a segment of T. saginata,
showing the generative organs: n., nervous system; ex., longi-
tudinal excretory tubes; lr., transverse vessel; g.p., genital
papilla; cl., cloaca; c.p., cirrus pouch; v.d., vas deferens; /./.,
testes; t>., vagina; ov. ov., ovaries; sh.g., shell gland; y.g.,
yolk gland ; r.s., receptaculum seminis; ut., uterus; X 7- E., the
connexions of the generative organs, lettering as above: o.d.,
o.d., oviducts;/., fertilizing canal; X 30. F, detached segment
of T. saginata, showing ripe uterus; X 2. G, six-hooked
embryo, highly magnified.
dorsal surface, but in those Cestodes which possess marginal gono-
pores this distinction of surface is obscured. In such cases the
male organs are regarded as indicating the dorsal surface, the
female organs as belonging to the ventral surface.
The scolex is usually a conical muscular structure. It bears
adhesive organs that are either suckers or hooks, and may develop
into the most varied outgrowths in order to give increased firmness
of attachment to its host. Thus, starting from the two shallow
pits, one dorsal and the other central, in the simplest forms, we
find them becoming two elongated suckers (bothria) in the large
family Bothriocephalidae (fig. 8); and by fusion of the lips they
TAPEWORMS
409
are transferred into two tubes (Solenophoridae) ; and by the closure
of the lower aperture reconstituted into two suckers, the margins
of which are produced and folded so as to resemble the leaf-like
outgrowths of the next group. In this division (Tetraphyllidea)
four suckers or bothria are developed on the scolex, but their cavities
are extremely shallow and their lips extremely mobile and variable
in shape. Hence they are called phylhdia (fig. 4). These organs
may be raised on a short stalk,
their cavity subdivided into loculi,
and provided in some cases with
hooks. A peculiar modification
of this type of scolex occurs in the
Echinobothridae, in which the axial
part of the organ (the rostellum)
is elongated and provided with
several rows of hooks, whilst the
phyllidia have partially fused.
This elaborate type of scolex
appears to be an adaptation to
grasp the spiral intestinal valve of
sharks and rays. But perhaps the
most elaborate scolex is that of
the Tetrarhyncha (fig. 5), which
, r- i are also parasitic in Selachians.
FIG. 4.— Scolex of Calyptobo- The four suckers arc here united
thnum nggn from the Tor- to form two irs or fused into
pedo, magnified to show the a s; ,e ;/ Internal to the
Four pnylhdia, each of suckers are the four complex
which has a sucken (From hooked proboscides. Each con-
iraun, in Bronn is Klassenu. sists of an eversible hollow tentacle
Ordnungen d.Thierreichs by provided with hooklets and capable
permission of C.S Winter sche of introvers;on within a mem-
Verlagshandlung). branous sheath filled with fluid.
The sheath terminates in an elongated muscular bulb. The muscles
are arranged ..in ten or more layers, and are transversely striated.
These complex organs have apparently arisen by the increase in
depth and differentiation of an accessory sucker such as is borne
on the phyllidia of the former group. Lastly, the scolex of the
more familiar Taeniidae (Tetracotylea) carries a rostellum en-
circled with hooks and four cup-shaped suckers the margins of
which do not project beyond the surface of the body. If seems
probable that these suckers are not the true " bothria " but are
developed from accessory suckers, the bases of which have dis-
appeared almost completely. In one genus (Polypocephalus) the
place of a rostellum is taken by a crown of retractile tentacles.
This order is almost exclusively parasitic in warm-blooded animals.
The extraordinary variety of form and complication of structure
exhibited by the appendages of the scolex are adaptations to fix
FIG. 5. — Tetrarhynchus. A, general view of the worm; X 4. B,
head showing the suckers, proboscides and excretory canals;
X 25. C, portion of a proboscis showing the two forms of
hooks; highly magnified. (All from Pintner.)
the worm and to resist the peristaltic action of the intestine in
which it lives, and are not connected directly with the absorption
of food.
Proglottides. — The segments into which the body is divided
vary considerably in number, size and form. Taenia echinococcus
has only three, Echinobothrium four, Bothriocephalus three thousand.
In every_ species the segments develop from the scolex distally and
increase in size with the maturation of the contained female genital
organs. When this is reached, growth of the proglottides ceases.
As a general rule the ripe proglottides are detached in chains and
replaced by others which in their turn become detached, the process
being repeated for a year or so until the worm weakens and is cast
out. In special cases, however, a proglottis may be detached
before attaining full growth, and with its generative organs in an
imperfectly developed condition. The minute Taenia (Davainea)
proglottina (-5 to I mm. in length) from the common fowl detaches
its four or five segments into the intestine, where they attain a
length of 2 mm., and a breadth of 1-25; that is, more than twice
the size of the parent. The Cestodes of Elasmobranch fish offer
more convincing examples of independent growth of the pro-
glottides, for these are often set free with only the male organs
developed, and each attains twice the size of the parental strobila.
The form of the proglottides is most generally a rhombic or
trapezoidal figure. The hinder border is often drawn out into
mobile processes and hollowed out arolind the insertion of the next
FIG. 6. — Diagram of a transverse section through the body- wall of
a young Ligula, illustrating the microscopic structure of tape-
worms, a. cuticle; b, basal membrane; c, outer circular
muscles; d, epidermal cells depressed below the surface usually
occupied by them in other animals; e, gland cell; /, " flame-
cell " (the reference line stops a little short); g, outer longitu-
dinal muscles; h, a calcareous corpuscle; *', dorso- ventral
muscles ;j, a " parenchyma " cell (probably nervous); k, nerve-
plexus; /, excretory vessel giving off capillaries ending in flame-
cells; TO, a sense-cell; n, a muscle-cell; o, ending of the same;
p, ending of sense-cell; 3, opening of gland-cell; r, superficial
cuticle. (From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, part iv.)
segment. At this neck-like zone the muscles are absent, and across
it falls the line of fracture when the proglottis separates from its
fellows.
Structure. — The anatomy of the Cestoda differs in only two or
three important features from that of Trematodes. In both classes
the body is encased by a thick non-cellular cuticle, the deepest layer
of which — the subcuticle or basal membrane (fig. 6 b) — is perforated
by the branched free ends of the isolated epidermal cells, which have
sunk into the body, and by the endings of gland-cells and nerve-
cells (fig. 6). The mass of the body consists of richly branched
stellate cells — the mesenchyma — and imbedded in this plasmic
tissue are the nervous, excretory, muscular and generative organs.
TAPEWORMS
The excretory organs consist of flame-cells, richly convoluted canali-
culi, and a pair of longitudinal canals leading to the exterior by one
or more pores. The muscles are composed of outer circular and
inner longitudinal layers, and of branched dorso-ventral fibres.
The generative organs are of the complex hermaphroditic type
described in Trematoda (q.v.). In these broad anatomical features
both classes agree. But whilst in Trematoda a digestive sac is
invariably present except in the sporocyst larval stage, the Cestodes
possess no trace of this organ at any stage of their development.
They obtain food entirely by osmosis through the striated cuticle,
and this food consists not of blood, as in flukes, but of chyle, by
which they are bathed in their favourite site, the small intestine.
The second point of difference between tapeworms and Tre-
matodes lies in the absence of a definitely demonstrable " brain."
The concentration of nervous matter and ganglionic substance at
the oral end of Trematodes is equivalent to the " brain " of the
Planarians, but the similar thickening in the scolex of Cestodes is
by no means so certainly to be called by that name. It appears to
be primarily related to the organs of attachment and to have attained
greater elaboration than the rest of the nervous system because
the proximal end is the most specialized and most stimulated
portion of the worm. Those Cestodes which possess no very distinct
organ of attachment (such, for example, as Gyrocotyle) have no
distinct ganglionic thickening more pronounced at one end of the
body than at the other; and as these are forms which have retained
more primitive features than the rest, and show closer affinity to
the Trematodes, it seems highly probable that the complicated
nervous thickening found in the scolex, and often compared with
the " brain " of other Platyelmia, is a structure sui generis developed
within the limits of the sub-class. In the opinion of several zoologists
it marks the tail-end and not the head-end of the worm.
The third important contrast in structural features has also
been acquired by the Cestoda Merozoa, namely, the repetition of
certain organs in a metameric fashion. The Monozoa are unseg-
mented; the Ligulida have segmented gonads and gonopores
without any trace of somatic metamerization except secondary
excretory pores in addition to the usual terminal one; the remain-
ing Cestodes are unisegmental only in their larval stage, and all of
them show in their later stages repetition of the reproductive organs
and of the musculature. In addition, some show duplication of
the gonads and of their ducts, so that we find both transverse and
longitudinal repetition of these organs, without corresponding
multiplication of the nervous ganglia mesenchyma, or excretory
opening.
The last structural peculiarity of the group is the absence of the
functions of regulation and reparation which are so highly developed
in the more primitive Planarians. This statement is quite consistent
with the continuous production of new segments at the neck of the
scolex, for such a process is analogous to the development of the
segments in a Chaetopod, which is a perfectly distinct phenomenon
from the regeneration of new segments to supply the place of a
head or tail-end or some other portion that has been lesioned. The
replacement of detached mature proglottides at the distal end of
the Cestode-body by others is not regeneration, for the replacing
set has already developed, and in certain cases they can complete
their development quite independently after being detached from
the parent. More convincing evidence of the absence of true
regeneration, however, is the argument from malformation and the
phenomenon known as " pseudo-scolex. " It has long been known
that proglottides of the same species often exhibit sporadic mal-
formation from the normal shape, and the evidence goes to show
that the variation was due to arrested growth or some unusual
stress or pressure which, acting upon the young strobila, produced
a deformation, and that the proglottides so affected could not regain
their normal form. The power of reparation, so conspicuous a
feature of Turbellarians, is slight or absent in Cestodes. Moreover,
injury to the scolex, or amputation of that organ, reveals the con-
comitant absence of a regulative mechanism such as that which
generally controls the form and fitness of regenerated organs. In
such an event, a Cestode cannot replace the injured or severed
portion. The first two or three proglottides merely become deformed
and produce an appearance known as the pseudo-scolex. The
absence of these functions of regeneration and of regulation affords,
therefore, corroborative evidence of the highly specialized nature
of the Cestode organization.
Reproduction. — The reproductive organs are usually repeated in
each proglottis, and in some families two complete sets of such
organs occur in each segment; in a few cases, parts only of the
system are . duplicated. The structure of these organs is seen in
figs. 3, 6 and 7, and, as we have said, agrees closely with that of
Trematodes. The chief difference between the reproductive organs
of the two classes is the presence in Cestodes of a separate vagina
and uterus, each of which opens in some families to the exterior
by an independent pore. The vagina of Cestodes is undoubtedly
comparable with the so-called " uterus " of Trematodes, but the
nature of the Cestode uterus is not so clear. It has been compared
with the canal of Laurer of Trematodes (the vitello-intestinal duct
of the ectoparasitic flukes), but if we take the more primitive
Cestodes, and especially Amphilina, into consideration we find that
they possess, in addition to the uterus, an anterior vagina (usually
present in Cestodes) and a posterior one. This last tube is probably
the homologue of Laurer's canal (Goto, 8). The single anterior
vagina is then comparable with the similarly named duct of ecto-
parasitic Trematodes, in which group it is either single or double.
The] accompanying figure will assist this description.
Life-histories. — The life-history of Cestodes consists of larval and
adult stages, which are usually passed through in different hosts.
The egg gives rise in the uterus to a six-hooked embryo, which
reaches the first host in a variety of ways. It may hatch out as a
ciliated organism (fig. 8, D) capable of living freely in water for at
least a week (Bothriocephalus), which then, if eaten by a stickleback,
throws off its ciliated envelope, and creeps by the aid of the hooks
through the intestinal wall into the body-cavity of the fish. Here
it develops into a larval, or rather an adolescent form. In other
cases the infection of the first host is brought about by the ingestion
- y
FIG. 7. — Diagrammatic projections to exhibit the relations of the
female genital ducts in Trematodes with those in Cestodes. A, in
endoparasitic Trematodes (Malacptylea). B, in ectoparasitic
Trematodes (Heterocotylea). C, in Cestoda. (The ovary (a)
leads into (bb) the oviduct, which is joined at (g) by the duct of
the yolk-glands (h, h, Y). In B it is also joined by a paired
vagina k, k, and by the " vitello-intestinal duct " (Laurer's
canal, /). In the Cestodes the vagina is present (V) ; the canal
of Laurer (LC) is now vestigial (present in Caryophyttaeus as
the posterior vagina). The uterus (X in figure C) begins in
all cases at the shell gland (c, d) and may exhibit a swelling
(R 5) for the retention of the spermatozoa. « are sections of
the intestine. (A and B from Lankester's Treatise on Zoology,
part iv., C original.)
of proglottides or of eggs which are disseminated along with the
faeces of the final host and subsequently eaten by herbivorous
or omnivorous mammals, insects, worms, molluscs or fish. Man
himself, as well as other mammals, is the intermediate host of the
dangerous parasite, Taenia echinococcus, in countries where cleanli-
ness is neglected ; the pig is the host of Taenia solium, and other
cases may be seen from the table at the end of this article. The
transition of the larva from the intermediate to the final host is
accomplished by the habits of carnivorous animals. The Elasmo-
branchs swallow infected molluscs or fish; pike and trout devour
smaller fry; birds pick up sticklebacks, insects and worms which
contain Cestode larvae; and man lays himself open to infection by
eating the uncooked or partially prepared flesh of many animals.
The peculiar feature of the larval history of Cestodes is the de-
velopment in most cases of a cyst or hydatid on the inner wall of
which the scolex is formed by invagination. The cyst is filled with
a toxic fluid and may bud off new or daughter scolices. In this
way bladders as large as anorangeand containing secondary bladders.
TAPEWORMS
411
each with a scolex, may arise from a single embryo. We have,
in fact, a form of larval multiplication that recalls the development
of digenetic Trematodes.
The eggs of Cestodes consist of oval or spherical_shells (BJ0 in.
FlG. 8. — Bothriocephalidae. A, a segment of Bothriocephalus latus,
showing the generative organs from the ventral surface; ex.,
excretory vessels; c., cirrus; c.p., cirrus pouch; v.d., vas
deferens; v.o., vaginal opening; v., vagina; sh.g., shell-gland;
od., oviduct; ov., ovary; y.g., yolk-gland; y.d., its duct; ut.,
uterus; u.o., uterine opening; the testes are not visible from
this side; X 23 (from Sommerand Landois). B, C, marginal and
lateral views of the anterior part of B. cordatus, showing the
bothria; X 5 (from Leuckart). D, ciliated embryo of B. latus;
X 60 (from Leuckart).
diameter), containing a fertilized ovum surrounded usually by
many yolk-cells. The shell is thick, and operculate in some forms;
thin, and provided with filaments, in others; in the latter cases it
may contain only a few yolk-granules suspended in an albumen-like
substance. The development of the six-hooked embryo or " oncho-
FIG. 9. — Development of Taenia (from Leuckart). A, Cysticercus
bovis in beef; nat. size. B, invaginated head of a Cysticercus
before the formation of the suckers; X 25. C, invaginated
head of Cysticercus cellulosae, showing the bent neck and recep-
tacle r; X 30. D, stages in the development of the brood-
capsules in Echinococcus: a, the thickening of the parenchyma
of the bladder; b, subsequent formation of a cavity in it;
c, development of the suckers; d, a capsule with one head
inverted into its cavity; e, a capsule with two heads; X 90.
sphere " takes place in the uterus. The ovum first divides into
(a) a granular cell, and (6) a cell full of refringent spherules. The
former divides into (c) small cells or micromeres, and (d) large cells
or megameres. (c) forms the body of the embryo, (b) and (d)
enclose it and form a covering. The embryo undergoes differen-
tiation into an outer layer of cells that produce a cnitinoid coat,
a middle layer of cells, and a central spherical hexacanth body
closely enveloped by the middle coat. In a few genera the place
of the chitinoid coat is taken by a ciliary investment and in most
families the structure of the layers is characteristic.
Arrived in the intestine of the intermediate host, the hooked
embryo is set free and works its way to some distant site. Here
it undergoes a change into a cystic or " metacestode " state. A
cavity appears in its centre and it acquires a pyriform shape. The
thicker portion develops a terminal muscular rostellum and two or
four suckers, the thinner end (" tail ") is vesicular, more or less
elongated, and contains the six embryonic hooks. By a process of
infolding, the thicker end is partially invaginated, the middle portion
or "hind-body" and the organism may now present a superficial
likeness to a cercaria. An excretory system develops, opening at
FIG. 10. — The development of a Cestode from a Cysticercus (bladder-
worm or hydatid). A, the six-hooked embryo. B, portion of
the bladder (hind-body and tail), showing the invaginated por-
tion (scolex) and traces of the excretory system. C, further
stage in the development of the scolex. D, the entire bladder-
worm with scolex everted (drawn from Cysticercus pisiformis,
common in the rabbit): a, scolex; b, fore-body; c, hind-body
and tail. E, F, result of digestion of Cysticercus in the stomach
of the dog. G shows formation of proglottides. (From Lan-
kester's Treatise on Zoology, part iv.)
the base of the tail; nervous and muscular systems arise; and
finally the rostellum and suckers become completely enclosed in the
sac formed by the lateral extension of the " hind-body." When
swallowed by the final host such a " cysticercoid " larva evaginates
its scolex, throws off its hooked vesicular tail, and begins to bud off
proglottides at its free end (fig. 10).
Such is the general history of Cestodes whose intermediate host
is an Invertebrate. In most other cases the tail is not distinguish-
able, and the body of the larva is separable only into a scolex in-
vaginated with a bladder ( = hind-body and tail). This form of
larva is known as a cysticercus. In some genera a " urocyst " is
formed, the tail of which gives rise to a new cyst and a fresh scolex.
The most remarkable feature of this cystic development is the
formation in many genera of several internal buds within a common
cyst, each of which forms an independent inverted scolex (Coenurus.
TAPEWORMS
Polycercus) ; or these internal vesicles may bud off a large number of
scolices on their external surface (Staphylocystis).
Morphology of the Cestodes. — With regard to the vexed ques-
tions of the morphological nature and of the affinities of the
Cestodes, divergent views are still held. One view, the monozoic,
regards the whole development as a prolonged metamorphosis;
another, the polyzoic view, considers that not only is the Cestode
a colony, the proglottides being produced asexually, but that the
scolex which buds off these individuals is itself a bud produced by
the spherical embryo or onchosphere. On this view, therefore, at
least two asexual generations (embryo and scolex) alternate with
a sexual one (proglottides); and in the case of Staphylocystis th,e
cyst contains two asexually produced generations, so that in such
forms three stages (embryo, primary scolex-buds, secondary scolices)
intervene between the proglottis of a Cestode and that of its off-
spring. The polyzoic view is ably championed by Braun (2) and (3).
The more valuable point of view is undoubtedly the monozoic
one. In accordance with this we can regard the development as
an adaptive one and the scolex as invaginated for protective
FIG. n. — A, a Coenurus from the brain of the sheep; the numerous
scolices arise by invaginations of the bladder. B, Echinococcus,
showing at a and b the formation of secondary bladders, which
at c are forming scolices. At m the ideal mode of origin is
shown in order to illustrate the fact that the daughter cyst is
comparable to the fore-body of a cysticercus. (From Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, part iv.)
purposes inside the cyst, which is itself an organ comparable to an
amnion. On this view, multiple scolices are, therefore, not buds,
but an example of the unlocalized organization of the embryo
such as occurs in other groups of animals, and is demonstrated by
experiment. The evolution of the cysticercoid, cysticercus and
other forms of larvae is a varied adaptive phenomenon. With
regard to the adult worm we have to remember that its two ex-
tremities, scolex and terminal proglottis, are different from the
intervening region. The terminal or first-formed proglottis is
sterile, and contains the primitive and (except in a few genera) the
only excretory pore. The excretory tubes, the nervous system,
and the parenchyma and integument are continuous from one
end of the worm to the other. The repetition of the genitalia is
the real mark of the Cestodes, and we can trace the independence
of the somatic from the gonidial metamerism in such forms as
Triaenophorus and others In fact, the whole history of the
Platyelmia is marked by a great specialization of the reproductive
evolutionary history, accompanied by a simple somatic line of
evolution. We therefore regard the body of a Cestode as a single
organism within which the gonads have become segmented, and the
segmentation of the body as a secondary phenomenon associated
with diffuse osmotic feeding in the narrow intestinal canal. The
origin of the repetition of the gonads has yet to be investigated.
The Effects of Cestodes on their Hosts (Shipley and Fearnsides [4].) —
I. By their presence. This depends largely on the station adopted
•by the parasite. Cysticercus cellulosae may be comparatively
innocuous in a muscle or subcutaneous tissue, but most hurtful
in the eye or brain. Of all parasites the one which by its mere
presence is the most dangerous is the larva of Taenia echinococcus.
Its bulk alone (equal to that of an orange) causes serious disturb-
ances, and its choice of the liver, kidneys, lungs, cranial cavity
and other deep-seated recesses, gives rise to profound alterations.
2. By their migrations. The migration of the Cestode-larvae
through the walls of the intestine into the blood of their host is
the cause of grave disturbances, due largely to the perforation of
the tissues, inflammation of the vessels and peritoneum, and other
effects of these immigrants.
3. By feeding in their host. The loss of nutrient fluid caused by
the presence of intestinal Cestodes is probably slight, indeed, the
sharper appetite that accompanies their presence may be the means
of fully compensating for it. The tapeworm, Taenia saginata,
throws off eleven proglottides a day during its mature stage, and if
this rate of increase were maintained for a year the total weight
of its progeny would be about 550 grammes. The broad worm,
Dibothriocephalus lalus, is similarly estimated to discharge 15 to
20 metres of proglottides, weighing 140 grammes. The loss of
substance represented by this growth is probably only of serious
account when the host is a young growing animal that needs all
available nourishment.
4. By producing Toxins. It is generally admitted that Cestodes,
both adult and larval, contain toxins of great virulence, though
in what way and in what organs these substances are produced
is uncertain. Injection of the fluid-extract of such worms into the
blood or cpelom of their host causes grave disturbance. Thus
Echinococci contains a leucomaine which sets up an urticaria;
Cysticercus tenuicollis occasions anaemia and death if injecterl into
rabbits; and the cystic fluid of the common Coenurus serialis is
said to be used by Kirghizes to poison wolves. But the evidence
in favour of the view that tapeworms normally excrete toxin into
the body of their host in such amount as to occasion disease is
not generally accepted as conclusive. This evidence is, however,
strengthened by the results of recent work on changes in the blood
of patients suffering from helminthiasis. The occurrence of the
broad tapeworm in man is often associated with anaemia of a most
severe type. The coloured constituents of the blood are most
affected. New elements appear in addition to degenerative changes
in the normal red corpuscles. Large nucleated red blood-cells
make their appearance. The white blood-cells, or leucocytes,
undergo other changes. In hydatid disease there is, as a rule, a
marked increase in the number of those white corpuscles which
possess a specially staining affinity with the dye eosin, and are
therefore known as eosinophile cells. This change, which is called
eosinophilia, indicates the production of a noxious substance in
the blood. The fact of this increased leucocytic activity during
the early stages, or the whole course of infection by Cestodes, is
indirect proof that these parasites do normally discharge toxic
substances into their hosts.
Classification of the Cestoda Merozoa
ORDER I. — Dibothridiata. Scolex with two " bothria," or modi-
fication thereof, usually devoid of hooks. Male and female copu-
latory ducts open by a common pore. Uterine pore present. The
majority parasitic in fish. Selected forms: Dibothriocephalus lotus
in man; Russia, Switzerland, southern France, North America.
Ligula, unsegraented externally, occurs in birds. Schistocephalus
becomes fully segmented in Casterosteus and mature in aquatic birds
(ducks, &c.). Triaenophorus, indistinctly segmented, occurs in the
pike.
ORDER II. — Tetraphyllidea (Tetrabothridiata). Scolex with four
outgrowths forming organs of adhesion and probably also of loco-
motion. Uterine pore absent. Almost exclusively parasitic in
the intestine of Elasmobranch fish. The metacestode-larva occurs
free in the intestine of fish, Cephaiopods and crabs, and is known
as Scolex polymorphus.
ORDER III. — Diphyllidea. Scolex with a long head-stalk armed
with several rows of hooklets. A rostellum and four phyllidia
united to form a pair. Few proglottides are developed. Selected
form: Echinobothrium affine in the intestine of Elasmobranchs. It
occurs immature in the gastropod Nassa.
ORDER IV. — Telrarhyncha (Trypanorhyncha). Scolex with four
complex eversible proboscides. The adults occur in Elasmobranch
fish, the metacestode encysted in Teleosts.
ORDER V. — Tetracotylea (Taeniidae). Scolex with four suckers,
rarely hooked, and with a rostellum. Mostly parasitic in homoio-
thermic (warm-blooded) vertebrates. Selected forms: Taenia solium,
intestine of man (fig. 3, C). T. saginata (fig. 3) without hooklets
on the rostellum; intestine of man. T. murina, in the rat and
mouse, the adult in the lumen of the intestine, the larvae in the
villi. This species therefore undergoes no change of host. Cysto-
taenia coenurus, intestine of dog and wolf, larva (a coenurus, fig. n)
TAPIOCA— TAPIR
in the brain of sheep; allied forms occur mature in the dog and
larval in the rabbit. Echinococcifer echinococcus, a minute form
with only three to five proglottides, in dog, wolf, jackal. Larval
stage a multilocular sac (fig. n B) with many scolices; found in
man, ungulates, carnivores, rodents and monkeys.
Table of Cestodes found in Man
Species.
Larva.
Intermediate Host.
Dibothriocephalus latus (L.)
Plerocercoid
Pike, perch
, trout,
&c.
Dibothriocephalus cordatus
Unknown
(Leuck.)
Diplogonoporus grandis
H
...
(Blanch.)
Dipylidium caninum (L.) .
Cysticercoid
Trichodectes ccmis;
Pulex serraticeps;
P. irritans
Hymenolepis diminuala
Cysticercus
Asopiafar-
(Rud.)
inalis
Anisolabis
annulipes
-Insecta
Acisspinosa
'
Seaurus
striatus ,
H. nana (v. Sieb.) .
Cysticercus
Insects and
myria-
pods
Drepanidotaenia lanceolata
Cysticercoid
Cyclops, Diaptomus
(Bloch)
Da.va.inea madagascarensis
Unknown
...
(Dav.)
Davainea (?) asiatica .
...
Taenia solium (L.) .
Cysticercus cellu-
Sus scrofa
losae
T. saginata (Gotze)
Cysticercus bovis
Bos taunts
T. africana (v. Linst.) .
Unknown
...
T. confusa (Ward) .
H
T. echinococcus (v. Sieb.) .
Echinococcus
Man and domestic
veterinorum
cattle, sheep, pig
E. multilocularis
T. hominis (v. Linst.) .
Unknown
LITERATURE. — (i) Leuckart, The Parasites of Man (Edinburgh,
1886); (2) Braun, The Animal Parasites of Man (London, 1906);
(3) Id., " Cestodes " in Braun's Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs,
vol. ii. (1894); (4) Shipley and Fearnsides, " Effects of Parasites,"
Journ. Economic Biology, vol. i. No. 2, 1906; (5) W. B. Benham in
Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, part iv. 1901 ; (6) A. E. Shipley
and J. Hornell, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Report, London, The Royal
Society, part ii. p. 77, part iii. p. 49, part v. p. 43, 1903-7; (7)
W. B. Spencer " Gyrocotyle = Ampniptyches," Trans. Roy. Soc.,
Victoria, vol. i. (1889); (8) S. Goto, " Homology of Genital Ducts,"
Centralbl. f. Bact. u. Parasitenkunde, vol. 14 (1893), p. 797; (9)
Mrazek, " Archigetes," Verhandl. d. bohm. Akad. Sci. (Prague,
1897). Full references to further literature will be found in Braun's
works. (F. W. GA.)
Medicine. — For practical purposes we have only three varie-
ties of tapeworms to deal with as inhabitants of the human
alimentary canal: Taenia saginata, the beef tapeworm;
Taenia solium, the pork tapeworm; and Dibothriocephalus
latus, the fish tapeworm. The first of these is prevalent in
countries where much and imperfectly cooked beef is eaten,
and where cattle in their turn are exposed to the infection of
the tapeworm ova. Comparatively uncommon in Western
Europe, the Taenia saginata is common in Eastern Europe,
Asia and South America. It is calculated that in the North-
West Provinces of India 5 per cent, of the cattle are affected
with cysticerci owing to the filthy habits of the people. Measly
beef (that infected with the Cysticercus bovis) is easily recognized.
In Berlin the proportion of cattle said to be found infected on
inspection in 1893 was i in 672. Cold storage for a period of
over three weeks is said to kill the Cysticercus.
The tapeworm most frequently found in man in Western
Europe is the Taenia solium, which is constant wherever pork
is consumed, and is more common in parts where raw or im-
perfectly cooked pork is eaten. In North Germany the mature
tapeworm was found on post-mortem examination once in every
200 bodies examined, while its embryo, the Cysticercus cellulosae,
was found in i in every 76 bodies. In France, Great Britain
and the United States the prevalence is not so great. The
Dibothriocephalus latus is not generally found except in districts
bordering the Baltic Sea, the districts round the Franco-Swiss
lakes and Japan. In St Petersburg 15 per cent, of the in-
habitants are said to be affected. The eggs are free in fresh-
water lakes and rivers, where they enter the bodies of pike,
turbot and other fishes, and are thus eaten by man.
In many instances the existence of a tapeworm may not cause
any inconvenience to its host, and its presence may be only made
known by the presence of the proglottides or mature segments in
the stools. In the Taenia solium it takes 3 to 3$ months from the
time of ingestion of the embryo to the passage of the matured
segments, but in the Taenia saginala the time is only about 60 days.
The segments of the Taenia solium are usually given off in chains,
those of the Taenia saginata singly. In a number of cases there are
colicky pains in the abdomen, with diarrhoea or constipation and
more or less anaemia, while the Dibothriocephalus latus is capable of
producing a profound and severe anaemia closely resembling perni-
cious anaemia. The knowledge of the presence of the parasite
adversely affects nervous people and may lead to mental depression
and hypochondria. Nervous phenomena, such as chorea and epileptic
seizures, have been attributed to the presence of the tapeworm.
The prophylaxis is important in order to limit the spread of the
parasites. All segments passed should be burnt, and they should
never be thrown where the embryos may become scattered. Atten-
tion should be paid to the careful cooking of meat, so that any parasite
present should be killed. Efficient inspection of meat in the abat-
toirs should eliminate a large proportion of the diseased animals.
In the treatment of a case where the parasite is already present,
for two days previous to the employment of a vermifuge a light diet
should be given and the bowels moved by a purgative. For twelve
hours previously to its administration no food should be given, in
order that the intestinal tract should be empty so as to expose the
tapeworm to the full action of the drug. The vermifuge is given
in the early morning, and should consist of the liquid extract of
felix mas, male fern, one drachm in emulsion or in capsules to be
followed in half an hour by a calomel purgative. Castor-oil should
not be used as a purgative. Pomegranate root, or, better, the
sulphate of pelletierine in dose of 5 grains with an equal quantity
of tannic acid, may be used to replace the male fern. In from 50 to
80 per cent, of cases the entire tapeworm is expelled. The head
must be carefully searched for by the physician, as should it fail to
be brought away the parasite continues to grow, and within a few
months the segments again begin to appear.
TAPIOCA (a native Brazilian word), a farinaceous food sub-
stance prepared from cassava starch, the product of the large
tuberous roots of the cassava or manioc plant (see CASSAVA).
Cassava starch, separated from the fibrous and nitrogenous
constituents of the roots, is spread, while in a moist condition,
upon iron plates, and with constant stirring exposed to such
heat as causes a partial rupture of the starch granules, which
agglomerate into irregular pellets, becoming hard and trans-
lucent when cooled. In this condition the starch forms the
tapioca of commerce, a light, pleasant and digestible food,
much used in puddings and as a thickener for soups.
TAPIR, any existing representative of the perissodactyle
section of ungulate mammals with five front and three hind
toes, and no horn. Tapirs are an ancient group with many of
the original characters of the primitive Ungulates of the Oligocene
period, and have undergone but little change since the Miocene.
On the fore-feet the four toes correspond to the second, third,
fourth and fifth fingers of the human hand. The toes are
enclosed in hoofs, and the under surface of the foot rests on a
large pad. Tapirs are massively built, with short stout limbs,
elongated head, and the nose and upper lip produced to form
a short flexible trunk.
The five existing species may be grouped into two sections,
the distinctive characters of which are only recognizable in the
skull. (A) With a great anterior prolongation of the ossifica-
tion of the nasal partition, extending in the adult far beyond
the nasal bones, and supported and embraced at the base by
ascending plates from the upper jaw, forming the genus or
sub-genus Tapiretta. To this division belong two species,
both from Central America, Tapirus bairdi and T. dawi. The
former is found in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama; the latter in Guatemala, Nicaragua and Costa
Rica. (B) With the bony partition not extending farther
forward than the nasal bones (Tapirus proper). This includes
three species, T. indicus, the largest of the genus, from the
Malay Peninsula (as far north as Tavoy and Mergui), Sumatra
414
TAPTI— TAR
and Borneo, distinguished by its peculiar coloration, the head,
neck, fore and hind limbs being glossy black, and the inter-
mediate part of the body white, the height at the shoulder
from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 ins., and 4 ins. higher at the rump; T.
terrestris, the common tapir of the forests and lowlands of
Brazil and Paraguay; and T. roulini, the Pinchaque tapir of
the high regions of the Andes. All the American species are
of a nearly uniform dark brown or blackish colour when adult;
but it is a curious circumstance that when young (and in this
the Malay species conforms with the others) they are con-
spicuously marked with spots and longitudinal stripes of white
or fawn colour on a darker ground.
In habits all tapirs appear to be very similar. They are
solitary, nocturnal, shy and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting
the depths of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water,
to which they frequently resort for the purpose of bathing,
and in which they often take refuge when pursued. They feed
on various vegetable substances, as shoots of trees and bushes,
American Tapir (Tapirus).
buds and leaves, and are hunted by the natives of the lands
in which they live for the sake of their hides and flesh.
The singular fact of the existence of animals so closely allied
as the Malayan and the American tapirs in such distant regions
of the earth and in no intervening places is accounted for by
the geological history of the race, for the tapirs once had a very
wide distribution. There is no proof of their having lived in
the Oligocene epoch, but in deposits of Miocene and Pliocene
date remains undistinguishable generically and perhaps speci-
fically from the modern tapirs (though named T. priscus,
T. arwrnensis, &c.) have been found in France, Germany and
in the Red Crag of Suffolk. Tapirs appear, however, to have
become extinct in Europe before the Pleistocene period, as
none of their bones or teeth have been found in any of the
caves or alluvial deposits in which those of elephants, rhino-
ceroses and hippopotamuses occur in abundance; but in
other regions their distribution at this age was far wider than at
present, as they are known to have extended eastward to
China (T. sinensis) and westwards over the greater part of the
southern United States of America, from South Carolina to
California. Thus there is no difficulty in tracing the common
origin in the Miocene tapirs of Europe of the now widely
separated American and Asiatic species. It is, moreover,
interesting to observe how slight an amount of variation has
taken place in forms isolated during such an enormous time.
See PERISSODACTYLA. (W. H. F. ; R. L.*)
TAPTI, a river of western India. It rises in Betul district
of the Central Provinces, flows between two spurs of the Satpura
Hills, across the plateau of Khandesh, and thence through the
plain of Surat to the sea. It has a total length of 450 m. and
drains an area of 30,000 sq. m. For the last 32 m. of its course
it is a tidal river, but is only navigable by vessels of small
tonnage; and the port of Swally at its mouth, famous in Anglo-
Portuguese history, is now deserted, owing to silting at the
outflow of the river. The waters of the Tapti are nowhere
used for irrigation.
TAR, a product of the destructive distillation of organic sub-
stances. It is a highly complex material, varying in its com-
position according to the nature of the body from which it Ls
distilled, — different products, moreover, being obtained ac-
cording to the temperature at which the process of distillation
is carried on. As commercial products there are two principal
classes of tar in use — (i) wood tar, the product of the special
distillation of several varieties of wood, and (2) coal tar (?.».),
which is primarily a by-product of the distillation of coal during
the manufacture of gas for illuminating purposes. These tars
are intimately related to bitumen, asphalt, mineral pitch and
petroleum.
Wood Tar. — Wood tar, known also as Stockholm and as
Archangel tar, is principally prepared in the great pine forests
of central and northern Russia, Finland and Sweden. The
material chiefly employed is the resinous stools and roots
of the Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) and the Siberian larch (Larix
sibirica), with other less common fir-tree roots. A large
amount of tar is also prepared from the roots of the swamp
pine (P. australis) in North and South Carolina, Georgia and
Alabama, in the United States. In the distillation of wood a
series of products, including gas, tar, pyroligneous acid, acetone,
wood spirit (see METHYL ALCOHOL) and charcoal may be ob-
tained, and any of these may be the primary object of the
operation.
The carbonization of wood can be effected in two ways: (i) by
stacking and firing as in the manufacture of charcoal : this method
is very wasteful as it is impossible to recover the valuable by-
products; and (2) by distilling from retorts, ovens or kilns (after
the manner of coke production from coal) : this method is more
economical as it leads to the isolation of all the by-products. The
retorts may be horizontal or yertical and the heating effected by
any available fuel, or by the inflammable gases and less valuable
grades of tar obtained in previous operations. The condensing
plant is also of variable design; a common pattern consists of a
connected series of slightly inclined copper pipes contained in a
rectangular tank of water (see COAL TAR). After settling the
distillate separates into three layers: the lowest consists chiefly
of tar and creosote oils with a little acetic acid; the middle layer
consists of water, containing pyroligneous acid, wpod spirit, acetone
with a little tarry matter ; whilst the upper consists of light hydro-
carbons. The tafry layer is run off by means of a cock near the
base of the tank, and is then distilled from retorts resembling coal
tar stills. At first, between 110° and 120° C., water and acetic acid
comes over; then, between 120°— 230° C., the heavy or creosote oils;
the residue in the still is wood pitch, which finds application in
making briquettes, artificial asphalts, certain varnishes, &c. The
crude tar and pitch are also largely used as protective coatings for
woodwork exposed to atmospheric conditions. The heavy oils on
further fractional distillation yield more acetic acid, and then mix-
tures of carbolic acid, creosols, &c.
Wood tar is a semi-fluid substance, of a dark brown or black
colour, with a strong pungent odour and a sharp taste. Owing to
the presence of acetic acid, it has an acid reaction; it is soluble in
that acid, as well as in alcohol and the fixed and essential oils, &c.
Some varieties of tar have a granular appearance, from the presence
of minute crystals of pyrocatechin, which dissolve and disappear on
heating the substance.
See P Dumesny and J. Noyer, Wood Products, Distillates and
Extracts (Engl. trans. 1908).
Medicine. — Wood tar is used in medicine under the name of Fix
liquids.. Its preparation unguentum picis liquidae is composed of
wood tar and yellow beeswax. Externally tar is a valuable stimu-
lating dressing in scaly skin diseases, such as psoriasis and chronic
eczema. Internally wpod tar is a popular remedy as an expectorant
in subacute and chronic bronchitis. It is usually given as tar water,
I part of wood tar being stirred into 4 parts of water and filtered.
Given internally tar is likely to upset the digest ion ; taken in large
quantities it causes pain and vomiting and dark urine, symptoms
similar to carbolic acid poisoning.
Coal tar is used in medicine as Fix liquida preparata. From it is
made Liquor picis carbonis, prepared with tincture of quillaia.
Coal tar is rarely prescribed for internal use. Its external use is
similar to that of wood tar: the Liquor carbonis detergens, a pro-
prietary preparation, owes its properties chiefly to the contained
phenol. It is used in water as a lotion for skin diseases, and also in
an inhaler in the treatment of whooping-cough, croup and bronchitis.
TARA, VISCOUNTS AND BARONS— TARANTO
TARA, VISCOUNTS AND BARONS. The ist Viscount Tara
was Thomas Preston (1585-1655), a descendant of Sir Robert
de Preston, who in 1363 purchased the lands of Gormanston,
Co. Meath, and who was keeper of the Great Seal in Ireland
some years later. Sir Robert's great-grandson, Robert Preston,
was created Viscount Gormanston in 1478; and the latter's
great-grandson was Christopher, 4th Viscount Gormanston
(d. 1599), whose second son was Thomas Preston, Viscount
Tara. The latter was in the same Irish regiment in the
Spanish service as Owen Roe O'Neill, and distinguished himself
in the defence of Louvain against the French and Dutch in
1635. Between him and Owen Roe O'Neill there was from
the first intense jealousy. Preston, who was appointed general
of Leinster, took a prominent and not unsuccessful part in
the war of factions that raged intermittently in Ireland from
1642 to 1652. In 1650 Charles II. while in exile created
him Viscount Tara; and after his departure from Ireland
in 1652 he offered his services to Charles in Paris, where he
died in October 1655. His wife was a Flemish lady of rank,
by whom he had several children, one of his daughters being
the second wife of Sir Phelim O'Neill. His son Anthony
succeeded him as 2nd Viscount Tara, a title that became ex-
tinct on the death of Thomas, 3rd Viscount, in 1674.
In 1691 Meinhart de Schomberg, 3rd duke of Schomberg,
second son of William III.'s famous general, was created Baron
Tara, earl of Bangor, and duke of Leinster, in the peerage of
Ireland, all of which titles became extinct at his death without
sons in 1719. The title of Baron Tara was again revived in
1800 in favour of John Preston of Bellinter, Co. Meath, as a
reward for his vote in favour of the Union in the Irish House
of Commons, in which he sat as member for Navan. At his
death without issue in 1821, the peerage became extinct.
TARA, a village of Co. Meath, Ireland. It is celebrated
for the Hill of Tara, well known through Thomas Moore's
ballad, and for many centuries a royal residence and the scene
of great meetings of the people. The hill, upon which five
highroads converged from different parts of Ireland, is about
510 ft. in height, and stands isolated. On its summit or flanks
are- six raths or circular earthworks, the largest of which,
called the king's rath (ralh-na-riogh) encloses other works,
among which is the forradh or meeting-place, a flat-topped
mound. On this (but not in its original position) stands a
pillar stone, which has been held to be the stone of destiny
on which the Irish kings were crowned. An oblong enclosure,
759 ft. in length by 46 ft. in breadth, formed of earthworks, with
entrances at intervals on each side, represents the banquet-
ing hall. In the middle of the 3rd century A.D. King Cormac
Mac Art, about whom there are many records in connexion with
Tara, is said to have founded here schools of military science,
law and literature. In the time of St Patrick Tara is in-
dicated as the chief seat of druidism and idolatry, and in or
about 560 it was abandoned as a royal residence, having fallen
under the curse of St Ruadan. In 980 the Danish power of
Meath was overthrown in battle here; in 1798 a severe defeat
of the insurgents took place here (26th of May); and in 1843
the hill of Tara, as a site sacred to Irish traditions, was the
scene of one of Daniel O'Connell's mass meetings in support of
the repeal of the legislative union (isth of August).
TARAFA ['Amr ibn ul- 'Abd ul-Bakri] (6th cent.), Arabian
poet, who, after a wild and dissipated youth spent in Bahrein,
left his native land after peace had been established between
the tribes of Bakr and Taghlib and went with his uncle Muta-
lammis (also a poet) to the court of the king of Hira, 'Amr ibn
Hind (died 568-9), and there became companion to the king's
brother. Having ridiculed the king in some verses he was sent
with a letter to the ruler of Bahrein, and, in accordance with
the instructions contained in the letter, was buried alive. One
of his poems is contained in the Moallakat (q.v.).
His diwan has been published in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of
the Six Ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870). Some of his poems
have been translated into Latin with notes by B. Vandenhoff
(Berlin, 1895). (G. VV. T.)
TARAI, or TERAI (i.e. " moist land "), the name of the sub-
montane strip of marshy jungle stretching beneath the lower
ranges of the Himalaya in northern India. This strip may be
said to extend roughly from the Jumna river on the west to
the Brahmaputra on the east, though the term is now officially
confined to a subdivision of Naini Tal district in the United
Provinces; area, 776 sq. rn.; population (1001) 118,422.
At its northern edge, where the waterless forest tract of the
Bhabar ends, a series of springs burst from the surface, and
these, increasing and uniting in their progress, form the numerous
streams that intersect the Tarai. The Deoha is the great river
of the Tarai proper, and is navigable at Pilibhit. Elephants,
tigers, bears, leopards and other wild animals are found. Every-
where it is most unhealthy, and inhabited only by tribes who
seem proof against malaria. A large portion lies within Nepal.
TARANTO (anc. Tarentum, q.v.), a seaport of Apulia, Italy,
in the province of Lecce, 50 m. from that town W. by N. by
road, and 68 m. by rail (44 m. W. by S. from Brindisi). Pop.
(1901) 50,592 (town); 60,331 (commune). The city proper
is situated on a rocky island 56 ft. above sea-level, which in
ancient times was a peninsula, the isthmus on the west having
been cut through by Ferdinand I. of Aragon. This island
separates the Gulf of Taranto from the deep inlet of the Mare
Piccolo, and is sheltered by two other flat islands, San Pietro
and San Paolo; the latter is occupied by a lighthouse. This
rock is the site of the citadel of the ancient town; its popula-
tion is confined within small houses and narrow streets. The
Strada Garibaldi along the Mare Piccolo is inhabited by fisher-
men whose language retains traces of Greek. The cathedral,
dedicated to San Cataldo, an Irish bishop, dating from the
nth century, has externally some remains of Saracenic Gothic;
internally it has been completely modernized, and the shrine
of the patron saint has been termed " an orgy of rococo.'"
Below it is an early Christian basilica excavated in 1901. There
is a fine museum in the former convent of San Pasquale con-
taining antiquities unearthed in the neighbourhood. Adjacent
is the Palazzo degli Uffizi, completed in 1896, containing various
public offices. To the south, outside the Porta di Lecce, is
the Citta Nuova, on the site of the main part of the ancient
town. The chief industry is the cultivation of oysters in
four large beds in the Mare Piccolo; besides oysters, Taranto
carries on a large trade in cozze, a species of large black mussel,
which is packed in barrels with a special sauce. The other
trades are olive-oil refining, barrel-making and soap-boiling;
corn, honey and fruit are largely exported. Excellent fish
abound in the Mare Piccolo, ninety-three different species
being found. The ebb and flow of the tide is distinctly visible
here, Taranto being one of the few places in the Mediterranean
where it is perceptible. In 1861 the strategic importance of
Taranto was recognized by the Italian government, and in
1864 a Naval Commission designated it as third maritime
arsenal after Spezia and Venice. Work was begun on the
arsenal in 1883 and continued as the finances of the state per-
mitted; it is capable of turning out new warships and of exe-
cuting repairs of all kinds for the Mediterranean squadron.
The arsenal extends for a mile and a half along the southern,
coast of the Mare Piccolo, which constitutes its chief basin.
The receiving-dock and the anchorage for torpedo boats, with
its wide landing-stage, form dependencies. The dock, 655 ft.
long, 130 ft. wide and 37 ft. deep, is divided into two compart-
ments, each capable of containing a full-sized battleship, and
can be pumped dry in eight hours by two 600 h.p. steam pumps.
The Mare Grande is connected with the Mare Piccolo by a channel
875 yds. long, large enough to permit the passage of the largest
battleship; the channel was bridged in 1887 by an iron swivel
bridge, which when open leaves a passage way 196 ft. broad. In
its present form the Mare Piccolo provides a well-sheltered
anchorage, 36 ft. deep and 6325 acres in extent. The com-
mercial harbour lies S. of the railway station outside the Mare
Piccolo. In 1905 nearly 180,000 tons of shipping cleared the port.
In 927 Taranto was entirely destroyed by the Saracens, but
rebuilt in 967 by Nicephorus Phocas, to whom is due the
416
TARANTULA— TARASCON
construction of the bridge over the channel to the N.W. of the
town, and of the aqueduct which passes over it. The town was
taken by Robert Guiscard in 1063. His son Bohemond became
prince of the Terra d'Otranto, with his capital here. After his
death Roger II. of Sicily gave it to his son William the Bad.
The emperor Frederick II. erected a castle (Rocca Imperiale)
at the highest point of the city. In 1301 Philip, the son of
Charles II. of Anjou, became prince of Taranto. The castle
dates from the Aragonese period. The tarantula (see below),
inhabits the neighbourhood of Taranto. The wild dance,
called tarantella, was supposed, by causing perspiration, to
drive out the poison of the bite. (T. As.)
TARANTULA, strictly speaking, a large spider (Lycosa
tarantula), which takes its name from the town of Taranto
(Tarentum) in Apulia, near which it occurs and where it was
formerly believed to
be the cause of the
malady known as
" tarantism." This
spider belongs to the
family Lycosidae, and
has numerous allies,
equalling or surpassing
it in size, in various
parts of the world,
the genus Lycosa being
almost cosmopolitan
in distribution. The
tarantula, like all its
allies, spins no web as
a snare but catches
its prey by activity
and speed of foot. It
lives- on dry, well-
drained ground, and
digs a deep burrow
lined with silk to pre-
vent the infall of
loose particles of soil.
I" the winter it
covers the orifice of
this burrow with a layer of silk, and lies dormant underground
until the return of spring. It also uses the burrow as a safe
retreat during moulting and guards its cocoon and young in
its depths. It lives for several years. The male is approxi-
mately the same size as the female, but in neither sex does
the length of the body surpass three-quarters of an inch. Like
all spiders, the tarantula possesses poison glands in its jaws,
but there is not a particle of trustworthy evidence that the
secretion of these glands is more virulent than that of other
spiders of the same size, and the medieval belief that the bite
of the spider gave rise to tarantism has long been abandoned.
According to traditional accounts the first symptom of this
disorder was usually a state of depression and lethargy. From
this the sufferer could only be roused by music, which excited
%an overpowering desire to dance until the performer fell to
the ground bathed in profuse perspiration, when the cure, at
all events for the time, was supposed to be effected. This
mania attacked both men and women, young and old alike,
women being more susceptible than men. It was also con-
sidered to be highly infectious and to spread rapidly from
person to person until whole areas were affected. The name
tarantella, in use at the present time, applies both to a dance
still in vogue in Southern Italy and also to musical pieces
resembling in their stimulating measures those that were
necessary to rouse to activity the sufferer from tarantism in
the middle ages. In recent times the term tarantula has been
applied indiscriminately to many different kinds of large spiders
in no way related to Lycosa tarantula; and to at least one
' Arachnid belonging to a distinct order. In most parts of
America, for example, where English is spoken, species of
Aviculariidae, or " Bird-eating " spiders of various genera, are
Galeodeslucasii, an Arachnid of the order
invariably called tarantulas. These spiders are very much
larger and more venomous than the largest of the Lycosidae,
and in the Southern states of North America the species of
wasps that destroy them have been called tarantula hawks.
In Queensland one of the largest local spiders, known as
Holconia immanis, a member of the family Clubionidae, bears
the name tarantula; and in Egypt it was a common practice
of the British soldiers to put together scorpions and tarantulas,
the latter in this instance being specimens of the large and
formidable desert-haunting Arachnid, Galeodes lucasii, a member
of the order Solifugae. Similarly in South Africa species of
the genus Solpuga, another member of the Solifugae, were em-
ployed for the same purpose under the name tarantula. Finally
the name Tarantula, in a scientific and systematic sense, was
first given by Fabricius to a Ceylonese species of amblypygous
Pedipalpi, still sometimes quoted as Phrynus lunatus. (R. I. P.)
TARAPACA, a northern province of Chile, bounded N. by
Tacna, E. by Bolivia, S. by Antofagasta, and W. by the Pacific.
Area 18,131 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 89,751; (1902, estimated)
101,105. It is Part °f ^e rainless desert region of the Pacific
coast of South America, and is absolutely without water except
at the base of the Andes where streams flow down into the sands
and are lost. In some of these places there is vegetation and
water enough to support small settlements. The wealth of
Tarapaca is in its immense deposits of nitrate of soda (found on
the Pampa de Tamarugal, a broad desert plateau between the
coast range and the Andes, which has an elevation of about
3000 ft.). The mining and preparation of nitrate of soda for
export maintain a large population and engage an immense
amount of capital. Silver is mined in the vicinity of Iquique,
the capital. The ports of the province are Pisagua, Iquique
and Patillos, from which " nitrate railways " run inland to the
deposits. Tarapaca was ceded to Chile by Peru after the war
of 1879-1883, and was organized as a province in 1884.
TARARE, a town of east-central France, in the department
of Rhone, on the Turdine, 28 m. W.N.W. of Lyons by rail.
Pop. (1906) 11,643. It is the centre of a region engaged in
the production of muslins, tarletans, embroidery and silk-plush,
and in printing, bleaching and other subsidiary processes. Till
1756, when the manufacture of muslins was introduced from
Switzerland, the town lay unknown among the Beaujolais
mountains. The manufacture of Swiss cotton yarns and
crochet embroideries was introduced at the end of the i8th
century; at the beginning of the igth figured stuffs, open-
works and zephyrs were first produced. The manufacture
of silk-plush for hats and machine-made velvets was set up
towards the end of the igth century. A busy trade is carried
on in corn, cattle, linen, hemp, thread and leather.
TARASCON, a town of south-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rhone, 62 m. N.W. of Marseilles by rail.
Pop. (1906) town, 5447; commune, 8972. Tarascon is situated
on the left bank of the Rhone opposite Beaucaire, with which
it is connected by a railway bridge and a suspension bridge.
The church of St Martha, built in 1187-97 on the ruins of a
Roman temple and rebuilt in 1379-1449, has a Gothic spire,
and many interesting pictures in the interior. Of the original
building there remain a porch, and a side portal flanked by
marble columns with capitals like those of St Trophimus at
Aries. The former leads to the crypt, where are the tombs
of St Martha (1658), Jean de Gossa, governor of Provence under
King Rene, and Louis II., king of Provence. The castle,
picturesquely situated on a rock, was begun by Count Louis II.
in the I4th century and finished by King Rene in the isth. It
contains a turret stair and a chapel entrance, which are charm-
ing examples of 15th-century architecture, and fine wooden
ceilings. The building is now used as a prison. The h&tel-de-
ville dates from the i7th century. The civil court of the
arrondissement of Aries is situated at Tarascon, which also
possesses a commercial court, and fine cavalry barracks. The
so-called Aries sausages are made here, and there is trade in fruit
and early vegetables. In Tartarin de Tarascon Alphonse Daudet
has satirized the provincial life of Tarascon. Its uneventfulness
TARAXACUM— TARDIGRADA
is varied by the fair of Beaucaire, and it used to be the
scene of the two fgtes of La Tarasque, the latter in celebration
of St Martha's deliverance of the town from a legendary
monster of that name. King Rene presided in 1469, and grand
exhibitions of costume and strange ceremonies take place
during the two days of the festival. Tarascon was originally
a settlement of the Massaliots, built on an island of the Rhone.
The medieval castle, where Pope Urban II. lived in 1096, was
built on the ruins of a Roman camp. The inhabitants of
Tarascon preserved the municipal institutions granted them
by the Romans, and of the absolute power claimed by the
counts of Provence they only recognized the rights of sovereignty.
Tarascon played a bloody part in the White Terror of 1815.
TARAXACUM, the name usually applied in medical practice
to the common dandelion (q.v.).
TARBELL, EDMUND C. (1862- ), American artist, was
born at West Groton, Mass., on the 26th of April 1862. He
was a pupil of the schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts
and of Boulanger and Lefebvre, Paris, and became a distin-
guished painter of the landscape, of the figure, and of portraits,
winning various important prizes and medals at exhibitions.
In 1906 he was elected a National Academician, besides being
a member of the Ten American Painters, and he became in-
structor of painting in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
TARBERT, a fishing village at the head of East Loch Tar-
bert, an arm of the sea on the west shore of the mouth of Loch
Fyne, Aigyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1697. The harbour,
though it has a narrow entrance, is absolutely safe and can
shelter the whole of the Loch Fyne fishing fleet. The pier for
the passenger steamers that call here is about J m. from the
village. The coast of the bay is rocky and the cliffs are fringed
with young firs, the village itself being quite a pretty place.
The herring fishery — including a large trade in curing — forms
the only industry. The parish church occupies a fine situation.
Overlooking the harbour are the ruins of a castle built by
Robert Bruce in 1326. The isthmus connecting the districts
of Knapdale and Kintyre is little more than one mile wide,
and boats used once to be dragged across to the head of West
Loch Tarbert, a narrow sea loch nearly ten miles long. A
proposal to cut a canal across to shorten the sail to Islay and
Jura has never progressed further.
TARBES, a town of south-western France, capital of the
department of Hautes-Pyrenees, 98 m. W.S.W. of Toulouse on
the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) town, 20,866; commune,
25,869. Tarbes is situated in a beautiful and fertile plain, in
full view of the Pyrenees, on the left bank of the Adour, streams
from which are conducted through all parts of the town. The
lines of the Southern railway from Morcenx to Bagneres-de-
Bigorre and Lourdes and from Toulouse to Bayonne cross here.
Chief among the many open spaces is the Jardin Massey
(35 acres), given to his native town by a director of the gardens
of Versailles and containing a museum of sculptures, paintings
and antiquities. Near a small lake stands a cloister (i5th
century) transferred from the abbey of St Sever-de-Rustan,
14 m. N.E. of Tarbes, and a bust of Theophile Gautier, a native
of Tarbes. The architecture of the cathedral, Notre Dame de
la Sede, is heavy and unpleasing, but the cupola of the transept
(i4th century), the modern glass in the 12th-century apse, and
a rose window of the i3th century, in the north transept, are
worthy of notice. There is also a modernized Carmelite church
originally built in the I3th century. Tarbes is a well-known
centre for the breeding of Anglo-Arabian horses, much used
by light cavalry; and its stud is the most important in the south
of France. The industrial establishments include tanneries,
tile-works, saw-mills and turners' shops. There are important
fairs and markets. Well-known race-meetings are held on the
Laloubere course.
Under the Roman dominion Turba, which was about n m.
S.E. of the present town of Tarbes, was the capital of the
Bigerriones, one of the states of Novempopulania. The
bishopric of Tarbes dates from the 5th century, and in feudal
times its bishops held the chief temporal authority, that of
yxvr. 14
the counts of Bigorre, of which Tarbes was capital, being limited
to the quarter of the town where their castle was built. The
English held the town from 1360 to 1406. In 1569 Tarbes was
burnt by Gabriel, count of Montgomery, and the Inhabitants
were driven out. This happened a second time, but in August
1570 the peace of St Germain allowed them to return. Subse-
quently Tarbes was several times taken and re-taken, and a
number of the inhabitants of Bigorre were forced to take refuge
in Spain, but in 1594 the members of the League were finally
expelled. The English, under Wellington, gained a victory
over the French near Tarbes in 1814.
TARBUSH (Arab tarbush), the close-fitting, flat-topped and
brimless cap, in shape like a truncated cone, made of felt or
cloth, worn by Mahommedan men throughout the East either
as a separate headgear or forming the inner part of the turban.
It is worn as the badge of a Turkish subject in Turkey and
Egypt, where it is red in colour with a black or blue silk tassel.
It is the same as the " fez " (see the plate illustrations to INDIA:
§ Indian Costume).
TARDE, GABRIEL (1843-1004), French sociologist, was born
at Sarlat (Dordogne) in 1843. Entering the legal profession,
he was for some time a juge d'instruction in his native town,
becoming afterwards head of the statistical department of the
ministry of justice. He also held the professorship of modern
philosophy at the College de France in Paris, and was elected
a member of the Academic des sciences morales et politiques
in 1900. Attracted to the study of criminology by the oppor-
tunities of his profession, he gradually built up for himself
a reputation as an acute observer of the phenomena of the
subject, while at the same time he made striking and original
deductions of his own. Special reference may be made to his
theory of " imitation " as outlined in Les Lois de limitation
(1890), and further elaborated in Logique sociale (1895). He
also wrote L'Opinion et la foide (1901); Les Transformations
du droit (1894); Les Transformations du pouvoir (1899); L 'Op-
position universette (1897) and Psychologic economique (1902;
Eng. trans., Social Laws, 1899). He died in Paris in 1904.
See bibliography of. the sociological writings of Tarde in M. M
Davis, Psychological Interpretations of Society (Columbia University
Press, 1909); also A. Matagrin, La Psychologie sociale de Gabriel
Tarde (Paris, 1910). -
TARDIGRADA, apparently Arthropodous animals whose re-
lationship to the great classes of this sub-kingdom is masked
by degenerative modification. They are microscopical in size
and live in damp moss or water. The body is elongated and
furnished with four pairs of short, unjointed, stump-like legs,
each terminated by a pair of claws. The legs of the posterior
pair project from the hinder extremity
of the body and the anus opens between
them. The mouth, situated at the op-
posite end and armed with a pair of
stylets, leads into an oesophagus, into
which the ducts of a pair of so-called
salivary glands open. Behind this
point there is a muscular pharynx or
gizzard, which communicates with the
wide intestinal tract. No organs of
circulation or respiration are known;
but the nervous system is well de-
veloped, and consists of a pair of
ganglia corresponding with the limbs
and connected by longitudinal commis-
sural chords. Anteriorly these chords
embrace the oesophagus and unite with
the cerebral mass which innervates the
pair of eyes when present. The sexes
are not distinct, the sexual organs being
represented by a pair of testes and a
single ovary, which open together into
the posterior end of the alimentary canal. The Tardigrada have
been regarded as degenerate Acari largely on account of their
possessing four pairs of ambulatory limbs, which is considered
Milnesium tardigra-
, Schrank. a, ovary;
canal ; e...e, legs.
TARE AND TRET— TARGET, G. J. B.
to be an Arachnidan characteristic. But they cannot be affiliated
with this order on account of the total suppression of the ab-
domen, of their hermaphroditism and of the communication that
exists between the generative organs and the alimentary tract.
These last characteristics also separate them essentially from
the Pycnogonida, some members of which resemble them to a
certain extent in having only four pairs of limbs, no gnathites,
no respiratory organs, a ganglionated ventral nervous system,
and the abdomen reduced to a mere rudiment projecting
between the last pair of legs.
Several genera and species of Tardigrada have been described,
perhaps the best known being Macrobiotus schultzii and Mil-
nesium lardigradum. (R. I. P.)
TARE AND TRET, in commerce, allowances or deductions.
Tare is an allowance made from the gross weight of goods for
the box, bag or other wrapping in which the goods are packed.
It may be real, i.e. representing the actual weight of the wrap-
ping; customary, when a uniform or established rate is allowed;
average, when one or two packages among several are weighed,
and the mean or average of the whole taken; or super-tare, an
additional allowance when the package exceeds a certain weight.
Tret is an allowance of 4 Ib. in every 104 Ib. of weight, made as
compensation for loss by waste. " Tare " comes through the
Fr. tare, cf. Sp. tara, from Arab, tarha, tarh, throwing, casting —
the word meant originally loss, that which is thrown away;
" tret " is an adaptation of Fr. traite, Lat. trahere, to draw,
and meant a draught, transportation, also a payment on ex-
ports, an allowance on exportation.
TARENTUM (Gr. Topaj), a Greek city of southern Italy
(mod. Taranto, q.ii.), situated on the N. coast of the gulf of the
Same name, on a rocky islet at the entrance to the only secure
harbour in it. It was a Spartan colony founded about the close
of the 8th century B.C. (Jerome gives the date 708) to relieve
the parent state of a part of its population which did not
possess, but claimed to enjoy, full civic rights. Legend repre-
sents these Partheniae (so they are called) as Spartans with a
stain on their birth, but the accounts are neither clear nor con-
sistent, and the facts that underlie them have not been cleared
up. The Greeks were not the first settlers on the peninsula:
excavations have brought to light signs of a pre-Hellenic settle-
ment. To the Greeks Taras was a mythical hero, son of
Neptune, and he is sometimes confounded with the oecist
(official founder) of the colony, Phalanthus. Situated in a
fertile district, especially famous for olives and sheep, with an
admirable harbour, great fisheries and prosperous manufactures
of wool, purple l and pottery, Tarentum grew in power and
wealth and extended its domain inland. Even a great defeat
by the natives in 473 B.C., when more Greeks fell than in any
battle known to Herodotus, did not break its prosperity, though
it led to a change of government from aristocracy to democracy.
A feud with the Thurians for the district of the Siris was settled
in 432 by the joint foundation of Heraclea, which, however,
was regarded as a Tarentine colony. In the 4th century
Tarentum was the first city of Magna Graecia, and its wealth
and artistic culture at this time are amply attested by its rich
and splendid coins; the gold pieces in particular (mainly later
than 360) are perhaps the most beautiful ever struck by Greeks
(see NUMISMATICS). In the second half of the century Tarentum
was in constant war with the Lucanians, and did not hold its
ground without the aid of Spartan and Epirote condotlieri.
Then followed war with Rome (281) in consequence of the
injudicious attack of the mob on the Roman fleet in the harbour
of Tarentum and on the Roman garrison at Thurii, the expedi-
tion of Pyrrhus, whom Tarentum summoned to its aid, and at
length, in 272, the surrender of the city by its Epirote garrison.
Tarentum retained nominal liberty as an ally of Rome. In the
Second Punic War it went over to Hannibal in 212, and suffered
severely when it was retaken and plundered by Fabius (209),
who sold thirty thousand citizens as slaves. After this it fell
into decay, but revived again after receiving a colony in 123 B.C.,
1 Large heaps of the shells of the murex, or purple-yielding
mussel, were visible on the shore before the extension of the arsenal.
which received the name of Neptunia. In the time of Augustus
it was essentially Greek and a favourite place of resort (Horace,
Od., iii. 5, 53), but it declined afterwards. Belisarius ordered
it to be re-fortified, but it was soon taken by Totila, who made
it his treasure store. After his defeat by Narses, it was sold
to the Byzantine Empire by its Gothic governor.
One of the most interesting discoveries of recent years has
been that of a terramara on the so-called Scoglio del Tonno on
the N.W. of the town, which in its type and in the character
of the objects found there, is exactly identical with the terremare
of the Po valley. It seems, however, to be an isolated colony,
and not to prove a parallel development in north and south
Italy (T. E. Peet in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv.,
1907, 285). Almost the only relic of any building of the Greek
city is a part of a Doric temple on the island — which the modern
town occupies — two fluted columns, with a lower diameter
of 61 ft., and a height of 28 ft., and some fragments of the
entablature, belonging probably to the beginning of the 6th
century B.C., so that this is one of the earliest extant Doric
temples. The condition of the site was, however, different in
ancient times; the rock occupied by the modern town was, it
is true, the citadel, but was connected with the land to the west
by an isthmus, which was only cut through by Ferdinand I.
of Aragon; and it was also a good deal less extensive. The
line of the walls which defended the city on the east (land) side
has been traced, and a few remains of well-cut blocks, with
Greek masons' marks, still exist. In the centre of the Agora
was the huge bronze Zeus by Lysippus, and facing on to it
the IlotwXiy, or painted portico, with pictorial representations
of the life of Phalanthus, and the foundation of the city, and
the museum. There was also a fine gymnasium and other
buildings mentioned by classical writers. Strabo's description
of the site (vi. 3, i) is a good one. Of all these structures no
traces remain. The Roman amphitheatre, on the other hand,
and remains of Roman baths by the seashore, have been found;
the former perhaps occupies the site of the ancient theatre, in
which the Roman ambassador was received in 281 B.C.
Three fine mosaics of the Roman period were found in the
remains of a house in 1899, and transported to the museum
(A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale, Naples, 1903,
239). A fine silver jug and drinking-horn, found in Tarentum
in 1889 (now in Triest) are illustrated by A. Puschi and F.
Winter in Jahreshefte des Osterr. Arch. Instituts, v. (1902) 112.
Other silver vessels found in 1896 are in the important local
museum (G. Patroni in Notizie degli scavi, 1896, 376), and at
Bari (M. Mayer, ibid., 1896, 547). All seem to belong to the 4th
century B.C. To the N.W. of the town along the Massafia
road, neolithic tombs and a fine Greek hypogaeum in masonry
were discovered in 1900. (T. As.)
TARENTUM, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, about 20 m. N.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 4627; (1900) 5472 (1173 being foreign-born); (1910)
7414. Tarentum is served by the Pennsylvania railway and
by an electric line connecting with Pittsburg. Among manu-
factures are plate glass and bottles, table ware, paper, bricks,
iron and steel articles, and steel sheets and billets. Coal ,
mining is an important industry, and the borough is supplied
with natural gas. Tarentum was first settled in 1796, was laid
out in 1829 at the direction of Henry Marie Brackenridge
(i786-i87i),2 who by marriage had come into possession of the
site, and it was incorporated as a borough in 1842. The first
glass manufactory was established in 1872.
TARGET, GUI JEAN BAPTISTS (1733-1807), French lawyer
and politician, was born in Paris on the I7th of December 1733.
2 Brackenridge was a prominent lawyer, a native of Pittsburg,
who practised in Maryland, Missouri and Louisiana, wasa district
judge in Louisiana in 1812—1814, secretary of the U.S. commis-
sion sent to South America in 1817, U.S. judge for the western
district of Florida from 1821 to 1832, when he returned to Penn-
sylvania, and the author of a Voyage to South America in 1817-1818
(1820), a History of the Late War between the United States and Great
Britain (1817), Recollections of Persons and Places in the West (1834),
and a History of the Western Insurrection (1859).
TARGET— TARGUM
419
He acquired a great reputation as a lawyer, less by practice in
the courts than in a consultative capacity. He strenuously
opposed the " parlement Maupeou," devised by the Chancellor
Maupeou to replace the old judiciary bodies, and refused to
plead before it. He was counsel for the cardinal de Rohan in
the affair of the Diamond Necklace (?.».). In 1785 he was
elected to the French Academy. In 1789 he was returned
as one of the deputies of the Third Estate in Paris to the states-
general, where he supported all such revolutionary measures as
the union of the orders, the suspensive veto, the civil constitu-
tion of the clergy, &c. His excessive obesity, which in the
Constituent Assembly made him the butt of the Royalists, had
prevented him from practising at the bar for some years before
1789, and when Louis XVI. invited him to undertake his de-
fence he excused himself on this ground. At the same time
he published in 1792 some Observations in extenuation of the
action of the king, from the constitutional point of view,
which in the circumstances of the time argued much courage.
For the rest, he took no part in public affairs during the Terror.
Under the Directory he was made a member of the Institute
(1796) and of the Court of Cassation (1798). He lived to colla-
borate in the earlier stages of the new criminal code. Among
his writings may be mentioned a paper on the grain trade (1776)
and a Memoire sur Vital des Protestants en France (1787), in
which he pleaded for the restoration of civil rights to the Pro-
testants.
See Victor du Bled, "Les avocats et 1'Academie Francaise," in the
Grand Revue (vol. ii. 1899); H. Moulin, Le Palais a I' Academic:
Target et son fauteuil (Paris, 1884); P. Boulloche, Un avocat au
l8lme siecle (Paris, 1893).
TARGET, a mark to shoot at, so called from its resemblance
in shape to the " targe " or small round shield, particularly
the round wood and leather buckler, with metal bosses, and
long spike protruding from the central boss, which was carried
by the Highland clans; at the back was a leathern sleeve in
which the left arm was inserted. In the i7th century, as body
armour ceased to be used, the infantry soldier often carried a
light shield of various forms which was known as a " target,"
which is a diminutive of targe; such soldiers were known as
" targeteers." " Targe " is a word that has been the subject
of much etymological discussion. On the one hand is found
the O.E. targe, with hard g, a shield, cf. Icel. targa, shield,
target, and O.H. Ger. zarga, frame, side, border; on the other
is Fr. targe, Sp. and Port, tarja, Ital. targa, buckler, shield. The
soft and hard g's point to two distinct words. In Sp. and
Port., is found adarga, a square target or buckler, which is an
Arabic word, al darkat or darakat, a leather shield. The O.E.
and Icel. words can hardly have come from an Arab, source,
and the relation between the two words is an etymological
puzzle (see Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1910). The target as a mark
to shoot at is, for archery, a circular canvas-covered frame
stuffed with straw and marked with concentric rings surrounding
the centre or bull's-eye. For shooting with the rifle the target
is usually square.
In the days of the smooth-bore musket, and for many years
after the introduction of small arms of pfecision, the targets
used in musketry training were of a " match " and not a
" service " character. The target was white with a black
bull's-eye (counting 5 points) and two rings, invisible to the
firer, called the " inner " and the "magpie," and scoring 4 and
3; the rest of the target was called the " outer " and counted
2 points. This system was the basis of all match shooting,
whether with match or service rifles, and (with the trifling
difference that the bull counted 4, the inner 3 and the magpie
and outer alike 2) it was followed in military range practice.
For collective fire regular rows of black silhouettes on white
screens were employed. These were a compromise between
bull's-eye and service targets which possessed the virtues of
neither. But after the S. African war bull's-eye practices were
eliminated from the musketry course of the British army, and
in the musketry regulations of 1909 they were restricted to
the earliest stages of recruits' training and trained soldiers'
" refresher " courses. The use of the bull's-eye to-day is to
teach the soldier to shoot uniformly, that is, to " group " his
shots closely. The position of his shot group with reference
to the bull's-eye does not matter; if his group is comprised
within a 6 or 1 2-inch ring (at 100 yards range) he is passed on
to more advanced practices at service targets. The latter are
no longer coloured black-and-white, but are of the dull colours
which are met with in the field, either brown head-and-shoulders
painted on a green-grey canvas background or brown silhouettes
held up against the face of the stop-butt. The National Rifle
Association in 1910 followed the lead of the War Office to some
extent as regards the targets used at the Bisley meeting in
" service- rifle " competitions. For collective practices at the
more important military stations large areas of ground are
prepared with silhouettes in entrenchments, dummy guns, &c.
Mechanical " running-man " and " disappearing " targets are
also used for training in snap-shooting and rapid fire. The
target used in naval gunnery is a large floating frame of timber
either fixed by buoys or anchors or towed at a distance by a
vessel (see ORDNANCE: § Naval Gunnery).
TARGUH. The Targums are the Aramaic translations — or
rather paraphrases — of the books of the Old Testament, and, in
their earliest form, date from the time when Aramaic superseded
Hebrew as the spoken language of the Jews (see HEBREW
LANGUAGE). In their origin they were designed to meet the
needs of the unlearned among the people who had ceased to
understand the Hebrew of the Old Testament. In the absence
of any precise evidence on the point it is impossible to give
more than a rough estimate as to the period at which Hebrew,
as a spoken language, was finally displaced by Aramaic. It is,
however, certain that the latter language was firmly established
in Palestine in the ist century A.D. By that time, as we know
from many sources, Aramaic was not only the language in
common use, but had also received official recognition,1 despite
the fact that Hebrew still remained the learned and sacred
tongue. Hence we may reasonably infer that the mass of the
people had adopted Aramaic at a considerably earlier period,
probably, as early as the 2nd century B.C., and that the need of
Aramaic translations of the sacred text made itself felt but
little later. By the Jews2 the introduction of Targums is
ascribed to Ezra; but this tradition, which probably owes its
origin to the Talmudic explanation of Neh. viii. 8,3 is incon-
sistent with the linguistic evidence furnished by the post-
exilic literature of the Old Testament, and must be rejected as
unhistorical, if only because the process by which Aramaic
took the place of Hebrew was admittedly a very gradual one.
The Talmudic tradition, however, is, doubtless, correct in con-
necting the origin of Targums with the custom of reading
sections from the Law at the weekly services in the synagogues,
since the need for a translation into the vernacular must first
have arisen on such occasions. As we know from the New
Testament, the custom of reading in the synagogues both from
the Law4 and from the Prophets6 was well established in the
ist century A.D.: its introduction, therefore, will date from a
much earlier period. The practice of accompanying these
readings with a translation into Aramaic is, further, so generally
recognized by the 2nd century A.D. that the Mishna6 takes it
for granted, and merely inculcates certain regulations to be
observed by the Meturgeman (translator), who had by this time
acquired a definite status. From it we learn that the Meturge-
man, who was distinct from the reader, translated each verse
of the Law into Aramaic as soon as it had been read in Hebrew:
in the readings from " the Prophets " three verses might be
read at a time. Later regulations are also laid down in the
Talmuds in order to prevent any appearance of authority
attaching to the translation, and also to ensure reverential
1 Cf. Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, p. 2 f. ; Grammatik des jiid.-
palasl. Aramaisch, 2nd ed., p. 9 f.
2 Sanhedrin, 216.; Jer. Meg., i.
8 Nedarim, 376; Jer. Meg., iv. — "and they read in the book,
in the law of God, this is the Scripture, O-IIDD (R.V. distinctly), this
is the Targum." 4 Acts xv. 21.
6 Luke iv. 16 f. ; Acts xiii. 14, 27. • Meg. iv. 4-6, 10.
420
TARGUM
treatment on the part of the translator.1 Elsewhere,2 we only
find references to certain passages of Scripture, viz., the stories
of Reuben and Tamar (Gen. xxxv. 22 and xxxviii.), the two
accounts of the golden calf (Exod. xxxii.), the blessing of the
priests (Num. vi. 22 f.), the stories of David and Amnon (2 Sam.
xi., xii. and xiii.), which might be either read and translated,
or only read and not translated, or (according to a different
tradition) neither read nor translated. It is noticeable that
none of the passages cited conveys any rules or information
as to the character of the translation to be employed. Judging
by the contents of our existing Targums, and the Targumic
renderings given in Jewish literature, it is improbable that any
definite system of interpretation was ever formally adopted,
the rendering into the vernacular being left to the discretion
of the individual Meturgeman. At first, no doubt, the translator
endeavoured to reproduce the original as closely as possible,
but, inasmuch as his object was to give an intelligible rendering,
a merely literal rendering would soon be found to be insufficient,
and he would be forced, especially in the more difficult passages,
to take a more elastic view of his obligations. To prevent
misconception he must expand and explain what was obscure,
adjust the incidents of the past to the ideas of later times,
emphasize the moral lessons to be learned from the national
history, and, finally, adapt the rules and regulations of the
Old Covenant to the conditions and requirements of his own age.
As time went on the practice of introducing additional matter
of an edifying character grew in popular favour, and was
gradually extended. Thus, by degrees, the reproduction of
the original text became of secondary importance, and merely
served as a pretext for the discussion of topics that had little
or no bearing on the context. The method, by which the text
was thus utilized as a vehicle for. conveying homiletic discourses,
traditional sayings, legends and allegories, is abundantly
illustrated by the Palestinian and later Targums, as opposed
to the more sober translations of Onkelos and the Targum to
the Prophets.
It would, however, be incorrect to suppose that the transla-
tion of the text was left entirely to the individual taste of the
translator. The latter is rather to be regarded as the repre-
sentative of the age in which he lived, and his interpretation
is to be taken as reflecting the exegesis of that period. That
there were certain limits beyond which the translator might not
venture, without incurring the censure of the authorities, may
be inferred from the few instances of translation which are
mentioned with disapproval in the Mishna and elsewhere.
Thus the rendering of Lev. xviii. 21 « by " Thou shall not give
any of thy seed to an Aramean woman to make her conceive "
is censured, presumably because the prohibition of Molech
worship is thereby ignored.3 In the same Mishnic passage it
is forbidden to render Lev. xviii. 7 as if the text had " his
father " and " his mother."4 Yet another translation (that of
Lev. xxii. 28) is mentioned with disapproval in the Jerusalem
Talmud,6 though it has been preserved in the Targum Pseudo-
Jonathan ad loc* A definite rule for guidance in translating
is apparently preserved in the Tosefta,7 where it is stated that
" he who translates quite literally is a liar, while he who adds
anything is a blasphemer," Exod. xxiv. 10, " and they saw the
God of Israel " is cited as an example. It is argued that the
literal rendering of this passage is inadmissible, because no
man has ever seen God; on the other hand, the insertion of the
word " angel " before God would be blasphemous. The correct
rendering is stated to be " and they saw the glory of God."
But it is doubtful if the rule here given was ever intended to
1 Tos. Meg., 3; Jer% Meg., iv. 1-3; Sola, 396; Sopherim, xi. I,
xii. 7, xiv. 2.
2 Meg., 25, 256; cf. Ginsburger, M.G.W.J., xliv. I f.
1 Meg., iv. 9; cf. Jer. Meg., iv. 9; Sanhed., ix. I, where the
meaning is given as — " He who marries an Aramean woman and
raiseth up children by her raiseth up enemies to God "; for another
explanation, see Ginsburger, M.G.W.J., xliv. 5 f.
4 Cf. Berliner, Targum Onkelos, ii. p. 85 f.
6 Meg., iv. 10. • Cf. Ginsburger, I.e.
* Tos. Meg., end.
apply to more than the particular type of passage exemplified:
if it had been applied generally, it would have clashed with the
whole trend of Midrashic and Targumic paraphrase.
There can be little doubt that the Targums existed for a
long time in oral form. They belonged to the class of tradi-
tional literature which it was forbidden to write down, and, so
long at least as the Targum tradition remained active, there
would be little temptation to commit it to writing. But it is
highly probable that this prohibition, in the case of the Targums,
was mainly enforced with respect to those parts of the Old
'Testament which were read in the synagogal services, e.g. the
Law and the Prophets, and that it was less rigidly observed
in regard to the other portions of Scripture: a written trans-
lation of the latter would be of special value for the purpose
of private study. Hence there is no need to reject the tradition
as to the existence of a written Targum on Job in the time
of Gamaliel I.8 (ist century A.D.), especially as references to
Targum MSS. occur in the Mishna and elsewhere.' But, as
Dalrhan has pointed out,10 it was not these manuscripts, but
the living tradition of the learned which was recognized as
authoritative throughout the period which closes with the
compilation of the Talmud. . . . The official recognition of a
written Targum, and therefore the final fixing of its text belongs
to the post-Talmudic period, and is not to be placed earlier
than the 5th century.
I. TARGUMS ON THE PENTATEUCH
(i) The so-called Targum of Onkelos admittedly owes its
name to a mistaken reference in the Babylonian Talmud.11
In its original context, that of the Jerusalem Talmud,12 the
passage refers to the Greek translation of Aquila. With the
exception of this one reference, the Targum is always intro-
duced in the Babylonian Talmud by the phrase " as we trans-
late " (pwino-n), or "our Targum" (pn Dim): it is pro-
bable, therefore, that the name of the author, or authors, was
unknown to the Babylonian Jews. It is first quoted under the
title of the Targum of Onkelos by Gaon Sar Shalom (d. A. p. 859).
According to Dalman,13 its language differs in many material par-
ticulars from the Aramaic dialects of the Palestinian and Babylonian
Talmuds, and is more closely allied to the biblical Aramaic. On
the linguistic side, therefore, we may regard Onkelos " as a faithful
representative of a Targum which had its rise in Judaea, the old
seat of Palestinian literary activity." It is not, however, to be
regarded as a reproduction in written form of a Palestinian trans-
lation, but rather as an official translation of the Law, in the
Judaean dialect, which was carried out in Babylon, probably
about the 4th century A.D. : in its final form, according to
Dalman (l.c.) it cannot be earlier than the 5th century. The
translation, as a whole, is good, and adheres very closely to the
Hebrew text, which has not been without its influence on the
Aramaic idiom; at times, especially in the poetical passages, a
freer and more paraphrastic method is employed, and the version
shows evident traces of Halakhic and Haggadic expansion. The
Hebrew text used by the translators appears to have been practi-
cally identical with the Massoretic. The version was held in high
esteem in Babylon, and, later, in Palestine, and a special Massora
was made for it. The latest edition is Berliner's reprint (1884) of
the Editio Sabbioneta (1557).
Of all the extant Targums that of Onkelos affords perhaps the
most characteristic and consistent example of the exegetical methods
employed in these works. Two principles may be said to have
guided the translators. On the one hand, they had, as their
primary object, to produce a faithful rendering of the original
which at the same time would be intelligible to the people : for this
purpose a purely literal translation would be insufficient. On the
other hand, they regarded it as necessary to present the sacred
text in such a manner as best to convey the particular form of
interpretation then current. But later Jewish exegesis was espe-
cially concerned to eliminate everything in the sacred writings
that might give rise to misconception with respect to God on the
part of the unlearned. Hence we find various expedients adopted
in the Targums for avoiding any reference to the Deity, which
might be misunderstood by the people, or which involved apparent
irreverence. Examples of this peculiarly Targumic method are:
(l) the insertion of " word " (KTD-D), " glory " (tnp')i " presence "
before the divine name, when God is referred to in his
8 Tos. Shabb.; cf. Jer. Shabb., xvi.; Bab. Shabb., 1150;
Sopherim, v. xv.
8 Jad. iv. 5, and see the preceding references.
10 Grammatik des judisch-palastinischen Aramdisch, p. 12 f.
11 Meg. 30. >2 Meg. i. 9. " Gramm. p. 12 f.
TARGUM
421
dealings with men; (2) the insertion of the preposition "before"
(DIP) when God is the object of any action ; (3) the use of the passive
for the active voice, e.g. crip 'Va for jrr or nmj "p roe for yoo;
'*nrat for -ny, KX', TV, ma; Tn for 131; (4) the use of periphrasis
for the more pronounced anthropomorphisms, such as " to smell,"
" to taste," or when the use of the status constructus might seem to
bring God into too close connexion with men or things; (5) the
use of different expressions, or the insertion of a preposition before
the divine name, when God is compared to man, or the same
action is predicated of God and man ; (6) the use of " for .TI.T and
D'uSa, and the rendering xSm or KIJW when D'.I^K denotes heathen
gods. Instances of this endeavour to maintain, as it were, a
respectful distance in speaking of God occur on every page of the
Targums. but cases also occur, by no means infrequently, where
human actions and passions are ascribed to God. The explana-
tion of this phenomenon is to be found in the fact that anthropo-
morphisms, as such, were not necessarily avoided, but only in
those cases where they might be misunderstood by the people.
(2) In addition to the Targum of Onkelos two other Targums to
the Pentateuch are cited by Jewish authorities, under the titles
of the Targum Jerushalmi and the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel.
Of these the former contains only portions of the Pentateuch,1
and is therefore usually designated the Fragmentary (Jerusalem)
Targum. In a large number of cases this Targum gives merely a
variant rendering cf single words : where longer passages are given
it presents a very paraphrastic translation, and bears all the marks
of a late Haggadic composition. Its fragmentary character arises
from the fact that it is simply a collection of variae lectiones and
additions to the version of Onkelos, intended possibly for use at
public services.2 That this Targum was really intended to supple-
ment that of Onkelos is shown by comparing the two texts. For
the former is frequently unintelligible without the latter, since it
offers no translation of those words, or clauses, for which it gave
the same rendering as Onkelos. On the other hand, the version of
Onkelos affords just the supplementary material that is required
to restore sense to the shorter text. Moreover, in not a few cases
the Fragmentary Targum itself attaches to its variant rendering
the succeeding word from Onkelos, thus indicating that from this
point onwards the latter version is to be followed. More con-
clusive still is the fact that in a number of old Mabzor MSS. we
find Targums to the Song of Moses and to the Decalogue, in which
this process has been fully carried out, the text of Onkelos being
given as well as the variants of the Fragmentary Targum.
The second Jerusalem Targum, or the so-called pseudo-Jonathan,
admittedly owes its ascription to Jonathan ben Uzziel to the
incorrect solution of the abbreviated form by which it was fre-
quently cited, viz. '"n, or Targum Jerushalmi ('oSim' nu-in).
This Targum represents a later and more successful attempt to
correct and supplement the Targum of Onkelos by the aid of
variants derived from another source. It is not, however, a
revision of the Fragmentary Targum — for it is clearly independent
of that version — but is rather a parallel, if somewhat later, pro-
duction, in which the text of Onkelos is already combined with a
number of variants and additions. It is noticeable that this Tar-
gum has been considerably influenced by the Targum of Onkelos,
and in this respect, as in others, is far less trustworthy than the
Fragmentary Targum, as a witness to the linguistic and other
peculiarities of the source from which they were both derived. It
exhibits, to a marked degree, that tendency to expand the text
by additions of every kind, which has been already noted as char-
acteristic of the later stages of Targumic composition. Homilies,
legends, traditional sayings and explanations, in fact every form
of Haggadic expansion are utilized by the Targumist, so that at
times his works convey the impression more of a late Midrash
than of a translation. This impression is fully confirmed by (a) a
comparison of the Talmud and later Midrashic works with which
it has obvious points of contact, and (b) the historical allusions,
such as the mention of Constantinople (Num. xxiv. 19), of a wife
and daughter of Mahomet (Gen. xxi. 21), and the references to
Esau and Ishmael as representative world-powers (Gen. xlix. 26;
Deut. xxxiii. 2; cf. Fragm. Tg. to Gen. xlix. 2; Deut. xxxiii. 2).8
In its translation of the Hebrew pseudo-Jonathan is careful to
avoid anthropomorphisms and to give the sense of all but the
most simple metaphors, though his method is not so thorough as
that of Onkelos. Every endeavour is made to gloss over, or
modify, expressions which seemed derogatory to the ancestors of
* According to Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage, 2nd ed., p. 80, its
contents bear the following proportions: — J to Genesis, 2*o to Exodus,
about fa to Leviticus, J to Numbers, and J to Deuteronomy.
2 Seligsohn, De duabus Hier. Pent, paraphrasibus (1858): for a
fuller discussion see Bassfreund, " Das Fragmenten Tareum " in
M.G.W.J. K\.
•The view that Deut. xxxiii. n could only have been written
by a contemporary of John Hyrcanus cannot be maintained;
cf. Dalman, Gramm. p. 30 f., and, more fully, Bassfreund, M.G.W.J.
xliv. (1900), pp. 481 f.
Israel, and to amplify everything which redounded to their credit.
On the other hand, pseudo-Jonathan shows a tendency to condense
those additions which it has in common with the Fragmentary
Targum: in particular he omits all quotations from Scripture.
In regard to the source of the two Palestinian Targums to the
Pentateuch, we must accept the conclusion of Bassfreund4 that
they both derived their variants from a complete Targum Jeru-
shalmi. This conclusion is based on the following grounds:
(i) Various Jewish works dating from the nth to the I4th century
contain a large number of quotations under the heading >rn,
i.e. Targum Jerushalmi. Of these rather less than a quarter are
found in the Fragmentary Targum, the remainder being mostly
taken from passages for which no translation of that Targum
exists. This completer work, however, cannot be identified with
the pseudo-Jonathan, for more than half of these quotations are
missing from the latter; and further, in passages for which we
possess both the Targums, the text of the Fragmentary Targum
agrees much more closely with the quotations: the linguistic evi-
dence also shows that the Fragmentary Targum is a more faithful
representative of the original source; (2) the pseudo-Jonathan
displays a curious inconsistency in its rendering of particular words
and phrases, at one time following Onkelos, at another a different
source. That this latter source is the Targum Jerushalmi is proved,
in the majority of cases, by a comparison with the Fragmentary
Targum; (3) quotations from Scripture preserved in the Frag-
mentary Targum point to a completer version than our present
Fragmentary Targum. But though the existence of an older
Targum Jerushalmi cannot be denied, it is clear that the form in
which it was utilized by the two Palestinian Targums cannot be
of an early date, for many of the latest elements in the Fragmentary
and pseudo-Jonathan Targums were undoubtedly derived from
their common source. Moreover, the existence of a written Pales-
tinian Targum at an early date is expressly excluded by the
evidence at our disposal. In the middle of the and century A.D.
R. Simon ben Gamaliel forbade the translation of the Pentateuch
in any language but Greek;6 and this command was upheld by
R. Johanan in the 3rd century. Even in the time of the later
Amoraim there is no mention of a written Palestinian Targum,
though the official Babylonian Targum is repeatedly referred to in
the Babylonian Talmud, in the Midrashim, and at times also by
Palestinian Amoraim. These considerations are sufficient to dis-
prove the theory of Geiger,8 which has for so long been accepted
in one form or another, that the Targum of Onkelos was merely a
reproduction of the old Targum Jerushalmi revised in accordance
with the " new Halakha" introduced by R. Aqiba. Yet it is
impossible to hold that the Targum of Onkelos was the only repre-
sentative of Targum tradition that existed among the Jews down
to the yth century A.D., the period to which the internal evidence
compels us to assign the Targum Jerushalmi as used by the Frag-
mentary Targum and the pseudo-Jonathan. We must rather
assume that a tolerably fixed Targum tradition existed in Palestine
from quite early times. The language employed in the Targum
of Onkelos is, admittedly, Palestinian or Judaean, and since
language and thought are ever closely allied, we may conjecture
that the current Judaean exegesis, which, in part at least, must
go back to the 2nd century A.D., was not without its influence on
the Babylonian translation. This old Targum tradition, however,
never received official recognition in Palestine, and was unable,
therefore, to hold its own when the new Babylonian version was
introduced. We may infer that, as time went on, a reaction in
favour of the older renderings made itself felt, with the result that
these were collected in the form of variants and appended to Onkelos.
But the authority enjoyed by the latter rendered it secure against
any encroachments; hence any later expansions, especially those
of a popular Haggadic character, naturally found their way into
the less stereotyped Targum Jerushalmi. Unfortunately, we possess
but little material for controlling the texts either of the Frag-
mentary Targum or of the pseudo-Jonathan. Of the latter only
one manuscript (Brit. Museum Add. 27031) is known to exist, and
this has been utilized by Ginsburger in his Pseudo-Jonathan (Berlin,
1903). The same scholar has also edited the Paris manuscript (no)
of the Fragmentary Targum (Das Fragmententhargum, Berlin,
1899), to which he has added the variants from Cod. Vat. 440 and
the manuscripts at Nuremberg and Leipzig. In the same edition
are collected the various fragments of the Targum Jerushalmi,
which are to be found in the early editions of the Pentateuch and
in part also in various manuscripts.
II.i~TARGUMS ON THE PROPHETS
The official Targum on the Prophets is stated by the Babylonian
Talmud7 to have been "said" by Jonathan ben Uzziel, the disciple
of Hillel, and is usually known, therefore, as the Targum Jonathan.
Elsewhere in the Talmud, however, the quotations from this
Targum are given under the name of Joseph bar Chijah, head of
* M.G.W.J. xl. 6Meg. i. II.
• Urschrift (1857), pp. 162 ff., 451 ff.; Nachgelassene Schriflen, iv.
p. 98 f. ; Jiidische Zeitschrift (1871), ix. p. 85 f.
7 Meg. 30.
422
TARIFA— TARIFF
the school at Pumbadita in the 4th century A.D. Both in language
— though naturally there is some variation of vocabulary — and
style it closely resembles the Targum of Onkelos, and appears to
have been modelled on that translation: in certain passages,
indeed, it appears to have made use of it.1 Probably, like Onkelos,
it did not assume its final form in Babylon before the 5th century A.D.
It naturally follows from the character of the original that the
rendering of this Targum is less literal than that of Onkelos, espe-
cially in the prophetic books, but, when due allowance is made for
the difficulty of the Hebrew, it may be described on the whole as a
faithful reproduction of the original text. Its peculiarities of
rendering are due to the same principles which were noted as
underlying the translation of the Pentateuch. Anthropomorphisms,
as a rule, are avoided by means of the same expedients as those
employed by Onkelos, expressions derogatory to the dignity of
God, or of the heroes of the nation, are softened down, while
figurative language is either boldly transposed, or its character
clearly shown by the introduction of the particle " as " or " like."
There is, further, a tendency to narrow down the scope of the
prophetic utterances, and to limit their application to Israel and its
immediate enemies. Lastly, in the obscurer passages the Haggadic
method of interpretation is employed to its fullest extent, while
the translation throughout shows a marked tendency to explanatory
additions.
Of a Targum Jerushalmi to the Prophets but little is known,
though it is hardly doubtful that such a Targum existed, if only
in oral form. Traces of this version have been discovered by
Bacher2 in the variants attached to the margin of the Codex
Reuchlinianus, and printed by Lagarde in his edition of Prophetae
Chaldaice (1872). These fragments, which have been preserved
under the headings m' , "TV, *v "Yin, exhibit certain features in
common with the Jerusalem Targums to the Pentateuch, and are
demonstrably of post-Talmudic date. According to Kohut's list of
Targum quotations in 'Aruk, a Jerusalem Targum existed also for
the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes
and Esther, but this list is scarcely reliable, and, as Dalman has
pointed out,3 the quotations in 'Aruk to Kings, Ezekiel, Proverbs
and Lamentations are the only ones that point with certainty to
the existence of a Targum Jerushalmi.
III. TARGUMS TO THE HAGIOGRAPHA
These Targums possess but little interest for the student of
Jewish literature as they are almost entirely the work of indi-
viduals, made in imitation of the older Targums. Despite the
reference to a Targum of Job in the 1st century (see above), all the
extant Targums to the Hagiographa are later in date than the
Targums to the Law and the Prophets.
(1) Targums to the Psalms and Job. — These Targums present
certain features in common and may therefore be treated under
the same heading. Like all the later Targums they exhibit a large
amount of explanatory addition, chiefly Haggadic in character.
At the same time the translation of the original is not neglected;
and, when separated from the later accretions, this is found to follow
the Hebrew tolerably closely. Peculiar to these Targums are the
double translations, which they give to many verses, one of which
is usually Haggadic in character, while the other is more literal.
Bacher 4 would assign these Targums to the 4th or 5th century,
but, as Dalman has pointed out,6 they exhibit linguistic features
in common with the Jerusalem Targums to the Pentateuch. They
cannot be earlier than the 7th century A.D., and possibly are of a
considerably later date.
(2) The Targum to the Proverbs stands apart owing to the
peculiarity of the language in which it is written. The influence of
the Peshitta version is so clearly marked,6 that Dalman (I.e.) de-
scribes it as a Jewish revision of that version. But setting aside
the Syriasms due to the use of the Peshitta, the Targum shows
affinity to the Targums to the Psalms and Job. The translation
is literal and almost entirely free from Haggadic additions.7
(3) The Targums to the Megilloth. — The chief characteristic of these
Targums is their exaggerated use of paraphrase. They mark the
final stage in the development of Haggadic interpretation, in which
the translation of the text has practically disappeared in a mass of
fantastic and irrelevant matter. The Targum of Esther is known
to us in three recensions (i) that of the Antwerp Polyglot, almost
a literal translation; (2) that of the London Polyglot, which gives
practically the same text with many additions of a Haggadic char-
acter; (3) the so-called second (sheni) Targum, a much larger work,
containing a collection of later Midrashim to this book. According
1 Berliner, Targum Onkelos, ii. p. 124 f.
2 Z.D.M.G. xxviii. and xxix. 3 Gramm. p. 29.
1 Judische Monatschrift, xx. 208 f., xxi. 408 f., 462 f.
6 Gramm. p. 34.
6 Dathe, De ratione consensus versionis chaldaicae et syriacae,
proverbiorum Salomonis, ed. Rosenmtiller, 1814; cf. Maybaum and
Noldeke in Merx Archil)., 1871, and Baumgartner, Etude critique
sur Vital du texte du lime des Proverbs, 1890.
T Cf. Pinkuss, Die syrische Uebersetzung der Proverbien, Z.A.T.W.,
1894.
to Zunz * this " second " Targum is quoted by Rashi (to Deut. iii. 4)
as a Jerusalem Targum, and also (i Kings x. 19) as the " Haggada "
of the Megilloth Esther. The Targum to Canticles is of a similar
character to that of the " second " Esther. Dalman assigns these
Targums to a date half-way between the Babylonian Targums
(Onkelos and that to the Prophets) and the Jerusalem Targums
to the Pentateuch and those to the greater Hagiographa. The
British Museum possesses three important Yemen manuscripts for
the five Megilloth and the " second " Esther Targum in MSS. Or.
1302, 1476, and 2375.
(4) The Targum to the Chronicles was first edited from an Erfurt
manuscript by M. F. Beck, 1680-1683. A more complete and
accurate edition from a Cambridge manuscript was edited by
D. Wilkins in 1715. In the translation, which at times is fairly
literal, use appears to have been made of the Jerusalem .Targums
to the Pentateuch, and of the Targums to the books of Samuel
and Kings. The text represented by the Erfurt manuscript is
assigned to the 8th, that of the Cambridge manuscript to the
9th century A.D.9
No Targums have so far been discovered to Daniel and 'Ezra
and Nehemiah. (J. F. ST.)
TARIFA, a seaport of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, at the
extreme south point of the Peninsula, 21 m. by rail W.S.W. of
Gibraltar. Pop. (1900) 11,723. The town is nearly quad-
rangular, with narrow, crooked streets, and is still surrounded
by its old Moorish walls. On its east side, just within these,
stands the citadel. The rocky island in front of the town,
connected with the mainland by a causeway, is strongly fortified;
on the south side there is a modern lighthouse. Anchovy and
tunny fishing is carried on, and there is some coasting trade,
chiefly in live stock, salt fish and fruit. The manufactures
(leather and earthenware) are unimportant. The oranges of
Tarifa are famed for their sweetness.
Tarifa is the Julia Joza of Strabo, between Gades and Belon.
According to that writer, it was colonized by Romans and the
removed inhabitants of Zelis in Mauretania Tingitana. The
Julia Transducta or Traducta of coins and of Ptolemy appears
to be the same place. Its present name, dating from early
in the 8th century, is derived from Tarif, whom Tariq sent to
Spain in command of the advance-guard of the Moorish invaders
(see CALIPHATE and SPAIN: History). In 1292 Tarifa was taken
by Sancho IV. of Castile from the Moors, who made several
subsequent attempts to recapture it. In the defence of Tarifa
Alphonso XI. gained the battle of Salado, a short distance to
the westward, in 1340. In 1812 a French force of 10,000 men
under Generals Victor and Laval vainly endeavoured to capture
Tarifa, which was garrisoned by 2500 troops (mostly British)
under General Gough.
TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word
comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices,
from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-
ledge), a table or list of articles on which import or export duties
are levied, with the amount of the duty specified, hence often
used as a collective term for the duties imposed, or for the law or
code of regulations imposing such duties or varying the scale of
charges. The word is also used quite widely of any schedule of
prices or charges, and, particularly in America, of the freight or
other charges of a railway or steamship line.
Resort is made to tariffs, or duties on imports, partly to secure ,
revenue, partly to affect the course of industry within a country.
Strictly speaking, these two objects are inconsistent with each
other; since a customs duty, in so far as it causes a domestic in-
dustry rather than a foreign to supply the market, ceases to be
a source of revenue. But in a great number of cases the imposi-
tion of a duty causes only a partial displacement of the foreign
supply, and hence brings some revenue from that which remains.
This circumstance strengthens the hold of the protective system,
especially in countries where customs duties are an important
source of revenue, the combination of fiscal convenience and of
protection to home industry being a highly attractive one.
Where tariff duties are imposed solely for revenue, an equivalent
excise tax is imposed within the country, so as to put the
domestic producer precisely on the footing of his foreign
"C. F. p. 83.
9 Rosenberg and Kohler in Geiger's Judische Zeitschrift, 1870.
TARIFF
423
competitor; and tariffs so maintained are in complete con-
formity with the principle of free trade.
Great Britain. — Between the close of the Napoleonic wars of
1815 and the year 1860, the tariff system of Great Britain was
changed from elaborate protection to practically complete free
trade. An attempt had indeed been made in 1786 to modify
the rigidly protective legislation of the i8th century. In that
year Pitt concluded a commercial treaty with France, providing
for large reductions of duties in both countries. But the treaty
was swept away with the outbreak of the wars with France, and
accordingly the old system was still in force in 1815. The first
important step, and in some respects the decisive step, towards
modifying it was taken in 1824, under the policy of Huskisson.
In that year, and again in 1825, great reductions were made in
the duties on raw materials, especially on wool, raw silk, flax
and iron, while considerable reductions were also made in the
duties on manufactured goods. The most sharply contested of
the changes was in regard to silks, which had been completely
prohibited, and were now admitted at a duty of 30 per cent. A
considerable breach was thus made in the protective system;
and some further changes in the same direction were made in
the next decade, especially under Lord Althorp in 1833. But
in the decade from 1830 to 1840 the Corn Laws were the chief
subject of contention. The great increase in population since
the middle of the i8th century had made England a corn-
importing country, especially with the rapid growth of manu-
factures in the early years of the igth century. The first syste-
matic Corn Laws imposing duties on grain had been passed in
1773. From 1 86 1 onwards a series of measures were passed, all
designed to maintain the high price of grain. The Act of 1816
prohibited the importation of wheat when the price was less
than 8os. a quarter ( = $2.50 a bushel). In 1822 the prohibitive
point was lowered to 705. In 1828 the sliding scale was intro-
duced, under which the duty went up and down as the price of
grain went down and up; and it was against this form of the
Corn Law that the great agitation led by Cobden and Bright was
directed after 1830. For a long time the anti-Corn Law agitation
seemed to have no effect, although conducted with extraordi-
nary skill and enthusiasm.' In 1842, however, Sir Robert Peel
made the first important concession, by modifying the sliding
scale, his opponent, Lord John Russell, having proposed in the
previous year a fixed duty of 8s. a quarter. In view of the bad
harvest of 1845-46, and the famine in Ireland in 1846, Peel sur-
Cora rendered, and proposed in 1846 the admission of
Laws re- grain with only a fixed duty of is. a quarter as a
pealed, registration fee. This change was carried, but Peel,
'***• being able to carry only a fraction of his party with
him, was compelled shortly afterwards to resign. The Corn
Laws had great political strength, serving as they did the
interests of the landowners, whose hold on parliament was still
very strong; but the general economic situation in Great
Britain, from the rapid growth of the manufacturing population
and the imperative need of more food, made the abolition inevi-
table. After having been maintained till the middle of the
century, apparently with irresistible support, they suddenly
collapsed under the strain of a season of exceptionally short
crops. Both their continued maintenance and their final sudden
abolition are in some respects divergent from the general course
of British tariff history.
The remodelling of the tariff system in the direction of free
trade went on, little retarded by the maintenance of the Corn
Laws and not much accelerated by their abolition. In 1842
great reductions of duty were made on a large number of
articles; in 1846 still further reductions of duty were made;
another series of changes came in 1853; and finally, in 1860,
General tne ^ast remnant of protective duties disappeared.
changes The four acts of 1842, 1846, 1853, 1860 — the first two
'" under Peel's leadership, the second two under Glad-
1842-60. stone's guidance — thus carried out gradually the
policy of free trade in regard to other articles than grain.
The first of them, in 1842, was signalized by the introduc-
tion of the Income Tax as a means of raising revenue to replace
that lost by the diminished import duties. The last of them,
in 1860, was largely influenced by the great commercial treaty
with France. In that treaty the concessions made to France
were the reduction by Great Britain of duties on wines and
spirits, and the admission, free of duty, of some important
French products, notably silk manufactures, gloves, and other
products in which the French had superiority. Great Britain,
instead of limiting the concessions to France, in 1860 made them
applicable to all the world. The silk manufacture, as to which
the first great changes had been made in 1824, and on whose
products the duties had been kept higher in previous acts than
on other manufactures, was thus compelled, notwithstanding
violent opposition, to face unfettered foreign competition.
Two general features should be noted in regard to the tariff
history of Great Britain. In the first place, most of the reduc-
tions of duty on manufactured articles were of little practical
significance. The great mass of manufactured commodities
were produced in the United Kingdom more cheaply than in
foreign countries, and would not have been imported, with duty
or without, except in sporadic amounts for some special qualities.
The changes hence involved little real readjustment of industry.
There is thus some ground for the assertion that the policy of
free trade was not adopted by the United Kingdom until its
industries had reached the stage of being independent of pro-
tection. But this does not hold good of some manufactures;
especially not of the silk industry, and some parts of the woollen
and linen trades. Still less does it hold good of raw materials,
many of which had been really affected by the duties, and were
largely imported after their abolition. Such was the case not
only with some metals, such as lead, zinc, copper, but still more
strikingly with textile materials such as wool, flax, and the like,
and most of all with agricultural products such as grain, meat
and meat products, timber. In regard to all these, the abolition
of protection meant a real sacrifice to domestic industries. The
second feature to be noted is the simplification which resulted
in the administrative features of the English tariff. A great
number of articles had been enumerated in the earlier tariff acts,
each of which was imported in very small quantity and yielded
an insignificant revenue. The nature of the changes made
between 1842 and 1860 is indicated by the following tabular
statement: —
Duties reduced.
Duties abolished.
1842-46
503
39«
1846 ....
112
54
1853. . . -
123
i860 ....
371
After 1860 only forty-eight articles remained subject to duty,
a number which has been still further reduced, the most notable
change having been free admission of sugar in 1872. Since that
date the English customs tariff has been simplicity itself. A
very few articles (spirits, beer, wine, tobacco, tea, coffee, cocoa)
yield practically all of the customs revenue, and, so far as these
articles are produced within the country, they are subject to an
excise duty, an internal tax precisely equal to the import duty.
In 1901, to aid in meeting the expenses of the South African war,
a moderate revenue duty was again imposed on sugar; and in
1902 the shilling duty on corn and flour (abolished in 1869) was
restored, but again taken off in 1903. In this year began the
" Tariff Reform " movement initiated by Mr Joseph Chamberlain
(q.ii.), but Free Trade retained a strong hold on the British
electorate, and the return of the overwhelming Radical majority
to parliament in 1906 involved its retention under the fiscal
policy of that party. In January 1910 the Liberal government
was again returned to power; but the Unionist party was now
committed to Tariff Reform, which had made great strides in
obtaining popular support.
France. — The tariff history of France in the igth century
divides itself into three periods: one of complete prohibition,
424
TARIFF
lasting till 1860; second, of liberal legislation, from 1860 to
1 88 1 ; third, of reversion to protection after 1881.
(1) During the first period the prohibitive legislation of the
1 8th century was retained, largely in consequence of the Napo-
leonic wars. The commercial treaty of 1786 between Great
Britain and France has already been referred to as making a
breach in the restrictive system of the i8th century; and in the
early years of the French Revolution a similar wave of liberal
policy is to be seen. But the great wars led to the complete
prohibition of the importation of manufactures, reaching its
climax in Napoleon's Continental system. The system of pro-
hibition thus instituted, while aimed at Great Britain, was made
general in its terms. Hence the importation into France of
virtually all manufactured articles from foreign countries was
completely interdicted; and such was the legislation in force
when peace came in 1815. This system doubtless was not ex-
pected to last after the wars had ceased, but, as it happened, it
did last until 1860. Successive governments in France made
endeavours to break with the prohibitive system, but naturally
met with strong opposition from the manufacturing interests,
not prepared to meet the competition of Great Britain, whose
industries had made, and were continually making, rapid strides.
The political position of the governments of the Restoration and
of Louis Philippe was such that they were unwilling to forfeit
support by pushing measures in which, after all, they were not
themselves deeply interested.
(2) It was not until Napoleon III. believed it to be to his
political advantage to strengthen friendly relations with Great
Britain by the moderation of the import duties
o//£60 *ka.t the change was finally made; while the despotic
character of his government enabled him, when once
the new policy was entered on, to bring about a radical change.
After some secret negotiations, in which the English Corn Law
agitator, Cobden, and the French economist, Cherbuliez, took
an active part, Napoleon was persuaded to enter on the famous
commercial treaty of 1860, and virtually to force its acceptance
by the French legislature. In the treaty as finally framed duties
on most manufactured commodities were reduced to a range of
10 or 15 per cent., some iron manufactures, however, being left
at slightly higher rates. Before the treaty, all woollen and
cotton manufactures, all manufactures of leather, of hardware,
pottery, all glass ware, had been prohibited, while raw materials
and such manufactures as were not prohibited had been sub-
jected to heavy duties. The treaty thus made a radical change,
revolutionizing the tariff system of France. It did so with rela-
tion not only to the United Kingdom, but, in its after effects, to
the world at large. The French government at once set to work
to enter into similar arrangements with other countries, and
treaties were successively concluded in 1860-66 with Belgium,
with the Zollverein (Germany), Italy, Switzerland, Sweden and
Norway, Holland, Spain, Austria. All these countries made
reductions of duty on French products, while France admitted
other products at the rates of the British treaty tariff. Thus a
network of treaties was spread over Europe, leading to much
great freedom of trade and opening an era of freer international
exchange.
(3) This more liberal policy, however, probably never had
deep root in French public opinion. It received a check from
the Franco-German War of 1870-71. The treaty of
Reaction Frankfort in 1871 contained, in place of the previous
detailed commercial treaty with Germany, the simple
" most favoured nation " proviso. The guarantee
which each country thus gave to the other of treatment as
favourable as that given elsewhere became irksome to France,
sore after her defeat in the war. More important, however, in
undermining the liberal system, w^s the change in agricultural
conditions which began to set in in the decade of 1878-88.
Then the great improvements in transportation caused compe-
tition in agricultural products to be felt, especially from the
United States. Agricultural prices declined; agricultural de-
pression set in. The agricultural interest in France, hitherto
indifferent about duties, now began to demand protection
since
1880.
against competition from beyond the sea. To this factor was
added the revival of national feeling and prejudice, with grow-
ing political complications and jealousies. Hence, by gradual
steps, the customs policy of France has become more and more
strongly restrictive. The first important step was taken in
1881, when a new general tariff was established, in which specific
duties replaced the ad valorem duties chiefly applied in the treaty
tariffs of 1860-66. The new rates were supposed to be no more
than equivalent to those replaced by them, but in fact were in
some cases higher. New treaty tariffs, less liberal than the
earlier ones, were concluded with Belgium, Switzerland and
Spain; while with other countries (e.g. Great Britain) a " most
favoured nation " arrangement was substituted for the previous
treaty regime. These new treaty arrangements expired in
1892: even before that date, duties had been raised on grain
and meats; and finally, in 1892, a new and more
highly protective general tariff was established on
the recommendation of M. Meline, with high duties on
agricultural products and raw materials as well as on manu-
factures, and with provisions for limited domestic bounties on
silk, hemp and flax. Nevertheless, some provision was made
for negotiations with foreign countries by establishing a mini-
mum tariff, with rates lower than those of the general or
maximum tariff, the rates of this minimum tariff being appli-
cable to countries which might make concessions to France.
As a rule the minimum tariff has been applied, after negotia-
tion, and thus is the tariff in practical effect; yet its rates are
still high, and, most significant of all, agricultural products are
granted no reductions whatever as compared with the maxi-
mum tariff, there being heavy and unrelaxed duties upon grain,
animals, meats and the like.
Germany. — The tariff history of Germany, up to the founda-
tion of the German Empire, is the history of the Zollverein
or German customs union; and this in turn is closely
connected with the tariff history of Prussia. In 1818
Prussia adopted a tariff with much reduced duties,
under the influence of the Liberal statesmen then
still powerful in the Prussian government. The excitement
and opposition in Germany to the Prussian tariff led to customs
legislation by the other German states, some smaller states
joining Prussia, while the southern states endeavoured to form
independent customs unions. Finally, by gradual steps be-
tween 1831 and 1834, the complete Zollverein was formed,
notwithstanding popular opposition. All the German states
formed a customs union, with free trade between them, except
so far as differing internal taxes in the several states made some
modifications necessary. The customs revenue was divided
among the several states in proportion to population. The
tariff of the Zollverein was, in essentials, the Prussian tariff of
1818, and was moderate as compared with most of the separate
tariffs previously existing. Within the Zollverein, after 1834,
there was an almost unceasing struggle between the Protec-
tionist and Free Trade parties, Prussia supporting in the main
a Liberal policy, while the South German states supported a
Protectionist policy. The trend of the tariff policy of the
Zollverein for some time after 1834 was towards protection; •
partly because the specific duties of 1818 became proportionately
heavier as manufactured commodities fell in price, partly be-
cause some actual changes in rates were made in response to
the demands of the Protectionist states. In 1853 a treaty
between the Zollverein and Austria brought about reciprocal
reductions of duty between these two parties. After 1860 a
change towards a more liberal policy was brought about by
the efforts of Prussia, which concluded independently a com-
mercial treaty with France, forcing on the other members of the
Zollverein the alternative of either parting company Frenci,
with Prussia or of joining her in her relations with treaty
France. The second alternative was accepted, largely and low
because Austria did not vigorously support the South %££'
German states, and in 1865 the Zollverein as a whole
concluded a commercial treaty with France, bringing about im-
portant reductions of duty. The regime of comparatively free
TARIFF
425
trade thus established lasted for about fifteen years. After the
foundation of the German Empire, the duties of the Zollverein
became those of Germany, and for a time the liberal regime
was maintained and extended, with respect to the tariff as with
respect to other matters. But in Germany, as in France, a
combination of political and of economic forces led before long
to a reaction towards protection. Bismarck broke with the
National Liberals, who were the champions of free trade; at
the same time the agricultural depression set in, and the agri-
cultural interest demanded protection against American and
other foreign competition. The manufacturers, especially of
iron, also manoeuvred for protection. The reaction came in
1879, when duties were increased on manufactured articles as
Protec- well as on agricultural articles. Other advances of
Hun rein- duty were made in later years, especially on grain;
Si87gd' an<^ tnus t'le P°^cv °f Germany has become dis-
tinctly Protectionist, though not to the same degree
as in France. In 1892, however, the precise year in which
France gave up her system of commercial treaties, some modera-
tion was brought about in Germany's protective system by
commercial treaties with Austria, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland,
and shortly afterwards with Russia. These treaties provided
for reductions of duties in all directions, the most important
concessions being on certain agricultural products. Thus the
duty on wheat, which had been gradually raised as high as
5 marks per hundred kilogrammes (roughly is. 3d., or about
30 c. a bushel) was reduced to 3-50 marks by the treaties. The
rates of these treaties were extended to a number of other
countries having " most favoured nation " relations with
Germany. The tariff system of Germany, however, at the
beginning of the 2oth century, remained definitely Protectionist.
In other important countries changes in policy have taken place
similar to those noted in Germany and in France. The era of
moderated tariffs, which began with the great treaty of 1860, lasted
for about twenty years, and was followed in Italy, Austria, Belgium,
Switzerland and Spain by a reversion to protection, although
usually to a less high system of protection than had prevailed
before 1860. The United Kingdom and Holland alone held con-
sistently and unfalteringly to the principle of free trade. The
factors which have brought about this reaction have been, as was
already noted, partly economic, partly political: on the one hand,
the pressure of competition from distant countries in agricultural
products, a consequence chiefly of improved transportation; on
the other hand, the revival of national sentiment and prejudice.
The United States.— The tariff history of the United States,
like that of European countries, divides itself into two great
periods, before and after the year 1860. But it is no more than
an accident that this year constitutes the dividing line in both
cases, the change in the United States being due to the Civil
War, which so profoundly influenced the fiscal, economic and
political history of the country in all directions. The period
before 1860 may again be divided into three sub-periods, the
first extending from 1789 to 1816, the second from 1816 to
about 1846, the third from 1846 to 1860.
(i) The Tariff Act of 1789 was the first legislative measure
passed by the United States. The Protectionists have pointed
I7g9__ to it as showing the disposition of the first Congress to
1816. adopt at once a policy of protection; the Free Traders
have pointed to it similarly as showing a predilection
for their policy. Each had some ground for the claim. The
duties of the act of 1789 were very moderate, and, as compared
with those which the United States has had under any subse-
quent legislation, may be described as free trade duties. On
the other hand, the spirit of the act of 1789 was protective. It
had been the design of Madison, and of other firm supporters
of the new constitution, to adopt in 1789 a very simple measure,
designed solely to secure revenue. But the pressure from the
representatives of some of the states, notably Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts, compelled him to incorporate in the Tariff
Act certain specific duties borrowed from the Tariff Acts then
in force in these states, which had a distinctly protective aim.
Thus the act of 1789, although the duties levied by it were
moderate, yet had a protective intent. Such in the main re-
mained the situation until 1816, duties being indeed raised from
time to time in order to secure more revenue, but the arrange-
ment and the general rate of the duties not being sensibly
modified. There was not at this time any considerable public
feeling on the subject of protection, chiefly because during most
of the years of this period the Eastern states, and especially
New England, where manufactures might be expected to
develop first, were profitably engaged in. an extensive export
and carrying trade.
(2) After the close of the War of 1812, however, a new spirit
and a new policy developed. With the end of the Napoleonic
wars, the opportunities for American commerce be- m&^if
came less, while at the same time the expanding
population necessarily led to diversified interests at home. A
demand arose for two closely connected measures: protection
to domestic manufactures, and internal improvements. Pro-
tection was demanded as a means both of aiding young
industries and of fostering a home market for agricultural pro-
ducts. The chief spokesman of the new movement was Henry
Clay, who remained throughout his life the constant advocate
of this so-called " American system." Some disposition in
this direction showed itself as early as 1816, when tariff duties
were raised. Still greater changes were made in 1824, 1828,
and 1832. In 1824 duties were considerably raised; and
thereafter the New England states, which so far had been
lukewarm in supporting the movement, joined in it unreservedly.
The tariff of 1828 was affected by some political manipulation,
which caused it to contain objectionable provisions, and to be
dubbed " the tariff of abominations." But the so-called
abominations were removed in 1832, when the protective
system was deliberately and carefully rearranged. By this
time, however, the opposition to it in the South had reached a
pitch so intense that concessions had to be made. As a planting
and slave-owning region, the South inevitably had no manu-
factures: it felt that its cotton was sure to find a foreign market,
and would gain little from the establishment of a domestic
cotton manufacture within the country; and it judged, rightly,
that the protective system brought it only burden and no
benefit. The extent of the burden was greatly exaggerated by
the leaders of the South, especially in the heat of partisan con-
troversy; and the subject was closely connected with the con-
troversy as to the rights of the states, and the endeavour of
South Carolina, under the influence of Calhoun, to nullify the
Tariff Act of 1832. The nullification movement led in 1833 to
the well-known compromise, by which the rates of duty as
established by the Act of 1832 were to be gradually reduced,
reaching in 1842 a general level of 20 per cent. The compromise
served its turn in allaying political bitterness and staving off a
direct conflict between the United States and South Carolina.
But the reductions of duty made under it were never effectively
carried out. In 1842, when the final 20 per cent, rate was to
have gone into effect, the Protectionists again had control of
Congress, and after a brief period of two months, during which
this 20 per cent, rate was in force, passed the Tariff Act of 1842,
which once more restored the protective system in a form not
much less extreme than that of 1832.
(3) Four years later, however, in 1846, a very considerable
change was secured by the South, and a new era was entered
The Democratic party now was in control of
legislation, and in the Tariff Act of 1846 established
a system of moderate and purely ad valorem duties, in which the
protected articles were subjected, as a rule, to a rate of 30 per
cent., in some cases to rates of 25 and 20 per cent. The system
then established has often been spoken of as a free trade system,
but was in reality only a system of moderated protection. In
1857 duties were still further reduced, the rate on most pro-
tected commodities going down to 24 per cent., and remaining at
this comparatively low level until the outbreak of the Civil War.
The second great period in the tariff history of the United
States opens with the Civil War. It is true that the first steps
towards a policy of higher protection were taken just before
the war began. In the session of 1860-61, immediately pre-
ceding the outbreak of the conflict, the Merrill Tariff Act was
426
TARIFF
passed by the Republican party, then in control because the
defection of Southern members of Congress had already begun.
It substituted specific duties for the ad valorem duties of 1846
and 1857, and made some other changes of significance, as in
the higher duties upon iron and steel. Nevertheless, the ad-
vances then made were of little importance as compared with
the far-reaching increases of duty during the Civil War. These
formed part of the general resort to every possible
fisca' device. The great struggle compelled every
1862-64. resource to be strained to the utmost: the issue of
long-time bonds, continual borrowing in very large
amounts on short-time inconvertible paper money, an elaborate
and all-pervading system of internal taxes, and, finally, heavy
import duties. The internal taxes of the war were applied not
only in the form of income taxes, stamp taxes, licence and gross
receipts taxes, but also as direct excise taxes on many com-
modities. The import duties were correspondingly raised,
partly by way of off-set to the internal taxes, partly as a means
of getting additional revenue, and finally in some degree be-
cause of a disposition to protect domestic industries. The
most important acts were the great revenue acts of 1862 and
1864. Some further changes were made in 1865, and the close
of the war thus left the United States with a complicated system
of very high taxes both on imported duties and on domestic
products.
The main features of the tariff history of the United States
since the Civil War have been that the internal taxes have been
almost entirely swept away, the import duties on purely re-
venue articles similarly abolished, while those import duties
that operated to protect domestic industries have been main-
tained, and indeed in many cases increased. The situation has
had some analogy to that of France from 1815 to 1860, when
similarly a highly restrictive system established during a period
of war was unexpectedly retained long after peace had been
established. This result in the United States came about by
gradual steps and without premeditation. After the close of
the war efforts were first directed to clearing the financial situa-
tion by funding the floating debt, and taking steps (never fully
consummated) towards contracting the currency. Next the
internal taxes were gradually done away with, until nothing
was left except the excise on beer, spirits and tobacco. No
further resort was made to internal taxes until the revenue act
of 1898 was passed, at the outbreak of the Spanish War. Efforts
were made also to reduce the tariff duties, but these naturally
came last: they met with strong opposition, and in the end
they were almost completely frustrated, thus leaving as the
basis of the tariff the rates which had been levied in the course
°^ tne war' ^n I^° some rearrangements were made,
the duties on iron and on some other articles being re-
duced. In 1872 a more general reduction was carried
out> Stron8'v resisted by the Protectionists, and finally
ending in a uniform cutting off of 10 per cent, from
all the import protective duties. In 1875, however, when the
revenue had become deficient after the crisis of 1873, the 10 per
cent, reduction was repealed, and duties restored to their
previous amounts. It deserves to be noted that in 1872 an
important step was also taken towards removing entirely the
duties on purely revenue articles, tea and coffee being then
admitted free of duty. On the other hand, the maintenance
of the protective duties, and the gradual consolidation of feeling
in favour of a permanent policy of strong protection, led to
other revisions and rearrangements in the direction of pro-
tection. In 1867 an important act on wool and woollens was
passed, largely increasing the duties on both. In 1869 the duty
on copper was raised. In 1870, while some duties were lowered,
others were raised, as, for instance, those on steel rails and on
marble. Thus the ten years immediately following the close
of the war brought about the gradual transformation of the
high duties levied on all commodities for revenue purposes into
a system of high duties almost wholly on protective commodities.
This transformation met with much opposition, not less in the
Republican party than in the Democratic party. While the
Gradual
consoii-
"duties
feeling in the Republican party had been from the outset in
favour of protection, so high a range of duties met with much
opposition. This opposition led to an important general re-
vision in 1883, largely influenced by the recommendations of a
special Tariff Commission which Congress created in 1882. The
act of 1883 was passed in the main as a party measure
by the Republicans, and on the whole served rather
to put in order the protective system as it stood than
to make any change of policy. Certain duties were reduced
(though in no case greatly reduced) such as those upon wool,
some woollens, cheaper grades of cotton cloths, iron, steel rails,
copper. On the other hand, on many articles duties already
high, but believed to be insufficient for the effective protection
of the domestic producer, were raised; e.g., on finer woollens
and cottons, on some iron and steel manufactures.
The tariff system as revised and codified in 1883 would pro-
bably have remained unchanged for many years had it not been
for the turn taken by political and financial history. The decade
from 1880 to 1890 was one of great prosperity, consequently
of rising imports, consequently of swelling customs revenue.
In the second half of the decade a continuous large surplus in
the Treasury necessarily directed attention to the state of the
revenue, and gave strength to the protests against excessive
taxation. In addition, the Democratic party, which had long
been committed, though in a half-hearted way, against the
policy of high protection, was brought to a vigorous and un-
compromising attack on it through the leadership of President
Cleveland. In his Presidential Message of December 1887 he
attacked the protective system in unqualified terms; and in
the session of 1887-88 the Democratic majority in the House
of Representatives prepared a bill providing for great reduc-
tions. The control of the Senate by the Republicans prevented
any legislation. But the Republicans, as is almost inevitable
under a party system, championed the policy opposed by the
other side, and declared themselves not only in favour of the
maintenance of existing duties, but of the consistent and un-
qualified further application of protection. The protection
question thus became the main issue in the Presidential election
of 1888, which resulted in the defeat of the Democrats. In the
next ensuing session of Congress, in 1889-90, the Republicans
passed a new tariff act, known as the McKinley Tariff
Act, because Mr McKinley was then chairman of
the House Committee in charge of the bill. It ad-
vanced duties materially on a considerable number
of commodities, both raw materials and manufactured articles.
The duties on wool were raised, corresponding changes made on
woollen goods, the duties on cottons, linens, some silks, and
velvets considerably raised. A further step towards consolidat-
ing the protective system was taken by abolishing the duty on
sugar, mainly a revenue duty. The necessity for reducing the
revenue and cutting down the continued surplus was met in
this way rather than by lowering the protective duties. For
consistency in maintaining the protective principle a direct
bounty was given to the domestic producers of sugar in
Louisiana. A turn in the political wheel brought an abrupt
change four years later, in 1894. The tariff question was again
the issue in 1892: President Cleveland, defeated four years
before, was now again elected, and the Democratic party came
into power, pledged to change the tariff system. Accordingly
in the first ensuing session of the Congress elected in
1892 the tariff act of 1894 was passed, known as the
Wilson Tariff, bringing about considerable reductions
of duty. The measure, however, was less incisive
than its chief sponsors had planned, because of the narrow
majority commanded by the Democrats in the Senate. Some
of the Democratic senators were lukewarm in their support of
the party policy of tariff reduction, and joined with the Re-
publicans in mitigating the changes. Nevertheless some crucial
changes were made. The duty on wool, typical among the
duties on raw materials, was completely abolished, and with
this change came a great reduction in the duties upon woollen
goods. Changes, but of less importance, were made on other
TARIJA— TARIM
427
textile goods. The House had proposed to remove also the
duties on coal and on iron ore, but the Senate permitted only
a reduction in these. A duty was reimposed on sugar, chiefly
as a means of securing needed revenue, but at a less rate than
had existed before 1890. At the same time the differential
duty on refined sugar, which operated as protection to the sugar
trust, was not abolished, as the ardent tariff reformers had
proposed, but kept in substance not greatly changed. This
circumstance, as well as the failure to make other desired re-
ductions, caused the ardent tariff reformers to be greatly dis-
appointed with the act of 1894 as finally passed, and led
President Cleveland to permit it to become law without its
endorsement by his signature. The next election in 1896
brought still another turn in the political wheel, the Republicans
being once more brought into power under the leadership of
President McKinley. The currency issue had been foremost in
the campaign, but the Republicans had also proclaimed them-
selves in favour of a return to the unqualified protective system.
At the extra session which President McKinley called in 1897,
almost the sole measure considered was the tariff act, known
(again from the name of the chairman of the House Com-
mittee) as the Dingley Act. This reimposed the
duties upon wool, on most qualities at the precise rates
1897. °f 1890, on some qualities at even higher rates. Neces-
sarily the duties on woollens were correspondingly
raised, and here again made even higher than they had been in
1890. On other textiles, particularly on silks and linens, similar
advances were made. As a rule, the duties of 1890 were either
retained or somewhat advanced. To this policy, however,
there was a significant exception in the iron and steel schedule,
where the reduced duties of 1894 were left mainly unchanged.
The iron industry in the United States had made extraordinary
advances, and confessedly was not in need of greater protection
than had been given in 1894. Some provisions for reciprocity
arrangements with other countries, opening the way for possible
reductions of duty by treaty arrangements, were also incor-
porated in the act of 1897, though with limitations which made
it improbable that any considerable changes would ensue from
this policy. Some such provisions had also been contained
in the act of 1890, but here also without important results. The
tariff system of the United States at the beginning of the 2oth
century thus remained rigidly and unqualifiedly protective,
with rates higher than those of even the most restrictive tariffs
of the countries of the European continent.
AUTHORITIES. — Am6, Etude sur les tarifs de douane et sur les traites
de commerce (Paris, 1876); P. Ashley, Modern Tariff History
(London, 1904); W. J. Ashley, The Tariff Problem (London, 1904);
Carl Ballod, Die deutsch-amerikanischen Handelsbeziehungen (Leipzig,
1901); C. F. Bastable, The Commerce of Nations (London, 1892);
A. Beer, Osterreichisclie Handelspclitik im XIX. Jahrhundert
(Vienna, 1891); S. J. Chapman, History of Trade between the United
Kingdom and the United States, with special reference to the Effect
of Tariffs (London, 1899); G. B. Curtiss, Protection and Prosperity:
an Account of Tariff Legislation and its Effect in Europe and America
(1896); Sir C. Difke, Problems of Greater Britain (London, 1890);
Dowell, History of Taxes and Taxation in England; T. H. Farrer,
The State in Relation to Trade (1883) ; G. M. Fisk, Die Handelspolitik
der Vereinigten Staaten, 1890-1900: Schriften des Vereins fur
Socialpolitik, XC. (Leipzig, 1900) ; Funck-Brentano and Dupuis,
Les tarifs douaniers et les traites de commerce (Paris, 1896); W. Lotz,
Die Handelspolitik des Deutschen Reiches, 1890-1900 (Leipzig, 1901) ;
H. Richelot, Le Zollverein (1859); J. W. Root, Colonial Tariffs
(Liverpool, 1906); E. Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies in
the Nineteenth Century (London, 1903); F. W. Taussig, The Tariff
History of the United States (New York, 1893); J. Wernicke, System
der nationalen Schutzpolitik nach aussen (Jena, 1896). (F. W. T.)
TARIJA, or TARIXA, a department and town of south-eastern
Bolivia. The department lies on the northern frontier of
Argentina, and is bounded W. by Potosi, N. by Chuquisaca,
and E. by Paraguay. Pop. (1900) 102,887. Area, 33,036
sq. m. The eastern and larger part of the department belongs
to the great Chaco region. The Chaco districts are inhabited
by small nomadic tribes of Indians, and the grassy Llanos de
Manzo by the Chiriguanos, one of the strong Indian nations
of South America. They are considered a branch of the
Guarany race, and live in permanent villages, breed horses,
cattle and sheep, and till the soil. Near the Argentine
frontier are the less civilized tribes of the Tobas, and in the
mountainous districts are remnants of the Quichuas, once
masters of an empire.
The capital, SAN BERNARDO DE TARIJA (pop. 1900, 6980;
1906, estimate, 7817), is the only town of importance in the
department. It is situated on the Rio Grande de Tarija, about
100 m. E. of Tupiza. It is about 5800 ft. above sea level and
its climate is mild and healthy. The town was founded in 1577
by Luiz de Fuertes, by orders of the Viceroy of Peru, as a
military post to hold the Chiriguanos in check. About the
same time the Jesuits established themselves here, and the
most important building in the town is their convent, afterwards
occupied by the Franciscans.
TARIM, the principal river of Chinese or Eastern Turkestan,
in the middle of Asia. It rises in two head-streams, (i) the
Kashgar-darya, which springs as the Kyzyl-su on the N. versant
of the Pamir plateau, not far from another Kyzyl-su or the
Vakhsh, which flows down the Alai valley. to join eventually
the Amu-darya, and (2) the Yarkand-darya, which gushes out
under the name of the Raskan-darya, on the N. slope of the
i>arakorum Mountains, just under the Karakorum pass. The
fo.Tner stream flows almost due E. past the city of Kashgar
until it joins the Yarkand or Yarkent-darya. The latter, after
skirting, in a deep gorge and in a north-western direction, the S.
foot of the Sughet Mountains and then of the Raskem Mountains,
both constituent members of the western Kuen-lun, forces
its way out into the lowlands of Eastern Turkestan and flows
N. past the city of Yarkand, then turns N.E. and traverses in a
gigantic arc the N.W., N., and E. margins of the vast desert of
Takla-makan. Of these two streams Dr Sven Hedin concedes
the honour of being the mother river to the Yarkand-darya,
on the ground both of its length and of its volume; indeed for
some months in the year the Kashgar-darya, mainly owing to
the drain made upon it for irrigation purposes after it debouches
upon the lowlands, fails to get through to the Yarkand-darya,
whereas the Yarkand-darya, on the other hand, never dries up.
The Kashgar-darya enters the Yarkand-darya by a wide delta
of anastomosing arms, beginning in the vicinity of Maral-bashi
(39° 49' N. and 78° 33' E.). The conjoint river, bearing the name
of the Yarkand-darya, flows for some 230 m. N.E. until it encounters
the Ak-su-darya from the N. Along this part of its course the river
is full of minor sinuosities, with a deep, narrow channel, a sluggish
current, and high steep banks, bordered by forests of poplars and
thickets of reeds. The Ak-su-darya, which rises at an altitude of
11,000 ft. as the Ak-sai near the S.W. extremity, but on the W. side,
of the Kokshal-tau range of the Tian-shan Mountains, soon breaks
through that range and proceeds to flow E.N.E. along its southern
foot, but under the name of the Taushkan-darya, until it reaches the
town of Ak-su in 80° 41' E. and 40° 28' N. Thence it flows S. and
S.E. and effects a junction with the Yarkand-darya (Tarim) in about
81° E. The Ak-su, which is swift and brings down large quantities
of sediment, infuses new vigour into the main river, giving it an
impulse which carries it all the way down to the Kara-koshun.
About 20 m. farther down, the Yumalak-darya or Tarim, as the
river then begins to be called, is joined on the right or S. by the
Khotan-darya, a stream which rises in the N. ranges of the Kuen-lun
Mountains, and fights its way across the all-engulfing sands of the
desert of Takla-makan, but with such poor results that it is only
about forty days in the year that it makes any contribution to the
volume of the Tarim. Some 180 to 190 m. below the confluence
of the Ak-su-darya, the river begins to come into direct conflict
with the sand-dunes of the great desert, which it has thus far suc-
cessfully skirted. At the same time it begins to waste its strength
in filling marginal or lateral lakes, formed in the hollows between
the big sand-dunes (they reach elevations of as much as 300 ft.).
In about 86° 30' E., near the station of Karaul, the nver begins
to break up in deltaic fashion, and in a long secular process, using
Karaul as a sort of pivot, appears to oscillate backwards ana
forwards like a pendulum from N. to S., and from S. back again
to N. between the lake of Kara-koshun (N. M. Przhevalsky's Lop-nor)
at the N. foot of the Astin-tagh (see LOP-NOR), and the basin at the
S. foot of the Kuruk-tagh (see GOBI), which Baron von Richthofen
and Dr Sven Hedin identify with the ancient Lpp-nor of the old
Chinese geographers. From Karaul down to Ayrilghan or Arghan,
a distance of over 200 m., the Tarim skirts the N.E. front of the
high sand-dunes of the great desert, spending itself in numerous
marginal lakes all the way down, while on the opposite bank (left)
428
TARKANI— TARN
it leaves numerous interlacing branches behind it, like the Kunche-
kish-tarim, Lashin-darya, Yatim-tarim, Ilek, and Tokuz-tarim.
None of its marginal lakes is round in shape, but all are elongated,
from N. to S. or from N.W. to S.E. This is the general rule, but
there is a second series of lakes beside the river which are drawn
out from N.E. to S.W. These owe their existence primarily to the
action of the wind. Here too, in its delta, the Tarim overflows
into more than one chain of a third category of lakes (e.g. Avullu-
kol, Kara-kol, Tayek-koJ, and Arka-kol), strung on one or other
of its anastomosing deltaic arms. These generally act as regulators
and clarifiers, the river emerging from them with crystal-bright
water.
Near the head of its delta the Tarim is joined from the N. by the
Koncheh-darya, a stream which issues from the lake of Bagrash-kul,
its ultimate source being the Khaidu-gol or Khaidyk-gol, which
drains the Yulduz valleys of the eastern Tian-shan Mountains.
This river, which measures 290 m. from the Bagrash-kul to the
Kara-koshun, serves, with the help of the poplar forest which grows
along its left bank, as a dam to check the westward movement of
the desert sands. Finally the Tarim enters, by a number of arms,
the series of shallow, dwindling lakes of Kara-buran, which serve
as a sort of lacustrine ante-room to the real terminal basin of the
river, the Kara-koshun, which lies a little farther to the E., in
40° N., 89° 30' E., at an altitude of 2675 feet above sea-level. In
1900-01 Dr Sven Hedin discovered several fresh desert lakes
forming to the N. of Kara-koshun, and branches of the deltaic arms
of the Tarim, or overflows of such branches, straining out in the
same direction, facts which he interpreted as a tendency of the river
to revert to its former more northerly terminal basin of the old
(Chinese) Lop-nor.
The river not only dwindles vastly between the confluence of the
Ak-su (e.g. 16,780 cub. ft. in the second in June) and its embouchure
in the Kara-koshun (5650 cub. ft. in the second), but keeps on
lifting its bed and its current, like the Po and the Hwang-ho, above
the level of the adjacent country. The total fall from the con-
fluence of the Ak-su-darya (3380 fit.) to the Kara-koshun (2675 ft.),
a distance of some 665 m., is only 705 ft., giving an average of very
jittle more than a foot per mile. The total length of the river
is probably somewhere near 1000 m. On the whole the Tarim is
step by step and year by year steadily but slowly working
its way towards the S.W., for all along its lower course it is accom-
panied by a belt, some 50 m. wide, which lies at a lower level or
altitude than itself. In its actual delta this tendency is counter-
balanced by its incipient oscillation backwards towards the N.,
towards the desiccated lake basin of the old Lop-nor. Although
the river drains the vast area of 354,000 sq. m., it is only from
172,000 sq. m. of this (48-8 per cent.) that it derives any augmenta-
tion of volume. The remaining 182,000 sq. m. (51-2 per cent.) of
the potential catchment area fails to contribute one drop of water,
being nothing but arid, rainless desert. Throughout the catchment-
basin of the Tarim the precipitation is governed by the general law,
that it increases from N. to S. and from E. to W. Hence, in con-
formity with this, the largest affluents are in the west. In general
shape the basin of the Tarim is elliptical, but the lowest part lies
near the extreme E. end of the ellipse. " If the deepest part of the
basin lay beyond the long axis of the ellipse the symmetry would be
ideal; but, situated as it is at the southern foot of the Tian-shan,
it has occasioned a dislocation towards the N. of the main stream
of the system. ... If we compare the northern peripheral zone
from the catchment area of the Kashgar-darya to the catchment area
of the Kuruk-tagh, both inclusive, with the southern peripheral zone
from the catchment area of the Yarkand-darya to the catchment
area of the Astin-tagh, both again inclusive, we find that the former
has an area of 82,990 sq. m., and the latter an area of 89,550 sq. m.,
or, in other words, that they are approximately of the same size.
In the case of both the breadth decreases on the whole towards the
E., until they each terminate in a narrow strip, the domain of
the Kuruk-tagh on the one hand and that of the Astin-tagh on the
other. But before they contract in this way the zones swell out
into the Khaidu-gol and the Cherchen-darya and Kara-muran
respectively. ... A corresponding symmetry can also be seen in
the rivers which gather off the encircling mountains into" the de-
pression," * the Kashgar-darya balancing the Yarkand-darya, the
Ak-su-darya balancing the Khotan-darya, the Koncheh-darya
balancing the Cherchen-darya, and so on.
The Tarim begins to freeze about the end of November and the
freezing advances upwards against the current. When the ice of
the river thaws in the beginning of March it sets up a spring flood,
which in magnitude and volume falls little short of the flood caused
by the melting of the snows on the mountains about the head-
streams and feeders of the river, and the course of which can be
traced all down the Tarim during the summer and autumn. The
river abounds in fish, especially in the lower part of its course. Fish
forms the staple food of a large part of the riverine population.
See Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia,
1899-1902 (vols. i. and ii., Stockholm, 1905-06), and Central Asia
and Tibet (2 vols., London, 1903). (J. T. BE.)
1 Sven Hedin, Scientific Results, ii. 524-25.
TARKANI, or TARKALANRI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the
whole of Bajour (q.v.), on the border of the North-West
Frontier Province of India. Subdivided into Mamunds, Isazai
and Ismailzai, the tribe numbers some 100,000 persons.
TARLETON, SIR BANASTRE (1754-1833), English soldier,
was the son of John Tarleton (1710-1773), a Liverpool merchant,
and was born in Liverpool on the zist of August 1754. Educated
at Oxford he entered the army, and in December 1775 he sailed
as a volunteer to America with Earl, afterwards Marquess,
Cornwallis, and his services during the American War of Inde-
pendence in the year 1776 gained for him the position of a
brigade major of cavalry. He was present at the battle of
Brandywine and at other engagements in 1777 and 1778, and
as the commander of the British legion, a mixed force of cavalry
and light infantry, he proceeded at the beginning of 1780 to
South Carolina, rendering valuable services to Sir Henry Clinton
in the operations which culminated in the capture of Charleston.
He was responsible for a British victory at Waxhaw in May
1780, and he materially helped Cornwallis to win the battle
of Camden in the succeeding August. He was completely
victorious in an engagement with Thomas Sumter at Fishing
Creek, or Catawba Fords, but was not equally successful when
he encountered the same general at Blackstock Hill in November
1780; then in January 1781, in spite of much personal valour,
he was defeated with heavy loss at Cowpens. Having been
successful in a skirmish at Tarrants House, and having taken
part in the battle of Guilford in March 1781, he marched with
Cornwallis into Virginia, and after affording much assistance
to his commander-in-chief he was instructed to hold Gloucester.
This post, however, was surrendered to the Americans with
Yorktown in October 1781, and Tarleton returned to England
on parole. In 1790 he entered parliament as member for
Liverpool, and with the exception of a single year he remained
in the House of Commons until 1812. In 1794 he became a
major-general; in 1812 a general; and he held a military
command in Ireland and another in England. In 1815 he was
made a baronet. He died without issue at Leintwardine in
Shropshire on the 25th of January 1833.
For some time Tarleton lived with the actress Mary Robinson
(Perdita), and his portrait was painted both by Reynolds and by
Gainsborough. Sir Banastre wrote a History of the Campaigns of
1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America (London,
1781), which, although of some value, is marred by the author's
vanity and by his attacks on Cornwallis. It was criticized by
Colonel Roderick Mackenzie in his Strictures on Lieutenant-Colonel
Tarleton' s History (1781) and in the Cornwallis Correspondence.
TARLTON, RICHARD (d. 1588), English actor, was probably
at one time an inn-keeper, but in 1583, when he is mentioned
as one of the original company of queen's players, was already
an experienced actor. He was Elizabeth's favourite clown,
and his talent for impromptu doggerel on subjects suggested
by his audience has given his name to that form of verse. To
obtain the advantage of his popularity a great number of songs
and witticisms of the day were attributed to him, and after
his death Tarlton's Jests, many of them older than he, inade
several volumes. Other books, and several ballads, coupled
his name with their titles. He is said to have been the
Yorick of Hamlet's soliloquy.
TARN, a river of southern France, tributary to the Garonne,
watering the departments of Lozere, Aveyron, Tarn, Haute-
Garonne and Tarn-et-Garonne. Length, 234 m. Area of basin,
5733 SQ- m- Rising on the southern slope of Mt. Lozere at a
height of 5249 ft., the Tarn flows westward and, having received
the Tarnon, enters the gorge, famed for its beauty, which
separates the Causse de Sauveterre from the Causse Mejan.
Emerging from this canon after a course of 37 m. it receives the
Jonte on the left and, still flowing through gorges, passes
between the Causse Noir, the Larzac plateau and the Causse de
St Affrique (at the foot of which it receives the Dourdou de
Vabre) on the left and the Levezou range and the Plateau of
Segala on the right. In this part of its course the most impor-
tant town is Millau, where it receives the Dourbie. At the
cascade of Sabo, above Albi, the river enters the plains and,
TARN— TARNOWSKI
4.29
flowing in a deep bed, passes Albi and Gaillac, some distance
below which, at the confluence of the Agout, it exchanges a
west-south-westerly for a north-westerly course. At Mont-
auban the Tarn receives the Tescou and 6 m. farther on unites
with the Aveyron. It then reaches Moissac, 2§ m. below which
it flows into the Garonne.
TARN, a department of south-western France, formed in
1790 of the three dioceses of Albi, Castres and Lavaur, belong-
ing to the province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 330,533. Area,
2231 sq. m. Tarn is bounded N. and E. by Aveyron, S.E. by
Herault, S. by Aude, S.W. and W. by Haute-Garonne, N.W. by
Tarn-et-Garonne. The slope of the department is from east
to west, and its general character is mountainous or hilly; its
three principal ranges, the Mountains of Lacaune, the Sidobre,
and the Montagne Noire, belonging to the Cevennes, lie on the
south-east. The stony and wind-blown slopes of the first-
named are used for pasturage. The highest point of the range
and of the department is the Pic de Montalet (about 4150 ft.);
several other summits are not much short of this. The granite-
strewn plateaus of the Sidobre, from 1600 to 2000 ft. high,
separate the valley of the Agout from that of its left-hand
affluent the Thore. The Montagne Noire, on the southern
border of the department, derives its name from the forests on
its northern slope, and some of its peaks are from 3000 to 3500 ft.
high. The limestone and sandstone foot-hills are clothed with
vines and fruit trees, and are broken by deep alluvial valleys of
extraordinary fertility. With the exception of a small portion
of the Montagne Noire, which drains into the Aude, the whole
department belongs to the basin of the Garonne. The eastern
portion of the department has the climate of Auvergne, the
severest in France, but that of the plain is Girondin. At
Albi the mean temperature is 55°. The rainfall, 29 or 30 ins.
at that place, exceeds 40 ins. on the Lacaune and Montagne
Noire.
The most noteworthy places in the department are Albi, the
capital, Castres, Gaillac, Lavaur, Mazamet and Cordes, which are
separately treated. Other places of interest are Burjats, which
has ruins of an old church and chateau; Lisle d'Albi, a bastide
with a church of the I4th century; and Penne, which has ruins
of a fine medieval chateau.
TARN (O. Eng. tame, Scand. Ijarn, tjiirn, tjorn, &c.), a name
applied in England (especially in the Lake District) and in
Scotland to small lakes or pools in mountainous districts,
especially to such as have no visible affluent streams. The
term is sometimes used also of a marsh or bog.
TARN-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France,
formed in 1808 of districts formerly belonging to Guienne and
Gascony (Quercy, Lomagne, Armagnac, Rouergue, Agenais),
with the addition of a small piece of Languedoc. From 1790
to 1808 its territory was divided between the departments of
Lot, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, Aveyron, Gers and Lot-et-Garonne.
It is bounded N. by Lot, E. by Aveyron, S. by Tarn and Haute-
Garonne, and W. by Gers and Lot-et-Garonne. Area, 1440
sq. m. Pop. (1906) 188,553. The department is watered by
three rivers, the Garonne, the Tarn, which joins the Garonne
below Moissac, and the Aveyron, which flows into the Tarn
between Moissac and Montauban, dividing it into three dis-
tinct regions of hills. Those to the south-west of the Garonne
are a continuation of the plateau of Lannemezan; ramifications
of the Cevennes extend between the Garonne and the Tarn,
and between the Tarn and the Aveyron; the region to the
north of the continuous valley formed by the courses of the
three rivers belongs to the Central Plateau. The causse or
b'mestone plateau of Quercy occupies the north-east corner of
the department and includes its highest point (1634 ft.). The
lowest point (164 ft.) is at the exit of the Garonne. The climate
is mild and agreeable; the mean annual temperature being
about 56° F. Rain falls seldom, but heavily, especially in
spring, the annual rainfall being 28 or 30 ins.
The wide alluvial valleys of the three large rivers are most pro-
ductive. Cereals, especially wheat, maize and oats, occupy more
than two-thirds of the arable land of the department. The vine
is everywhere cultivated and large quantities of grapes are exported
as table fruit. Potatoes are also grown. Plums and apricots are
abundant. The breeding of horses, especially for cavalry purposes,
is actively carried on; and the rearing of horned cattle, both for
draught and for fattening, is also important. Sheep, pigs, poultry
and, in a minor degree, silk-worms, are also sources of profit.
The manufacturing industry is represented by flour-mills, metal-
foundries, tanneries, various kinds of silk-mills, and manufactories
of linen, wool and paper. The principal exports are fruit, wine,
flour, truffles from the Rouergue, poultry, phosphates and litho-
graphic stone. Imports include raw materials for textile industries,
timber, iron, wood-pulp, coal and agricultural produce. The canal
of the Garonne traverses the department for 48 m. and the
Garonne and the Tarn furnish 82 m. of navigable waterway. The
department is served by the Orleans and the Southern railways.
The department forms the diocese of Montauban, and belongs to
the jurisdiction of the Toulouse court of appeal, to the academie
(educational division) of Toulouse, and to the district of the XVII.
corps d'armfe (Toulouse). It has 3 arrondissements (Montauban,
Moissac and Castelsarrasin), 24 cantons and 195 communes.
Montauban, Moissac and Castelsarrasin are the principal places.
Other towns of interest are St Antonin, which has tanneries and
manufactures of rough fabrics and is archaeologically important
for its possession of a massive hdtel de ville of the 1 2th century,
the oldest in France; Bruniquel, which is splendidly situated over-
looking the valleys of the Aveyron and the V6re, and is dominated
by a medieval castle with a donjon of the nth century; Beaumpnt-
de-Lomagne, a curious bastide of the I3th century with a fortified
church of the I4th century; Montpezat-de-Quercy, which has a
church of the same period, containing many precious antiquities;
Varen, an ancient town of narrow streets and old houses with a
remarkable Romanesque church and the ruins of a castle of the
I4th and I5th centuries; and Ginals, where remains of the Cistercian
abbey of Beaulieu, founded in 1141, are still to be seen.
TARNOPOL, a town in Galicia, Austria, 87 m. E.S.E. of
Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 30,368, half of which are Jews.
Industry consists chiefly in corn-milling and the preparation of
wax and honey. The principal trade is in horses, corn and
other agricultural produce, and spirits. Tarnopol was formerly
a fortress, and rendered valuable services to Polish kings, who
in their turn conferred upon it important privileges.
TARNOW, a town in Galicia, Austria, 164 m. W.N.W. of
Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 31,691, about 40 per cent. Jews.
It is situated on the river Biala, not far from its junction with
the Dunajec, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. It
possesses a cathedral in Gothic style, built in the isth century,
with monuments of the Tarnowski and Ostrogski families, to
which the town formerly belonged, and another church built
in 1454. On the Martinsberg, an eminence near the town,
stands the ruins of the old castle of the Tarnowski family, and
a small church over 800 years old. Worth mentioning also
is the town hall, an old and interesting building. Agricultural
implements, glass and chicory are manufactured.
TARNOWSKI, JAN [called MAGNUS] (1488-1561), Polish
general. After a careful education beneath the eye of an ex-
cellent mother and subsequently at the palace of Matthew
Drzewicki, bishop of Przemysl, he occupied a conspicuous
position at court in the reigns of John Albert, Alexander and
Sigismund I. As early as 1509 Tarnowski brilliantly distin-
guished himself in Moldavia, and took a leading part in the
great victories of Wisniowiec (1512) and Orsza (1514), where he
commanded the flower of the Polish chivalry. To complete
his education he then travelled in Palestine, Syria, Arabia,
Egypt, and northern and western Europe. While in Portugal
he received from King Emanuel the chief command in the war
against the Moors, and Charles V. rewarded his services in the
Christian cause with the dignity of a count of the Empire.
Indeed, the emperor had such a high regard for Tarnowski that
he offered him the leadership of all the forces of Europe in a
grand expedition against the Turks. On the death of Nicholas
Firlej in 1526 Tarnowski became grand hetman of the crown,
or Polish commander-in-chief, and in that capacity won his
greatest victory at Obertyn (22nd August 1531) over the
Moldavians, Turks and Tatars, for which he received a hand-
some subsidy and an ovation similar to that of an ancient
Roman triumphator. Heartily attached to King Sigismund I.
and his son Sigismund Augustus, Tarnowski took the royal side
during the so-called Kokosza viojna, or Poultry War, of 1537;
430
TAROK— TARQUINIUS PRISCUS
and also in 1548 when the turbulent szlachla tried to annu
by force the marriage of Sigismund Augustus with Barbara
Radziwill. In 1553, however, we find him in opposition to
the court and thwarting as much as possible the designs of the
young king. Nevertheless Tarnowski was emphatically an
aristocrat and an oligarch, proud of his ancient lineage anc
intensely opposed to the democratic tendencies of the szlachta
A firm alliance between the king and the magnates was his ideal
of government. On the other hand, though a devout Catholic
he was opposed to the exclusive jurisdiction of the bishops
and would even have limited the authority of Rome in Poland.
As a soldier Tarnowski invented a new system of tactics which
greatly increased the mobility and the security of the armed
camps within which the Poles had so often to encounter the
Tatars. He also improved discipline by adding to the authority
of the commanders. His principles are set forth in his Con-
siliunt Rationis Betticae (best edition, Posen, 1879), which was
long regarded as authoritative. As an administrator he did much
to populate the vast south-eastern steppes of Poland.
See Stanislaw Orzechowski, Life and Death of Jan Tarnowski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1855). (R- N- B-)
TAROK, a game of cards very popular in Austria and
Germany, and played to a limited extent in some parts of
France. Special cards are used, and the rules are complicated.
The name Tarot was originally given by the Italians to a certain
card in the pack as early as the i3th century, but was afterwards
applied to the game itself.
TAROM, a district of Persia, situated on the borders of
Gilan, north-west of Kazvin. It is divided into upper and
lower Tarom; the former, on the right bank of the Kizil Uzain
(Sefid Rud) river, is a crown domain; the latter, on the left
bank, forms part of the province of Kazvin. It produces much
cotton and fruit, and derives a considerable revenue from its
alum mines at Zajkanin. Most of the alum is exported to Russia.
It also has a few olive groves. The inhabitants are Turks.
TARPAULIN, or TARPAULING (as if tarpalling, from tar,
and palling, a covering, Lat. palla, a mantle), a heavy, well-
made, double warp plain fabric, of various materials, used
chiefly in the manufacture of covers for railway and other
waggons and for protecting goods on wharves, quays, &c. To
make it proof against rain and other atmospheric influences it
is generally treated with tar, though various compositions of
different kinds are also employed, especially for the finer fabrics
such as are used for covering motor-cars. These covers are
generally made of flax, hemp and cotton, and are very similar
to canvas — indeed, large quantities of canvas are made water-
proof, and then called tarpaulin. A very large quantity of
tarpaulin is made entirely of jute. The chief seats of manu-
facture are Dundee, Arbroath and Kirkcaldy. Formerly the
word was used as a sort of nickname for a sailor, the modern
" tar " in the same sense being an abbreviation of it.
TARPEIA, in Roman legend, daughter of the commander of
the Capitol during the war with the Sabines caused by the rape
o< the Sabine women. According to the common story, she
offered to betray the citadel, if the Sabines would give her what
they wore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets; instead
of this, keeping to the letter of their promise, they threw their
shields upon her and crushed her to death. Simylus, a Greek
elegiac poet, makes Tarpeia betray the Capitol to a king of the
Gauls. The story may be an attempt to account for the Tar-
peian rock being chosen as the place of execution of traitors.
According to S. Reinach, however, in Revue archeologique, xi.
(1908), the story had its origin in a rite — the taboo of military
spoils, which led to their being heaped up on consecrated ground
that they might not be touched. Tarpeia herself is a local
divinity, the manner of whose death was suggested by the
tumulus or shields on the spot devoted to her cult, a crime
being invented to account for the supposed punishment.
AUTHORITIES.— Sir George C. Lewis, Credibility of early Roman
History; A. Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. ix. 10; Livy, i. II ;
Dion. Halic., ii. 38-40; Plutarch, Romuhis, 17; Propertius, iv. 4;
Ovid, Fasti, i. 261 ; C. W. Muller, Frag. Hist. Grace., iv. p. 367.
TARQUINII (mod. Corneto Tarquinia, q.v.), an ancient 'city
of Etruria, Italy, situated on a hill overlooking the S.W. coast
of Italy, about 5 m. N.W. of it. The site of the Roman town
is now deserted, its last remains having been destroyed by the
inhabitants of Corneto in 1307. Scanty remains of walling
and of buildings of the Roman period exist above ground;
traces of a large rectangular platform were found in 1876, and
part of the thermae in 1829; it occupied the summit of a hill
defended by ravines, called Piano di Civita. It seems probable,
however, that the original settlement occupied the site of the
medieval town of Corneto, to the W.S.W., on the further side of
a deep valley. Some authorities indeed consider, "and very
likely with good reason, that this was the site of the Etruscan
city, and that the Piano di Civita, which lies further inland
and commands but little view of the sea, was only occupied in
Roman times. The case would be parallel to others in Etruria,
e.g. Civita Castellana (anc. Falerii) which also occupies the site
of the Etruscan city, while the Roman site, some distance away,
is now abandoned. The importance of Tarquinii to archaeo-
logists lies mainly in its necropolis, situated to the S.E. of the
medieval town, on the hill which, from the tumuli raised above
the tombs, bears the name of Monterozzi. The tombs them-
selves are of various kinds. The oldest are lombe a pozzo, or
shaft graves, containing the ashes of the dead in an urn, of the
Villanova period, the oldest of them probably pre-Etruscan ;
in some of these tombs hut urns, like those of Latium, are found.
Next come the various kinds of inhumation graves, the most
important of which are rock-hewn chambers, many of which
contain well-preserved paintings of various periods; some
show close kinship to archaic Greek art, while others are more
recent, and one, the Grotta del Tifone (so called from the
typhons, or winged genii of death, represented) in which Latin
as well as Etruscan inscriptions appear, belongs perhaps to
the middle of the 4th century B.C. Fine sarcophagi from these
tombs, some showing traces of painting, are preserved in the
municipal museum, and also numerous fine Greek vases,
bronzes and other objects.
Tarquinii is said to have been already a flourishing city when
Demaratus of Corinth brought in Greek workmen. It was
the chief of the twelve cities of Etruria, and appears in the
earliest history of Rome as the home of two of its kings, Tar-
quinius Priscus and Tarquinius Superbus. From it many of
the religious rites and ceremonies of Rome are said to have been
derived, and even in imperial times a collegium of sixty harus-
pices continued to exist there. The people of Tarquinii and
Veii attempted to restore Tarquinius Superbus to the throne
after his expulsion. In 358 B.C. the citizens of Tarquinii
captured and put to death 307 Roman soldiers; the resulting
war ended in 351 with a forty years' truce, renewed for a similar
period in 308. When Tarquinii came under Roman domination
is uncertain, as is also the date at which it became a munici-
pality; in 181 B.C. its port, Graviscae (mod. Porto Clementine),
in an unhealthy position on the low coast, became a Roman
colony. It exported wine and carried on coral fisheries. Nor
do we hear much of it in Roman times; it lay on the hills above
the coast road. The flax and forests of its extensive territory
are mentioned by classical authors, and we find Tarquinii
offering to furnish Scipio with sailcloth in 195 B.C. A bishop
of Tarquinii is mentioned in A.D. 456.
See L. Dasti, Notizie Storicke archeologiche di Tarquinia e Corneto
t Rome, 1878); G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London,
1883), i. 301 sqq. ; Notizie degli Scavi, passim, especially i88s,
513 sqq.; E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Lat., xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. 510
sqq.; G. Korte, s.v. " Etrusker " in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklo-
padie, vi. 730 sqq. (T. As.)
TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, LUCIUS, fifth legendary king of
Rome (616-578 B.C.). He is represented as the son of a Greek
refugee, who removed from Tarquinii in Etruria to Rome, by
the advice of his wife, the prophetess Tanaquil. Appointed
guardian to the sons of Ancus Marcius, he succeeded in sup-
planting them on the throne on their father's death. He laid
out the Circus Maximus, instituted the " great " games, built
TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS— TARRAGONA
the great sewers (cloacae), and began the construction of the
temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. He carried on war success-
fully against the Sabines and subjugated Latium. He is said
to have raised the number of the senators to 300, and to have
doubled the number of the knights (see NAVIUS, ATTUS). The
introduction of many of the insignia both of war and of civil
office is assigned to his reign, and he was the first to celebrate a
Roman triumph, after the Etruscan fashion, in a robe of purple
and gold, and borne on a chariot drawn by four horses. He
was assassinated at the instigation of the sons of Ancus Marcius.
The legend of Tarquinius Priscus is in the main a reproduc-
tion of those of Romulus and Tullus Hostilius. His Corinthian
descent, invented by the Greeks to establish a close connexion
with Rome, is impossible for chronological reasons; further,
according to the genuine Roman tradition, the Tarquinii were
of Etruscan, not Greek, origin. There seems to have been
originally only one Tarquinius; later, when a connected story
of the legendary period was constructed, two (distinguished as
the " Elder " and the " Proud ") were introduced, separated
by the reign of Servius Tullius, and the name of both was con-
nected with the same events. Thus, certain public works were
said to have been begun by the earlier and finished by the later
king; both instituted games, acquired the Sibylline books,
and reorganized the army.
For the constitutional reforms attributed to Tarquinius, see
ROME: Ancient History; for a critical examination of the story,
Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xv. ; Sir George Cornewall
Lewis, Credibility of early Roman History, ch. n ; W. Ihne, History
of Rome, i. ; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. (1898), who identifies
Tarquinius with Tarpeius, the eponymus of the Tarpeian rock,
subsequently developed into the wicked king Tarquinius Superbus.
Ancient authorities: — Livy i. 34-41; Dion. Hal. iii. 46-73; Cic.
de Repub., ii. 200.
TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, LUCIUS, son of Lucius Tarquinius
Priscus and son-in-law of Servius Tullius, the seventh and last
legendary king of Rome (534-510 B.C.). On his accession he
proceeded at once to repeal the recent reforms in the constitu-
tion, and attempted to set up a pure despotism. Many senators
were put to death, and their places remained unfilled; the
lower classes were deprived of their arms and employed in
erecting splendid monuments, while the army was recruited
from the king's own retainers and from the forces of foreign
allies. The completion of the fortress-temple on the Capitoline
confirmed his authority over the city, and a fortunate marriage
of his son to the daughter of Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum
secured him powerful assistance in the field. His reign was
characterized by bloodshed and violence; the outrage of his
son Sextus upon Lucretia (q.v.) precipitated a revolt, which led
to the expulsion of the entire family. All Tarquinius's efforts
to force his way back to the throne were vain (see PORSENA),
and he died in exile at Cumae.
In the story certain Greek elements, probably later additions,
may easily be distinguished. Tarquinius appears as a Greek
" tyrant " of the ordinary kind, who surrounds himself with a
bodyguard and erects magnificent buildings to keep the people
employed; on the other hand, an older tradition represents
him as more like Romulus. This twofold aspect of his character
perhaps accounts for the making of two Tarquinii out of one
(see TARQUINIUS PRISCUS). The stratagem by which Tar-
quinius obtained possession of the town of Gabii is a mere
fiction, derived from Greek and Oriental sources. According
to arrangement, his son Sextus requested the protection of
the inhabitants against his father. Having obtained their
confidence, he sent a messenger to Tarquinius to inquire the
next step. His father made no reply to the messenger, but
walked up and down his garden, striking off the heads of the
tallest poppies. Sextus thereupon put to death all the chief
men of the town, and thus obtained the mastery. The stratagem
of Sextus is that practised by Zopyrus is the case of Babylon,
while the episode of the poppy-heads is borrowed from the
advice given by Thrasybulus to Periander (Herodotus iii. 154,
v. 92). On the other hand, the existence in the time of
Dionysius of Halicarnassus of a treaty concluded between
Tarquinius and the inhabitants of Gabii, shows that the town
came under his dominion by formal agreement, not, as the
tradition states, by treachery and violence. The embassy to
Delphi (see BRUTUS, Lucius JUNIUS) cannot be historical,
since at the time there was no communication between Rome
and the mainland of Greece. The well-known story of Tar-
quinius's repeated refusal and final consent to purchase the
Sibylline books has its origin in the fact that the building of
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, in which they were kept,
was ascribed to him. The traditional account of his expulsion
can hardly be historical. A constitutional revolution, involv-
ing such far-reaching changes, is not likely to have been carried
out in primitive times with so little disturbance by a simple
resolution of the people, and it probably points to a rising of
Romans and Sabines against the dominion of an Etruscan
family (Tarquinii, Tarchna) at that time established at Rome.
For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische
Geschichte, bk. xviii. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of early
Roman History, ch. n; E. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. (1898); and,
for the political character of his reign, ROME: Ancient History.
Ancient authorities: — Livy i. 21 ; Dion. Hal. v. i-vi. 21.
TARRAGONA, a maritime province in the north-east of
Spain, formed in 1833 from the southern part of the province
of Catalonia, and bounded on the S.E. by the Mediterranean,
N.E. by Barcelona, N. by Lerida, W. by Saragossa and Teruel,
and S.W. by Castellon de la Plana. Pop. (1900) 337,964;
area, 2505 sq. m. The Ebro flows through the southern portion
of the province, and the other chief streams are the Gaya and
the Francoli. These three rivers flow south into the Medi-
terranean. Below Tortosa, the Ebro forms a conspicuous
marshy delta jutting out into the sea, but elsewhere the even
south-westward curve of the coast-line is unbroken by any
noteworthy headland or indentation. The province, although
mountainous, is naturally fertile. The hills are clothed with
vineyards, which produce excellent wines, and in the valleys
are cultivated all kinds of grain, vegetables, rice, hemp, flax
and silk. Olive, orange, filbert and almond trees reach great
perfection, and the mountains yield rich pastures and timber
trees of various kinds. The climate is temperate on the coast
and in the centre, cold in the highlands, very warm and damp
in the valleys and on the banks of the rivers as they near the
sea. Manufactures are well advanced, and comprise silk,
cotton, linen and woollen fabrics, velvet, felt, soap, leather
and spirits. There are also many potteries and cooperages,
and flour, paper and oil mills. Silver, copper, lead and other
minerals have been found, and quarries of marble and jasper
are worked in the hills. The fisheries produce more than
£20,000 yearly. There are upwards of 250 m. of railways,
which link together all the large towns, and include the im-
portant main lines along the coast and up the Ebro valley.
The cities of Tarragona (pop., 1900, 23,423) and Tortosa (24,452),
which are the principal seaports, and the towns of Reus (26,681)
and Vails (12,625) are described in separate articles. Mont-
blanch (5243) is the only other town with a population ex-
ceeding 5000. The people of Tarragona are, like almost all the
inhabitants of Catalonia (q.v.), hardy, enterprising and in-
dustrious. Although the birth-rate considerably exceeds the
death-rate, the population tends to decrease slightly, as many
families emigrate.
TARRAGONA (anc. Tarroco), the capital of the Spanish pro-
vince of Tarragona, a flourishing seaport, and the seat of an
archbishop; at the mouth of the river Francoli, 63 m. by rail
W.S.W. of Barcelona, in 41° 10' N. and o° 20' E. Pop. (1900)
23,423. Tarragona is on the coast railway from Barcelona to
Valencia, and is connected with the Ebro Valley Railway by a
branch line to Reus. The picturesque old town, with its dark
and steep alleys, occupies a rugged hill which rises abruptly
from the sea to an altitude of about 550 ft. Its highest point,
where the ancient citadel stood, is crowned by the cathedral,
the seminary for prests, and the palace of the archbishop, who
shares the title primate of Spain with the archbishop of Toledo.
Many of the houses in this quarter are very old, and are built
432
TARRASA— TARRING AND FEATHERING
partly of Roman masonry; one such fragment, immured in
the palace wall, is inscribed with the epitaph of a charioteer
(auriga) who, it says, would rather have died in the circus than
of fever. Massive ruined walls encircle the old town. Their
lowest course is " Cyclopean," consisting of unhewn blocks
about 12 ft. long and 6 ft. wide; Roman masonry of the
Augustan age is superimposed. The six gates and the square
towers are also, to a great extent, " Cyclopean." The palace,
itself a building of the early ipth century, has an old fortified
tower, and there are barracks and forts in the city; but Tarra-
gona can no longer be regarded as a fortress capable of with-
standing modern artillery, although it is officially classed as
such.
The new town, divided from the old by one broad and shady
avenue, the Rambla de San Carlos, and intersected by another,
the more modern Rambla de San Juan, extends to the west and
south along a low promontory which juts out into the Mediter-
ranean. Its outlying districts merge into the Camp de Tarra-
gona, a plain planted with vines and walnut, almond and olive
groves. Tarragona cathedral is one of the noblest examples of
early Spanish art. It is 320 ft. long and 103 ft. broad, and con-
sisted originally of a nave, aisles, transepts with an octagonal
lantern at the crossing, and an apsidal chancel. Several exterior
chapels were added in later times, and on the south-east stands a
14th-century steeple raised on a Romanesque tower. The east
end was probably begun in 1131 on the ruins of an earlier church,
but the main body of the building dates from the end of the
1 2th century and the first half of the i3th, and is of transitional
character, — the exuberant richness of the sculptured capitals
being admirably kept in subordination by the Romanesque sim-
plicity of the general design. Considerable changes were intro-
duced at a later date; and the present west end of the nave
cannot have been completed till late in the i4th century. On
the north-east side is a cloister contemporary with the church,
with which it communicates by a very fine doorway. The
cloister contains much remarkable work, and the tracery of the
windows bears interesting marks of Moorish influence. Two
other noteworthy churches in the city are San Pablo and Santa
Tecla laVieja, both of the I2th century. There is a fine Roman
aqueduct; the Roman amphitheatre was dismantled in 1491 to
furnish stone for the eastern mole, though a few rows of seats
are left near the sea-shore; and the museum contains a large
collection of Roman antiquities. The Torre6n de Pilatos is
said to have been the palace of the Emperor Augustus; it was
partly destroyed by the French in 1811 and now serves as a
prison. Its name is connected with an old tradition that
Pontius Pilate was a native of the city. Tarragona has also
many public buildings, including the law courts, several hospitals,
a provincial institute, training schools for teachers, and offices
of the provincial and municipal governments. When the
monks of the Grande Chartreuse were compelled to leave
France, they settled at Tarragona in 1903, and established a
liqueur factory; 20,000 cases of liqueur were exported in 1904
and 39,000 in 1905. A characteristic feature of Tarragona is
the number of its underground storehouses for wine (bodegas) ;
wine is exported in large quantities. There is a British steel file
factory; chocolate, soap, flour, ironware, paper, pipes and
salted fish are also manufactured. The harbour is at the ex-
treme south-west of the new town. It was originally protected
by a Roman breakwater, which was destroyed in the igth
century. The eastern mole, founded in 1491 and frequently
enlarged, terminates in a lighthouse. Its length was 1400
yards in 1904, when the construction of a new section was
begun. In each of the five years 1901-5 about 870 ships of
580,000 tons entered the port. Wine, oil, nuts, almonds and
small quantities of lead and pig iron are exported; the imports
include coal from Great Britain, grain from the Black Sea,
staves and petroleum from the United States, dried codfish
from Norway and Iceland, guano and phosphates. Close to the
harbour and at the mouth of the Francoli is the fishermen's
quarter (barrio de Pescadores), in which most of the houses are
coloured pale blue.
History. — Tarraco, the capital of the Iberian Cessetani, many
of whose coins are extant, was one of the earliest Roman strong-
holds in Spain. It was captured in 218 B.C. by Gnaeus and
Publius Cornelius Scipio, who improved its harbours and en-
larged its walls. A Roman monument on a hill 3 m. E. is
known as the Sepulcro de los Escipiones, and locally believed to
be the tomb of the Scipios, who were defeated and slain by the
Carthaginians under Hasdrubal Barca in 212 B.C. The battle
took place at Antiorgis, the modern Alcaniz in the province of
Teruel; there is no good reason to believe that the bodies of
the Scipios were conveyed to Tarragona for burial, nor is the
monument older than the ist century A.D. As the Colonia
Triumphalis, so called to commemorate the victories of Julius
Caesar, Tarraco was made the seat of one of the four assize
courts (conventus juridici) established in Hispania Citerior.
Augustus spent the winter of 26 B.C. here, and made Tarraco the
capital of the whole province, which received the name of
Hispania Tarraconensis. A temple was built in his honour.
It was afterwards restored by Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), and the
city became the Spanish headquarters of the worship of the
goddess Roma and the deified emperors. Its flax trade and
other industries made it one of the richest seaports of the
empire; Martial and Pliny celebrated its climate and its wines,
and the fragmentary remains of temples, baths, amphitheatre
and other Roman buildings bear witness to its prosperity. It
became an archbishopric in the 5th century.
To the Romans the Visigoths under Euric succeeded in 467,
but on their expulsion by the Moors in 711 the city was
plundered and burned. It was long before the ruins were again
inhabited, but by 1089. when the Moors were driven out by
Raymond IV. of Barcelona, there must have been a certain
revival of prosperity, for the primacy, which had been removed
to Vich, was in that year restored to Tarragona. In 1118 a
grant of the fief was made to the Norman Robert Burdet, who
converted the town into a frontier fortress against the Moors.
In 1705 the city was taken and burned by the British; in 1811,
after being partly fortified, it was captured and sacked by the
French.
TARRASA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
of Barcelona, 6 m. W.N.W. of Sabadell on the Barcelona-
Lerida railway, and in the midst of a narrow plain surrounded
by mountains. Pop. (1900) 15,956. Tarrasa was a Roman
municipality, and a bishopric from the sth century to the
Moorish invasion in the 8th. It was razed by the Moors and
rebuilt later by the Christians. There are three ancient
Romanesque churches, in one of which, San Miguel, some
Roman pillars are incorporated. Tarrasa is now mostly a
modern industrial town, with fine public buildings, including
the royal college, built in 1864 for 450 students besides day
scholars, the school of arts and handicrafts, the industrial
institute, chamber of commerce, hospitals, town hall, clubs,
theatres and many large textile factories. Gram, wine, oil
and fruit are produced in the district, and there is a municipal
farm, founded in 1885, for experiments in viticulture.
TARRING AND FEATHERING, a method of punishment at
least as old as the Crusades. The head of the culprit was
shaved and hot tar poured over it, a bag of feathers being after-
wards shaken over him. The earliest mention of the punish-
ment occurs in the orders of Richard Cceur de Lion, issued to
his navy on starting for the Holy Land in 1191. " Concerning
the lawes and ordinances appointed by King Richard for his
navie the forme thereof was this . . . item, a thiefe or felon
that hath stolen, being lawfully convicted, shal have his head
shorne, and boyling pitch poured upon his head, and feathers
or downe strawed upon the same whereby he may be knowen,
and so at the first landing-place they shall come to, there to
be cast up " (trans, of original statute in Hakluyt's Voyages,
ii. 21). A later instance of this penalty being inflicted is given
in Notes and Queries (series 4, vol. v.), which quotes one James
Howell writing from Madrid, in 1623, of the " boisterous Bishop
of Halverstadt," who, " having taken a place where there were
two monasteries of nuns and friars, he caused divers feather
TARRYTOWN— TARSUS
433
beds to be ripped, and all the feathers thrown into a great hall,
whither the nuns and friars were thrust naked with their bodies
oiled and pitched and to tumble among these feathers, which
makes them here (Madrid) presage him an ill-death." In 1696
a London bailiff, who attempted to serve process on a debtor
who had taken refuge within the precincts of the Savoy, was
tarred and feathered and taken in a wheelbarrow to the Strand,
where he was tied to the Maypole which stood by what is now
Somerset House. It is probable that the punishment was never
regarded as legalized, but was always a type of mob ven-
geance.
TARRYTOWN, a village of Westchester county, New York,
on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Nyack, with
which it is connected by ferry, and about 25 m. N. of New York
City. Pop. (1890) 3562; (1900) 4770, of whom 984 were
foreign-born and 191 were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 5600.
Tarrytown is served by the New York Central and Hudson
River railway, and by interurban electric lines connecting it,
via White Plains, with New York City. It is situated on a
sloping hill that rises to a considerable height above Tappan
Zee, a large expansion of the Hudson river, and is built prin-
cipally along either side of a broad and winding country high-
way (laid out in 1723) from New York to Albany, called the
King's Highway until the War of Independence, then called
the Albany Post Road, and now known (in Tarrytown) as
Broadway. South of the village is " Lyndhurst," the estate
of Miss Helen Miller Gould, and to the N.E. is Kaakout
(originally " Kijkuit," that is, " lookout," the name of a high
promontory), the estate of John D. Rockefeller. In the village
are the Hackley School (1899), Irving School (1837), Repton
School and the " Castle " School for girls; a Young Men's
Lyceum (1899), with a public library (8000 volumes in 1910)
and the Tarrytown Hospital (1892). In the vicinity there are
large nurseries and market-gardens, and automobiles are manu-
factured in the village. Tarrytown stands on the site of a
Wecquaesgeek Indian village, Alipconk (the place of elms),
burned by the Dutch in 1644. The first settlement of whites
was made about 1645. There were perhaps a dozen Dutch
families here in 1680, when Frederick Philipse (formerly known
as Vredryk Flypse) acquired title to several thousand acres
in Westchester county, called Philipse Manor. He built, partly
of brick brought from Holland, a manor-house (on a point of
land now known as Kingsland's Point, a short distance above
the present village), a mill and a church, at the mouth of
Sleepy Hollow, some three-quarters of a mile above the village;
Dr Hamilton Wright Mabie has written: " There is probably no
other locality in America, taking into account history, tradition,
the old church, the manor-house and the mill, which so entirely
conserves the form and spirit of Dutch civilization in the New
World." During the War of Independence Tarrytown was the
•centre of the " Neutral Territory " between the lines of the
British and Continental forces, and was the scene of numerous
conflicts between the " cowboys " and " skinners," bands of
unorganized partisans, the former acting in the name of the
colonies, and the latter in that of the king. On the post road,
on the 24th of September 1780, Major John Andre was captured
by three Continentals, John Paulding, David Williams and
Isaac Van Wert; to commemorate the capture a marble shaft
surmounted by a bronze statue of a Continental soldier has
been erected on the spot. Tarrytown is described in the Sketch
Book of Washington Irving, who lived and died at " Sunnyside,"
within the limits of Tarrytown, was long warden of old Christ
Church, and is buried in the Old Sleepy Hollow burying-ground,
which adjoins the Dutch Church, and in which Carl Schurz
also is buried. Tarrytown was incorporated as a village in
1870. Its name is probably a corrupt form of the Dutch
" Tarwen dorp " (wheat town).
See H. B. Dawson, Westchester County in the American Revolu-
tion (New York, 1886); and an article by H. W. Mabie in L. P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle States (New York, 1899).
TARSIER, the Anglicized form of the scientific name of
a small and aberrant lemur-like animal, Tarsius spectrum,
inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and islands, and typifying a
family. The name tarsier refers to the great elongation of
two of the bones of the tarsus, or ankle, and spectrum to the
huge goggle-like eyes and attenuated form which constitute
two of the most distinctive features of this weird little creature.
In organization the tarsier departs markedly from other lemurs
as regards several particulars, and thereby approximates to
monkeys and apes. Rather smaller than a squirrel, with dusky
brown fur, the tarsier has immense eyes, large ears, a long thin
tail, tufted at the end, a greatly elongated tarsal portion of
the foot, and disk-like adhesive surfaces on the fingers, which
doubtless assist the animal in maintaining its position on the
boughs. Four species of the genus are now recognized, whose
range includes the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
Celebes and some of the Philippines. The tarsier feeds chiefly
on insects and lizards, sleeps during the day, but is tolerably
active at night, moving chiefly by jumping from place to place;
an action for which the structure of its hind-legs seems par-
ticularly well adapted. It is rare, not more than two being
generally found together, and only brings forth one young at a
time. (See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)
TARSUS (mod. Tersous), an ancient city in the fertile plain
of Cilicia. The small river Cydnus flowed through the centre
of the town, and its cool swift waters were the boast of the city
(though visitors like Dion Chrysostom thought it far inferior
to the rivers of many Greek cities). The harbour, Rhegma,
below the city, was originally a lagoon, though it is said also
to be supplied by springs of its own. The Cydnus flowed into
the lake (where were the arsenals) and thence into the sea,
about 10 m. from Tarsus. The city is first mentioned on the
Black Obelisk, as captured by the Assyrians along with the rest
of Cilicia about 850 B.C. It was probably an old Ionian colony,
settled (like Mallus) under the direction of Clarian Apollo. Its
importance was due (i) to its excellent and safe harbour, (2) to
its possession of a fertile territory, and (3) to its command of
the first waggon-road made across Mount Taurus, which was
cut through the Cilician Gates, a narrow gorge 100 yards in
length, originally only wide enough to carry the waters of a
small affluent of the Cydnus. The greatness of Tarsus rested
therefore mainly on the two great engineering works, the harbour
and the road. That the latter was due to Greek influence is
shown by the village Mopsucrene on the southern approach to
the Gates: Mopsus was the prophet of Clarian Apollo. Few
mountain passes have been so important in history as this
road (seventy miles in length) over Taurus. Many armies have
marched over it; those of Cyrus the Younger, Alexander the
Great, Cicero, Septimius Severus and the First Crusade may
specially be mentioned.
Tarsus is most accessible from the sea or from the east. Even
after the " Cilician Gates " were cut, the crossing of Taurus was
a difficult operation for an invading army (as Xenophon and
Arrian show). Hence Tarsian history (where not determined
by Greek maritime relations) has been strongly affected by
Semitic influence, and Dion Chrysostom, about A.D. 112, says
it was more like a Phoenician than a Hellenic city (which it
claimed to be). After the Assyrian power decayed, princes,
several of whom bore the name or title Syennesis, ruled Tarsus
before and under Persian power. Persian satraps governed it
in the 4th century B.C.; and struck coins with Aramaic legends
there. The Seleucid kings of Syria for a time kept it in a state
of servitude; but it was made an autonomous city with addi-
tional citizens (probably Argive Greeks and Jews) by Antiochus
IV. Epiphanes in 171 B.C.; and then it began to strike its own
coins. It became one of the richest and greatest cities of the
East under the Romans after 104 B.C., and was favoured by
both Antony and Augustus: the reception there by the former
of Cleopatra, who sailed up to the city in a magnificent vessel,
was a striking historic event. In spite of its oriental character,
it maintained a university where Greek philosophy was taught
by a series of famous Tarsians, who influenced Roman history.
Chief among them was Athenodorus Cananites (?.r.), teacher
and friend of Augustus for many years, a man of courage and
434
TART— TARTAGLIA
power, who remodelled the Tarsian constitution (making it
timocratic and oligarchic). The picture which Philostratus, in
his biography of Apollonius Tyanensis, draws of the Tarsians
as vain, luxurious and illiterate, represents the general Graeco-
Roman conception of the city. The legend which was believed
to be graven on the statue of Sardanapalus at Anchiale (12 m.
S.W. from Tarsus) might have been the motto of most Tarsians:
" Eat, drink, play, for nothing else is worth this (gesture)"
(referred to by St Paul, i Cor. xv. 32). The statue was pro-
bably an archaic work, with Hittite or- cuneiform inscription,
representing a figure with right hand raised: the letters and
the attitude were misunderstood; the figure was supposed to
be snapping the fingers and uttering this expression of effeminate
and weary sensualism.
Tarsus depended for its greatness on commerce, peace and
orderly government. It was not a strong fortress, and could
not be defended during the decay of the empire against bar-
barian invasion. The Arabs captured the whole of Cilicia
shortly after A.D. 660; and Tarsus seems to have been a ruin
for more than a century after the conquest. But Harun al-
Rashid rebuilt its walls in 787, and made it the north-western
capital of the Arab power in the long wars against the Byzantine
empire. All the raids, which were made in Asia Minor re-
gularly, year by year, sometimes twice in one year, through
the Cilician Gates and past the fortress Loulon, issued through
the north gate of Tarsus, which was called the " Gate of the
Holy War." The western gate is still standing, and is mis-
named " St Paul's Gate." The caliph Mamun died on such a
foray in A.D. 833, having caught a chill at a great spring north
of the Cilician Gates beside Ak-Keupreu. He was brought to
Tarsus where (like the emperor Tacitus) he died, and (like the
emperor Julian) was buried. His illness recalls the fever which
Alexander the Great contracted from bathing in the Cydnus.
Nicephorus Phocas reconquered Tarsus and all Cilicia for the
empire in A.D. 965. In the First Crusade Baldwin and Tancred
captured Tarsus A.D. 1099, and there the two leaders had a
serious quarrel. It formed part of the kingdom of Lesser
Armenia for great part of the three centuries after A.D. 1180,
and it was fortified by Leo II. and Hethoum I. But Turkoman
and Egyptian invaders disputed its possession with the Greek
emperors and Armenian kings and with one another. Finally
it passed into Ottoman hands about the beginning of the i6th
century.
Most of the successive masters of Tarsus had their own
legends about its origin, usually with a religious character
justifying and explaining their possession of the city. The
Assyrian Sardanapalus, the native gcd Sandan, the Greek hero
Perseus, the Greek god Heracles, are all called founder of
Tarsus. lapetus, i.e. Japhet, father of Javan " the Ionian,"
was called the grandfather of Cydnus, who gave name to the
river. A curious ceremony was practised in honour of Sandan
(identified with the Greek Heracles): a pyre was periodically
erected and the god was burned on it. It is said that the
original name of the city was Parthenia, which suggests that a
virgin goddess was worshipped here as in so many shrines of
Asia Minor and Syria: the virgin goddess Athena appears on
Tarsian coins. The Baal of Tarsus is named in Aramaic letters
on many of its coins in the Persian period.
The ruins of the ancient city are very extensive, but they are
deeply buried, and make little or no appearance above the
surface except in the Dunuk Tash (popularly identified as the
" Tomb of Sardanapalus," a monument which, however, was
at Anchiale, not at Tarsus). This shapeless mass of concrete
was probably the substructure of a Graeco-Roman temple,
from which the marble coating has been removed. The modern
town has considerable bazaars and trade; but the climate is
very oppressive, owing to the proximity of vast marshes which
occupy the site of the harbour and the lower part of the original
Cyndus course. The river was diverted from its former course
by Justinian in the 6th century. The emperor's intention was
only to carry off the surplus waters in time of flood and prevent
inundations in the city, not to deprive Tarsus of what was its
chief pride and boast; but gradually the neglect of subsequent
centuries allowed the channel in the city to become blocked by
accumulation of soil, and now the whole body of water flows in
the new channel east of the city, except what is drawn off by an
artificial irrigation course to water the gardens on the western
side of the city. The population is about 25,000, including,
besides Turks and Syrian Moslems, also Armenians, Greeks,
Syrian Christians, Persians, Afghans, Ansaria (mostly gardeners)
and even Hindus. There is a large American mission school
called St Paul's Institute, giving a very comprehensive edu-
cation to Armenians and Greeks drawn from an extensive
district.
The literature regarding Tarsus is scanty, and few ancient in-
scriptions have been published. See W. B. Barker, Lares and
Penates; G. F. Hill in the British Museum Catalogue of Coins; Six
in Numismatic Chronicle, 1884, pp. 152 ff., 1894, pp. 329 ff. ; E.
Babelon in the Catalogue Bibl. Nat., Perses Achemenides "; the
numismatic works of B. V. Head, F. Imhoof Blumer, &c. ; Waddington
in Bulletin de Con. Hell., vii. pp. 282 ff.; Ramsay, Cities of St Paul
(1907), pp. 85-245, and " Cilicia, Tarsus and the Great Taurus
Pass " in Geographical Journal (1903), pp. 357-410; R. Heberdey
and A. Wilhelm, " Reisen in Kilikien (in the Denkschriften d.
kais. Akademie Wien, 1896, xliv.), with works of other travellers,
especially V. Langlois and Macdonald Kinneir. Callander in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, 1904, pp. 58 ff., studied Dion Chrysostom's two
Tarsian Orations. (W. M. RA.)
TART, a dish of baked pastry containing fruit, a fruit pie;
also a small open piece of baked pastry with jam placed upon
it. The word was adapted from the O.Fr. tarte; the older form
must have been lorte, as is seen in the mod. Fr. lourte and the
diminutive tortel or torteau; the origin is the Lat. torta, twisted
(torquere, to twist), used of a cake in Med. Lat., the paste or
dough of cakes or tarts being rolled or twisted. The alteration
of the vowel is also seen in Ital. tartera. In English there is
some confusion with " tart," sharp, acid, bitter, which comes
from O.E. teart, sharp, severe, properly " tearing," from teran,
to tear; cf. " bitter," from " to bite."
TARTAGLIA, or TARTALEA, NICCOL6 (c. 1506-1559),
Italian mathematician, was born at Brescia. His childhood
was passed in dire poverty. During the sack of Brescia in 1512,
he was horribly mutilated by some French soldiers. From
these injuries he slowly recovered, but he long continued to
stammer in his speech, whence the nickname, adopted by
himself, of " Tartaglia." Save for the barest rudiments of
reading and writing, he tells us that he had no master; yet we
find him at Verona in 1521 an esteemed teacher of mathe-
matics. In 1534 he went to Venice. For Tartaglia 's discovery
of the solution of cubic equations, and his contests with Antonio
Marie Floridas, see ALGEBRA (History). In 1548 Tartaglia
accepted a situation as professor of Euclid at Brescia, but
returned to Venice at the end of eighteen months. He died at
Venice in 1559.
Tartaglia's first printed work, entitled Nuova scienzia (Venice,
1537), dealt with the theory and practice of gunnery. He found
the elevation giving the greatest range to be 45°, but failed to
demonstrate the correctness of his intuition. Indeed, he never
shook off the erroneous ideas of his time regarding the paths of
projectiles, further than to see that no part of them could be a
straight line. He nevertheless inaugurated the scientific treatment
of the subject. His Quesiti et invenzioni diverse, a collection of the
author's replies to questions addressed to him by persons of the
most varied conditions, was published in 1546, with a dedication
to Henry VIII. of England. Problems in artillery occupy two out
of nine books; the sixth treats of fortification; the ninth gives
several examples of the solution of cubic equations. He published
in 1551 Regola generale per sollevare ogni affondata nave, inlitolata
la Travagliata Invenzione (an allusion to his personal troubles at
Brescia), setting forth a method for raising sunken ships, and
describing the diving-bell, then little known in western Europe. He
pursued the subject in Ragionamenti sopra la Travagliata Invenzione
(May I551)- His largest work,7>o/toto generale di numeri e misure,
is a comprehensive mathematical treatise, including arithmetic,
geometry, mensuration, and algebra as far as quadratic equations
(Venice, 1556, 1560). He published the first Italian translation of
Euclid (1545), anc^ t^16 earliest version from the Greek of some
of the principal works of Archimedes (1543). These included the
tract De insidentibus aquae, of which his Latin now holds the place
of the lost Greek text. Tartaglia claimed the invention of the
junner's quadrant.
TARTAN— TARTAR
435
Tartaglia's own account of his early life is contained in his
Quesiti, lib. vi. p. 74. See also Buoncompagni, Intorno ad un
testamento inedito di N. Tartaglia (Milan, 1881); Rossi, Elogi
di Bresciana illustri, p. 386. Tartaglia's writings on gunnery
were translated into English by Lucar in 1588, and into French by
Rieffcl in 1845.
TARTAN (from F. liretaine, " linsie-wolsie," Sp. tiritaHa,
a kind of woollen cloth, perhaps so called from its thinness
and lightness, cf. Sp. tirilar, to tremble with cold), a worsted
cloth woven with alternate stripes or bands of coloured warp
and weft, so as to form a chequered pattern in which the
colours alternate in " sets " of definite width and sequence.
The weaving of particoloured and striped cloth cannot be
claimed as peculiar to any special race or country, for indeed
such checks are the simplest ornamental form into which dyed
yarns can be combined in the loom. But the term tartan
is specially applied to the variegated cloth used for the prin-
cipal portions of the distinctive costume of the Highlanders
of Scotland. For this costume, and the tartan of which it is
composed, great antiquity is claimed, and it is asserted that
the numerous clans into which the Highland population were
divided had each from time to time a special tartan by which it
was distinguished. After the rebellion of 1745 various acts of
parliament were passed for disarming the Scottish Highlanders
and for prohibiting the use of the Highland dress in Scotland,
under severe penalties. These acts remained nominally in force
till 1782, when they were formally repealed, and since that
time clan tartan has, with varying fluctuations of fashion, been
a popular article of dress, by no means confined in its use to
Scotland alone; and many new and imaginary " sets " have
been invented by manufacturers, with the result of introducing
confusion in the heraldry of tartans, and of throwing doubt
on the reality of the distinctive " sets " which at one time
undoubtedly were more or less recognized as the badge of
various clans.
Undoubtedly the term tartan was known, and the material was
woven, " of one or two colours for the poor and more varied for
the rich," as early as the middle of the 15th century. In the
accounts of John, bishop of Glasgow, treasurer to King James III.,
in 1471, there occurs, with other mention of the material, the
following: — " Ane elne and ane halve of blue Tartane to lyne his
gowne of cloth of Gold." It is here obvious that the term is not
restricted to particoloured chequered textures. In 1538 accounts
were incurred for a Highland dress for King James V. on the
occasion of a hunting excursion in the Highlands, in which there
are charges for " variant cullorit velvet," for " ane schort Heland
coit," and for " Heland tartane to be hose to the kinge's grace."
Bishop John Lesley, in his De origine, moribus, et rebus gestis
Scotorum, published in 1578, says of the ancient and still-used dress
of the Highlanders and Islanders, " all, both noble and common
people, wore mantles of one sort (except that the nobles preferred
those of several colours)." George Buchanan, in his Rerum Scoti-
carum historia (1582), as translated by Monypenny (1612), says of
the Highlanders, " They delight in marled clothes, specially that
have any long stripes of sundry colours; they love chiefly purple
and blue. Their predecessors used short mantles or plaids of divers
colours sundry ways divided ; and amongst some the same custom
is observed to this day." A hint of clan tartan distinctions is
given by Martin Martin in his Western Isles of Scotland (1703), which
work also contains a minute description of the dress of the High-
landers and the manufacture of tartan. " Every isle," he observes,
" differs from each other in their fancy of making plaids, as to the
stripes in breadth and colours. This humour is as different through
the mainland of the Highlands, in so far that they who have seen
those places are able at the first view of a man's plaid to guess the
place of his residence."
The following lines give a brief description of the colours of the
tartans of the principal clans. The kilt-tartan colour is given in
each case ; the plaid-tartans vary in slight particulars.
Campbell of Breadalbane, light green, crossed with darker green,
the stripes broad with narrow edging of yellow. Campbell of
Argyll, light green crossed with dark green, narrow independent
cross lines of white. Cameron, brick-red with broad chequered
cross of same colour, edged white and with broad centre of ground
colour, two independent cross lines of green. Forbes, yellow green,
crossed with broad dark-green lines, centred black, independent
cross lines yellow. Fraser, red ground, main cross lines red with
deeper red centre edged with blue, independent cross lines blue.
Cordon, dark blue-green ground, with broad cross lines of lighter
green, narrow centre line yellow. Graeme, light green ground,
crossed with darker green in small chequer, independent cross
lines dark green. Grant, scarlet, with broad black-edged scarlet
crossings, black independent cross lines. Macdonald of Glengarry
and Keppoch, red, with open broad blue cross lines, and two inde-
pendent blue crossings. Macdonald of Glencoe, green with broad
dark-green crossing, the whole covered with fine red lines. Mac-
donald of Clanranald, light green with broad dark-green crossing,
covered with fine red lines. Macgregor, scarlet, with narrow scarlet
cross lines, edged and centred blue, widely spaced. Mackintosh,
red with blue-edged and centred crossings of red, and independent
blue cross lines. Mackenzie, blue-green, broad crossing of same
colour with darker edges, independent cross lines, alternately red
and white, over the main crossings. Macleod, green, with dark-
green crossings, over crossings, every other square, a red line.
Macpherson, pale grey, four darker grey bars at crossings, the
whole covered witn red double independent lines. Munro, red
with broad green stripe and narrow lines forming a check of black
and yellow. Murray, green, close crossings of darker green, inde-
pendent lines red. Stewart, scarlet, deep coloured crossings with
scarlet centre, fine widely spaced dark independent lines.
See W. and A. Smith, Tartans of the Clans of Scotland (1850);
J. Sobieski Stuart, Vestiarium Scoticum (1842); R. R. M'lan, Clans
of the Scottish Highlands (1845-46); J. Grant, Tartans of the Clans
of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1885).
TARTAR, the name commonly applied to crude acid
potassium tartrate or " bitartrate of potash," HK(C4H4O«).
During the process of fermentation wines deposit a crystalline
crust of argol; this, after being roughly purified by recrystal-
lization, is known as tartar, and when further purified and
freed from colouring matters becomes " cream of tartar,"
also called technically " cream." With the iatrochemists tartar
was a generic term which included both this tarlarus vini and
various substances obtained from it, and even salts, such as salt
of sorrel (potassium oxalate), that resembled it. Thus sal fixum
tartari was potassium carbonate, which on exposure to the air
deliquesces to oleum tartari per deliquium; neutral potassium
tartrate was called tartarus tartarisatus, because it was prepared
by neutralizing ordinary tartar with the sal fixum; tartarus
chalybealus was a preparation with iron; and spiritus tartari,
used by Paracelsus, was prepared by dry distillation of tartar.
Paracelsus also used the term in a still wider sense to signify
abnormal precipitates or sediments deposited from animal
secretions; the same idea is apparent in the popular applica-
tion of the word to the salivary calculus which forms on the
teeth.
Cream of tartar is prepared by dissolving granulated argol in
boiling water and allowing the solution to stand. The clear liquid is
then drawn off and crystallized. The slightly coloured crystals
thus obtained are redissolved in hot water, the colouring matters
got rid of by means of pipeclay or egg-albumen, and the solution
filtered and crystallized, the name " crean of tartar " being originally
applied to the crust of minute crystals that form on its surface as it
cools. The salt crystallizes in masses of small, hard, colourless, trans-
parent, rhombic prisms. It is precipitated when an excess of a
potassium salt is added to a solution of tartaric acid, but it dissolves
in mineral acids, and in alkalis and alkaline carbonates. Solutions
of boric acid or borax dissolve it freely, forming soluble cream of
tartar, which is a white powder permanent in the air when made with
the acid, but deliquescent when borax is employed. Its slight solu-
bility in alcohol explains why it is deposited by wines as they
mature. One part by weight of the salt dissolves in 15 parts of
boiling water, but at lower temperatures the solubility is greatly
diminished, and at o° C. about 416 parts of water are required.
When heated it is decomposed with formation of potassium car-
bonate and carbon, inflammable gases having an odour of burnt
bread being evolved. The salt is used for the manufacture of
tartaric acid ; it is also employed in the mordant bath for wool-
dyeing, with powdered chalk and alum for cleaning silver, and for
the preparation of effervescing drinks and baking-powder. In
medicine as potassii tartras acidus it is of some slight importance as
a diuretic and purgative. The more soluble normal salt, ^(CiHiOe),
is used for the same purposes; it is formed by dissolving powdered
cream of tartar in a hot solution of potassium carbonate. If sodium
carbonate is substituted the result is KNa(C<H4O6), or Rochelle
salt.
Tartar emetic (potassium antimonyl tartrate) K- (SbO)C (HiCV iH8O.
This substance has been known for a long period, being mentioned
by Basil Valentine. It may be prepared by warming 3 parts of
antimonious oxide with 4 parts of cream of tartar, in the presence
of water, replacing the water as it evaporates; after digestion is
complete, the solution is filtered hot. Powder of algaroth (q.v.)
may be used in place of the antimony oxide. Tartar emetic crystal-
lizes in small octahcdra, which lose their water of crystallization
gradually on exposure to air, and become opaque. It is soluble^ in
14-5 parts of cold water and 1-9 parts of hot, the solution showing
TARTARIC ACID— TARTINI
an acid reaction to litmus. It possesses a nauseous metallic taste
and produces vomiting when taken internally, whilst in large doses
it is poisonous. It is used medicinally, and also as a mordant in
dyeing and calico-printing.
TARTARIC ACID (dihydroxy-succinic acid), C4H6O«, or
HO2C-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CO2H. Four acids of this composi-
tion are known, namely dextro- and kevo-tartaric acids,
racemic acid and mesotartaric acid, the two last being optically
inactive (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). Their constitution follows
from their formation from dibromosuccinic acid and from their
synthesis from glyoxal cyanhydrin, these two methods pro-
ducing the inactive racemic form which may then be split into
the active components. Dextro-tartaric acid occurs in the free
state or as the potassium or calcium salt in grape juice and in
various unripe fruits. During the alcoholic fermentation of
grape juice it is deposited in the form of an impure acid
potassium tartrate which is known as arg&l, and when purified
as cream of tartar. For the preparation of the acid the crude
argol is boiled with hydrochloric acid and afterwards precipi-
tated as calcium tartrate by boiling with milk of lime, the
calcium salt being afterwards decomposed by sulphuric acid.
It may also be obtained (together with racemic acid) by oxidiz-
ing milk sugar, saccharic acid, &c., with nitric acid, and by the
reduction of oxalic ester with sodium amalgam (H. Debus, Ann.,
1873, 166, p. 109). It crystallizes from water in large prisms
which melt at 168-170° C., and on further heating gives an
anhydride and finally chars, emitting a characteristic odour and
forming pyroracemic and pyrotartaric acids. It behaves as
a reducing agent. Chromic acid and potassium permanganate
oxidize it to formic and carbonic acids, whilst hydrogen peroxide
in the presence of ferrous salts gives dihydroxymaleic acid
(H. J. H. Fenton, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1894, P- 899; 1895, PP- 48,
774; 1896, p. 546). Hydriodic acid and phosphorus reduce it
to malic acid and finally to succinic acid. Calcium chloride
gives a white precipitate of calcium tartrate in neutral solutions,
the precipitate being soluble in cold solutions of caustic potash
but re-precipitated on boiling. It prevents the precipitation
of many metallic hydroxides by caustic alkalis. It carbonizes
when heated with strong sulphuric acid, giving, among other pro-
ducts, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. A small crystal
of oxalic acid added to concentrated sulphuric acid containing
about i per cent, of resorcin gives a characteristic violet red
coloration.
Laevo-tartaric acid is identical in its chemical and in
most of its physical properties with the dextro-acid, differing
chiefly in its action on polarized light, the plane of polarization
being rotated to the left. By mixing equal quantities of the two
forms in aqueous solution heat is evolved and racemic acid,
(CiHeOeVSHjO, is obtained. This variety is also formed by the
hydrolysis of glyoxal cyanhydrin (F. Pollak, Monats., 1894, 15,
p. 469); by heating a solution of desoxalic acid; by the oxidation
of fumaric acid with potassium permanganate; by the action of
silver oxide on dibromosuccinic acid, and by the oxidation of
mannite, dulcite, inulin, &c., with nitric acid. In the anhydrous
state it melts at 205-206° C. Mesotartaric acid is formed when cin-
chonine tartrate is heated for some time at 170° C. (L. Pasteur,
Ann., 1853, 88, p. 212); by heating tartaric or racemic acid for
some time with water to 165° C.; by the oxidation of laevulose;
and by the oxidation of phenol or maleic acid with an alkaline solution
of potassium permanganate (O. Doebner, Her., 1891, 24, p. 1755;
A. Kekule and R. Anschutz, ibid., 1881, 14, p. 714). It crystallizes
in prisms, and in the anhydrous state melts at 140° C. On pro-
longed boiling with aqueous hydrochloric acid it yields racemic acid.
The sodium ammonium salt is not capable of decomposition into
its optical antipodes, as is sodium ammonium racemate.
Tartaric acid as used in medicine is derived from potassium acid
tartrate. Its impurities are lead, oxalic acid, lime and potassium
tartrate. It is incompatible with potassium, calcium, mercury and
vegetable astringents. Tartaric acid is rarely used alone, but is
contained in pilula quininae sulphatis and in Seidlitz powder
(see SODIUM), and is a constituent of many proprietary granular
effervescent preparations. If taken in overdose or in a concentrated
form tartaric acid produces severe gastro-enteritis. In these cases
lime-water, alkalis and magnesia should be used as antidotes, and
opium may be required.
TARTARUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Aether and Gaea,
father of Typhoeus and the giants. In the Iliad the word
denotes an underground prison, as far below Hades as earth is
below heaven, in which those who rebelled against the will
of Zeus were confined. In later writers Tartarus is the place of
punishment of the wicked after death, and is used for the
underworld generally. Cf. ABYSS.
TARTINI, GIUSEPPE (1692-1770), Italian violinist, com-
poser and musical theorist, was born at Tirano in Istria on the
1 2th of April 1692. In early life he studied, with equal want of
success, for the church, the law courts, and the profession of
arms. As a young man he was wild and irregular, and he
crowned his improprieties by clandestinely marrying the niece
of Cardinal Cornaro, archbishop of Padua. The cardinal re-
sented the marriage as a disgraceful mesalliance, and denounced
it so violently that the unhappy bridegroom, thinking his life in
danger, fled for safety to a monastery at Assisi, where his
character underwent a complete change. He studied the theory
of music under Padre Boemo, the organist of the monastery, and,
without any assistance whatever, taught himself to play the
violin in so masterly a style that his performances in the church
became the wonder of the neighbourhood. For more than two
years his identity remained undiscovered, but one day the
wind blew aside a curtain behind which he was playing, and one
of his hearers recognized him and betrayed his retreat to the
cardinal, who, hearing of his changed character, readmitted him
to favour and restored him to his wife.
Tartini next removed to Venice, where the fine violin-playing
of Veracini excited his admiration and prompted him to repair,
by the aid of good instruction, the shortcomings of his own self-
taught method. He left his wife with relations and returned to
Ancona, where he studied for a time. In 1721 he returned to
Padua, where he was appointed solo violinist at the church of
San Antonio. From 1723 to 1725 he acted as conductor of
Count Kinsky's private band in Prague. In 1728 he founded a
school for violin in Padua. The date of his presence in Rome
does not seem to be clearly established, but he was in Bologna
in 1739. Afterwards he returned to his old post in Padua, where
he died on the i6th of February 1770.
Tartini's compositions are very numerous, and faithfully
illustrate his passionate and masterly style of execution, which
surpassed in brilliancy and refined taste that of all his contem-
poraries. He frequently headed his pieces with an explana-
tory poetical motto, such as " Ombra cara," or " Volgete il riso
in pianto o mie pupille." Concerning that known as // Tritto
del Diawlo, or The Devil's Sonata, he told a curious story to
Lalande, in 1766. He dreamed that the devil had become his
slave, and that he one day asked him if he could play the violin.
The devil replied that he believed he could pick out a tune, and
thereupon he played a sonata so exquisite that Tartini thought
he had never heard any music to equal it. On awaking he tried
to note down the composition, but succeeded very imperfectly,
though the Devil's Sonata is one of his best productions.
Tartini is historically important as having contributed to the
science of acoustics as well as to musical art by his discovery (inde-
pendently of Sorge, 1740, to whom the primary credit is now given)
of what a're still called Tartini's tones " (see SOUND and HEARING),
or differential tones.
The phenomenon is this: — when any two notes are produced
steadily and with great intensity, a third note is heard, whose
vibration number is the difference of those of the two primary notes.
It follows from this that any two consecutive members of a harmonic
series have the fundamental of that series for their difference tone
F*
— thus, p, the fourth and fifth harmonic, produce C, the prime or
generator, at the interval of two octaves under the lower of those
two notes; p", the third and fifth harmonic, produce C, the second
harmonic, at the interval of a 5th under the lower of those two
notes. The discoverer was wont to tell his pupils that their double-
stopping was not in tune unless they could hear the third note;
and Henry Blagrove (1811-1872) gave the same admonition. The
phenomenon has other than technical significance; an experiment
by Sir F. A. G. Ouseley showed that two pipes, tuned by measure-
ment to so acute a pitch as to render the notes of both inaudible
by human ears, when blown together produce the difference of tone
of the inaudible primaries, and this verifies the fact of the infinite
upward range of sound which transcends the perceptive power
of human organs. The obverse of this fact is that of any sound
being deepened by an 8th if the length of the string or pipe which
TAS-DE-CHARGE— TASMAN
437
produces it be doubled. The law is without exception throughout
the compass in which our ears can distinguish pitch, and so, of
necessity, a string of twice the length of that whose vibrations
induce the deepest perceivable sound must stir the air at such a
rate as to cause a tone at an 8th below that lowest audible note.
It is hence manifest that, however limited our sense of the range of
musical sound, this range extends upward and downward to infinity.
Tartini made his observations the basis of a theoretical system
which he set forth in his Trattato di Musica, secondo la vera scienzia
dell' Armenia (Padua, 1754) and Dei Principij dell' Armenia Musi-
cole (Padua, 1767). He also wrote a Trattato delle Appogiature,
posthumously printed in French, and an unpublished work, Delle
Ragioni e delle Proporzioni, the MS. of which has been lost.
TAS-DE-CHARGE, a French term in architecture, for which
there is no equivalent in English, given to the lower courses of
a Gothic vault, which are laid in horizontal courses and bonded
into the wall, forming a solid mass; they generally rise about
one-third of the height of the vault, and as they project forwards
they lessen the span to be vaulted over.
TASHKENT, or TASHKEND, one of the largest and most
important cities of Russian Central Asia, and capital of Russian
Turkestan, situated in the valley of the Chirchik, some 50 m.
above its confluence with the Syr-darya, in 40° 20' N., 69° 18' E.
It is connected by rail with Krasnovodsk (1085 m.) on the
Caspian, and since 1905 with Orenburg (1150 m.). The city,
formerly enclosed by walls (now ruinous), is surrounded by
luxuriant gardens, and its houses are buried among the fruit
and other trees which grow alongside of the irrigation canals.
The buildings, which are of stone and sun-dried bricks, are
mostly low, on account of the earthquakes which frequently
disturb the region. The native city in 1871 had 78,130 in-
habitants, and in 1897 156,414, mostly Sarts, with Uzbegs,
Kirghiz, Jews, Russians and Germans. The Russian city,
to the south-east, dating from 1865, has clean, broad streets
lined with poplars, and canals, the low, pleasant-looking houses
being surrounded by gardens. In 1875 its population, ex-
clusive of the military, was 4860, mostly Russians, and in 1900
about 25,000. Tashkent has a public library containing a
valuable collection of works on Central Asia, an astronomical
observatory a'nd a museum.
TASHKURGHAN, or KHULM, a khanate and town of Afghan
Turkestan. The khanate lies between Kunduz and Balkh.
The ancient town of Khulm stood in the Oxus plain, surrounded
by orchards of famous productiveness; but it was destroyed
by Ahmad Shah Abdali, who founded Tashkurghan in the
middle of the i8th century, and took all the inhabitants away
from Khulm to populate it. Ancient Khulm is now only a
mass of ruins; but Tashkurghan, lying two or three miles to
the south of it, has become the great trade-mart of Afghan
Turkestan and second only in importance to Mazar-i-Sharif,
the military centre of the province; while it is much larger
and more prosperous than the latter place. At Tashkurghan
the caravans from India and Bokhara meet, and from here the
merchandise is distributed all over the country. A hill fortress
dominates the town and overlooks the debouchment of the
road from Haibak and Kabul into the plains of the Oxus.
TASMAN, ABEL JANSZOON (c. 1603-1659), the greatest
of Dutch navigators, the discoverer of Tasmania, New Zealand,
the Tonga and the Fiji Islands, and the first circumnavigator
of Australia, was born at Lutjegast in Groningen, about 1603.
In 1634 we first meet with him in the East Indies, sailing from
Batavia (Feb. 18) to Amboyna. On the 3Oth of December 1636
he sailed from Batavia for home; reached Holland August i,
1637; started on his return to the East April 15, 1638; and
reappeared at Batavia October n, 1638. On the 2nd of
June 1639 Tasman, along with Matthew (Matthijs Hendricxsen)
Quast, was despatched by Antony Van Diemen, governor-
general of the Dutch East Indies (1636-45), on a voyage to
the north-western Pacific, in quest of certain " islands of gold
and silver," supposed to lie in the ocean east of Japan. On
this voyage Tasman and Quast visited the Philippines and im-
proved Dutch knowledge of the east coast of Luzon; they also
discovered and mapped various islands to the north, apparently
the Bonin archipelago. Sailing on to N. and E. in search of
the isles of precious metals, they ranged about fruitlessly in
the northern Pacific, at one time believing themselves to be
600 Dutch miles east of Japan. After this the voyage was
continued almost constantly westward, but in varying latitudes,
reaching as high as 42° N., always without success. On the
1 5th of October the navigators decided to return, and, after
touching at Japan, anchored at the Dutch fortress-station of,
Zeelandia in. Formosa on the 24th of November 1639. After
this Tasman was engaged in operations in the Indian seas
(sailing to Formosa, Japan, Cambodia, Palembang, &c., as a
merchant captain in the service of the Dutch East India Com-
pany) until 1642, when he set out on his first great " South
Land " expedition. This was planned and organized by
Governor Van Diemen, who cherished great schemes for the
extension of the _Dutch colonial empire. Several Dutch navi-
gators had already discovered various portions of the north
and west coasts of Australia (as in 1605-06, 1616, 1618-19, 1622,
1627-28, &c.), but Tasman now first showed that this great
South Land did not stretch away to the southern pole, but
was entirely encircled by sea within comparatively moderate
limits. Sailing from Batavia on the I4th of August 1642
with two vessels, the " Heemskerk " and " Zeehaen," and calling
at Mauritius (September 5 to October 8), Tasman sailed first
S., then E., almost seven weeks, and on the 24th of November
sighted (in 42° 25' S., as he made it) the land which he named
Anthoonij Van Diemen's landt after Van Diemen, now called
Tasmania. He doubled the land, which he evidently did not
perceive was an island, coasting its southern shores, and,
running up Storm Bay, anchored on the ist of December
in Frederick Henry's Bay, on the east coast of Tasmania
(in 43° 10' S., according to his reckoning) — so named after
Prince Frederick Henry of Nassau, then the head of the
Dutch republic. There he set up a post on which he hoisted
the Dutch flag. Quitting Van Diemen's Land on the sth of
December, Tasman steered E. for the Solomon Islands, and on
the I3th of December discovered (in 42° 10' S., as he reckoned)
a " high mountainous country," which he called Stolen landt
(" Land of the States," i.e., of Holland, now New Zealand).
Tasman and his company believed the newly discovered land
to form part of the same great antarctic continent as the other
Stolen landt which Schouten and Lemaire had sighted and
named to the east of Tierra del Fuego. Cruising up N.E.
along the west coast of the South Island, he anchored on the
i Sth of December in 40° 50' S., at the entrance of a " wide
opening," which he took to be a " fine bay " (Cook's Strait).
He gave the name of Moordenaars (Murderers, now softened
to Massacre) Bay to this spot, where several of his men were
killed by the natives (December 19). From Murderers' Bay
Tasman sailed S.E. along the south shore of Cook's Strait,
apparently getting into Blind or Tasman Bay, but not dis-
covering the full extent of the strait here dividing New Zealand
into two main islands. Returning westward he then coasted
the west side of the North Island, till, on the 4th of January
1643, he came to the northern extremity of New Zealand, in
34° 35' S. (in his reckoning). Thence he bore away to N.N.E.,
at first intending to keep that course for 30° of longitude from
North Cape, New Zealand. On the igth to 25th of January,
in 22° 35', 21° 20', and 20° 15' S. (Tasman's reckonings),
he discovered various islands of the Tonga or Friendly group,
especially Amsterdam (Tongatabu), Middelburg (Eva), and
Rotterdam. Here the ships took in water and provisions,
which they had not done since leaving Mauritius, and the
crews went on shore for the first time since leaving Van Diemen's
Land. Rotterdam Island they explored with some care.
Thence Tasman steered N. and W., reaching on the 6th of
February the eastern part of the Fiji archipelago (in 17° 29' S.,
by his reckoning), which he called Prince William's Islands
and Heemskerk's Shoals; on the 22nd of March he sighted the
islands of Ontong Java (in 5° 2' S., according to Tasman, and in
159° 30' E., Greenwich). On the ist of April he was near the
north-eastern extremity of New Ireland (Neu Mecklenburg),
mistaken by him for a part of New Guinea, in 40° 30' S., off a
438
TASMANIA
point known to the Spaniards as Cabo S. Maria. Thence he
passed westward along the north of New Ireland, New Hanover,
New Britain (Neu Pommern) and New Guinea. He reached
the western extremity of New Guinea on the i8th of May;
Schouten's Islands were noted to the south of the vessels'
course on the I2th of May. Tasman's track, lying between
New Guinea and Halmahera (Gilolo), then brought him south
to Ceram; he passed through the narrow strait between
Celebes and Buton on the 27th of May, and arrived at Batavia
on the i sth of June 1643 after a ten months' voyage. The
materials for an account of Tasman's important second voyage
in 1644 are scanty, but we know he was instructed to obtain
a thorough knowledge of Staten Land and Van Diemen's Land,
and to find out " whether New Guinea is a continent with the
great Zuidland, or separated by channels and islands," and also
" whether the new Van Diemen's Land is the same continent
with these two great countries or with one of them." In this
voyage Tasman had three ships under his command, the "Lim-
men,"" Zeemeeuw " (or"Meeuw"),and" Brak " (or"Bracq").
His course lay along the south-west coast of New Guinea; he
mistook the western opening of Torres Straits for a bay, but
explored (and perhaps named) the Gulf of Carpentaria: for
the first time the coast-line of this great bay was mapped with
fair accuracy. Though preceded by Jansz (1606) and Carstensz
(1623) on the east shore of the gulf as far as 17° S., Tasman
first made known the south, and most of the west, coast. Be-
yond this he explored the north and west coasts of Australia
as far as 22° S., and established the absolute continuity of all
this shore-line of the " Great Known South Continent "; his
chart gives soundings for the whole of this coast. Tasman's
achievements were coldly received by the Dutch colonial
authorities; but on the 4th of October 1644 they rewarded
him with the rank of commander (he had frequently enjoyed
the use of the title already). On the 2nd of November 1644
he was also made a member of the Council of Justice of Batavia.
He was a member of the committee appointed on the i8th of
April 1645 to declare a truce between the Dutch East India
Company and the viceroy of Portuguese India. In 1647 he
commanded a trading fleet to Siam, and in 1648 a war-fleet
sent against the Spaniards of the Philippines (May 15, 1648, to
January 1649). By 1653 he had quitted the company's service,
but still lived, apparently as one of its wealthiest citizens, in
and near Batavia. His will, made the loth of April 1657,
seems to have but slightly preceded his death, which probably
happened before October 22, 1659, and certainly before
February 5, 1661.
See Siebold's paper in Le Moniteur des Indes-Orientales et Occi-
dentales, 1848-49, pt. i. p. 390; the paper on Tasman by C. M.
Dozy in Bijdragen ' tot de Tool-, Land-, en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indie, 5th series, vol. ii. p. 308; R. H. Major, Early
Voyages to . . . Australia. (London, Hakluyt Society, 1859), especially
pp. xciii.-ciii., 43-58 (here are printed the instructions for Tasman
and his colleagues on the voyage of 1644) ; G. Collingridge,
Discovery of Australia (Sydney, 1895), especially pp. 238-40, 279-
80; and, above all, J. E. Heeres and others, Tasman's Journal . . .
facsimiles of the original MS with . . . .life ... .of ....
Tasman, &c. (Amsterdam, 1898) — here the Life of Tasman, with
its appendices, is separately paged (163 pp.). See also Aandeel der
Nederlanders in de Ontdekking van Australi'e, 1606-1765 (in Dutch
and English, Leiden and London, 1899), especially pp. vi., viii.,
xii.-xv., 72; the valuable summary of the voyage of 1642-43 in
the anonymous Account of several late Voyages and Discoveries
(beginning with Sir John Narborough's), London, 1711, with sub-
title, Relation of a Voyage ... of Captain Abel Jansen Tasman
(originally extracted from his journals by Dirk Rembrantse in
Dutch, published in English in Dr Hook's collections); also The
Discovery of Van Diemen's Land in 1642, by James Backhouse
Walker (Hobart, 1891). A draft journal of the voyage of 1642-43,
probably made by a sailor on the expedition, is in the state archives
at The Hague. There are also several copies made from Tasman's
official journal; the best of these (the original fair copy) is repro-
duced in Heeres' Tasman's Journal, 1898, noticed above.
An original chart of Tasman's, made after the voyage of 1644,
has been discovered and is in the possession of Prince Roland
Bonaparte. Before this discovery reliance was placed on an ex-
cellent copy, probably made about 1687, by Captain Thomas
Bowrey (art. 12 in the miscell. MS. collection marked 5222 in the
British Museum, London) . This gives the tracks of both the voyages
1642-43 and 1644, and the soundings of the latter. Burgomaster
Witsen, of Noord en Oost Tartarye fame (1705), preserved a brief
record of certain observations made in Tasman's voyage of 1644,
between 13° 8' and 19° 35' S. (and approximately between 129°
30' and 120° E., Greenwich). This was translated by A. Dalrymplc m
his Papua (reprinted in R. H. Major, Early Voyages to . . . Australia,
xcviii.-xcix.). Basil Thomson, Diversions of a Prime Minister
(Edinburgh, 1894), p. 311, &c., records that the remembrance of
Tasman's visit to the Tonga Islands still remains " fresh to the
smallest details " among the natives. (C. R. B.)
TASMANIA, a British colonial state, forming part of the
Australian Commonwealth. It is composed of the island of
Tasmania and its adjoining islands, and is separated from the
Australian continent on the south-east by Bass Strait. The
Emery W'Ucr J
island of Tasmania is triangular in shape, area 24,331 sq. m.
(with the other islands 26,215 scl- m-), 200 m- from N. to S.,
and 245 m. fiom E. to W.
Coastal Features. — The southern portion of the eastern shore
of Tasmania is remarkable for its picturesque inlets and bold
headlands. The principal inlet is Storm Bay, which has three
well-defined arms. The most easterly is Norfolk Bay, enclosed
between Forestier's Peninsula and Tasman • Peninsula. The
middle arm is Frederick Henry Bay, and the western the estuary
of the Derwent. It is on this estuary that Hobart, the capital
of the island, is situated. Besides the main entrance to Storm
Bay, between Cape Raoul and Tasman Head, there is D'Entre-
casteaux Channel, which divides North and South Bruni Island
from the mainland. This channel has two branches, the
easterly forming the entrance into Storm Bay, and the western
being the estuary of the Huon river. On the east coast lies
the peculiarly-shaped Maria Island, almost severed by deep
indentations on the east and west. Above this island is Oyster
Bay, formed by the projection, Freycinet Peninsula. On the
south are some very prominent headlands. In the south-west
lies the fine harbour of Port Davey, which receives several
small rivers. Proceeding northward along the west coast the
most conspicuous headlands are Rocky Point, Point Ilibbs
and Cape Sorell, which stands at the entrance of Macquarie
Harbour, the deep inlet receiving the waters of the river Gordon
TASMANIA
439
and several smaller streams. North of this there are several
prominent headlands. The west coast terminates at Cape
Grim, opposite which are the group known by the name of
Hunter's Islands. Going eastward along the north coast
Circular Head is met with, a narrow peninsula running out for
six miles and terminating in a rocky bluff 400 ft. high. Further
east are Emu Bay, Port Frederick, Port Sorell and Port
Dalrymple, into which flows the Tamar river, on which
Launceston is situated. In Bass Strait are several large
islands belonging to Tasmania; King's, Flinders, Cape Barren
and Clarke Islands are the largest. Flinders Island has an area
of 513,000 acres. Among the rivers flowing northward to Bass
Strait are the Tamar, Inglis, Cam, Emu, Blyth, Forth, Don,
Mersey, Piper and Ringarooma. The Macquarie, receiving the
Elizabeth and Lake, falls into the South Esk, which unites with
the North Esk to form the Tamar at Launceston. Westward,
falling into the ocean, are the Hellyer, Arthur and Pieman.
The King and Gordon gain Macquarie Harbour; the Davey
and Spring, Port Davey. The central and southern districts
are drained by the Derwent from Lake St Clair — its tributaries
being the Nive, Dee, Clyde, Ouse and Jordan. The Huon falls
into D'Entrecasteaux Channel. The main axis of the Great
Cordillera — so termed originally by Sir Roderick Murchison —
bordering the eastern coast-line of Australia, may be traced
across Bass Strait in the chain of islands forming the Furneaux
and Kent group, which almost continually link Tasmania with
Wilson's Promontory, the nearest and most southerly part of
the Australian mainland. Tasmania is wholly occupied by the
ramifications of this chain, and in itself may be said to embrace
one and all of its characteristic features.
Taking a stand near Lake Fergus, to the east of Lake St
Clair, the observer will find himself nearly in the centre of an ex-
tensive plateau, with an elevation, especially on the northern side,
of between three and five thousand feet above the sea-level. This
elevated plateau extends from Dry's Bluff in the north to the Denison
Range in the south-west, and although often receding at points
adjacent to the sources of the principal rivers, invariably presents
a bold crested front to the north, west and east. At its greatest
elevation it is comparatively level, and contains many extensive
freshwater basins, such as Lake Augusta, Lake St Clair, Lake
Sorell, Lake Echo, Lake Crescent, Arthur's Lake and the Great Lake.
The marginal crests of this mountain tableland, together with its
upper surface, are known locally as " Tiers," and have a very com-
manding aspect in the neighbourhood of Longford, Westbury, Delo-
raine and Chudleigh. The extent of the principal elevated plateau
is best appreciated when we consider that it maintains its general
altitude in a westerly direction from Dry's Bluff (4257 feet) on the
north to Cradle Mountain (5069 feet) in the north-west, a distance
of nearly 50 miles; from Dry's Bluff in a south-westerly direction
to Denison Range, a distance of over 60 miles; and from Dry's
Bluff to Table Mountain in a southerly direction, a distance of
above 43 miles. This plateau itself again rests upon a more extended
tableland, stretching westwards, and, with the Middlesex Plains,
the Hampshire Hills and the Emu Plains, maintaining an altitude
of 1 200 to 2000 feet. Its limits follow the coast-line more or less
closely, the space between it and the sea often broadening out
into low-lying tracts not much raised above the sea-level. Here and
there, rising abruptly from its surface, are to be seen isolated peaks,
the most characteristic of which are Valentine's Peak (3637 feet)
and Mount Pearse. Ridges and plateaus of a similar character,
but more or less isolated, such as Ben Lomond (5010 feet) and
Mount Wellington (4166 feet), are to be found in the north-east and
south-west of the island. Towards the extreme west and south,
anticlinal and synclinal ridges trend north and south, the most
characteristic being the Huxley, Owen, Sedgwick, Franklin and
Arthur Ranges. Settlement of population has taken place princi-
pally among the plains and lower levels of the north-western,
midland and south-eastern parts of the island, following in the
main the rocks of Tertiary and Mesozoic age. In the Recent
Tertiary period the soils of these plains and valleys have been
greatly enriched by extensive outbursts of basalt with accompanying
tuffs. These basalts produce a very rich chocolate soil, and were
it not for their influence, the greater part of what is now the most
fertile part of the island would have been comparatively poor or
altogether sterile.
The appearance of the island throughout is wonderfully beautiful,
with its open plains, bordered by far-extending precipitous moun-
tain tiers, its isolated shaggy peaks and wooded ranges, and its
many noble rivers and lakes. Its coasts for the most part, especially
towards the south, are bold, and frequently indented with splendid
bays and harbours, affording ample shelter and safe anchorage for
ships. On the western side one is reminded of scenes in the highlands
of Ross-shire and Inverness-shire in Scotland, from the picturesque
character of the blue, white, and pinkish crystalline peaks and the
fantastic outlines of the mountain ranges which rise abruptly to a
height of from 2000 to nearly 3000 feet above the Button Grass
Plains. (T. A. C.)
Geology. — Tasmania is, geologically, an outlier of the Australian
continent. It is most intimately connected with Victoria, from
which it was only separated by the foundering of Bass's Strait in
late Pliocene or early Pleistocene times. The precise date of the
separation is fixed as later than the Miocene, since the fringe of the
marine Miocene deposits along the southern coast of Victoria is
broken, from Flinders to Alberton; and this gap was no doubt due
to the subsidence of the land, of which the islands in the Bass Strait
are remnants, which then connected Tasmania with the continent.
The latest date for the existence of this connexion is given by the
absence from Tasmania of the dingo, the lyre-bird and the giant
marsupials; so that the isolation of Tasmania was earlier than the
arrival of those animals in south-eastern Australia. That it was
not much earlier is shown by the fact that some still living species
of mammals, such as the thylacine, existed before the separation.
The geological sequence in Tasmania is full, and the island contains
a better series of Carboniferous rocks than is found in Victoria. The
nucleus of the island is a block of Archean rocks, which are not,
so far as is known, extensively exposed. The most certain repre-
sentatives of the Archean are the gneiss and schists of the Dove
river and the upper Forth, and the hornblende-schists, which are
exposed in the river valleys on the margins of the central plateau.
The Mount Lyell schists which underlie the West Coast Range, and
the quartzites of Port Davey on the western coast, have also been
regarded as Archean. The Lower Palaeozoic systems begin with
the Cambrian, which are found in northern Tasmania near Latrobe,
and contain Cambrian fossils as Dikelocephalus Tasmanicus and
Conocephalites stephensi. The Ordovician system has not been
certainly identified ; but probably many of the slates and quartzites
in north-western Tasmania and of the mining field of Beaconsfield
on the estuary of the Tamar, are Ordovician. The Silurian system,
however, is well developed in north-western Tasmania, and is
represented by slates, limestones and sandstones yielding a dis-
tinctively Silurian fauna. The rocks are best known by the lime-
stones in the lead mining field at Zeehan, and the slates, including
the tin mine of Mount Bischoff.
The Devonian system is best represented by the massive con-
glomerates and quartzites, which form the West Coast Range
extending from Mount Lyell on Macquarie Harbour, through Mounts
Jukes, Owen, Lyell, Murchison and Geikie, to Mount Black. These
mountains consist of detached remnants of a sheet of quartz con-
glomerates, interbedded with sandstones, containing crinoid stems
and obscure brachiopods. They rest unconforraably on the Silurian
rocks on the King river and to the west are faulted against the
schists by a powerful overthrust fault, traversing the Mount Lyell
copper field. A northern extension of these conglomerates forms
the Dial Range near Burnie. The Devonian period, as in Victoria,
was marked by a series of granitic intrusions, which altered the
older beds on the contact, while the quartz- porphyry dikes, which
are intrusive in the Silurian rocks at the Mount Bischoff tin mine,
doubtless belong to this period. The Carboniferous system begins
with a series of marine limestones, shales and grits, including a
rich Lower Carboniferous fauna. The Carboniferous rocks occupy
the whole of the south-eastern corner of Tasmania ; and one outlier
Dccurs on the northern coast in the Mersey Valley. This formation
helps to build up the central plateau, and a band outcrops around
its edge. The Upper Carboniferous includes beds of shale and coal ;
aut though the coal is good, the seams are thin and have not been
much worked. The Coal Measures are covered by marine shales with
numerous bryozoa; and, on the horizon of the Greta Coal Measures
of New South Wales, is a bed of Carboniferous glacial deposits.
The Mesozoic system is not well developed. It is usually regarded
as beginning with a fresh-water series containing the remains of
ish and labyrinthodonts ; but as it also contains Vertebraria it is
arobably Palaeozoic; and this series is covered by sandstones and
shales which are probably of Triassic age. The most conspicuous
member of the Mesozoic group is the sheet of diabase and dolerite,
made up of laccolites and sills, which covers most of the central
jlateau of Tasmania. These rocks form the prominent scarps,
mown as the Tiers, on the edge of the plateau, and its outliers, such
at Mount Wellington near Hobart, and the* Eldon Range. This
sheet of diabase has been regarded as Carboniferous; but, according
to W. H. Twelvetrees, it is probably Cretaceous. The Cainozoic
system includes at Table Cape an outcrop of marine beds probably
of Oligocene age. Lower Cainozoic lacustrine beds with fossil plants,
of the same age as those which underlie the older basalts of Victoria,
occur in the valleys of northern Tasmania. The Cainozoic series
ncludes many igneous rocks. The tinguaites and solvsbergites
of Port Cygnet, south of Hobart, may be of this age; they are
ntrusive in Carboniferous rocks, and there is no evidence of their
precise date; but their resemblance to the rocks associated with
:he geburite-dacite of Victoria suggests that they may belong to
:he beginning of the Cainozoic volcanic period of south-eastern
Australia. North-western Tasmania in Pleistocene times had an
440
TASMANIA
extensive series of glaciers, of which the lower moraines were de-
posited only about 400 feet above sea level. .
The information as to the geology of lasmama up to 188
collected in R. M. Johnston's Systematic Account of the Geology of
Tasmania, which gives a bibliography up to that date. A later
sketch of the island is by W. H. Twelvetrecs, " Outlines of the Geology
of Tasmania," Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania, 1900-1901, pp. 5»-74- The
mining literature is given in the reports of the Mines Depart-
ment, and special reports issued in the Parliamentary Papers; and
the economic and general geology are described in reports issued
periodically by the Geological Survey, under W. H. Twelvetrees,
and in papers published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Tasmania. The Mount Lyell mining field is described, with
some account of the neighbouring districts of Western Tasmania,
in J. W. Gregory, The Mount Lyell Mining Field (Melbourne, 1904).
The glacial geology, with a summary of the literature thereon, is
described by the same writer in the Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society, 1904, vol. Ix., pp. 7-8, 37-53- U- , ,'.
Climate.— Tasmania possesses a very temperate and healthy
climate. The mean temperature of the year, as estimated from
observations extending back to 1841, is about 50-10°. The mean
at Hobart was 54-4°, at Launceston 56-6° and at Oatlands, which is
in the centre of the island and 1400 ft. above sea-level, 51-76°.
Snow is rarely seen except in the mountains. The average tem-
perature at Hobart of January, the hottest month, is 63°, and of
July, which is mid-winter, 45°. The western prevailing winds—
particularly the north-western — carry the rain-bearing clouds.
The elevation-divide between the western and eastern parts of the
island rises generally to a height of between 3000 and 5000 ft., and
consequently the parts to the east of such heights receive much
less precipitation than those to the westward. The general average
for the eastern district over a period of years was 22-07 inches; f°r
the western, 37-55 inches; and for Tasmania 26-69 inches.
Flora. — The vegetation which prevails among the older schistose
rocks of the west and extreme south presents a totally different
appearance to that which occurs in the more settled districts of the
east. The western vegetation, as compared with that of the east,
presents as marked a contrast as do the prevailing rocks upon which
it flourishes. The characteristic trees and shrubs of the west include
the following genera, viz.: Fagus, Cenarrhenes, Anodopetalum,
Eucryphia, Bauera, Boronia, Agaslachys, Richea, Telopea, Grevillea,
Orites, Athrotaxis, Dacrydium, Phyllocladus. On the eastern side
the plains and rocky ridges, where not artificially cleared, are
occupied by shaggy and often sombre forests mainly composed of
the following genera: Eucalyptus (gum tree), Casuarina, Bursaria,
Acacia, Leptospermum, Drimys, Melaleuca, Dodonaea, Notolea,
Exocarpus, Hakea, Epacris, Xanthorrhoea, Frenela. The mountain
slopes and ravines of the east have a well-marked vegetation. In
character it is more akin to, and in many cases identical with, that
of the west. The tree fern (Dicksonia antarctica) in the mountain
ravines is especially remarkable. The following genera are also
found in such positions in great luxuriance, viz. : Fagus, Anopterus,
Phebalium, Eucalyptus, Richea, Gyathodes, Pomaderris, Prostan-
thera, Boronia, Gaultheria, Correa, Bedfordia, Aster, Archeria,
Atherosperma, &c. In the extreme west the trees and larger shrubs
do not appear to ascend the schistose rocky mountain slopes of the
central and eastern parts.
Fauna. — Animal life in Tasmania is similar to that in Australia.
The dingo or dog of the latter is wanting; and the Tasmanian devil
and tiger, or wolf, are peculiar to the island. The Marsupials include
the Macropus or kangaroo; the opossums, Phalangista vulpina and
P. Cookii', the opossum-mouse, Dromicia nana; Perameles or bandi-
coot; Hypsiprymnus or kangaroo rat; Phascolomys or wombat;
while of Monotremata there are the Echidna or porcupine ant-eater
and the duck-billed platypus. The marsupial tiger or Tasmanian
wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus), 5 ft. long, is yellowish brown, with
several stripes across the back, having short stiff hair and very
short legs. Very few of these nocturnal carnivores are now alive
to trouble flocks. The tiger-cat of the colonists, with weasel legs,
white spots and nocturnal habits, is a large species of the untameable
native cats. The devil (Dasyurus or Sarcophilus ursinus) is black,
with white bands on neck and haunches. The covering of this
savage but cowardly little night-prowler is a sort of short hair, not
fur. The tail is thick, and the bull-dog mouth is formidable.
Among the birds of the island are the eagle, hawk, petrel, owl,
finch, peewit, diamond bird, fire-tail, robin, emu-wren, crow,
swallow, magpie, blackcap, goatsucker, quail, ground dove, parrot,
lark, mountain thrush, cuckoo, wattlebird, whistling duck, honey-
bird, Cape Barren goose, penguin duck, waterhen, snipe, albatross
and laughing jackass. Snakes are pretty plentiful in scrubs;
the lizards are harmless. Insects, though similar to Australian
ones, are far less troublesome; many are to be admired for their
great beauty.
Population. — At the beginning of 1905, the state contained
181,100 people, giving a density of 6-9 persons per square mile.
The population in 1870 was 100,765. The discovery of Mount
Bischoff one year later, though it greatly stimulated speculation
and induced a large influx of immigrants, did not put a stop to
the outflow, for in 1880 the population was still below 115,000.
During the next two decades there was a substantial advance;
in 1800 it had reached 145,200. and in IQoo, 172,080. Like all
the Australian states, Tasmania shows a decline in the birth-
rate; in 1905 the births were 5256—36 less than in 1004— which
gives a rate of 29-32 per 1000 of mean population.
The climate is probably more healthy than that of any of the
Australian states, although, owing to the large number of old people
in the colony, the death-rate would appear to put Tasmania on a
par with New South Wales and South Australia. The death-rate
per 1000 of population, which was 16-52 in the period 1876-80, had
fallen to n-oi in the period 1901-5. There has therefore been a
gradual and substantial improvement in the health conditions of
the state. The annual marriage^rate was for many years consider-
ably below the average of Australia generally, a condition sufficiently
accounted for by the continued emigration of men unmarried and
of marriageable ages; this emigration had ceased in 1900, and the
marriage-rate may be taken as 7-8 per thousand. The chief towns
are Hobart (pop. 35,000) and Launceston (pop. 22,500).
Administration. — As one of the states of Australia, Tasmania
returns six senators and five representatives to the federal
parliament. The local constitution resembles that of the other
Australian states inasmuch as the executive government of
four ministers is responsible to the legislature, which consists
of a legislative council and a house of assembly. The former
is composed of eighteen members elected for six years. Electors
of the council must be natural-born or naturalized subjects of
the king, twenty-one years of age, resident in Tasmania for
twelve months, and possessing a freehold of the annual value
of £10 or a leasehold of the annual value of £30 within the
electoral district; the property qualification being waived in
the case of persons with university degrees or belonging to
certain professions. Members of the council must be not less
than thirty years of age. The house of assembly consists of
35 members elected for three years. Every resident of Tasmania
for a period of twelve months who is twenty-one years of age,
natural-born or naturalized, is entitled to have his name placed
on the electoral roll, and to vote for the district in which he
resides. The franchise has been conferred on women.
Education. — Half the population are adherents of the Church of
England, and about 1 8 per cent. Roman Catholics; Wesleyans
number nearly 16 per cent., and Presbyterians about 65 per cent.
Instruction is compulsory upon children over seven years of age
and under thirteen years in the towns of Hobart and Launceston,
but not in the rural districts. Special religious instruction is
allowed to be given after school hours by teachers duly authorized
by the various religious denominations, and this privilege is some-
what extensively used by the Church of England. The schools
are not free, as small fees are charged ; but these are not enforced
where parents can reasonably plead poverty. In 1905 there were
343 state schools, with 19,000 pupils on the roll, and administered by
600 teachers; there were also 180 private schools, with 310 teachers
and 9000 scholars. The net expenditure averages £3, 155. 2d. per
child in average attendance, inclusive of what is spent in the up-
keep of school buildings and on new schools. The university of
Tasmania has an endowment of £4000 and a revenue from other
sources (chiefly fees) of from £1100 to £2000. The students attend-
ing lectures in 1904 were 62, of whom 51 rratriculated, and the
number of degrees conferred to the close of that year was 180,
the great majority of these degrees being granted ad eundem
gradum.
Finance. — The revenue is chiefly obtained through the custom-
house, but the federal tariff has had the effect of considerably
reducing the receipts from this source. In 1905 the state raised
£852,681 on account of the public revenue, which is equal to
£4, 135. 3d. per inhabitant; of this sum £259,099 was the excess
of Commonwealth collections over expenditure, and £216,953 from
other taxation; the railways returned £245,049, while from public
lands was obtained £63,088, and from other sources £43,504. The
expenditure was £840,185, thus distributed: railway working
expenses, £171,619; public instruction, £67,403; interest and
charges upon debt, including sinking funds, £349,090; and other
services £252,075. The interest and other debt charges come to
£i, i8s. 9d. per inhabitant, and represent 41-55 per cent, of the
expenditure of the state. The public debt in the year 1906 stood
at £9,471,971, of which £7,830,250 was held in London; this
represents £52, 6s. per inhabitant. In 1871 it was £1,315,200, in
1881 £2,003,000, and in 1891 £7,110,290, representing respectively
£12, i8s., £16, i6s. iod., and £46, us. lod. per inhabitant, the great
increase in recent years being due to the rapid extension of railway
and other public works. The expenditure upon works may be
TASMANIA
441
divided into that on revenue-yielding works, viz. railways,
£4,122,589, and telegraphs, £142,410; and that on works not
yielding revenue, £4,970,018. For local government purposes
Tasmania is divided into municipalities, town boards, and road
trusts. The rates are assessed on an assumed annual value, which
in 1900 was £1,417,547, corresponding to a capital value of .upwards
of £28,000,000. The bulk of the revenue of the local government
bodies is obtained from rates. The sources of revenue in 1905
were: government endowment, £5355; local rates, £71,920; and
other sources, £83,187. The outstanding loans of municipalities
amount to £697,133, of which the greater portion is represented by
the indebtedness of the two chief cities, Hobart and Launceston.
Defence. — Tasmania being a portion of the Commonwealth of
Australia, its defence is undertaken by the federal government.
The strength of the local forces is about 1500 officers and men.
Mining. — Mining is now the foremost industry, the gross pro-
duction in 1905 being valued at £1,858,218 as compared with
£1,500,000, the value of agricultural production, which is next
in importance. Tasmania produces gold, tin, silver, copper and
coal, and in 1905 the production of these minerals was valued at:
gold, £312,380; silver and silver-lead, £465,094; copper, £672,010;
tin, £346,092; and coal, £44,194. Beaconsfield is the chief goldfield,
26 miles north-west of Launceston. There are about 1500 persons
employed mining for gold on the various fields. The Mount Zeehan
and Dundas districts produce almost the whole of the silver at the
present time, and most of the ore is sold to agents of the Australian
and German smelting works. Tasmania is the largest producer
of tin in Australasia, and a very large proportion of the tin hitherto
produced has been obtained from alluvial deposits, the lodes,
except at Mount Bischoff, having, comparatively speaking, been
neglected. The Mount Bischoff mine, which is worked as an open
quarry, is the largest producer of tin, and (with an original capital
of £30,000) has paid over two millions sterling in dividends. The
number of tin miners in the state is about 1170. Tasmania also
takes the lead amongst the states in copper production: in 1896
there was a small production of £1659; in 1897 it grew to £317,437,
in 1898 to £378,565, in 1899 to £761,880, and in 1900 to £901,660;
and although the production has since been considerably reduced
it is still a great industry. This expansion was chiefly due to the
enterprise of the Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company,
whose mine is situated at Gormanston. Coal-mining is carried
on in various districts of the island, but the principal mines are
at Mount Nicholas and Cornwall, in the Mount Nicholas Range;
the output of the field is increasing, but no export trade is
at present possible, the mines being situated too far from the sea-
board. The number of men employed in coal-mining is 150, and
the output about 52,000 tons per annum.
Manufactures are on a small scale, the number of establishments
being about 440, and the hands employed 9000.
Agriculture. — After being much neglected, agriculture received
renewed attention in 1892 and the following years up to 1904, when
the area under crop reached a total of 259,611 acres; since the year
named there has been no increase, and the area cultivated may be
placed at about 250,000 acres. The area under crop, at intervals of
ten years, was as follows: 1861, 163,385 acres; 1871, 155,046 acres;
1887, 148,494 acres; 1891, 168,121 acres; and 1901, 224,352 acres.
Wheat is the principal crop, and the yield is larger per acre and less
variable than that of the Australian states: for the fifteen years
ending with 1905 the average yield was 18-9 bushels per acre,
ranging between 15 bushels in 1894 and 27 bushels in 1899. The
oat crop is also much above the Australian average, and may be
set down at 30 bushels an acre, but an average of 5 bushels higher
is not infrequent. Tasmania is renowned for its fruit crops, and
now that this fruit has found an opening in the British market, re-
newed attention is being devoted to the industry. In 1905 there were
12,683 acres of apples, 2098 acres of pears, mi acres of apricots,
1123 acres of plums, 426 acres of cherries, 498 acres of peaches,
2000 acres of strawberries, gooseberries and raspberries, and 1107
acres of currants. The crop for the same year included 1,100,000
bushels of apples, 75,000 bushels of pears, and nearly 170,000 bushels
of other fruit. Tasmania finds its best markets for fruits in New
South Wales and in Great Britain. The total value of the produce
of Tasmanian farms now exceeds £1,250,000, which is equivalent to
£4, 175. sd. per acre cultivated.
Tasmania shows a decline in sheep-breeding, yet the state is
singularly well adapted for sheep-raising, and its stud flocks are
well known and annually drawn upon to improve the breed in the
other states. Nor have the other branches of the pastoral industry
shown much expansion, as the following table will show: —
Year.
Shipping entered.
Imports.
Export*.
1861
1871
1881
1891
1900
1905
Tons.
113,610
107,271
192,024
514.706
618,963
1,056,256
£
954,517
778,087
1,431,144
2,051,964
2,073,657
2,651,754
905,463
740,638
1,555,576
1,440,818
2,610,617
3,7II,6l6
Year.
Sheep.
Homed Cattle.
Horses.
Swine.
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
1905
1,714,498
1,305,489
1,847,479
1,662,801
1,683,956
1,583,561
87,114
101,540
130,526
167,666
165,516
2O6,2II
22,118
23,054
25,607
31,262
31-607
37,ioi
40,841
52,863
49,660
73,520
68,291
72,810
Commerce. — The shipping increased considerably after 1896.
Hobart is now a place of call for several of the European steamship
lines, and the state is becoming increasingly popular as a summer
resort for the residents of Melbourne and Sydney. The growth
of the shipping trade will be seen in the following table, which also
gives the imports and exports at ten-yearly intervals: —
Tasmania does a large trade with Victoria and New South Wales
as well as with Great Britain. The principal exports in 1905 and
their values were: wool, £401,958; gold, £187,873; tin and ore,
£257,256; silver and ore, £3i8",97i ; copper, £569,052; farm, fruit
and vegetable products, £477,866; timber, £78,380. The imports
represent £14, 153. lod. and the exports £20, 143. per inhabitant.
The chief ports of the state are Hobart, where the shipping entered
in 1905 amounted to 645,000 tons, and Launceston, 223,000 tons;
Strahan on the west coast has also a considerable trade.
Railways. — The railways open for traffic in 1905 had a length of
619 miles, of which 463 were government and 156 private lines.
The progress of railway construction will be seen from the following
figures: open for traffic, 1871, 45 miles; 1881, 168 miles; 1891,
425 miles; and 1905, 619 miles. The railways, both state and private,
are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The capital expended on government lines
up to 1905 was £3,920,500; the gross earnings in that year were
£243,566, and the working expenses £171,630; leaving £71,936 as
the net earnings. This last-mentioned sum is equal to 1-83 per
cent, on the capital expenditure; and as the average interest upon
outstanding loans is 3-73 per cent., the railways are carried on at
a loss of i -9 per cent. The private railways show somewhat better
returns; the Emu Bay and Mount Bischoff line, 103 miles in
length, constructed at a cost of £565,365, returned in 1904 about
3-22 per cent., and the Mount Lyell Company's railway, 22 miles
long, costing £220,333, returned nearly 6 per cent.
The roads maintained by the road trusts and boards of the colony
extend over 7695 miles, of which 4146 were macadamized; the
annual expenditure thereon is over £35,768.
Posts and Telegraphs. — There were 379 post offices and receiving
offices in 1905, and 327 telegraphic stations; 12,616,000 postcards
and letters, 2,800,000 packets, and 7,200,000 newspapers were
received and despatched. The postal revenue amounted to £l 16,132,
and the expenditure to £109,389; these sums include telegraph
and telephone business. The telegraph messages sent numbered
496,000. The telephone system is being rapidly extended, and
at the beginning of 1906, 1371 miles of line were being worked.
Banking. — There are four banks of issue, of which two are local
institutions; their united assets average £3,576,700. The note
circulation is about £150,000, and the deposits £3,520,000, about
half bearing interest.
History. — Tasmania, or, as it was originally called, Van
Diemen's Land, was discovered in 1642 by the Dutch navigator
Tasman (q.v.) who named the territory after his patron, Van
Diemen. The island was subsequently visited in 1772 by a
French naval officer, Captain Marion du Fresne; in 1773. by
Captain Furneaux, of the British man-of-war " Adventure *; in
1777 by the great circumnavigator Captain Cook; by Bligh
in 1788, and again in 1792, when he planted fruit trees. In the
same year the French navigator D'Entrecasteaux visited the
south portion of the island and surveyed the coast. In 1798
Bass sailed through the strait which now bears his name, and
discovered Van Diemen's Land was an island. In 1800 the
French explorer Baudin, in command of the ships " G£ographe "
and " Naturaliste," surveyed the south of the island, and reports
of his proceedings having reached the British officials at Sydney,
they determined to forestall the French and take possession
of Van Diemen's Land.
In 1802 the " Cumberland," a small schooner, landed at King's
Island in Bass Strait, and in 1803 Lieutenant Bowen was sent
by Governor King of New South Wales to form a settlement on
the south coast of Van Diemen's Land. He had aboard his two
ships, the " Lady Nelson " of 60 tons and the whaler " Albion "
of 306 tons, three officials, a lance-corporal and seven privates
of the New South Wales Corps, six free men and twenty-five
convicts, together with an adequate supply of live stock, and
442
TASSIE
landed at Risdon, near Hobart, where he was joined shortly
afterwards by fifteen soldiers and forty-two convicts. In 1807,
Colonel Paterson occupied Port Dalrymple on the north side
of the island. During the same year Colonel Collins, who had
failed in an attempt to colonize the shores of Port Phillip, trans-
ferred his soldiers, convicts and officials to the neighbourhood
of Hobart, and was appointed commandant of the infant settle-
ment. Provisions were scarce and dear, communication with
the rest of the world was infrequent, and in 1807 the community
was threatened with starvation, and flour was sold at £200
per ton. The difficulties of the settlers were increased by the
hostility of the blacks. The first collision took place at Risdon,
a few days after the landing of Lieutenant Bowen's expedition,
and for this the white settlers were entirely responsible.
Hostilities between the races were incessant from 1802 till 1830.
An attempt was made in the year 1830 to drive the natives to
one corner of the island, but without success. In the following
year, however, Mr George Robinson induced the remnant of
the blacks to leave the mainland and take refuge, first in South
Bruni and subsequently in Flinders Island, their numbers
having then diminished from 5000, the original estimate of the
aboriginal population, to 203. In 1842 there were only 44, in
1854 they had diminished to 16, and the last pure-blooded
Tasmanian died in 1876, at the age of seventy-six. There are,
however, a lew persons possessing more or less aboriginal blood
in some of the islands of the Bass Strait.
Some persons who had settled at Norfolk Island when that
island became a penal depot were transferred to Van Diemen's
Land in 1805. But the growth of population was extremely
slow, and in 1808 a census showed that there were only 3240
people on the island, including officials, military and convicts,
and whatever measure of prosperity was enjoyed by the free
inhabitants arose from the expenditure by the imperial govern-
ment upon the convict settlement. In the year named settlers
began to arrive. To every free immigrant was given a tract
of land in proportion to the amount of capital brought by him
to the colony — the possession of £500 entitling the holder to
640 acres, and so in proportion, a very liberal view being taken as
to what constituted capital. To every free settler was assigned,
if desired, the services of a number of convicts proportionate
'to the size of his holding. These were fed and clothed by the
settler in return for their labour, and the government was re-
lieved of the expense of their support and supervision. The
assignment system was eventually abandoned in consequence
of its moral and economic evils, but it cannot be denied that
while it lasted the colony made substantial progress. In 1821
the population had grown to 7400; the sheep numbered
128,468; the cattle, 34,790; horses, 550; and 14,940 acres
of land were under crops. As the number of free settlers in
the colony increased an agitation arose for more political
freedom and improved administration; especially was there a
demand for a free press and for trial by jury. These requests
were gradually granted. Courts of justice were substituted in
1822 for courts-martial; and in 1825 the colony was made
independent of New South Wales, Colonel Arthur being ap-
pointed governor. In 1828 the Van Diemen's Land Company
commenced sheep-farming on a large scale in the north-west
district of the island under a charter granted three years before,
and in 1829 the Van Diemen's Land Establishment obtained a
grant of 40,000 acres at Norfolk Plains for agriculture and
grazing. In 1834 Portland Bay, on the mainland of Australia,
was occupied by settlers from Van Diemen's Land, and in 1835
there was a migration, large when compared with the popula-
tion of the island, to the shores of Port Phillip, now Victoria.
At that date the population was 40,172, a large proportion
being convicts, for in four years 15,000 prisoners had been
landed. The colony was prosperous, but the free settlers were
not at all satisfied with the system of government, and an
•agitation commenced in Van Diemen's Land, as well as in New
South Wales, for the introduction of representative institutions
and the abolition of transportation. This system was abolished
in New South Wales in 1840, after which date the island was
the receptacle for all convicts not only from the United
Kingdom, but from India and the colonies, and it was not until
1853 that transportation to Van Diemen's Land finally ceased;
in the same year representative institutions were introduced,
the name of the colony was changed to Tasmania, and three
years later the colony was granted responsible government.
The discovery of gold in Victoria produced a very remark-
able effect upon Tasmania. All kinds of produce brought
fabulous prices, and were exported to Victoria in such quantities
that the exports rose from a value of £665,700 in 1851 to
£1,509,883 in 1852, and £1,756,316 in 1853, while the popula-
tion diminished in almost equal ratio. It was estimated that
in 1842 there were 38,000 adult males in the colony, but in
1854 their numbers had diminished to 22,261. For many years
the island was inhabited by greybeards and children; the
young men and women of all classes, so soon as they had reached
manhood and womanhood, crossed Bass Strait, and entered
upon the wider life and the more brilliant prospects which first
Victoria, and subsequently New South Wales and Queensland,
afforded them. It was not till the sixties that Tasmania em-
barked upon a new period of prosperity. In the early days little
was known about the western half of the island. Its mineral
wealth was not suspected, although as far back as 1850 coal
of fair quality had been found between the Dee and the
Mersey rivers, and gold had been discovered in two or three
localities during 1852. In 1860 two expeditions were equipped
by the government for a search for gold and other minerals, and
although it was some years before there was any important
result, the discoveries of these explorers directed attention to
the mineral wealth of the island.
The political history of the colony after the inauguration of
responsible government, until it became in 1901 one of the
states of Federated Australasia, was not important. State aid
to religion, which was given to any denomination which would
receive it, was abolished; local self-government was extended
to the rural as well as to the urban districts; a policy of semi-
protection was introduced; the island was connected by a
submarine cable to the mainland of Australia, and thence to
the rest of the civilized world; and the population, which was
only 99,328 in 1870, was nearly doubled. Like her neighbours,
Tasmania organized a defence force, and was able to send a
contingent to South Africa in 1900. (T. A. C.)
AUTHORITIES. — J. Bonwick, Daily Life and Origin of the Tas-
manians (London, 1870) ; J. Fenton, A History of Tasmania (Hobart,
1884); Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, On the Flora of Australia;
Us Origin, Affinities, and Distributions. An Introductory Essay to
the Flora of Tasmania (London, 1859); T. C. Just, Tasmaniana;
a Description of the Island and its Resources (Launceston, 1879);
J. L. Gerard Krefft, Notes on the Fauna of Tasmania (Sydney,
1868); George Thomas Lloyd, Thirty-three Years in Tasmania
and Victoria (London, 1862); Mrs Louisa Anne Meredith, My
Home in Tasmania; or. Nine Years in Australia (New York,
1853); Tasmanian Friends and Foes — Feathered, Furred, and
Finned (Hobart, 1881); Royal Society of Tasmania, Papers and
Proceedings (Hobart); H. Ling Roth and M. E. Butler, The
Aborigines of Tasmania (2nd ed. Halifax, 1899).
TASSIE, JAMES (1735-1799), Scottish gem-engraver and
modeller, was born of humble parentage at Pollokshaws, near
Glasgow, in 1735. During his earlier years he worked as a stone-
mason, but, having seen the collection of paintings brought
together in Glasgow by Robert and Andrew Foulis, the printers,
he removed to Glasgow, attended the academy which had been
established there by the brothers Foulis, and became one of
the most distinguished pupils of the school. Subsequently he
visited Dublin in search of commissions, and there became
acquainted with Dr Quin, who had been experimenting, as
an amateur, in imitating antique engraved gems in coloured
pastes. He engaged Tassie as an assistant, and together they
perfected the discovery of an '' enamel," admirably adapted
by its hardness and beauty of texture for the formation of gems
and medallions. Dr Quin encouraged his assistant to try his
fortune in London, and thither he repaired in 1766. At first he
had a hard struggle to make his way. But he worked on steadily
with the greatest care and accuracy, scrupulously destroying all
TASSO
443
impressions of his gems which were in the slightest degree inferior
or defective. Gradually the beauty and artistic character of
his productions came to be known. He received a commission
from the empress of Russia for a collection of about 15,000
examples; all the richest cabinets in Europe were thrown open
to him for purposes of study and reproduction; and his copies
were frequently sold by fraudulent dealers as the original gems.
He exhibited in the Royal Academy from 1769 to 1791. In
1775 he published the first catalogue of his works, a thin
pamphlet detailing 2856 items. This was followed in 1791
by a large catalogue, in two volumes quarto, with illustrations
etched by David Allan, and descriptive text in English and
French by Rudolph Eric Raspe, enumerating nearly 16,000
pieces.
In addition to his impressions from antique gems, Tassie
executed many large profile medallion portraits of his con-
temporaries, and these form the most original and definitely
artistic class of his works. They were modelled in wax from
the life or from drawings done from the life, and— when this was
impossible — from other authentic sources. They were then
cast in white enamel paste, the whole medallion being
sometimes executed in this material; while in other cases the
head only appears in enamel, relieved against a background of
ground-glass tinted of a subdued colour by paper placed beh'ind.
His first large enamel portrait was that of John Dolbon, son of
Sir William Dolbon, Bart., modelled in 1793 or 1794; and the
series possesses great historic interest, as well as artistic value,
including as it does portraits of Adam Smith, Sir Henry Raeburn,
Drs James Beattie, Blair, Black and Cullen, and many other
celebrated men of the latter half of the i8th century. At the
time of his death, in 1799, the collection of Tassie's works
numbered about 20,000 pieces.
His nephew, WILLIAM TASSIE (1777-1860), also a gem-
engraver and modeller, succeeded to James Tassie's business
and added largely to his collection of casts and medallions.
His portrait of Pitt, in particular, was very popular, and cir-
culated widely. When the Shakespeare Gallery, formed by
Alderman Boydell, was disposed of by lottery in 1805, William
Tassie was the winner of the prize, and in the same year he
sold the pictures by auction for a sum of over £6000. He be-
queathed to the Board of Manufactures, Edinburgh, an extensive
and valuable collection of casts and medallions by his uncle and
himself, along with portraits of James Tassie and his wife by
David Allan, and a series of water-colour studies by George
Sanders from pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools.
(J. M. G.)
TASSO, TORQUATO (1544-1595), Italian poet, was the son
of Bernardo Tasso (1493-1569), a nobleman of Bergamo, and
his wife Porzia de' Rossi. He was born at Sorrento on the
nth of March 1544. His father had for many years been
secretary in the service of the prince of Salerno, and his mother
was closely connected with the most illustrious Neapolitan
families. The prince of Salerno came into collision with the
Spanish government of Naples, was outlawed, and was de-
prived of his hereditary fiefs. In this disaster of his patron
Tasso's father shared. He was proclaimed a rebel to the state,
together with his son Torquato, and his patrimony was
sequestered. These things happened during the boy's child-
hood. In 1552 he was living with his mother and his only
sister Cornelia at Naples, pursuing his education under the
Jesuits, who had recently opened a school there. The precocity
of intellect and the religious fervour of the boy attracted general
admiration. At the age of eight he was already famous. Soon
after this date he joined his father, who then resided in great
indigence, an exile and without occupation, in Rome. News
reached them in 1556 that Porzia Tasso had died suddenly
and mysteriously at Naples. Her husband was firmly convinced
that she had been poisoned by her brother with the object of
getting control over her property. As it subsequently happened,
Porzia's estate never descended to her son; and the daughter
Cornelia married below her birth, at the instigation of her
maternal relatives. Tasso's father was a poet by predilection
and a professional courtier. When, therefore, an opening at
the court of Urbino offered in 1557, Bernardo Tasso gladly
accepted it. The young Torquato, a handsome and brilliant
lad, became the companion in sports and studies of Francesco
Maria della Rovere, heir to the dukedom of Urbino. At Urbino
a society of cultivated men pursued the aesthetical and literary
studies which were then in vogue. Bernardo Tasso read cantos
of his Amadigi to the duchess and her ladies, or discussed the
merits of Homer and Virgil, Trissino and Ariosto, with the duke's
librarians and secretaries. Torquato grew up in an atmosphere
of refined luxury and somewhat pedantic criticism, both of
which gave a permanent tone to his character. At Venice,
whither his father went to superintend the printing of the
Amadigi (1560), these influences continued. He found himself
the pet and prodigy of a distinguished literary circle. But
Bernardo had suffered in his own career so seriously from addic-
tion to the Muses and a prince that he now determined on a
lucrative profession for his son. Torquato was sent to study
law at Padua. Instead of applying himself to law, the young
man bestowed all his attention upon philosophy and poetry.
Before the end of 1562 he had produced a narrative poem called
Rinaldo, which was meant to combine the regularity of the
Virgilian with the attractions of the romantic epic. In the
attainment of this object, and in all the. minor qualities of style
and handling, Rinaldo showed such marked originality that its
author was proclaimed the most promising poet of his time.
The flattered father allowed it to be printed; and, after a
short period of study at Bologna, he consented to his son's
entering the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este. In 1565, then,
Torquato for the first time set foot in that castle at Ferrara
which was destined for him to be the scene of so many glories,
and such cruel sufferings. After the publication of Rinaldo he
had expressed his views upon the epic in some Discourses on the
Art of Poetry, which committed him to a distinct theory and
gained for him the additional celebrity of a philosophical critic.
The age was nothing if not critical; but it may be esteemed a
misfortune for the future author of the Gerusalemme that he
should have started with pronounced opinions upon art.
Essentially a poet of impulse and instinct, he was hampered in
production by his own rules.
The five years between 1565 and 1570 seem to have been
the happiest of Tasso's life, although his father's death in 1569
caused his affectionate nature profound pain. Young, hand-
some, accomplished in all the exercises of a well-bred gentleman,
accustomed to the society of the great and learned, illustrious
by his published works in verse and prose, he became the idol
of the most brilliant court in Italy. The princesses Lucrezia
and Leonora d'Este, both unmarried, both his seniors by about
ten years, took him under their protection. He was admitted
to their familiarity, and there is some reason to think that
neither of them was indifferent to him personally. Of the cele-
brated story of his love for Leonora this is not the place to
speak. It is enough at present to observe that he owed much
to the constant kindness of both sisters. In 1570 he travelled
to Paris with the cardinal. Frankness of speech and a certain
habitual want of tact caused a disagreement with his worldly
patron. He left France next year, and took service under
Duke Alfonso II. of Ferrara. The most important events in
Tasso's biography during the following four years are the publi-
cation of the Aminta in 1573 and the completion of the Gerusa-
lemme Liberata in 1574. The Aminta is a pastoral drama of
very simple plot, but of exquisite lyrical charm. It appeared
at the critical moment when modern music, under Paiestrina's
impulse, was becoming the main art of Italy. The honeyed
melodies and sensuous melancholy of Aminta exactly suited and
interpreted the spirit of its age. We may regard it as the
most decisively important of Tasso's compositions, for its influ-
ence, in opera and cantata, was felt through two successive
centuries. The Gerusalemme Liberata occupies a larger space in
the history of European literature, and is a more considerable
work. Yet the commanding qualities of this epic poem, those
which revealed Tasso's individuality, and which made it
444
TASSO
immediately pass into the rank of classics, beloved by the people
no less than by persons of culture, are akin to the lyrical graces
of Aminta. It was finished in Tasso's thirty-first year; and
when the MS. lay before him the best part of his life was over,
his best work had been already accomplished. Troubles imme-
diately began to gather round him. Instead of having the
courage to obey his own instinct, and to publish the Gerusa-
lemme as he had conceived it, he yielded to the critical scrupu-
losity which formed a secondary feature of his character. The
poem was sent in manuscript to several literary men of eminence,
Tasso expressing his willingness to hear their strictures and
to adopt their suggestions unless he could convert them to
his own views. The result was that each of these candid
friends, while expressing in general high admiration for the
epic, took some exception to its plot, its title, its moral tone,
its episodes or its diction, in detail. One wished it to be more
regularly classical; another wanted more romance. One hinted
that the Inquisition would not tolerate its supernatural machi-
nery; another demanded the excision of its most charming
passages — the loves of Armida, Clorinda and Erminia. Tasso
had to defend himself against all these ineptitudes and pedan-
tries, and to accommodate his practice to the theories he had
rashly expressed. As in the Rinaldo, so also in the Jerusalem
Delivered, he aimed at ennobling the Italian epic style by pre-
serving strict unity of plot and heightening poetic diction. He
chose Virgil for his model, took the first crusade for subject,
infused the fervour of religion into his conception of the hero
Godfrey. But his own natural bias was for romance. In spite
of the poet's ingenuity and industry the stately main theme
evinced less spontaneity of genius than the romantic episodes
with which, as also in Rinaldo, he adorned it. Godfrey, a
mixture of pious Aeneas and Tridentine Catholicism, is not the
real hero of the Gerusalemme. Fieiy and passionate Rinaldo,
Ruggiero, melancholy impulsive Tancredi, and the chivalrous
Saracens with whom they clash in love and war, divide our
interest and divert it from Goffredo. On Armida, beautiful
witch, sent forth by the infernal senate to sow discord in the
Christian camp, turns the action of the epic. She is converted
to the true faith by her adoration for a crusading knight, and
quits the scene with a phrase of the Virgin Mary on her lips.
Brave Clorinda, donning armour like Marfisa, fighting in duel
with her devoted lover, and receiving baptism from his hands
in her pathetic death; Erminia seeking refuge in the shepherd's
hut — these lovely pagan women, so touching in their sorrows,
so romantic in their adventures, so tender in their emotions,
rivet our attention, while we skip the battles, religious cere-
monies, conclaves and stratagems of the campaign. The truth
is that Tasso's great invention as an artist was the poetry of
sentiment. Sentiment, not sentimentality, gives value to what
is immortal in the Gerusalemme. It was a new thing in the
1 6th century, something concordant with a growing feeling for
woman and with the ascendant art of music. This sentiment,
refined, noble, natural, steeped in melancholy, exquisitely grace-
ful, pathetically touching, breathes throughout the episodes of
the Gerusalemme, finds metrical expression in the languishing
cadence of its mellifluous verse, and sustains the ideal life of
those seductive heroines whose names were familiar as house-
hold words to all Europe in the I7th and i8th centuries.
Tasso's self-chosen critics were not men to admit what the
public has since accepted as incontrovertible. They vaguely
felt that a great and beautiful romantic poem was imbedded
in a dull and not very correct epic. In their uneasiness they
suggested every course but the right one, which was to publish
the Gerusalemme without further dispute. Tasso, already over-
worked by his precocious studies, by exciting court-life and
exhausting literary industry, now grew almost mad with worry.
His health began to fail him. He complained of headache,
suffered from malarious fevers, and wished to leave Ferrara.
The Gerusalemme was laid in manuscript upon a shelf. He
opened negotiations with the court of Florence for an exchange
of service. This irritated the duke of Ferrara. Alfonso hated
nothing more than his courtiers leaving him for a rival duchy.
He thought, moreover, that, if Tasso were allowed to go, the
Medici would get the coveted dedication of that already famous
epic. Therefore he bore with the poet's humours, and so
contrived that the latter should have no excuse for quitting
Ferrara. Meanwhile, through the years 1575, 1576, 1577,
Tasso's health grew worse. Jealousy inspired the courtiers
to calumniate and insult him. His irritable and suspicious
temper, vain and sensitive to slights, rendered him only too
easy a prey to their malevolence. He became the subject of
delusions, — thought that his servants betrayed his confidence,
fancied he had been denounced to the Inquisition, expected
daily to be poisoned. In the autumn of 1576 he quarrelled
with a Ferrarese gentleman, Maddalo, who had talked too
freely about some love affair; in the summer of 1577 he drew
his knife upon a servant in the presence of Lucrezia d'Este,
duchess of Urbino. For this excess he was arrested; but the
duke released him, and took him for change of air to his country
seat of Belriguardo. What happened there is not known.
Some biographers have surmised that a compromising liaison
with Leonora d'Este came to light, and that Tasso agreed to
feign madness in order to cover her honour. But of this there
is no proof. It is only certain that from Belriguardo he returned
to a Franciscan convent at Ferrara, for the express purpose of
attending to his health. There the dread of being murdered
by the duke took firm hold on his mind. He escaped at the
end of July, disguised himself as a peasant, and went on foot
to his sister at Sorrento.
The truth seems to be that Tasso, after the beginning of
1575, became the victim of a mental malady, which, without
amounting to actual insanity, rendered him fantastical and
insupportable, a misery to himself and a cause of anxiety to
his patrons. There is no evidence whatsoever that this state
of things was due to an overwhelming passion for Leonora.
The duke, instead of acting like a tyrant, showed considerable
forbearance. He was a rigid and not sympathetic man, as
egotistical as a princeling of that age was wont to be. But to
Tasso he was never cruel — hard and unintelligent perhaps, but
far from being that monster of ferocity which has been painted.
The subsequent history of his connexion with the poet, over
which we may pass rapidly, will corroborate this view. While
at Sorrento, Tasso hankered after Ferrara. The court-made
man could not breathe freely outside its charmed circle. He
wrote humbly requesting to be taken back. Alfonso consented,
provided Tasso would agree to undergo a medical course of
treatment for his melancholy. When he returned, which he
did with alacrity under those conditions, he was well received
by the ducal family. All might have gone well if his old
maladies had not revived. Scene followed scene of irritability,
moodiness, suspicion, wounded vanity and violent outbursts.
In the summer of 1578 he ran away again; travelled through
Mantua, Padua, Venice, Urbino, Lombardy. In September he
reached the gates of Turin on foot, and was courteously enter-
tained by the duke of Savoy. Wherever he went, " wandering
like the world's rejected guest," he met with the honour due
to his illustrious name. Great folk opened their houses to him
gladly, partly in compassion, partly in admiration of his genius.
But he soon wearied of their society, and wore their kindness
out by his querulous peevishness. It seemed, moreover, that
life was intolerable to him outside Ferrara. Accordingly he
once more opened negotiations with the duke; and in February
1579 he again set foot in the castle. Alfonso was about to
contract his third marriage, this time with a princess of the
house of Mantua. He had no children; and, unless he got
an heir, there was a probability that his state would fall, as
it did subsequently, to the Holy See. The nuptial festivals,
on the eve of which Tasso arrived, were not therefore the
occasion of great rejoicing to the elderly bridegroom. As a
forlorn hope he had to wed a third wife; but his heart was not
engaged and his expectations were far from sanguine. Tasso,
preoccupied as always with his own sorrows and his own sense
of dignity, made no allowance for the troubles of his master.
Rooms below his rank, he thought, had been assigned him.
TASSO
445
The princesses did not want to see him. The duke was engaged.
Without exercising common patience, or giving his old friends
the benefit of a doubt, he broke into terms of open abuse,
behaved like a lunatic, and was sent off without ceremony to
the madhouse of St Anna. This happened in March 1579;
and there he remained until July 1586. Duke Alfonso's long-
sufferance at last had given way. He firmly believed that
Tasso was insane, and he felt that if he were so St Anna was
the safest place for him. Tasso had put himself in the wrong
by his intemperate conduct, but far more by that incompre-
hensible yearning after the Ferrarese court which made him
return to it again and yet again. It would be pleasant to
assume that an unconquerable love for Leonora led him back.
Unfortunately, there is no proof of this. His relations to her
sister Lucrezia were not less intimate and affectionate than to
Leonora. The lyrics he addressed to numerous ladies are not
less respectful and less passionate than those which bear her
name. Had he compromised her honour, the duke would
certainly have had him murdered. Custom demanded this
retaliation, and society approved of it. If therefore Tasso
really cherished a secret lifelong devotion to Leonora, it remains
buried in impenetrable mystery. He did certainly not behave
like a loyal lover, for both when he returned to Ferrara in 1578
and in 1579 he showed no capacity for curbing his peevish
humours in the hope of access to her society.
It was no doubt very irksome for a man of Tasso's pleasure-
loving, restless and self-conscious spirit to be kept for more
than seven years in confinement. Yet we must weigh the facts
of the case rather than the fancies which have been indulged
regarding them. After the first few months of his incarceration
he obtained spacious apartments, received the visits of friends,
went abroad attended by responsible persons of his acquaint-
ance, and corresponded freely with whomsoever he chose to
address. The letters written from St Anna to the princes and
cities of Italy, to warm well-wishers, and to men of the highest
reputation in the world of art and learning, form our most
valuable source of information, not only on his then condition,
but also on his temperament at large. It is singular that he
spoke always respectfully, even affectionately, of the duke.
Some critics have attempted to make it appear that he was
hypocritically kissing the hand which had chastised him, with
the view of being released from prison. But no one who has
impartially considered the whole tone and tenor of his epistles
will adopt this opinion. What emerges clearly from them is
that he laboured under a serious mental disease, and that he
was conscious of it.
Meanwhile he occupied his uneasy leisure with copious com-
positions. The mass of his prose dialogues on philosophical
and ethical themes, which is very considerable, we owe to the
years of imprisonment in St Anna. Except for occasional
odes or sonnets — some written at request and only rhetorically
interesting, a few inspired by his keen sense of suffering and
therefore poignant — he neglected poetry. But everything
which fell from his pen during this period was carefully pre-
served by the Italians, who, while they regarded him as a
lunatic, somewhat illogically scrambled for the very offscourings
of his wit. Nor can it be said that society was wrong. Tasso
had proved himself an impracticable human being; but he
remained a man of genius, the most interesting personality in
Italy. Long ago his papers had been sequestered. Now, in
the year 1580, he heard that part of the Gerusalemme was being
published without his permission and without his corrections.
Next year the whole poem was given to the world, and in the
following six months seven editions issued from the press. The
prisoner of St Anna had no control over his editors; and
from the masterpiece which placed him on the level of Petrarch
and Ariosto he never derived one penny of pecuniary profit.
A rival poet at the court of Ferrara undertook to revise and
re-edit his lyrics in 1582. This was Battista Guarini; and
Tasso, in his cell, had to allow odes and sonnets, poems of
personal feeling, occasional pieces of compliment, to be collected
and emended, without lifting a voice in the matter. A few
years later, in 1585, two Florentine pedants of the Delia Crusca
academy declared war against the Gerusalemme. They loaded
it with insults, which seem to those who read their pamphlets
now mere parodies of criticism. Yet Tasso felt bound to reply;
and he did so with a moderation and urbanity which prove
him to have been not only in full possession of his reasoning
faculties, but a gentleman of noble manners also. Certainly
the history of Tasso's incarceration at St Anna is one to make
us pause and wonder. The man, like Hamlet, was distraught
through ill-accommodation to his circumstances and his age;
brain-sick he was undoubtedly; and this is the duke of Ferrara's
justification for the treatment he endured. In the prison he
bore himself pathetically, peevishly, but never ignobly. He
showed a singular indifference to the fate of his great poem, a
rare magnanimity in dealing with its detractors. His own
personal distress, that terrible malaise of imperfect insanity,
absorbed him. What remained over, untouched by the malady,
unoppressed by his consciousness thereof, displayed a sweet and
gravely-toned humanity. The oddest thing about his life in
prison is that he was always trying to place his two nephews,
the sons of his sister Cornelia, in court-service. One of them
he attached to the duke of Mantua, the other to the duke of
Parma. After all his father's and his own lessons of life, he
had not learned that the court was to be shunned like Circe
by an honest man. In estimating Duke Alfonso's share of
blame, this wilful idealization of the court by Tasso must be
taken into account. That man is not a tyrant's victim who
moves heaven and earth to place his sister's sons with tyrants.
In 1586 Tasso left St Anna at the solicitation of Vincenzo
Gonzaga, prince of Mantua. He followed his young deliverer
to the city by the Mincio, basked awhile in liberty and courtly
pleasures, enjoyed a splendid reception from his paternal town
of Bergamo, and produced a meritorious tragedy called Torris-
mondo. But only a few months had passed when he grew
discontented. Vincenzo Gonzaga, succeeding to his father's
dukedom of Mantua, had scanty leisure to bestow upon the
poet. Tasso felt neglected. In the autumn of 1587 we find
him journeying through Bologna and Loreto to Rome, and
taking up his quarters there with an old friend, Scipione Gonzaga,
now patriarch of Jerusalem. Next year he wandered off to
Naples, where he wrote a dull poem on Monte Oliveto. In 1589
he returned to Rome, and took up his quarters again with the
patriarch of Jerusalem. The servants found him insufferable,
and turned him out of doors. He fell ill, and went to a
hospital. The patriarch in 1590 again received him. But
Tasso's restless spirit drove him forth to Florence. The Floren-
tines said, " Actum est de eo." Rome once more, then Mantua,
then Florence, then Rome, then Naples, then Rome, then
Naples — such is the weary record of the years 1590-94. We
have to study a veritable Odyssey of malady, indigence and
misfortune. To Tasso everything came amiss. He had the
palaces of princes, cardinals, patriarchs, nay popes, always open
to him. Yet he could rest in none. Gradually, in spite of all
veneration for the sacer votes, he made himself the laughing-
stock and bore of Italy.
His health grew ever feebler and his genius dimmer. In
1592 he gave to the public a revised version of the Gerusalemme.
It was called the Gerusalemme Conquistata. All that made the
poem of his early manhood charming he rigidly erased. The
versification was degraded; the heavier elements of the plot
underwent a dull rhetorical development. During the same
year a prosaic composition in Italian blank verse, called Le
Setle Giornatc, saw the light. Nobody reads it now. We only
mention it as one of Tasso's dotages — a dreary amplification
of the first chapter of Genesis.
It is singular that just in these years, when mental disorder,
physical weakness, and decay of inspiration seemed dooming
Tasso to oblivion, his old age was cheered with brighter rays
of hope. Clement VIII. ascended the papal chair in 1592. He
and his nephew, Cardinal Aldobrandini of St Giorgio, deter-
mined to befriend our poet. In 1594 they invited him to
Rome. There he was to assume the crown of bays, as Petrarch
446
TASSONI— TASTE
bad assumed it, on the Capitol. Worn out with illness, Tasso
reached Rome in November. The ceremony of his coronation
was deferred because Cardinal Aldobrandini had fallen ill. But
the pope assigned him a pension; and, under the pressure of
pontifical remonstrance, Prince Avellino, who held Tasso's
maternal estate, agreed to discharge a portion of his claims
by payment of a yearly rent-charge. At no time since Tasso
left. St Anna had the heavens apparently so smiled upon him.
Capitolian honours and money were now at his disposal. Yet
fortune came too late. Before the crown was worn or the
pensions paid he ascended to the convent of St Onofrio, on a
stormy ist of April in 1595. Seeing a cardinal's coach toil up
the steep Trasteverine Hill, the monks came to the door to greet
it. From the carriage stepped Tasso, the Odysseus of many
wanderings and miseries, the singer of sweetest strains still
vocal, and told the prior he was come to die with him.
In St Onofrio he died, on the 2$th of April 1595. He was
just past fifty-one; and the last twenty years of his exist-
ence had been practically and artistically ineffectual. At the
age of thirty-one the Gemsalemme, as we have it, was accom-
plished. The world too was already ringing with the music of
Aminla. More than this Tasso had not to give to literature.
But those succeeding years of derangement, exile, imprison-
ment, poverty and hope deferred endear the man to us. Elegiac
and querulous as he must always appear, we yet love Tasso
better because he suffered through nearly a quarter of a century
of slow decline and unexplained misfortune. (J. A. S.)
Taken altogether, the best complete edition of Tasso's writings
is that of Rosini (Pisa), in 33 vols. The prose works (in 2 vols.,
Florence, Le Monnier, 1875) and the letters (in 5 vols., same pub-
lisher, 1853) were admirably edited by Cesare Guasti. This edition
of Tasso's Letters forms by far the most valuable source for his
biography. No student can, however, omit to use the romantic
memoir attributed to Tasso's friend, Marchese Manso (printed in
Rosini's edition of Tasso's works above cited), and the important
Vita di Torguato Tasso by Serassi (Bergamo, 1790). See also
Solerti's Life (1895), his editions of the Opere Minori in versi (1891
et seq.), and Gerusalemme (1895), and his bibliography, in the
Rivista biblioteche e archivi (1895), on the occasion of the celebration
of the tercentenary of Tasso's death.
TASSONI, ALESSANDRO (1565-1635), Italian poet, was a
native of Modena, where he was born and died. From 1 599
till 1608 he was secretary to Cardinal Ascanio Colonna, and in
this capacity saw some diplomatic service; he was afterwards
employed for some time in similar occupations by Charles
Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. His best-known literary work is a
burlesque epic entitled La Secchia Rapita, or " The Rape of
the Bucket " (1622), the reference being to a raid of the Modenese
upon the people of Bologna in 1325, when a bucket was carried
off as a trophy. As in Butler's Hudibras, many of the personal
and local allusions in this poem are now very obscure, and are
apt to seem somewhat pointless to the general reader, but, in
spite of Voltaire's contempt, it cannot be neglected by any
systematic student of Italian literature (see Carducci's edition,
1861). Other characteristic works of Tassoni are his Pensieri
Diversi (1612), in which he treats philosophical, literary, his-
torical and scientific questions with unusual freedom, and his
Considerazioni sopra il Petrarcha (1609), a piece of criticism
showing great independence of traditional views.
TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to
touch), in physiology, the sensation referred to the mouth when
certain soluble substances are brought into contact with the
mucous membrane of that cavity. By analogy, the word
" taste " is used also of aesthetic appreciation (see AESTHETICS)
and a sense of beauty — commonly with the qualifications " good
taste " and " bad taste."
The physiological sense is located almost entirely in the tongue.
Three distinct sensations are referable to the tongue — (i) taste,
(2) touch, and (3) temperature. The posterior part of its
surface, where there is a A-shaped group of large papillae,
called circumvallate papillae, supplied by the glosso-pharyngeal
nerve, and the tip and margins of the tongue, covered with
filiform (touch) papillae and fungiform papillae, are the chief
localities where taste is manifested, but it also exists in the
glosso-palatine arch and the lateral part of the soft palate.
The middle of the tongue and the surface of the hard palate
are devoid of taste. The terminal organs of taste consist of
peculiar bodies named taste-bulbs or taste-goblets, discovered by
Schwalbe and S. L. Loven in 1867. They can be most easily
demonstrated in the papillae foliatae, large oval prominences
found on each side near the base of the tongue in the rabbit.
Each papilla consists of a series of laminae or folds, in the sides
of which the taste-bodies are readily displayed in a transverse
section. Taste-bodies are also found on the lateral aspects of
the circumvallate papillae (see Fig. i), in the fungiform papillae,
FIG. i. — Transverse section of a circumvallate papilla: W, the
papilla; v, v, the wall in section; R, R, the circular slit or fossa;
K, K, the taste-bulbs in position; N, N, the nerves.
in the papillae of the soft palate and uvula, the under surface
of the epiglottis, the upper part of the posterior surface of the
epiglottis, the inner sides of the arytenoid cartilages, and even
in the vocal cords.
The taste-bulbs are minute oval bodies, somewhat like an
old-fashioned Florence flask, about jj^ inch in length by sfo in
breadth. Each consists of two sets of cells — an outer set,
nucleated, fusiform, bent like the staves of a barrel, and arranged
side by side so as to leave a small opening at the apex (the
mouth of the barrel), called the gustatory pore; and an inner
set, five to ten in number,
lying in the centre, pointed at
the end next the gustatory
pore, and branched at the other
extremity. The branched ends
are continuous with non-medul-
lated nerve fibres from the
gustatory nerve. These taste-
bodies are found in immense
numbers: as many as 1760
have been counted on one
circumvallate papilla in the
ox. The proofs that these are
the terminal organs of taste
rest on
K
FIG. 2.
FIG. 2. — Isolated
FIG. 3.
taste-bulb :
..,. ^ careful observations D, supporting or protective cells;
i- i_ i_ i / \ ..L , K, under end; t, free end, open,
winch have shown (t) that w/th the projecting apices of the
taste is only experienced when taste-cells.
the sapid substance is allowed FIG. 3. — d, Isolated protective
to come into contact with the cel1 : e> taste-cell,
taste-body, and that the sense
is absent or much weakened in those areas of mucous
membrane where these are deficient; (2) that they are
most abundant where the sense is most acute; and (3) that
section of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve which is known to be
distributed to the areas of mucous membrane where taste is
present is followed by degeneration of the taste-bodies. At the
same time it cannot be asserted that they are absolutely
essential to taste, as we can hardly suppose that those animals
which have no special taste-bodies are devoid of the sense.
Evidence is accumulating that taste depends on nervous
impulses excited by chemical change. Substances that have
taste must be soluble. Chemical changes are in all probability
set up in the taste-cells, or in the processes connected with them.
Some progress has been made in the attempt to establish a
TASTE
447
connexion between the chemical composition of sapid substances
and the different kinds of taste to which they may give rise.
Thus acids are usually sour; alkaloids have a peculiar soapy
taste; salts may be sweet, like sugar of lead, or bitter, like
sulphate of magnesia; soluble alkaloids, such as quinine or
strychnine, are usually bitter; and the higher alcohols are more
or less sweet. Substances which taste sweet or bitter often
contain definite groups in the molecule, especially in the
hydroxyl (HO) and amido (NH2) groups. By altering the
chemical composition of a substance having a characteristic
taste (changing the position or relations of the radicles), the
substance may become tasteless or intensely bitter. The
sensation of taste may also be excited mechanically, as by
smartly tapping the tongue, or by the stimulus of a continuous
current. In the latter case electrolytic change may be the
exciting cause; but that the sense organs may be stimulated
electrically is proved by the fact that rapidly interrupted in-
duced currents, which produce little or no electrolysis, may also
excite taste. Sensations of taste are heightened by increasing
the area of the tongue affected, and by mechanical stimulation,
as when the tongue is pressed against the lips, cheeks or palate.
A temperature of about 40° C. is most favourable, either ex-
treme heat or cold apparently benumbing the sense for a time.
Gustatory sensations affect each other: that is to say, a strong
taste will affect the taste of another body taken immediately
after it. Thus sweetness will modify bitterness, and sourness
will modify both. Moreover, the application of a sapid sub-
stance to the tongue will affect taste in other parts. If the same
taste is excited on each side of the tongue, although there are
two sets of gustatory nerves, one for each lateral half, the
sensations are blended into one; while if two different sub-
stances, say one sweet and the other bitter, are simultaneously
applied, one to each side, the observer can distinctly differen-
tiate the one from the other.
Tastes have been variously classified. One of the most
useful classifications is into sweet, bitter, acid and saline tastes.
Insoluble substances, when brought into contact with the
tongue, give rise to feelings of touch or of temperature, but
excite no taste. If solutions of various substances are gradu-
ally diluted with water until no taste is experienced, G. G.
Valentin found that the sensations of taste disappeared in
the following order — syrup, sugar, common salt, aloes, quinine,
sulphuric acid; and Camerer found that the taste of quinine
still continued although diluted with twenty times more water
than common salt. The time required to excite taste after
the sapid substance was placed on the tongue varies. Thus
saline matters are tasted most rapidly (-17 second), then sweet,
acid and bitter (-258 second). There are many curious examples
of substances of very different chemical constitutions having
similar tastes. For example, sugar, acetate of lead and the
vapour of chloroform have all a sweetish taste. A temperature
of from 50° to 90° F. is the most favourable to the sense, water
above or below this temperature either masking or temporarily
paralysing it.
As a general rule, bitter tastes are most acute at the back of
the tongue, near the circumvallate papillae, and sweet tastes at
the tip, but there are considerable individual variations. Some
persons taste both bitter and sweet substances best at the back,
while others taste bitter things at the tip. Many experience
salt tastes best at the tip, and acid tastes at the sides of the
tongue. When we consider that there are three kinds of papillae
on the surface of the tongue, one would expect to meet with
different degrees of sensitiveness to different tastes, even while
we admit that the papillae may also have to do with sensations
of touch and of temperature. By experimenting with fine
capillary tubes containing sapid substances, observations have
been made with individual papillae. Some are found to be
sensitive to many tastes, others to two or three, others to only
one, while others are insensitive to taste altogether. Again, it
has been found that a mixture of sapid substances, say of
quinine and sugar, may taste sweet when applied to one papilla
and bitter when applied to another. The inference must be
that there are special terminal organs for different tastes.
Assuming that there are different kinds of taste-cells, it might
be possible to paralyse some without affecting others, and thus
different sensations of taste might be discriminated. This has
been done by the use of the leaves of a common Indian plant,
Gymnema sylvestre. If some of these be chewed, it has been
found that bitters and sweets are paralysed (neither quinine,
nor sugar giving rise to sensation), while acids and salines are
unaffected. Again, certain strengths of decoctions of the
leaves appear to paralyse sweets sooner than bitters. These
observations show the existence of different taste-cells for
sweets, bitters, acids and salines; and it is clear that the
region of the tongue most richly supplied with taste-cells
sensitive to sweets will respond best to sweet substances, while
another region, supplied by taste-cells sensitive to bitters, will
respond best to bitter substances. In like manner the argu-
ment may be applied to other tastes. Suppose, again, a set
of taste-cells sensitive to bitter substances: it is conceivable
that in whatever way these were irritated, a bitter taste would
result. If so, a substance which, applied to one part of the
tongue, would cause a sweet sensation, might cause a bitter if
applied to a part of the tongue richly supplied with taste-cells
sensitive to bitters. This may explain why sulphate of magnesia
excites at the root of the tongue a bitter taste, while applied
to the tip it causes a sweet or an acid taste. Saccharine, a
peculiar toluene derivative, in like manner is sweet to the tip
and bitter to the back of the tongue. It has also been found
that if the sweet and bitter taste-cells are paralysed by
Gymnema, electrical irritation of the tip by a weak interrupted
current does not give rise to an acid taste mixed with sweet,
as it usually does, but to sensations somewhat different, which
may be described as metallic or salt or acid. This experiment
indicates that the action of the interrupted current on the
terminal organ is analogous to the action of sweet or bitter
substances (Shore). No direct observations of importance have
yet been made on single circumvallate papillae. Further
experiments with capillary tubes show that fungiform papillae
destitute of taste buds, and areas of the surface of the tongue
having neither papillae nor taste buds, may still, when stimulated
by sapid substances, give rise to tastes. Taste is often associated
with smell (q.v.), giving rise to a sensation of flavour, and we are
frequently in the habit of confounding the one sensation with
the other. Chloroform excites taste alone, whilst garlic, asa-
foetida and vanilla excite only smell. This is illustrated by
the familiar experiment of blindfolding a person and touch-
ing the tongue successively with slices of an apple and of: an
onion. In these circumstances the one cannot be distinguished
from the other when the nose is firmly closed. Taste may be
educated to a remarkable extent; and careful observation —
along with the practice of avoiding all substances having a very
pronounced taste or having an irritating effect — enables tea-
tasters and wine-tasters to detect slight differences of taste,
more especially when combined with odour so as to produce
flavour, which would be quite inappreciable to an ordinary
palate. As to the action of electrical currents on taste,
observers have arrived at uncertain results. So long ago as
1752 J. G. Sulzer stated that a constant current caused, more
especially at the moments of opening and of closing the current,
a sensation of acidity at the anode (+ pole) and of alkalinity at
the katode (—pole). This is in all probability due to electro-
lysis, the decomposition products exciting the taste-bodies.
Rapidly interrupted currents fail to excite the sense.
Disease of the tongue causing unnatural dryness may interfere
with taste. Substances circulating in the blood may give rise .
to subjective sensations of taste. Thus santonine, morphia
and biliary products (as in jaundice) usually cause a bitter
sensation, whilst the sufferer from diabetes is distressed by a
persistent sweetish taste. The insane frequently have sub-
jective tastes, which are real to the patient, and frequently cause
much distress. In such cases, the sensation is excited by
changes in the taste-centres of the brain. Increase in the sense
of taste is called hypergeusia, diminution of it hypogcusia, and
TATA— TATARS
its entire loss ageusia. Rare cases occur where there is a sub-
jective taste not associated with insanity nor with the circula-
tion of any known sweetish matters in the blood, possibly
caused by irritation of the gustatory nerves or by changes in
the nerve centres.
For the anatomy of the organs of taste, see the articles MOUTH
and TONGUE. (J- G- M-)
TATA. JAMSETJI NASARWANJI (1830-1904), Parsee
merchant and philanthropist, was born at Nosari, in the state
of Baroda, in 1839, and went as a boy to Bombay, where he was
educated at the Elphinstone College. In 1858 he entered his
father's office, and began a commercial career of the highest
eminence, beginning with cotton mills at Bombay and also at
Nagpur, and ending with the formation of a company to work
the iron ores of the Central Provinces on modern principles.
One of his best-known achievements was the lowering of the
freights on Indian goods to China and Japan, as the result of a
long struggle with the Nippon Yusen Kaisha Co. He also intro-
duced a silk industry after Japanese methods into Mysore, and
built the Taj Mahal hotel in Bombay. But his greatest bene-
faction is the endowment of a research institute at Bangalore.
He died at Nauheim, in Germany, on the igth of May 1904.
TATAR PAZARJIK, or TATAR BAZARDJIK, a town of Bul-
garia in Eastern Rumelia; on the river Maritza, and on the
Sofia-Constantinople railway, 74 m. E.S.E. of Sofia and 23 m. W.
of Philippopolis. Pop. (1906) 17,549. Situated at the junction
of several roads, Tatar Pazarjik began to acquire commercial
importance in the isth century. Rice, millet and tobacco are
largely cultivated in the surrounding lowlands, and there is
some trade in cocoons and wool.
TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct), a name
given to nearly three million inhabitants of the Russian empire,
chiefly Moslem and of Turkish origin. The majority — in
European Russia — are remnants of the Mongol invasion of
the i3th century (see MONGOLS), while those who inhabit
Siberia are survivals of the once much more numerous Turkish
population of the Ural-Altaic region, mixed to some extent
with Finnish and Samoyedic stems, as also with Mongols.
The name is derived from that of the Ta-ta Mongols, who in
the sth .century inhabited the north-eastern Gobi, and, after
subjugation in the gth century by the Khitans, migrated south-
ward, there founding the Mongol empire under JENGHIZ KHAN
(q.v.). Under the leadership of his grandson (Batu) they moved
westwards, driving with them many stems of the Turkish
Ural-Altaians towards the plains of Russia. The ethnographical
features of the present Tatar inhabitants of European Russia,
as well as their language, show that they contain no admixture
(or very little) of Mongolian blood, but belong to the Turkish
branch of the Ural-Altaic stock, necessitating the conclusion
that only Batu, his warriors, and a limited number of his
followers were Mongols, while the great bulk of the i3th century
invaders were Turks. On the Volga they mingled with remnants
of the old Bulgarian empire, and elsewhere with Finnish stems,
as well as with remnants of the ancient Italian and Greek
colonies in Crimea and Caucasians in Caucasus. The name of
Tatars, or Tartars, given to the invaders, was afterwards ex-
tended so as to include different stems of the same Turkish
branch in Siberia, and even the bulk of the inhabitants of the
high plateau of Asia and its N.W. slopes, described under the
general name of Tartary. This last name has almost dis-
appeared from geographical literature, but the name Tatars,
in the above limited sense, remains in full use.
The present Tatar inhabitants of the Russian empire form three
large groups — those of European Russia and Poland, those of
Caucasus, and those of Siberia. The discrimination of the separate
stems included under the name is still far from completion. The
following subdivisions, however, may be regarded as established,
(l) The Kazan Tatars, descendants of the Kipchaks settled on the
Volga in the I3th century, where they mingled with survivors of
the old Bulgarians and partly with Finnish stems. They number
about half a million in the government of Kazan, about 100,000 in
each of the governments of Ufa, Samara and Simbirsk, and about
300,000 in Vyatka, Saratov, Tambov, Penza, Nizhniy-Novgorod,
Perm and Orenburg; some 15,000 belonging to the same stem have
migrated to Ryazan, or have been settled as prisoners in the l6th
and i?th centuries in Lithuania (Vilna, Grodno and Podolia) ; and
there are some 2000 in St Petersburg, where they pursue the callings
of coachmen and waiters in restaurants. In Poland they constitute
I per cent, of the population of the district of Plock. The Kazan
Tatars speak a pure Turkish dialect; they are middle-sized, broad-
shouldered and strong, and mostly have black eyes, a straight nose
and salient cheek bones. They are Mahommedans; polygamy is
practised only by the wealthier classes and is a waning institution.
Excellent agriculturists and gardeners, very laborious, and having
a good reputation for honesty, they live on the best terms with their
Russian peasant neighbours. The Bashkirs who live between th*>
Kama, Ural and Volga are possibly of Finnish origin, but now speak
a Tatar language and have become Mahommedans. (2) The
Astrakhan Tatars (about 10,000) are, with the Mongol Kalmucks,
all that now remains of the once so powerful Astrakhan empire.
They also are agriculturists and gardeners; while some 12,000
Kundrovsk Tatars still continue the nomadic life of their ancestors.
(3) The Crimean Tatars, who occupied the Crimea in the I3th
century, have preserved the name of their leader, Nogai. During the
1 5th, i6th and I7th centuries they constituted a rich empire, which
prospered until it fell under Turkish rule, when it had to suffer much
from the wars fought between Turkey and Russia for the possession
of the peninsula. The war of 1853 and the laws of 1860-63 and 1874
caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars; they abandoned their
admirably irrigated fields and gardens and moved to Turkey, so
that now their number falls below 100,000. Those of the south
coast, mixed with Greeks and Italians, are well known for their
skill in gardening, their honesty and their laborious habits, as well
as for their fine features, presenting the Tatar type at its best.
The mountain Tatars closely resemble those of Caucasus, while
those of the steppes — the Nogais — are decidedly of a mixed origin
from Turks and Mongols.
The Tatars of Caucasia, who inhabit the upper Kuban, the steppes
of the lower Kuma and the Kura, and the Aras, number about
1,350,000. Of these (4) the Nogais on the Kuma show traces of
an intimate mixture with Kalmucks. They are nomads, support-
ing themselves by cattle-breeding and fishing; few are agricul-
turists. (5) The Karachais (18,500) in the upper valleys about
Elburz live by agriculture. (6) The mountain Tatars (about
850,000), divided into many tribes and of an origin still undeter-
mined, are scattered throughout the provinces of Baku, Erivan,
Tiflis, Kutais, Daghestan, and partly also of Batum. They are
certainly of a mixed origin, and present a variety of ethnological
types, all the more so as all who are neither Armenians nor Russians,
nor belong to any distinct Caucasian tribe, are often called Tatars.
As a rule they are well built and little behind their Caucasian
brethren. They are celebrated for their excellence as gardeners,
agriculturists, cattle-tenders and artisans. Although most fervent
Shi'ites, they are on very good terms both with their Sunnite and
with their Russian neighbours. Polygamy is rare with them, and
their women go to work unveiled.
The Siberian Tatars are estimated (1895) at 80,000 of Turki
stock and about 40,000 of mixed Finnic stock. They occupy three
distinct regions — a strip running west to east from Tobolsk to
Tomsk, the Altai and its spurs, and South Yeniseisk. They
6riginated in the agglomerations of Turkish stems which in the
region north of the Altai reached some degree of culture between
the 4th and the Sth centuries, but were subdued and enslaved by
the Mongols. They are difficult to classify, for they are the result
of somewhat recent minglings of races and customs, and they are
all more or less in process of being assimilated by the Russians, but
the following subdivisions may be accepted provisionally. (7) The
Baraba Tatars, who take their name from one of their stems
(Barama), number about 50,000 in the government of Tobolsk and
about 5000 in Tomsk. After a strenuous resistance to Russian con-
quest, and much suffering at a later period from Kirghiz and Kalmuck
raids, they now live by agriculture, either in separate villages or along
with Russians. (8) The Cholym or Chulym Tatars on the Cholym
and both the rivers Yus speak a Turkish language with many
Mongol and Yakut words, and are more like Mongols than Turks.
In last century they paid a tribute for 2550 arbaletes, but they
now are rapidly becoming fused with Russians. (9) The Abakan
or Minusinsk Tatars occupied the steppes on the Abakan and Yus
in the I7th century, after the withdrawal of the Kirghizes, and
represent a mixture with Kaibals (whom Castr6n considers as partly
of Ostiak and partly Samoyedic origin) and Beltirs — also of Finnish
origin. Their language is also mixed. They are known under the
name of Sagais, who numbered 11,720 in 1864, and are the purer
Turkish stem of the Minusinsk Tatars, Kaibals, and Kizil or Red
Tatars. Formerly Shamanists, they now are, nominally at least,
adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church, and support themselves
mostly by cattle-breeding. Agriculture is spreading but slowly
among them; they still prefer to plunder the stores of bulbs of
Lilium Martagon, Paeonia, and Erythronium Dens cam's laid up by
the steppe mouse (Mus socialis). The Soyotes, or Soyons, of the
Sayan mountains (estimated at 8000), who are Finns mixed with
Turks the Uryankhes of north-west Mongolia, who are of Turkish
origin but follow Buddhism, and the Karagasses, also of Turkish
TATE, SIR H.— TATE, R.
origin and much like the Kirghizes, but reduced now to a few
hundreds, are akin to the above. (10) The Tatars of the northern
slopes of the Altai (nearly 20,000 in number) are of Finnish origin.
They comprise some hundreds of Kumandintses, the Lebed Tatars,
the Chernevyie or Black-Forest Tatars and the Shors (11,000),
descendants of the Kuznetsk pr Iron-Smith Tatars. They are
chiefly hunters, passionately loving their taiga, or wild forests, and
have maintained their Shaman religion and tribal organization into
suoks. They live partly also on cedar-nuts and honey collected in
the forests. Their dress is that of their former rulers, the Kalmucks,
and their language contains many Mongol words. (ll) The Altai
Tatars, or " Altaians," comprise — (a) the Mountain Kalmucks
(12,000), to whom this name has been given by mistake, and who
have nothing in common with the Kalmucks except their dress and
mode of life, while they speak a Turkish dialect, and (b) the Teleutes,
or Telenghites (5800), a remainder of a formerly numerous and
warlike nation who have migrated from the mountains to the
lowlands, where they now live along with Russian peasants.
Although Turkestan and Central Asia were formerly known as Inde-
pendent Tartary, it is not now usual to call the Sarts, Kirghiz and
other inhabitants of those countries Tatars, nor is the name usually
given to the Yakuts of Eastern Siberia.
It is evident from the above that the name Tatars was originally
applied to both the Turkish and Mongol stems which invaded
Europe six centuries ago, and gradually extended to the Turkish
stems mixed with Mongol or Finnish blood in Siberia. It is used
at present in two senses: (a) Quite loosely to designate any of
the Ural-Altaic tribes, except perhaps Osmanlis, Finns and Magyars,
to whom it is not generally applied. Thus some writers talk of
the Manchu Tatars, (b) In a more restricted sense to designate
Mahommedan Turkish-speaking tribes, especially in Russia, who
never formed part of the Seljuk or Ottoman Empire, but made
independent settlements and remained more or less cut off from
the politics and civilization of the rest of the Mahommedan world.
AUTHORITIES. — The literature of the subject is very extensive,
and bibliographical indexes may be found in the Geographical
Dictionary of P. Semenov, appended to the articles devoted re-
spectively to the names given above, as also in the yearly Indexes
by M. Mezhov and the Oriental Bibliography of Lucian Scherman.
Besides the well-known works of Castrdn, which are a very rich
source of information on the subject, Schiefner (St Petersburg
academy of science), Donner, Ahlqvist and other explorers of the
Ural-Altaians, as also those of the Russian historians Soloviev,
Kostomarov, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Schapov, and Ilovaiskiy, the
following containing valuable information may be mentioned :
the publications of| the Russian Geographical Society and its
branches; the Russian Elnographicheskiy Sbornik; the Izvestia of
the Moscow society of the amateurs of natural science; the works
of the Russian ethnographical congresses; Kostrov's researches on
the Siberian Tatars in the memoirs of the Siberian branch of the
geographical society; Radlov's Reise durch den Altai, Aus Sibirien',
Picturesque Russia " (Zhivopisnaya Rossiya) ; Semenov's and
Potanin's Supplements " to Ritter's Asien; Harkavi's report to the
congress at Kazan; Hartakhai's " Hist, of Crimean Tatars," in
Vyestnik Evropy, 1866 and 1867; " Katchinsk Tatars," in Izvestia
Russ. Geogr. Soc., xx., 1884. Various scattered articles on Tatars
will be found in the Revue orientale pour les Etudes Oural-Altaiques,
and in the publications of the university of Kazan. See also E. H.
Parker, A Thousand Years of the Tartars, 1895 (chiefly a summary
of Chinese accounts of the early Turkish and Tatar tribes), and
Skrine and Ross, Heart of Asia (1899). (P. A. K. ; C. EL.)
TATE, SIR HENRY, BART. (1819-1899), English merchant
and founder of the National Gallery of British Art, was born
at Chorley, Lancashire, in 1819. His father, a minister of
religion, put him into business in Liverpool. He became a
prosperous sugar-broker, and about 1874 removed to London,
where he greatly increased the operations of his firm and made
" Tale's Cube Sugar " known all over the world. He had early
in his career begun to devote large sums of money to philan-
thropic and educational purposes. He gave £42,000 lo Ihe
Liverpool University College, founded in 1881; and a still
larger sum to the Liverpool hospitals. Then, when he came
lo London, he presenled four free public libraries lo Ihe parish
of Lambeth. His inleresl in art came with later years. He
was at first merely a regular buyer of pictures, for which he
built a large private gallery in his house at Strealham.
Gradually his gallery came to conlain one of Ihe besl private
collections of modern pictures in England, and Ihe owner
naturally began to consider what should be done wilh il afler
his death. It had always been his intenlion lo leave it to the
nation, but in the way of carrying out this generous desire
there stood several obstacles. The National Gallery could not
have accepted more lhan a seleclion from Tale's pictures, which
were not all up to the standard of Trafalgar Square; and even
xxvi. 15
449
when he offered to build a new gallery for them, it was found
difficult to secure a suitable site. What Tate offered was to
spend £80,000 upon a building if the government would pro-
vide the ground; and in 1892 this offer was accepted. A new
gallery, controlled by the Trustees of the National Gallery, was
built on the site of Millbank Prison. The gallery was opened
on zist July 1897, and a large addition to it was completed
just before the donor died. It contained sixty-five pictures
presented by him; nearly all the English pictures from the
National Gallery painted within the previous eighty years; the
pictures purchased by the Royal Academy under the Chantrey
Bequest, which had previously hung in South Kensington
Museum; and seventeen large works given to the nation by
Mr G. F. Watts, R.A. Mr Tate was created a baronet in the
year after the Tate Gallery had been opened. He died at
Streatham on the $th of December 1899.
TATE, JAMES (1771-1843), English classical scholar and
schoolmaster, was born at Richmond in Yorkshire on the nth of
June 1771. He was educated at Richmond school and Sidney
Sussex College, Cambridge (fellow, 1795). From 1796 to 1833
he held the headmastership of his old school, being then
appointed canon of St Paul's and vicar of Edmonton. He
died on the 2nd of September 1843. The work by which he
is chiefly known is his Horatius Restitutes (1832).
TATE, NAHUM (1652-1715), English poet laureate and
playwright, was born in Dublin in 1652. He was the son of
Faithful Teate (as the name was spelt), who wrote a quaint
poem on the Trinity entitled Ter Tria. Nahum Tate was edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating B.A. in 1672. He
published a volume of poems in London in 1677, and became
a regular writer for the stage. Brutus of Alba, or The En-
chanted Lovers (1678), a tragedy dealing with Dido and Aeneas,
and The Loyal General (1680), were followed by a series of
adaptations from Elizabethan dramas. In Shakespeare's
Richard II. he altered the names of the personages, and changed
the text so that every scene, to use his own words, was " full
of respect to Majesty and the dignity of courts"; but in spite
of these precautions The Sicilian Usurper (1681) was suppressed
on the third representation on account of a possible political
interpretation. King Lear (1687) was fitted with a happy
ending in a marriage between Cordelia and Edgar; and Corio-
lanus became the Ingratitude of a Commonwealth (1682). From
John Fletcher he adapted The Island Princess (1687); from
Chapman and Marston's Eastward Ho he derived the Cuckold's
Haven (1685); from John Webster's White Devil he took
Injured Love, or The Cruel Husband (pr. 1707); and Sir Aston
Cockayne's Trappolin suppos'd a Prince he imitated in Duke
and no Duke (1685). Tale's name is chiefly connected with
these mangled versions of other men's plays and with the
famous New Version of the Psalms of David (1696), in which
he collaborated with Nicholas Brady. A supplement was
licensed in 1703. Some of these hymns, notably " While
Shepherds watched," and " As pants the hart," rise above the
general dull level, and are said to be Tale's work.
Tate was commissioned by Dryden lo wrile the Second Part
of Absalom and Achitophel. The portraits of Elkanah Settle
and Thomas Shadwell, however, are attributed to Dryden, who
probably also put the finishing touches to the poem. Of his
numerous poems the most original is Panacea, a poem on Tea
(1700). In spite of his consistent Toryism, he succeeded
Shadwell as poet laureate in 1692. He died within the precincts
of the Mint, Southwark, where he had taken refuge from his
creditors, on the 12th of August 1715.
TATE, RALPH (1840-1901), British geologist, was born at
Alnwick in Northumberland in 1840. He was a nephew of George
Tate (1805-1871), naturalist and archaeologist, an active member
of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club. He was educated at the
Cheltenham Training College and at the Royal School of Mines,
and in 1861 he was appointed teacher of natural science at
the Philosophical Institution in Belfast. He there studied
botany, and published his Flora Belfastinesis (1863); and he
also investigated the Cretaceous and Liassic rocks of Antrim,
450
TAXI— TATIAN
bringing his results before the Geological Society of London. In
1864 he was appointed assistant in the museum of that society.
In 1867 he went on an exploring expedition to Nicaragua and
Venezuela. In 1871 he was appointed to the mining school
established by the Cleveland ironmasters first at Darlington
and then at Redcar. Here he made a special study of the
Lias and its fossils, in conjunction with the Rev. J. F. Blake,
and the results were published in an important work, The
Yorkshire Lias (1876), in which the life-history of the strata
was first worked out in detail. In 1875 Tate was appointed
professor of natural science in the university of Adelaide, South
Australia. He now gave especial attention to the recent and
tertiary mollusca of Australia. He was the chief founder of the
Royal Society of South Australia, and was in 1893 president of
the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science.
He died at Adelaide on the 2oth of September 1901.
TATI, a district of British South Africa forming, geographi-
cally, the S.W. corner of Matabeleland, but attached administra-
tively to the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Area about 2 500 sq. m.
The railway from Cape Town to Bulawayo crosses the territory
with a station at Francistown, the principal settlement. Francis-
town stands 3254 ft. above the sea and is 126 m. S.W. of
Bulawayo by rail. The town of Tati, on the river of that name,
is 18 m. S.E. of Shashi river railway station.
Tati owes its importance to the presence of gold, first dis-
covered by the German traveUer, Karl Mauch, in 1864. Mining
began in 1868, but it was not until 1895 that work on a large
scale was undertaken, and it has been frequently interrupted
since that date. The chief mine is the Monarch, situated by
the railway. A concession to work the gold-mines, and for
other purposes, was obtained in 1887 by Mr S. H. Edwards
from Lobengula, the Matabele chief, and the mining rights are
vested in a company, thereafter formed, called the Tati Conces-
sions Company. (See BECHUANALAND and RHODESIA.)
TATIAN (2nd cent. A.D.), Christian apologist, missionary and
heretic. Such knowledge as we have of his life is derived from
(i) his own Oralio ad Graecos (see § 3); (2) Irenaeus, Adv.
Haereses, i. 28, i.; (3) Rhodon, quoted in Eusebius's Hist. Ecd.
v. 13, i; (4) Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i. i, n; (5) Euse-
bius, Chronicon anno A.D. 171; (6) Epiphanius, Panarion,
i. 3, 46. Convenient collections of these passages may be found
in E. Schwartz's Tatiani Oralio ad, Graecos, Texte und Unter-
suchungen, iv. i, pp. 51-55; and in A. Harnack's Geschichte
der altchristlichen Litleratur, i. pp. 485-96. From these data
the following outline of his life can be reconstructed. He was
a Syrian1 (Clem. Alex, and Epiphanius) born in Mesopotamia
(Or. 42) and educated in Greek learning, in which he became
proficient (Or. i. and 42). He was initiated into the Mysteries,
though into which is not stated (Or. 29), but after this became
acquainted with the Old Testament, and was converted to
Christianity. He then went to Rome, where he was a hearer of
Justin, and together with the latter incurred the enmity of a
certain philosopher Crescens. As this fact is mentioned both
in Justin's Apology and in Tatian's Oralio ad Graecos, and the
Apology can be dated with fair security about A.D. 152 (see
JUSTIN MARTYR), the conversion of Tatian must have been before
this date. After the death of Justin he became a heretic —
according to Eusebius's Chronicon in 173. Among his pupils
were Rhodon, and perhaps Apelles (see Victorinus Real,
schol. 44, in Ep. Hieronymi ad Avitum, ep. 124) and Clement of
Alexandria (Storm, i. i, n). He made a missionary journey
to the East and worked in Cilicia and Pisidia, using the Syrian
Antioch as the centre of his efforts (Epiphan.).
According to Epiphanius, Tatian went to the East after the
death of Justin (c. 165), and then became heretical, and Eusebius
states that he was recognized as heretical in 173. Zahn
(forschungen zur Geschichte des Kanons, i.) and most writers
1 Tatian describes himself as an "Assyrian," and though the
terms " Assyrian " and " Syrian " are used very loosely by ancient
writers, it is probable that he was' born E. of the Tigris, i.e. not in
Syria as we understand it. Epiphanius, in another passage, calls
him an Assyrian.
accept this as in the main correct; it is generally thought that
his heresy was recognized in Rome, and it is suggested that
this was the reason why he returned to the East. The state-
ment in Epiphanius is capable of being interpreted in this
sense, and whereas Tatian was always regarded as heretical
in the West, he seems to have been unsuspected in the East.
This fact, however, does more than support the suggestion that
Tatian's heresy was recognized before he left Rome: it throws
some doubt on the theory that after being turned out of the
Church in Rome he worked as a missionary in the East without
being suspected. Harnack (Texte und Untersuchungen, i. i,
pp. 196 ff.) once suggested that the missionary work in the East
belongs to an earlier period, and that Tatian left Rome and re-
turned to it between his first arrival and the death of Justin
Martyr. But in his Chronologie, i. pp. 284 ff., he has with-
drawn this, and it is probably too hypothetical; it is, however,
the only serious effort to deal with the difficulty, which if not
insoluble is at least unsolved.
The Heresy of Tatian. — As in the case of most heresies, we have
only the partisan statements of opponents. Everything is
therefore open to some doubt, but the following points seem
fairly certain. The heresy which Tatian either founded or
adopted was that of the Encratites. Their main doctrines
were the evil nature of matter, an absolute forbidding of
marriage, abstinence from wine and perhaps from meat. It
would also seem that Tatian believed in the existence of aeons,
one of whom was the Demiurge of the world. He denied the
salvation of Adam. It is also stated that in his celebration
of the Mysteries (i.e. the Eucharist) he used only water (see
Tertullian, De Jejun. 15; Hippolytus, Philos., 8, 4, 16 and 10,
18; Jerome in Amos ii. 12 and Iren., Adv. Haer., i. 28, iii. 23).
Writings. — According to Eusebius, Tatian wrote many books
(Hist. Eccl., iv. 29); of these the -names of the following have
survived: — (i) Ilepi f<fwv (mentioned in Or., 15); (2) Htpl baiiibvav
(mentioned in Or., 16) ; (3) A.&JOS wp6s roiis "EXXTjvas ; (4) npo0\rnn&Twv
(iif3\loi> (Eus., v. 13, I — a quotation from Rhodon) an attempt to deal
with the contradictions to be found in the Bible; (? 5) npds &TTO-
tfavaiitvow TO. irpij 0«>C (mentioned in Or., 40 asa book which Tatian
intended to write, but there is no evidence that he carried his plan
into effect ; (6) Ufpl rov <card rAv Sairijpa Karaprurijav (Clem. Alex.,
Strom., iii. 12, 80) ; (7) The Diatessaron; (? 8) a recension of the
Pauline epistles (Eus., Hist. Eccl., iv. 29) says that he was accused of
producing a ntrtui>paaa of the 'epistles so as to smooth the grammar,
and in Jerome's preface to St Paul's Epistle to Titus it is stated
that he rejected some of the epistles, but not that to Titus. Of
these books only two — the Diatessaron and the vpiis -roin "EXXTjcas
are still extant.
The A67os irpis TOVS "EXXij^as (Oratio ad Graecos) belongs to
Tatian's Catholic period. He has the double purpose in view of
exposing the weakness of the pagan view of the universe and of
commending the Christian explanation. For the former purpose
he seems to have made use of an already existent book, perhaps
the Torirwv <t>op& of Oenomaus of Gadara, a Syrian who wrote in
the time of Hadrian. The same source seems to have been used
by Minucius Felix and Tertullian, and Eusebius in his Praep.
Evan., v. 19, quotes some other fragments of the work of Oenomaus.
The main argument employed is an exposition of the contradic-
tions, absurdities and immoralities of Greek mythology. A special
attack is made on the doctrine of Fate or Necessity. Tatian
insists that man is a free agent: that his sins and the consequent
evils in the world are the result of free choice, and that the same
free choice can remedy the evil.
His positive explanation of the universe is rather difficult to
follow. He lays great stress on the Logos doctrine; all good is
to be found in union with the Logos; all evil is in matter or in
"spirits of a material nature"; the origin of evil in the world
seems to be the choice of the latter rather than of the former; and
redemption consists in the reverse process. But the choice of evil
was not made only by man but by angels, who by their evil choice
became the demons, that is, the gods of the heathen world. Both
men and angels will be judged at the end of the world, when the
good will receive again the immortality which was lost through
sin, and the wicked will receive death through punishment with
immortality (ffavarov SiA. ri/tupiav iv affavaaitf.). Tatian does not deny
the stories of the Greek mythology — indeed he protests against
any attempt to allegorize it — but he insists that these stories are
the record of the deeds of demons and have no religious value.
The truth of his views he rests, rather strangely, on the argument
that Moses, the writer of the Pentateuch, lived long before Homer,
whom he regards as the earliest Greek religious writer, and to prove
this he quotes a series of synchronisms, which were made use of by
TATRA MOUNTAINS— TATTOOING
many subsequent chronologers, including probably Julius Africanus,
who in turn was used by Eusebius.
The omissions in the Oratio are even more remarkable than its
statements. There is at the most not more than an allusion to
Christ, who is never mentioned by name, and though there are
frequent allusions to the regaining of life, which is accomplished by
union with the Logos, there is no reference to the doctrines of the
incarnation or of the atonement.
The date of the writing of the Oratio cannot be fixed more
accurately than that it was before 165 and probably about A.D. 150.
On the hypothesis that Tatian remained in Rome until the death
of Justin it must have been written there: but on internal evidence
Harnack thinks, probably correctly, that it was written in Greece,
perhaps in Athens, and Tatian made at least one journey outside
Rome before Justin's death (cf. Texte und Untersuchungen, I.e., and
Cesch. d. altchr. Lilt., I.e.). (K. L.)
TATRA MOUNTAINS (Hungarian Tarczal) or the High Tatra,
the highest group in the central Carpathians, and the central
group of the whole Carpathian system. They extend between
the rivers Waag, Arva, Dunajec and Poprad, and form a sharply
defined and isolated group, rising abruptly like a gigantic wall
to an altitude of over 8400 ft. in the midst of a high plateau
situated 2600 ft. above sea-level. The Tatra Mountains extend
through the Hungarian counties of Lipto and Szepes, and with
their northern extremities also through the Austrian crownland
of Galicia, and have a length of 40 m. and a width varying
between 9 and 15 m. The mean altitude is between 6000 and
7500 ft. The principal peaks are: — the Franz- Josef or Gerls-
ford (Hung. Gerlachfalvi-Cstics, 8737 ft.), the highest in the
Carpathian system; the Lomnitz (Lomniczi-Csucs, 8642 ft.);
the Eisthal (Jegvolgyi-Csucs, 8630 ft.); the Tatraspitze or
Hohe Visoka (8415 ft.); the Kesmark (8226 ft.); the Meerau-
genspitze (Tengerszem-Csuts, 8210 ft.); the Schlagendorf
(Szaldki-Csucs, 8050 ft.); and the Krivan (8190 ft.). The
principal valleys, which lie at an altitude of 2600 to 3250 ft.
above sea-level, and present some of the wildest scenery, are: —
the Kohlbach Valley, the Felka Valley, the Valley of Mengsdorf ,
the Javorina Valley, the Kotlina Valley, in which is the stalactite
cavern of Bela, and the Bielka Valley. One of the character-
istics of the Tatra are the numerous mountain lakes (112 in
number), called by the people " eyes of the sea." The largest
of them are the Lake of Csorba, in the southern part of the
group, which has an area of 50 acres; the Grosser Fischsee
in the Bielka Valley; and the Wielki Staw, with an area of
85 acres, the largest of the Five Polish Lakes, which lie in
the Roztoka Valley.
There are many summer resorts in the Tatra Mountains, the
most frequented being Tatraf tired (German, Schmecks), three
small villages situated at an altitude of 3250 ft., at the foot of
the Schlagendorf peak; and the environs of the Lake of Csorba,
which is called the " Pearl of the Tatra."
TATTA, or THATO, an ancient town of British India, in the
Sind province of Bombay, 7 m. from the right bank of the
main channel of the Indus and 13 m. from a station on the
North-Western railway: pop. (1901) 10,783. Tatta was the
capital of the Samma dynasty in Lower Sind in the i6th century,
and long continued to be the centre of trade in the country,
to which it sometimes gave its name in early European travels.
An English factory was established here in 1758, but with-
drawn after a few years. There are two old mosques, decorated
with the coloured tiles characteristic of Sind.
TATTERSALL'S, the London horse auction mart, founded
in 1766 by Richard Tattersall (1724-1795), who had been stud
groom to the second duke of Kingston. The first premises
occupied were near Hyde Park Corner, in what was then the
outskirts of London. Two " Subscription rooms " were re-
served for members of the Jockey Club, and they became the
rendezvous for sporting and betting men. Among the famous
dispersal sales conducted by " Old Tatt" were those of the
duke of Kingston's stud in 1774 and of the stud of the Prince
of Wales (afterwards George IV.) in 1786. The prince often
visited Richard Tattersall, and was joint proprietor with him
of the Morning Post for several years. He was succeeded by
his son, Edmund Tattersall (1758-1810), who extended the
business of the firm to France. The third of the dynasty,
Richard Tattersall (1785-1859), the eldest of Edmund's three
sons, became head of the firm at his father's death. He had
his grandfather's ability and tact, and was the intimate of the
best sporting men of his time. Another Richard Tattersall
(1812-1870), son of the last, then took command of the busi-
ness. His great-grandfather's 99-year lease having expired, he •
moved the business to Knightsbridge. Richard was followed
by his cousin, Edmund Tattersall (1816-1898), and he by his
eldest son, Edmund Somerville Tattersall (b. 1863).
A son of the second Richard Tattersall, George Tattersall
(1817-1849), was a well-known sporting artist. In 1836 he
compiled a guide to The Lakes of England illustrated with forty-
three charming line drawings, and he showed skill as an architect
by building the Tattersall stud stables at Willesden. His
experience in this and similar undertakings led him to publish
Sporting Architecture (1841). In the same year, under the
pseudonym " Wildrake," he published Cracks of the Day,
describing and illustrating sixty-five race-horses. He also con-
tributed illustrations to the Hunting Reminiscences of Nimrod
(Charles J. Apperley), the Book of Sports (1843), and the New
Sporting Almanack.
TATTNALL, JOSIAH (1795-1871), American naval officer,
was born near Savannah, and was educated in England. He
entered the United States navy in 1812, and was actively
employed till the beginning of the Civil War. He may be
said to have gained a world-wide reputation by his use of the
phrase " blood is thicker than water " to justify his interven-
tion on behalf of the British squadron engaged in the operations
against the Peiho Forts. Tattnall's flagship the Toeywan had
grounded shortly before, and had been helped off by the
British squadron. He was in the Peiho river when the unsuc-
cessful attack of the 25th of June 1859 was made. Tattnall
not only brought the Toeywan under fire, but lent the aid of
his boats to land detachments to turn the Chinese defences.
When the Civil War began he took the side of the Con-
federacy. He was put in command of its naval forces when
Franklin Buchanan resigned after he was wounded in the action
with the Federal squadron in Hampton Roads. The Confederate
States were never able to form a sea-going squadron, and Tattnall
had no chance to do more than make a struggle with insufficient
resources on its rivers. He died on the I4th of June 1871.
TATTOO, a signal given by beat of drum and call of bugle
at nightfall for soldiers to go to quarters when in garrison or
to tents when in the field. The earlier word is taptoo or taptow,
and was borrowed from Du. taptoe; the phrase de taptoe slaan,
to close the taps, and the parallel Ger. Zapfenstreich, literally
" tap-stroke " (Zapf, a tap of a cask), show that it meant
originally a signal that the " taps " or public-houses were
closed for the night.
TATTOOING (Tahitian, tatu, from ta, mark), the practice of
decorating the skin, by cutting or -puncturing, with various
patterns into which a colouring matter is introduced. Though
the word is Polynesian, the custom appears to have been almost
universal, but tends to disappear before the spread of civiliza-
tion. The prohibition to the Jews (Lev. xix. 28) under the
Mosaic Law to " print any marks " upon themselves is believed
to have reference to tattooing, which is still common in Arabia.
The North and South American Indians, the Chinese, Japanese,
Burmese, all tattoo. The origin of the custom is disputed. It
was probably at first for purely ornamental purposes and with
the idea of attracting the opposite sex. The discovery in the
caves of Western Europe of hollowed stones which had been
apparently used for grinding up ochre and other coloured clays
is thought evidence that prehistoric man painted himself, and
tattooing for decorative reasons may easily date back to the
cave-dwellers. The modern savage paints himself as a protec-
tion against cold, against the bites of insects or the sun's rays,
and most of all to give himself a ferocious appearance in battle,
as Caesar relates of the ancient Britons. Any of these motives
may have shared in originating tattooing. Subsequently the
practice assumed religious and social significance, varying
with the country and according to the age at which it was
452
TAUCHNITZ— TAUNG-GYI
performed. Thus in Polynesia it is begun in or about the
twelfth year, and becomes thus a mark of puberty; while
among the Arabs and the Kabyles of Algeria infants are tattooed
by their mothers for simple ornament or as a means of recog-
nizing them. The American Indians bore from their initiation
at puberty the mark of the personal or tribal totem, which at
once represented the religious side of their life, and served the
practical purpose of enabling them to be known by friendly
tribes. Among the Australians tattooing served as a mark of
adoption into the family or tribe, the distinctive emblem or
kobong being scarred on the thighs.
Tattooing is regarded, too, as a mark of courage. A Kaffir
who has been a successful warrior has the privilege of making
a long incision in his thigh, which is rubbed with cinders until
sufficiently discoloured. Elsewhere tattooing is a sign of mourn-
ing, deep and numerous cuts being made on face, breast and
limbs. Among the Fijians and Eskimos the untattooed were
regarded as risking their happiness in the future world. Some
of the most remarkable examples of tattooing are those to be
found among the Laos, whose stomachs, thighs, legs and breasts
are often completely covered with fantastic animal figures like
those on Buddhistic monuments.
The rudest form of tattooing is that practised specially by
the Australians and some tribes of negroes. It consists in
cutting gashes, arranged in patterns, on the skin and filling
the wounds with clay so as to form raised scars. This tattooing
by scarring as compared with the more common mode of prick-
ing is, as a general rule, confined to the black races. Light-
skinned races tattoo, while dark practise scarring. In Poly-
nesia the art of tattooing reached its highest perfection. In
the Marquesas group of islands, for example, the men were
tattooed all over, even to the fingers and toes and crown of
the head, and as each operation took from; three to six months,
beginning at virility, a man must have been nearly thirty before
his body was completely covered. In New Zealand the face
was the part most tattooed, and Maori heads so decorated were
at one time in much request for European museums, but they
are no longer obtainable in the colony. In Japan, where it
became a high art, tattooing was neither ceremonial nor sym-
bolical. It was in lieu of clothing, and only on those parts of
the body usually covered in civilized countries, and in the case
of those only who, like the jinrikisha-men, work half naked.
The colours used are black, which appears blue, made from
Indian ink, and different tints of red obtained from cinnabar.
Fine sewing-needles, eight, twelve, twenty or more, fixed together
in a piece of wood, are used. A clever tattooer can cover the
stomach or back in a day. As soon as the picture is complete,
the patient is bathed in hot water. The Ainus, on the other
hand, tattoo only the exposed parts of the body, the women,
unlike the Japanese, being frequently patients. The tattooing
instruments used in Polynesia consisted of pieces of sharpened
bone fastened into a handle, with their edges cut into teeth.
These were dipped into a solution of charcoal and then driven
into the skin by smart blows with a mallet. During the opera-
tion, assistants, usually female relatives, drowned the cries of
the sufferer with songs and the beating of drums.
Under the influence of civilization tattooing is losing its
ethnological character, and has become, in Europe at least, an
eccentricity of soldiers and sailors and of many among the
lower and often criminal classes of the great cities. Among
eight .hundred convicted French soldiers Lacassagne found
40 per cent, tattooed. In the British army till 1879 the letters
D. and B. C. for Deserter and Bad Character were tattooed with
needles and Indian ink; and tattooing has often been used to
identify criminals and slaves.
See Lacassagne, J^es Tatouaees (Paris, 1881); General Robley,
Moko or Maori Tattooing (1896).
TAUCHNITZ, the name of a family of German printers and
publishers. Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz (1761-1836),
born at Grossbardau near Grimma, Saxony, established a print-
ing business in Leipzig in 1796 and a publishing house in 1798.
He specialized on the publication of dictionaries, Bibles and
stereotyped editions of the Greek and Roman classics. The
business was carried on by his son, Karl Christian Phillipp
Tauchnitz (1798-1884), until 1863, when the business was sold
to O. Holtze. He left large sums to the city of Leipzig for philan-
thropic purposes. Christian Bernbard, Freiherr von Tauchnitz
(1816-1895), the founder of the existing firm of Bernhard
Tauchnitz, was the nephew of the first-mentioned. His printing
and publishing firm was started at Leipzig in 1837. The Library
of British and American Authors, so familiar to travellers on the
continent of Europe, was begun in 1841. In 1908 the collection
numbered over 4000 volumes. In 1868 he began the Collection
of German Authors, followed in 1886 by the Students' Tauchnitz
editions. In 1860 he was ennobled with the title of Freiherr
(Baron), and in 1877 was made a life member of the Saxon
Upper Chamber. From 1866 to 1895 he was British Consul-
General for the kingdom and duchies of Saxony. He was
succeeded in the business by his son, Christian Karl Bernhard,
Freiherr von Tauchnitz.
TAULANTII, in ancient geography, an Illyrian people in the
neighbourhood of Epidamnus (Thuc. i. 24). They were origin-
ally powerful and independent, under their own kings. One of
these was Glaucias, who fought against Alexander the Great,
and placed Pyrrhus, the infant king of Epirus, whom he had
refused to surrender to Cassander, upon the throne (Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 3). Later the Taulantii fell under the sway of the
kings of Illyria, and when the Romans were carrying on war
against the Illyrian queen, Teuta, they were unimportant.
TAULER, JOHANN (c. 1300-1361), German mystic, was born
about the year 1300 in Strassburg, and was educated at the
Dominican convent in that city, where Meister Eckhart, who
greatly influenced him, was professor of theology (1312-1320)
in the monastery school. From Strassburg he went to the
Dominican college of Cologne, and perhaps to St James's
College, Paris, ultimately returning to Strassburg. In 1324
Strassburg with other cities was placed under a papal interdict.
Legend says that Tauler nevertheless continued to perform
religious services for the people, but though there may be a
germ of historical truth in this story, it is probably due to the
desire of the 16th-century Reformers to enroll the famous
preachers of the middle ages among their forerunners. In
1338-1339 Tauler was in Basel, then the headquarters of the
" Friends of God " (see MYSTICISM), and was brought into
intimate relations with the members of that pious mystical
fellowship. Strassburg, however, remained his headquarters.
The Black Death came to that city in 1348, and it is said
that, when the city was deserted by all who could leave it,
Tauler remained at his post, encouraging by sermons and
personal visitations his terror-stricken fellow-citizens. His cor-
respondence with distinguished members of the Goltesfreunde,
especially with Margaretha Ebner, and the fame of his preach-
ing and other work in Strassburg, had made him known
throughout a wide circle. He died on the i6th of June 1361.
The well-known story of Tauler's conversion and discipline
by " the Friend of God from the Oberland " (see NICHOLAS OF
BASEL) cannot be regarded as historical. Tauler's sermons are
among the noblest in the German language. They are not so
emotional as Suso's, nor so speculative as Eckhart's, but they
are intensely practical, and touch on all sides the deeper
problems of the moral and spiritual life.
Tauler's sermons were printed first at Leipzig in 1498, and re-
printed with additions from Eckhart and others at Basel (1522)
and at Cologne (1543). There is a modern edition by Julius
Hamberger (Frankfort, 1864), and R. H. Hutton published Tauler's
Sermons for Festivals under the title of The Inner Way. See
Denifle, Das Buck von geistlicher Armuth (Strassburg, 1877); Carl
Schmidt, Johann Tauler von Strassburg (Hamburg, 1841); S. Wink-
worth, Tauler's Life and Sermons (London, 1857); R. A. Vaughan,
Hours with the Mystics, 3rd ed., vol. i. pp. 214-307; Preger's Gesch.
der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, voK iii.; W. R. Inge, Christian
Mysticism; R. M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909).
TAUNG-GYI, the headquarters of the superintendent and
political officer, southern Shan States, Burma. It is situated
in 96° 58' E. and 20° 47' N., at an altitude of about 5000 ft., in
a depressed plateau on the crest of the Sintaung hills. It is in
TAUNTON, BARON— TAUNTON
453
the state of Yawnghwe, 105 m. from Thazi railway station on the
Rangoon-Mandalay railway, with which it is connected by a
cart-road. The civil station dates from 1894, when there were
only a few Taungthu huts on the site. There were in 1906
upwards of a thousand houses, many of them substantially
built of brick. Since 1906 the southern Shan States have been
garrisoned by military police, whose headquarters are in Taung-
gyi. The station is to a considerable extent a commercial depot
for the country behind, and there are many universal supply
shops of most nationalities (except British) — Austrian, Chinese
and Indian. The five-day bazaar is the trading place of the
natives of the country. A special quarter contains the tem-
porary residences of the chiefs when they visit headquarters,
and there is a school for their sons. An orchard for experi-
mental cultivation has met with considerable success. The
average shade maximum temperature is 84° ; the minimum 39°.
TAUNTON, HENRY LABOUCHERE, BARON (1798-1869),
English politician, came of a French Huguenot family, which,
on leaving France, settled in Holland. His father, Peter
Caesar Labouchere, merchant, was a partner in the wealthy
Amsterdam banking firm of Hope & Company; 1 he went to
live in England, and married a daughter of Sir Francis Baring.
Henry was his elder son, while a younger son, John, was the
father of the later well-known Radical member of parliament
and proprietor of Truth, Henry Labouchere (b. 1831). He was
educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, and entered
the House of Commons as a Whig in 1826. From 1830 to 1858
he sat for Taunton, Somerset. After filling various minor
offices, he became president of the Board of Trade in 1839-41;
and in 1846 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1847-52
he was again president of the Board of Trade, and from 1855
to 1858 secretary of state for the colonies. In 1859 he was
created Baron Taunton, but on his death, on the I3th of July
1869, the title became extinct.
TAUNTON, a municipal and parliamentary borough and
market town of Somersetshire, England, on the river Tone,
163 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 21,087. Standing in the beautiful valley of
Taunton Dene, the town is chiefly built on the south side of
the river. Its three main streets, broad and regular, converge
upon a triangular space called the Parade, where there is a
market cross. The parish church of St Mary Magdalene is
one of the finest and largest Perpendicular churches in England.
Remnants of Norman work are preserved in the chancel arch,
and of Early 'English work in the north aisles and transepts.
The tower, noteworthy for its union of elaborate ornament
and lightness of effect, exceeds 150 ft. in height. There are
double aisles on each side of the nave, and the whole interior
is admirable in its harmony of design and colour. Little is
left of an Austin priory established in the reign of Henry I.
by William Giffard, bishop of Winchester, who also built the
castle, now a museum for prehistoric, Roman and medieval
antiquities. Taunton castle, though largely rebuilt in 1496,
embodies the remains of a very early fortress, while its walls
and keep date from the 1 2th century, its towers and gatehouses
from the i3th or i4th. At the Restoration it was dismantled
and its moat filled in. Among the schools is a grammar school
founded in 1522 by Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester. There
are also public gardens, assembly rooms, almshouses, a town
hall, market hall, a hospital founded in 1819 to commemorate
the jubilee of George III., and a shire hall containing a series
of marble busts representing, among other Somerset worthies,
Admiral Blake, John Locke the philosopher, the Puritan leader
Pym, Bishop Ken, and Speke the African explorer. The local
industries are silk, linen and glove manufactures, iron and brass
founding, coachbuilding , cabinetmaking, malting and brewing;
while Taunton Dene is famous as a rich agricultural district.
1 The Amsterdam Hopes were descended from Henry Hope, son
of a Scottish merchant, and younger brother of Sir Thomas Hope
(d. 1646), the famo&s Scottish lord-advocate, ancestor of the earls
of Hopetoun (marquess of Linlithgow, q.v.). Among his descen-
dants was Thomas Hope (1770-1831), father of A. J. B. Beresford-
Hope (1820-1887), politician and author.
The parliamentary borough of Taunton returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen
councillors. Area, 1393 acres.
There was perhaps a Romano-British village near the suburb
of Holway, and Taunton (Tantun, Tantone, Tauntone) was a
place of considerable importance in Saxon times. King Ine
threw up an earthen castle here about 700, and a monastery
was founded before 904. The bishops of Winchester owned
the manor, and obtained the first charter for their " men of
Taunton " from King Edward in 904, freeing them from all
royal and county tribute. At some time before the Domesday
Survey Taunton had become a borough with very considerable
privileges, governed by a portreeve appointed by the bishops.
It did not obtain a charter of incorporation until that of 1627,
which was renewed in 1677. The corporation existed until
1792, when the charter lapsed owing to vacancies in the number
of the corporate body, and Taunton was not reincorporated
until 1877. Parliamentary representation began in 1299, and
two members we're returned until 1885. A fair on the 7th of
July was held under a charter of 1256, and there are now two
fairs yearly, on the i7th of June and the 7th of July. The
Saturday market for the sale of corn, cattle and provisions
dates from before the Conquest. There is also a smaller market on
Wednesdays. The medieval fairs and markets of Taunton were
celebrated for the sale of woollen cloth called "Tauntons" made
in the town. On the decline of the west of England woollen indus-
try, silk- weaving was introduced at the end of the i8th century.
See Victoria County History, Somerset; Toulmen's History of
Taunton, edited by James Savage (1830).
TAUNTON, a city and one of the county-seats of Bristol
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., at the head of ocean navigation
on the Taunton river, 17 m. above its mouth, about 35 m. S. of
Boston, and about 14 m. N. of Fall River. Pop. (1890) 25,448;
(1900) 31,036, of whom 9140 were foreign-born, 2844 being
Irish, 2366 French-Canadians, 1144 English, and 801 English-
Canadians; (1910, U.S. census) 34,259. Taunton is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad (Old Colony
Branch) and by interurban electric railways connecting with
Fall River, New Bedford, Providence and Boston. The
channel of the Taunton river has been deepened and widened
by the Federal government, and in 1910 vessels of n ft. draft
could reach the city at high water (mean range of tide at
Taunton, 3-4 ft.). Within the corporate limits of the city,
which has a land area of 44-25 sq. m., there are six villages —
Hopewell, Britanniaville, Oakland, Whittenton, East Taunton
and the Weir. Taunton Green, a rectangular stretch of land
fringed with lofty elms, the " common " of the New England
town, about which is the business portion of the modern city,
is i m. from the Weir, the port of the city.
The city contains interesting specimens of colonial or early
19th-century architecture. Among the modern public buildings
are the handsome granite County Court House (1895), facing the
Green, the Public Library building (given by Andrew Carnegie) ,
the registry building, the county gaol, the city hall, the post
office, an old ladies' home, an emergency hospital, the Morten
Hospital, occupying the fine old residence of Governor Marcus
Morton, and the Y.M.C.A. building. The Bristol County Law
Library and Old Colony Historical Society (incorporated in
1853 and organized in 1854) possess valuable collections of books,
and the latter has a collection of portraits and antiquities.
Bristol Academy (1792; non-sectarian) is a well-known pre-
paratory school, and there is also a commercial school — the
Bristol County Business College. At Norton (pop. in° 1910,
2544) , directly N. of Taunton, and formerly within its boundaries,
is Wheaton Seminary (1834) for girls. Among social clubs are
the Winthrop Club, the Bristol Club, the Taunton Boat Club,
the Yacht Club, and the Country Club. A good water-supply,
owned by the city, is obtained from neighbouring lakes and
ponds, along the shores of which are many summer cottages.
Taunton was one of the first cities in the United States to own
and operate its own electric lighting plant, which it acquired
from a private corporation in 1897. Its industrial importance
454
TAUNUS— TAUPO
began with the establishment of ironworks in 1656; the plant
then opened continued in active operation for about 225 years.
Brick-making and shipbuilding were two of the early industries;
the latter, formerly very important, has now been abandoned.
The manufactures to-day are extensive and varied. The
aggregate value of the factory product in 1905 was $13,644,586,
an increase of 18-2 per cent, over that of 1900. Of this amount
the value of the cotton manufactured was $6,141,598, or 45 per
cent, of the whole. Herring fisheries give occupation during
a part of the year to a considerable number of workers.
Taunton has a prosperous jobbing trade, and large shipping
interests, the coastwise trade being particularly important.
Taunton was founded in 1638, when the territory was pur-
chased from Massasoit by settlers from the Massachusetts Bay
Colony, and became the frontier town of Plymouth Colony.
Myles Standish was engaged on the original survey. But there
had been earlier settlers in the region — at " Tecticutt "
(Titicut), which later became part of Taunton. The settlement
at Taunton was at first known as Cohannet, but the present
name — from Taunton, Somerset, England, the home of many
of the settlers — was soon adopted. The town was incorporated
in 1639. In 1671 it was the scene of a meeting between Gov.
Thomas Prince and King Philip, at which a treaty was drawn
up. During King Philip's War, Taunton was a base of opera-
tions for Plymouth Colony troops under Gov. Josiah Winslow.
In 1686 Taunton was one of the towns which refused to comply
with Sir Edmund Andres's demands for a tax levy. For some
years Thomas Coram, the philanthropist and founder of the
London Foundling Hospital, was engaged in the shipbuilding
industry here. In 1774, after the passage of the Boston Port
Bill, the people of Taunton showed their sympathy for Boston
by raising on the Green a red flag on which were inscribed the
words " Liberty and Union." The leader of the patriotic
party at this time was Robert Treat Paine, to whose memory a
bronze statue has been erected. During Shays's rebellion the
Taunton court-house was twice besieged by insurgents, who were
each time dispersed through the resolute action and firmness
of Gen. David Cobb, one of the judges. The event is commemo-
rated by a tablet on Taunton Green. In Berkley, which until
1735 was a part of Dighton (Taunton South Purchase, separated
from Taunton in 1712), is the famous Dighton Rock, with in-
scriptions long erroneously supposed to have been made by
Norse discoverers of America, but now known to be the work
of Indians. Taunton was chartered as a city in 1864. In
1909 a new city charter was adopted, under which. the mayor
and nine councilmen (elected at large) were the only city officers
elected at any city election; candidates for these offices are
nominated by petition; the mayor appoints, subject to the
approval of the council, a chief of police and a city solicitor.
See S. H. Emery, History of Taunton from its Settlement to the
Present Time (Syracuse, N.Y., 1893); D. H. Kurd, History of Bristol
County (Philadelphia, 1883) ; Quarter Millennial Celebration (Taunton,
1889).
TAUNUS, a wooded mountain range of Germany in the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau and the grand-duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt. It lies between the Rhine and the Main
on the S. and the Lahn on the N., and stretches some 55 m. E.
and W. Its southern slopes stand 5 to 10 m. back from the
Main, but leave only a very narrow strip of low ground alongside
the Rhine, and from Bingen downwards they overhang it with
precipitous crags, many of which are crowned with picturesque
ruins. It has an average elevation of 1500 ft. The loftiest
peaks occur in the east, where the imposing cluster of Grosser
Feldberg (2887 ft.), Kleiner Feldberg (2714 ft.) and Altkonig
(2618 ft.) dominate the Wetterau and the valley of the Main.
Above the Rheingau, or the slopes which stretch down to the
Rhine between Biebrich and Bingen, the altitude averages
1500 to 1700 ft. The geological core of the system consists of
primitive argillaceous schists, capped by quartzite and broken
through in places by basalt. On the northern side, which sinks
on the whole gently towards the Lahn, the greywacke formation
attains a considerable development. The hills are almost
everywhere well wooded, the predominant trees being firs and
beeches. The lower slopes are, wherever possible, planted with
vineyards, orchards and chestnut and almond groves. The
vineyards of the Rheingau are specially famous, and yield
brands of wine — e.g. Johannisberger, Steinberger, Rudesheimer,
Marcobrunner, Hochheimer, Rauenthaler, Assmannshauser,
and others — which enjoy the highest reputation amongst the
vintages of Germany. The Taunus is also famous for the
number and efficacy of its mineral springs, which annually
attract thousands of visitors to the celebrated spas of Wiesbaden,
Homburg, Ems, Schlangenbad, Schwalbach, Soden and
Nauheim, while the waters of Sellers and other springs are
exported in large quantity. The sheltered position and warm
climate have led also to the establishment of the health resorts
of Falkenstein (1875) and Schmitten, and of tourist centres at
Konigstein, Cronberg and Ober Ursel.
Above Falkenstein stand the ruins of the ancestral castle of
Kuno, the powerful archbishop of Trier; above Konigstein are the
remains of a fortress of like name, formerly belonging to the
electors of Mainz, and destroyed by the French in 1796; on
Altkonig are two concentric lines of pre-Roman fortifications, 4557
and 2982 ft. in circumference. Interest also attaches to the once
celebrated Cistercian abbey of Eberbach, founded in 1116; to
Eltville, a favourite residence of the archbishops of Mainz in the
I4.th and isth centuries; and to the family seats of Eppstein,
Katzenelnbogen and Scharfenstein.
The chief historical monument of this region is the Saalburg, an
ancient Roman fort serving as a centre of communications along
the limes or fortified frontier-line drawn from Rhine to Main by
Domitian (see LIMES GERMANICUS). The excavations, which were
begun in 1868, have revealed four different encampments, the
earliest of which perhaps dates back to the time of the earliest
Roman conquest. The remains now visible are an excellent type
of the solidly constructed permanent camps of the middle imperial
period (about A.D. 200). Elaborate restorations have been under-
taken, and the minor remains have been housed since 1904 in the
reconstructed praetorium or headquarters. An electric tram con-
nects the Saalburg with Homburg (distance 4 m.).
Forty miles to the west of the Saalburg there is a modern national
monument, the colossal figure of Germania, which stands on a bold
spur of the Taunus 740 ft. above the Rhine. It was erected in 1883
to commemorate the War of 1870-71 and the re-creation of the
German empire in the latter year. The steep crags of the western
end of the Taunus, where they abut upon the Rhine, are rich in
the romantic associations of the great river. Here are the rock
of the siren Lurlei or Lorelei; the old castles of Stahleck and
Pfalz, which belonged to the Counts Palatine of the Rhine; and
the quaint medieval towns of Caub and St Goarshausen. Schloss
Friedrichshof, at the foot of the Feldberg and Altkonig, immediately
north of Kronberg, was built in 1889-97 by the widowed empress
Frederick, and is the place where she died in 1901. The railway
from Frankfort-on-Main to Oberlahnstein skirts the south and west
foot of the range, that from Frankfort to Cassel the eastern side,
while the line from Wiesbaden and Hochst to Limburg intersects it
from south to north.
See Die Heilquellen des Taunus (published by Grossmann, Wies-
baden, 1887) ; Sievers, Zur Kenntms des Taunus (Stuttgart, 1891),
and the Taunus Club's Guide (4th ed. Frankfort-on-Main, 1905).
For the Saalburg see L. Jacobi, Das Romerkastell Saalburg (2 vols.,
Homburg, 1897); also a small guide by the same author (3rd ed.
Homburg, 1907).
TAUPO, a township of East Taupo county, New Zealand, in
the south-west of the Hot Spring district of North Island. It
attracts many visitors both as a health resort and on account
of the magnificent scenery and remarkable volcanic phenomena
of the surrounding district. It lies on the north-east shore of
lake Taupo, the largest lake in the island, having an extreme
length of 26 m. and a shore-line, not counting minor indenta-
tions, of about 100 m., and lying 1200 ft. above sea-level. The
river Waikato, which reaches the west coast not far from
Manukau Harbour near Auckland, here leaves the lake. The
district abounds in geysers, springs, mud volcanoes and other
phenomena; some of the waters have petrifying powers, and
some of the springs are vividly coloured. On the road running
N.E. to Rotorua (56 m.) are the resorts of Weirakei (7 m.) and
Ateamuri (31 m.). Lake Taupo is finely situated, hills rising
over 2000 ft. immediately from the shores, while the mountains
of Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, an active volcano' and Ruapehu, a
snow-clad peak, back the view to the south and mark the limit
of the great volcanic line which extends 160 m. north-westward
TAURELLUS— TAUROBOLIUM
455
to White Island in the Bay of Plenty. The upper Waikato
enters the lake from the south near Tokaano, where there is
another collection of springs, &c. The river forms several
fine falls and rapids below the lake.
TAURELLUS, NICOLAUS (1547-1606), German philosopher
and theologian, was born at Mompelgard. He read theology at
Tubingen and medicine at Basel, where he lectured on physical
science. He subsequently became professor of medicine at
Altdorf, where he died in 1606. He attacked the dominant
Aristotelianism of the time, and endeavoured to construct a
philosophy which should harmonize faith and knowledge, and
bridge over the chasm made by the first Renaissance writers
who followed Pomponazzi. Scholasticism he condemned on
account of its unquestioning submission to Aristotle. Taurellus
maintained the necessity of going back to Christianity itself,
as at once the superstructure and the justification of philosophy.
His chief works were Philosophiae Triumphus (1573); Synopsis
Metaphysicae Aristotelis (1596); De Rerum Aeternitate (1604); and
a treatise written in criticism of Caesalpinus entitled Caesae Alpes
(1597). See Schmid-Schwarzenburg, Nicolaus Taurellus (1860 and
1864).
TAURI, the earliest known inhabitants of the mountainous
south coast of the Crimea (Herodotus iv. 103). Nothing is
certain as to their affinities. They probably represent an old
population perhaps connected with some Caucasus stock; in
spite of the resemblance of the name Taurisci they are not
likely to be Celts. They were famous in the ancient world
for their maiden goddess, identified by the Greeks with Artemis
Tauropolos or Iphigeneia, whom the goddess was said to have
brought to her shrine at the moment when she was to have
been sacrificed at Aulis. Orestes sought his sister, and almost
fell a victim to the Tauric custom of sacrificing to the maiden
shipwrecked strangers, a real custom which was the ground
of the whole myth. His adventures were the subject of plays
by Euripides and Goethe. Towards the end of the 2nd century
B.C. we find the Tauri dependent allies of the Scythian king
Scilurus, who from their harbour of Symbolon Portus or
Palacium (Balaclava) harassed Chersonese (q.v.). Their later
history is unknown. (E. H. M.)
TAURIDA, a government of southern Russia, including the
peninsula of Crimea and a tract of mainland situated between
the lower Dnieper and the coasts of the Black Sea and the
Sea of Azov. It is bounded by these two seas on the S., while
it has on the N. the governments of Kherson and Ekaterinoslav.
The area is 24,532 sq. m., of which 9704 sq. m. belong to the
Crimea. The continental part consists of a gently undulating
steppe (from sea-level up to 400 ft. in the north-east) of black
earth, with only a few patches of saline clay on the shores of
the Sivash or Putrid Sea, and sand along the lower Dnieper.
The government is drained by the Dnieper, which flows along
the frontier for 180 m., and by two minor streams, the Moloch-
naya and Berda. Many small lakes and ponds occur in the
north, as well as on the Kinburn peninsula, at the mouth of
the Dnieper, where salt is made. There are no forests. The
climate is continental, and resembles that of central Crimea
and Kherson. The population in 1906 was estimated at
1,634,700. The continental portion, although less mixed than
that of the peninsula, consists of Great and Little Russians,
who constitute 83 per cent, of the whole, Germans (5-4 per
cent.), Bulgarians (2-8 per cent.), Jews (3-8 per cent.), and
Armenians. The chief occupation of the people is agriculture,
and every available patch of land has been brought under the
plough. In 1900 no less than 43 per cent, of its area was under
cereal crops alone. The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats,
barley and potatoes. Tobacco is also grown, and over 32,000
acres are under vineyards, while gardens extend to some 15,500
acres in Crimea. Live-stock breeding is extensively engaged
in. Salt is the only mineral raised, but the iron industry, and
especially the manufacture of agricultural machinery (e.g. at
Berdyansk), has greatly developed. The export trade is con-
siderable, the chief ports being Sevastopol, Eupatoria, Theo-
dosia, and Yalta on the Black Sea, and Azov and Berdyansk
on the Sea of Azov. The fisheries along the coast are active.
Manufactures are insignificant, but there is a brisk export trade
in grain, salt, fish, wool and tallow. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Sim-
feropol, capital of the government, Eupatoria and Theodosia,
in Crimea, and Aleshki, Berdyansk, Melitopol, Perekop and
Yalta on the continent.
TAURINI, an ancient Ligurian people, although the name
may be of Celtic origin, who occupied the upper valley of the
Padus (Po) in the centre of the modern Piedmont. In 218 B.C.
they were attacked by Hannibal, with whose friends the
Insubres they had a long-standing feud, and their chief town
(Taurasia) was captured after a three days' siege (Polybius iii.
60, 8). As a people they are rarely mentioned in history. It
is not known when they definitely became subject to the
Romans, nor when the colony of (Julia) Augusta Taurinorum
(Torino, Turin) was founded in their territory (probably by
Augustus after the battle of Actium). Both Livy (v. 34) and
Strabo (iv. p. 209) speak of the country of the Taurini as includ-
ing one of the passes of the Alps, which points to a wider use
of the name in earlier times.
See H. Nissen, Italiscke Landeskunde, ii. (1902), p. 163; and
ancient authorities quoted in A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz,
ii. (1904).
TAUROBOLIUM, the sacrifice of a bull, usually in con-
nexion with the worship of the Great Mother of the Gods,
though not limited to it. Of oriental origin, its firs^ known
performance in Italy occurred in A.D. 134, at Puteoli, in honour
of Venus Caelestis. Prudentius describes it in Peristephanon
(x., 1066 ff.) : the priest of the Mother, clad in a toga worn
cinctu Gabino, with golden crown and fillets on his head, takes
his place in a trench covered by a platform of planks pierced
with fine holes, on which a bull, magnificent with flowers and
gold, is slain. The blood rains through the platform on to
the priest below, who receives it on his face, and even on his
tongue and palate, and after the baptism presents himself
before his fellow-worshippers purified and regenerated, and
receives their salutations and reverence.
The taurobolium in the 2nd and 3rd centuries was usually
performed as a measure for the welfare of the Emperor, Empire,
or community, its date frequently being the 24th of March,
the Dies Sanguinis of the annual festival of the Great Mother
and Attis. In the late 3rd and the 4th centuries its usual
motive was the purification or regeneration of an individual,
who was spoken of as renatus in aeternum, reborn for eternity,
in consequence of the ceremony (Corp. Insc. Lai. vi. 510-512).
When its efficacy was not eternal, its effect was considered to
endure for twenty years. It was also performed as the ful-
filment of a vow, or by command of the goddess herself, and
the privilege was limited to no sex nor class. The place of
its performance at Rome was near the site of St Peter's, in
the excavations of which several altars and inscriptions com-
memorative of taurobolia were discovered.
The taurobolium was probably a sacred drama symbolizing
the relations of the Mother and Attis (q.v.). The descent of
the priest into the sacrificial foss symbolized the death of Attis,
the withering of the vegetation of Mother Earth; his bath of
blood and emergence the restoration of Attis, the rebirth of
vegetation. The ceremony may be the spiritualized descent
of the primitive oriental practice of drinking or being baptized
in the blood of an animal, based upon a belief that the strength
of brute creation could be acquired by consumption of its sub-
stance or contact with its blood. In spite of the phrase renalus
in aeternum, there is no reason to suppose that the ceremony
was in any way borrowed from Christianity.
See Esperandieu, Inscriptions de Lectoure (1892), pp. 94 ff.;
Zippel, Festschrift zum DoctorjubUaeum, Ludwie Friedlander, 1895,
p. 489 f . ; Showerman, The Great Mother of the Gods, Bulletin of
the University of Wisconsin, No. 43, pp. 280-84 (Madison, 1901);
Hepding, Attis, Seine Mythen und Sein Kult (Giessen, 1903), pp.
168 ff., 201; Cumont, Le Taurobole et le Culte de Bettone, Revue
d'histoire et de litterature religieuses, vi., No. 2, 1901. (G. SN.)
456
TAURUS— T A VERNIER
TAURUS ("the Bull"), in astronomy, the second sign of
the zodiac (?.».), denoted by the symbol '#. It is also a con-
stellation of very great antiquity, the Pleiades and Hyades,
two star clusters, being possibly referred to in the Old Testa-
ment; Aldebaran, a star, is mentioned by Hesiod and Homer.
Ptolemy catalogued 44 stars, Tycho Brahe 43, Hevelius 51.
The Greeks fabled this constellation to be the bull which bore
Europa across the seas to Crete, and was afterwards raised to
the heavens by Jupiter, a Tauri, or Aldebaran, is a brilliant
star of a reddish colour and magnitude 1-2; this star is the
principal object of the group named the Hyades, named after
the seven daughters of Atlas and Aethra — Ambrosia, Coronis,
Eudora, Pasithoe, Plexaris, Pytho and Tycho — fabled by the
Greeks to have been transformed into stars by Jupiter for
bewailing the death of their brother Hyas. Another star group
in this constellation is the Pleiades. X Tauri is an " Algol "
variable, varying in magnitude from 3-4 to 4-2. Nebula Af.i
Tauri is a famous " crab " nebula, so named by Lord Rosse
from its clawlike protuberances; it is the first of the series of
nebula on the enumeration of Messier.
TAUSEN, HANS (1494-1561), the protagonist of the Danish
Reformation, was born at Birkende in Funen in 1494. The
quick-witted peasant lad ran away from the plough at an early
age, finally settling down as a friar in the Johannite cloister of
Antvorskov near Slagelse. After studying at Rostock and
teaching there for a time and also at Copenhagen, he was again
sent abroad by his prior, visiting, among other places, the
newly founded university of Leyden and making the acquaint-
ance of the Dutch humanists. He was already a good linguist,
understanding both Latin and Hebrew. Subsequently he
translated the books of Moses from the original. In May 1523
Tausen went to Wittenberg, where he studied for a year and a
half, when he was recalled to Antvorskov. In consequence of
his professed attachment to the doctrines of Luther he was
first imprisoned in the dungeons of Antvorskov and thence
transferred, in the spring of 1525, to the Grey Friars' cloister
at Viborg in Jutland, where he preached from his prison to the
people assembled outside, till his prior, whom he won over to
his views, permitted him to use the pulpit of the priory church.
At Viborg the seed sown by Tausen fell upon good soil. Several
young men in the town had studied at Wittenberg, and the
burghers, in their Lutheran zeal, had already expelled their
youthful Bishop Jorgen Friis. Tausen's preaching was so
revolutionary that he no longer felt safe among the Franciscans,
so he boldly discarded his monastic habit and placed himself
under the protection of the burgesses of Viborg. At first he
preached in the parish church of St John, but this soon growing
too small for him he addressed the people in the market-place
from the church tower. When the Franciscans refused to
allow him to preach in their large church, the mob broke in by
force. A compromise was at last arranged, whereby the friars
were to preach in the forenoon and Tausen in the afternoon.
The bishop, very naturally averse to these high-handed pro-
ceedings, sent armed men to the church to arrest Tausen, but
the burghers, who had brought their weapons with them, drove
back" the bishop's swains." In October 1526 King Frederick I.,
during his visit to Aalborg, took Hans Tausen under his pro-
tection, appointed him one of his chaplains, and charged him to
continue for a time " to preach the holy Gospel " to the citizens
of Viborg, who were to be responsible for his safety, thus identify-
ing himself with the new doctrines in direct contravention of
the plain letter of his coronation oath. Tausen found a diligent
fellow-worker in Jorgen Viberg, better known as Sadolin, whose
sister, Dorothea, he married, to the great scandal of the Catholics.
He was indeed the first Danish priest who took unto himself a
wife. He was also the first of the reformers who used Danish
instead of Latin in the church services, the " Even song " he
introduced at Viborg being of great beauty. Tausen was cer-
tainly the most practically gifted of all the new native teachers.
But he was stronger as a preacher and an agitator than as a
writer, the pamphlets which he now issued from the press of
his colleague the ex-priest Hans Vingaard, who settled down
at Viborg as a printer, being little more than adaptations of
Luther's opuscula. He continued to preach in the Grey Friars'
church, while Sadolin, whom he had " consecrated " a priest,
officiated at the church of the Dominicans, who had already
fled from the town. The stouter-hearted Franciscans only
yielded to violence persistently applied by the soldiers whom
their opponents quartered upon them. In 1529 Tausen's
" mission " at Viborg came to an end. King Frederick now
recommended him to Copenhagen to preach heresy at the
church of St Nicholas, but here he found an able and intrepid
opponent in Bishop Ro'nne. Serious disturbances thereupon
ensued; and the Protestants, getting the worst of the argu-
ment, silenced their gainsayers by insulting the bishops and
priests in the streets and profaning and devastating the
Catholic churches. A Herredag, or Assembly of Nobles, was
held at Copenhagen on the 2nd of July 1530, ostensibly to
mediate between the two conflicting confessions, but the king,
from policy, and the nobility, from covetousness of the estates
of the prelates, made no attempt to prevent the excesses of
the Protestant rabble, openly encouraged by Tausen. On the
other hand, the preachers failed to obtain the repeal of the
Odense recess of 1527 which had subjected them to the spiritual
jurisdiction of the prelates. On the death of King Frederick,
Tausen, at the instance of Ronne, was, at the Herredag of 1533,
convicted of blasphemy and condemned to expulsion from the
diocese of Sjaelland, whereupon the mob rose in arms against
the bishop, who would have been murdered but for the
courageous intervention of Tausen, who conducted him home
in safety. The noble-minded Ronne thereupon, from gratitude,
permitted Tausen to preach in all his churches on condition
that he moderated his tone. On the final triumph of the Re-
formation Tausen was appointed bishop of Ribe (1542), an office
he held with great zeal and fidelity for twenty years.
See Suhr, Tausens Levnet (Ribe, 1836); Danmarks Riges Historie,
vol. iii. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.)
TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM (1850-"" ), American econo-
mist, was born at St Louis, Missouri, on the 28th of December
1859. He was educated in his native city and at Harvard
University, where he became professor of political economy
in 1892. He has made a particular study of finance, and has
written Tariff History of the United States (1888); The Silver
Situation in the United States (1892); Wages and Capital (1896).
He was for some time editor of the American Quarterly Journal
of Economics.
TAUTPHOEUS, JEMIMA, BARONESS VON (1807-1893),
British novelist, was born at Seaview, Co. Donegal, on the 23rd
of October 1807, her maiden name being Montgomery. In
1838 she married the Baron von Tautphoeus of Marquartstein
(1805-1885), chamberlain to the king of Bavaria, and in
Bavaria she passed most of the rest of her life. She was the
author of several novels, written in English, describing South
German life, manners and history. The Initials (1850), Quits
(1857), and At Odds (1863) are the best known of these. She
died on the i2th of November 1893.
TAVASTEHUS, a province of Finland, bounded by the
provinces of Nyland, Viborg, Vasa and St Michel. Pop. (1904)
317,326. The province is largely unproductive, much of the
surface being composed of hills and lakes, but in favourable
districts agriculture is sucessfully pursued, and there is a
school of agriculture and an institute of forestry.
TAVERN, the old name for an inn, a public house where
liquor is sold and food is supplied to travellers. It is, however,
now usually applied to a small ale-house where liquor only is
supplied. The word comes through Fr. from Lat. taberna, a
booth, shop, inn. It is usually connected with the root seen
in " tabula," board, whence Eng. " table;" and thus meant
originally a hut or booth made of planks or boards of wood.
TAVERNIER, JEAN BAPTISTS (1605-1689), French
traveller and pioneer of trade with India, was born in 1605
at Paris, where his father Gabriel and uncle Melchior, Pro-
testants from Antwerp, pursued the profession of geographers
and engravers. The conversations he heard in his father's
TAVIRA— TAVISTOCK
457
house inspired Tavernicr with an early desire to travel, and in
his sixteenth year he had already visited England, the Low
Countries and Germany, and seen something of war with the
imperialist Colonel Hans Brenner, whom he met at Nuremberg.
Four and a half years in the household of Brenner's uncle, the
viceroy of Hungary (1624-29), and a briefer connexion in 1629
with the duke of Rethel and his father the duke of Nevers,
prince of Mantua, gave him the habit of courts, which was
invaluable to him in later years; and at the defence of Mantua
in 1629, and in Germany in the following year with Colonel
Walter Butler (afterwards notorious through the death of
Wallenstein), he gained some military experience. When he
left Butler to view the diet of Ratisbon in 1630, he had seen
Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Poland and Hungary, as well as
France, England and the Low Countries, and spoke the prin-
cipal languages of these countries. He was now eager to visit
the East; and at Ratisbon he found the opportunity to join
two French fathers, M. de Chapes and M. de St Liebau, who
had received a mission to the Levant. In their company he
reached Constantinople early in 1631, where he spent eleven
months, and then proceeded by Tokat, Erzerum and Erivan
to Persia. His farthest point in this first journey was Ispahan ;
he returned by Bagdad, Aleppo, Alexandretta, Malta and Italy,
and was again in Paris in 1633. Of the next five years of his
life nothing is known with certainty, but it was probably during
this period that he became controller of the household of the
duke of Orleans. In September 1638 he began a second journey
(1638-43) by Aleppo to Persia, and thence to India as far as
Agra and Golconda. His visit to the court of the Great Mogul
and to the diamond mines was connected with the plans realized
more fully in his later voyages, in which Tavernier travelled as
a merchant of the highest rank, trading in costly jewels and
other precious wares, and finding his chief customers among
the greatest princes of the East. The second journey was
followed by four others. In his third (1643-49) he went as
far as Java and returned by the Cape; but his relations with
the Dutch proved not wholly satisfactory, and a long lawsuit
on his return yielded but imperfect redress. In his last three
journeys (1651-55, 1657-62, 1664-68) he did not proceed beyond
India. The details of these voyages are often obscure; but
they completed an extraordinary knowledge of the routes of
overland Eastern trade, and brought the now famous merchant
into close and friendly communication with the greatest Oriental
potentates. They also secured for him a large fortune and
great reputation at home. He was presented to Louis XIV.,
" in whose service he had travelled sixty thousand leagues by
land," received letters of nobility (on the i6th of February
1669), and in the following year purchased the barony of
Aubonne, near Geneva. In 1662 he had married Madeleine
Goisse, daughter of a Parisian jeweller.
Thus settled in ease and affluence, Tavernier occupied him-
self, as it would seem at the desire of the king, in publishing
the account of his journeys. He had neither the equipment
nor the tastes of a scientific traveller, but in all that referred
to commerce his knowledge was vast and could not fail to be
of much public service. He set to work therefore with the aid
of Samuel Chappuzeau, a French Protestant litterateur, and
produced a Nouvelle Relation de I'Inttrieur du Serail du Grand
Seigneur (410, Paris, 1675), based on two visits to Constanti-
nople in his first and sixth journeys. This was followed by
Le Six Voyages de J. B. Tavernier (2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1676)
and by a supplementary Recueil de Plusieurs Relations (410,
Paris, 1679), in which he was assisted by a certain La Chapelle.
This last contains an account of Japan, gathered from merchants
and others, and one of Tongking, derived from the observations
of his brother Daniel, who had shared his second voyage and
settled at Batavia; it contained also a violent attack on the
agents of the Dutch East India Company, at whose hands
Tavernier had suffered more than one wrong. This attack
was elaborately answered in Dutch by H. van Quellenburgh
(Vindicia Balances, Amst., 1684), but made more noise
because Arnauld drew from it some material unfavourable to
Protestantism for his Apologie pour les Catholiqucs (1681), and so
brought on the traveller a ferocious onslaught in Jurieu's Esprit
de M. Arnauld (1684). Tavernier made no reply to,Jurieu; he
was in fact engaged in weightier matters, for in 1684 he travelled
to Berlin at the invitation of the Great Elector, who commis-
sioned him to organize an Eastern trading company — a project
never realized. The closing years of Ta vernier's life are obscure;
the time was not favourable for a Protestant, and it has even
been supposed that he passed some time in the Bastille. What
is certain is that he left Paris for Switzerland in 1687, that in
1689 he passed through Copenhagen on his way to Persia
through Muscovy, and that in the same year he died at Moscow.
It appears that he had still business relations in the East, and
that the neglect of these by his nephew, to whom they were
intrusted, had determined the indefatigable old man to a fresh
journey.
Tavernier's travels, though often reprinted and translated, have
two defects: the author uses other men's material without dis-
tinguishing it from his own observations; and the narrative is
much confused by his plan of often deserting the chronological
order and giving instead notes from various journeys about certain
routes. The latter defect, it is true, while it embarrasses the bio-
grapher, is hardly a blemish in view of the object of the writer,
who sought mainly to furnish a guide to other merchants. A careful
attempt to disentangle the thread of a life still in many parts obscure
has been made by Charles Joret, Jean Baptists Tavernier d'apres des
Documents Nouveaux, 8vo, Paris, 1886, where the literature of the
subject is fully given.
See also an English translation of Tavernier's account of his
travels so far as relating to India, by V. Ball, 2 vols. (1889).
TAVIRA, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of
Faro (formerly the province of Algarve); at the mouth of the
river Seca, 21 m. E.N.E. of Faro. Pop. (1900) 12,175. The
harbour is protected by two forts, and the public buildings
include a Moorish citadel, a Renaissance church, and a ruined
nunnery founded by King Emanuel (1495-1521). Tavira has
sardine and tunny fisheries, and carries on a considerable coasting
trade. Excellent fruit is grown in the neighbourhood.
TAVISTOCK, a market town in the Tavistock parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, in the valley of the Tavy, on
the western border of Dartmoor; 165 m. N. of Plymouth, on
the Great Western and the London and South Western railways.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 4728. There are some remains
(including a portion in the square, now used as a public library
established in 1799) of the magnificent abbey of St Mary and
St Rumon, founded in 961 by Orgar, earl of Devon. After
destruction by the Danes in 997 it was restored, and among
its famous abbots were Lyfing, friend of Canute, and Aldred,
who crowned Harold II. and William, and died archbishop of
York. The abbey church was rebuilt in 1285, and the greater
part of the abbey in 1457-58. The church- of St Eustachius
dates from 1318, and possesses a lofty tower supported on four
open arches. Within are monuments to the Glanville and
Bourchier families, besides some good stained glass, one window
being the work of William Morris. Kelly College, near the
town, was founded by Admiral Benedictus Marwood Kelly,
and opened in 1877 for the education of his descendants and
the orphan sons of naval officers. Mines of copper, manganese,
lead, silver and tin are in the neighbourhood, and the town
possesses a considerable trade in cattle and corn, and industries
in brewing and iron-founding. The mining industry generally
has declined, but there is a trade in arsenic, extracted from
the copper ore.
The early history of Tavistock (Tavistoke) centres round the
abbey of St Rumon. Both town and abbey were sacked by
the Danes in 997, but were shortly afterwards rebuilt, and the
latter at the time of the Conquest ranked as the wealthiest
house in Devon, including the hundred and manor of Tavistock
among its possessions. Tavistock was governed from before
the Conquest by a portreeve, who in the i4th century was
assisted by a select council of burgesses, styled in 1660 " the
Masters of the Toune and Parish of Tavistock." It returned
two members to parliament as a borough from 1295 until de-
prived of one member by the act of 1867, and finally disfranchised
TAVOY— TAXATION
by that of 1885, ,but no charter of corporation was granted until
1683, when Charles II. instituted a governing body of a mayor,
twelve aldermen and twelve assistants; with a recorder, deputy
recorder, common clerk and two sergeants-at-mace. A market
on Friday and a three days' fair at the feast of St Rumon were
granted by Henry I. to the monks of Tavistock; and in 1552
two fairs on April 23 and November 28 were granted by
Edward VI. to the earl of Bedford, then lord of the manor. In
the 1 7th century great quantities of cloth were sold at the
Friday market, and four fairs were held at the feasts of
St Michael, the Epiphany, St Mark, and the Decollation of
St John the Baptist. The charter of Charles II. instituted a
Tuesday market and fairs on the Thursday after Whitsunday
and at the feast of St Swithin. In 1822 the old fairs were
abolished in favour of six fairs on the second Wednesdays in
May, July, September, October, November and December.
The Friday market is still held. Tavistock was one of the four
stannary towns appointed by charter of Edward I., at which
tin was stamped and weighed, and monthly courts were held
for the regulation of mining affairs. It was also the site of
one of the earliest printing-presses, and copies of the stannary
laws and of a translation of Boethius issued from the Tavistock
press in the reign of Henry VIII. are preserved in Exeter College
library. The decay of the woollen industry at Tavistock was
attributed by the inhabitants in 1641 to the dread of the Turks
at sea and of popish plots at home. The trade is now extinct.
The copper-mining industry has much declined. The Royalist
troops were quartered here in 1643 after the defeat of the
Parliamentary forces at Bradock Down.
See Victoria County History, Devonshire; A. J. Kempe, Notices
of Tavistock and its Abbey (London, 1830); R. N. Worth, Calendar
of Tavistock Parish Records (Plymouth, 1887).
TAVOY, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of
Lower Burma. The town is on the left bank of the river of
the same name, 30 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) 22,371. It
carries on a considerable coasting trade with other ports of
Burma, and with the Straits Settlements. The chief industry
is silk-weaving, but there are also rice and timber mills.
The district has an area of 5308 sq. m. It lies between Siam
and the Bay of Bengal, enclosed by mountains on three sides,
viz., the main chain of the Bilauktaung on the east, rising in
places to 5000 feet, which, with its densely wooded spurs, forms
an almost impassable barrier between British and Siamese
territory; the Nwahlabo in the centre, which takes its name
from its loftiest peak (5000 ft.); and a third range, under the
name of Thinmaw, between the Nwahlabo and the sea-coast.
The chief rivers are the Tenasserim and Tavoy, the former
being formed by the junction of two streams which unite near
Met-ta; for the greater part of its course it is dangerous to
navigation. The Tavoy is navigable for vessels of any burden.
It is interspersed with many islands, and with its numerous
smaller tributaries affords easy and rapid communication.
The climate is on the whole pleasant. The annual rainfall
averages 228 inches. Pop. (1901) 109,979, showing an increase
of 16 per cent, in the decade. The staple crop is rice. Forests
cover an area of nearly 5000 sq. m., of which 960 sq. m. are
" reserved. "
Tavoy, with the rest of Tenasserim, was handed over to the
British at the end of the first Burmese war in 1824. A revolt
broke out in 1829, headed by the former governor, which was
at once quelled, and since then the district has remained un-
disturbed.
TAWDRY, an adjective used to characterize cheap finery,
and especially things which imitate in a cheap way that which
is rich or costly, or adornments of which the freshness and
elegance have worn off. The word is first used in combination
in the phrase " tawdry lace," a shortened form or corruption
of St Audrey's or St Awdrey's lace. St Audrey was St
Etheldreda, who founded Ely cathedral, and it is generally
accepted that tawdry-laces or tawdries were necklaces bought
at St Audrey's Fair on the i7th of October. Nares (Glossary
to the Works of English Authors, 1859) gives as an alternative
the story that the saint died of a swelling in the throat, which
she took as a judgment for having worn fine necklaces in her
youth.
TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from
Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same
root as tangere, to touch), that part of the revenue of a state
which is obtained by compulsory dues and charges upon its
subjects. The state may have revenue from property of its
own. In past times one of the principal sources of the revenue
of the sovereign was in fact property of some sort, of which
the crown lands in Great Britain, still administered by the
government, are a remnant. In other countries, even at the
present time, there is a large public domain yielding revenue.
Local authorities also largely own property from which a re-
venue is obtained. But as a rule, and in spite of what has often
been the practice in the past, and of exceptions which may still
exist in some countries, a government obtains the money re-
quired for its expenses by means of taxation. Some of the
apparent exceptions, moreover, appear to be only exceptions
in name. It is contended, for instance, that the revenue from
land obtained by the government of India is in reality of the
nature of a land rent — a species of property owned by the
government. But the fact of a government levying so general
a charge may be held ipso facto to convert the charge into a
tax, having much the same economic effects and consequences
as a tax. When, moreover, a state receives a revenue from
property, some of the economic consequences may be the same
as if it received the money by means of a tax. In both cases
there is absorption and administration by the state of so much
of the income of the community, and it may be a question
whether the private ownership of the property would not be
more expedient both for the state and its subjects than state
ownership js, in spite of the apparent advantage to all concerned
in the state getting so much of its income without the com-
pulsion of a tax.
The Different Kinds of Taxes. — In the economic development
of states taxes have come to be grouped in different ways,
according to variations in the method of levying them or the
means of enforcing compulsion or other differences. One of
the most usual divisions is into direct and indirect taxes. Taxes
are distinguished as direct, because they are charged directly
upon the tax-payer from whose income they are supposed to
be taken. Indirect taxes are those where it is recognized from
the beginning that the individual who pays in the first instance
usually passes on the charge to some one else, who may again
pass it on until it finally reaches the subject who bears the
burden. The income tax, a direct charge upon all incomes above
a certain limit, is the principal type in the United Kingdom
of ^a direct tax. In France there is a group of taxes known by
that name — a land tax, a personal and furniture tax, a door
and window tax, and a trade licence tax. In the United States
there are mainly assessments of the capital value of property,
always for' state and local purposes only, and not for the
central government. Among the indirect taxes the most
important are excise and customs duties upon articles of general
consumption, the principal articles almost everywhere being
spirits, beer and tobacco. Sugar, tea, coffee and cocoa are
also among the articles commonly selected. In essential
character there is no difference between excise and customs
duties, except that excise duties are levied upon articles of home
production, and customs upon articles imported from abroad,
or brought into one part of a country or empire from another
part ; but excise duties on the whole are considered more likely
to interfere with trade, in consequence of the necessity of super-
vising the production of the articles affected. Next in import-
ance to excise and customs we have duties levied by means of
stamps upon documents or by charges at the time of registering
deeds to which registration is necessary for the purpose
of being valid. The charge in one case upon the article at a
certain stage of its production, and in the other upon a trans-
action, is supposed to be passed on by the first payer to others.
With these have been usually classed in the United Kingdom
TAXATION
459
certain licence taxes upon traders, although such licences
in France are reckoned direct taxes.
This division into direct and indirect is, however, far from
logical. To take first the direct taxes. The income tax itself
is not, in all cases, really paid to the state directly by the person
out of whose income it comes. It is paid, in the first instance,
in the case of land or houses, by the occupier, and where the
occupier is a tenant it is recovered by him from the owner. In
the case of joint-stock companies the company pays the state,
and deducts the amount from the individual owners of stocks
and shares out of whose incomes the amount comes. The
ultimate payer in these cases is no doubt reached without
delay or many steps, but the process is not quite direct. It is
the same with rates. A householder is assessed as occupier,
but he may be " compounded for," and really know nothing
of the payment, though it is supposed to come out of his income.
In the case, again, of a long-established land tax or rate many
questions may arise as to whether the person who is considered
to bear the burden in the first instance really bears it in the end.
It is contended by some that the tax becomes in the nature of a
rent-charge upon the property affected, and that the state
really acts as landowner in levying the charge just as it does in
receiving the rent of crown lands, and with similar economic
incidents and consequences. Thus the direct taxes so called
may frequently be no more direct than any others.
As regards indirect taxes, again, there appear to be some
cases at least where it is by no means certain that the charge
is passed on; stamp duties, for instance, especially where
moderate in amount, may have the effect of diminishing pro
tanto the profits in business of the person paying them, or the
income which he enjoys. Where they are heavy, as, for instance,
with the French registration duties on the transfer of property,
there appears to be little doubt that they constitute a deduc-
tion from the price which a seller receives, and thus they are
direct enough. Sometimes also, when a charge upon a com-
modity is not of such a figure as to be easily divisible among the
ordinary units of retail consumption, so that it can be passed
on to a consumer of the articles in the form of an increased
price, it may remain fixed upon those who first pay it, at least
for a time. This is supposed to have actually happened with
the increase of the beer duty in the British budget of 1894 by
6d. per barrel — a sum which would not when divided by the
pints in a barrel amount to the smallest coin of the realm.
When the multure tax, a tax upon milling grain, was imposed
in Italy many years ago, it was found that no corresponding
increase took place in the price of flour and bread. The trade
fell into the hands of the millers on a large scale, who paid the
tax out of their increased profits from larger business, while
the smaller millers were crushed out; so that this was mani-
festly the case of a tax, so called indirect, where the whole
burden really fell on those who paid the charge in the first
instance, and who in theory were supposed to pass it on to
others. Even in the case of indirect taxes, therefore, there are
important exceptions to the rule that they are indirect.
The division of taxes into direct and indirect is thus based
on no real intrinsic difference. It is a classification for con-
venience' sake, adopted upon a rough observation of conspicuous,
or apparently conspicuous, differences in the mode of levying
taxes, and nothing more. The division, nevertheless, cannot be
passed over without mention, as it is not only a common one in
economic writing, but it figures largely in budget statements,
financial accounts, and finance ministers' speeches — especially in
the United Kingdom and France. In the United Kingdom the
distinction has been made familiar by free-trade discussions.
Direct taxation in the shape of income tax was substituted
for indirect taxation previously levied, in order to relieve trade
from the shackles of duties and charges which had become all-
embracing. In France the direct taxes above referred to are
described officially as direct, having been originally, there is little
doubt, the main sources of government income; and there is
equally an official designation of certain heads of revenue as
" contributions et taxes indirectes." Recently in budget debates in
England there has been much comparison of the amounts yielded
at different times by direct and indirect taxes respectively.
Other general classifications of taxes have also been attempted,
as, for instance, taxes upon real property, and taxes upon
personal property, and so on. Classification is indeed only
too easy. Applying a characteristic common to some taxes,
we can make a group of them, and set them against a group
of all the other taxes lumped together. Such classifications
are, however, uninstructive, and it has been found practically
necessary in financial writing to take the principal taxes by
name, or by such a general grouping as that of import or stamp
duties, and then describe their nature, characteristics and
incidence. In this way each country has a grouping of its
own, though there is a common likeness, and the experience
and practice of one country assist the financial study of another.
As Adam Smith remarks, there is nothing in which govern-
ments have been so ready to learn of one another as in the
matter of new taxes.
Descriptions of Taxes. — Following the practice of authors on
finance, we may give a short account of the principal taxes
in the United Kingdom, with references in passing to points
of comparison or contrast with the taxes of other countries.
See, however, also the article on ENGLISH FINAKCE.
The income tax (<?.».) for many years has been the most
prominent, and latterly it has been the most productive, single
tax. Its technical name is the property and income tax, but
it is essentially a charge upon all incomes or profits, whether
arising from property, or from the remuneration of personal
services, or from annuities, income being applied with the
widest possible meaning. As originally instituted in April 1798,
during the great war with France, under the name of a " tripli-
cate assessment," it was rather a consolidation of various
assessed taxes levied upon the luxuries of the rich and upon
property, than a wholly new tax. In December of the same
year this impost was repealed, and a true income tax of 10 per
cent, established on all incomes over £60, with abatements
between £60 and £200. It was intended as a temporary tax
for war purposes only, and was repealed in 1802, but was re-
imposed when the war recommenced in 1803, with the limit
of abatement reduced to £150. So odious was it that parlia-
ment in 1815, when the war came to an end, ordered the destruc-
tion of the documents relating to it. Its efficiency as an instru-
ment of producing revenue was, however, so great as to lead to
its revival in 1842, when Sir Robert Peel inaugurated his great
free-trade reform and swept away duties on exports, duties on
imported raw material, and other imposts hampering the trade
of the country. The intention again was that the tax should
be temporary, but although the free-trade work was practi-
cally completed in the early 'sixties, and Mr Gladstone went
so far as to dissolve parliament in 1874 with a promise that
he would abolish the tax if his party were returned to power,
it has become a permanent impost. The reasons are that with
the tax at a low rate it has been found much less intolerable
than during the Napoleonic War, when it was at the rate of
10 per cent., while the pressure of the tax has also been greatly
mitigated by placing very high the minimum income subject
to it, and giving abatements upon the lower taxable incomes.
These expedients have since been carried much farther. The
tax, if kept at a low rate, undoubtedly fulfils a useful function
as a revenue reserve for emergencies, on account of the ease
with which it can be put up and down without disturbing
trade. But in recent years, by rising to the rate of is. 2d. per £,
it has been felt more heavily, and at this height is decidedly less
elastic. As regards this tax at least there is no question of its
" directness " in a sense, as it is so contrived that it can hardly
be passed on by those who are struck at, though they are not
always the same as those who pay in the first instance, as has
already been pointed out. There have been great complaints
also of injustice by the possessors of temporary and precarious
incomes, who have to pay the same rate of tax as the owners
of permanent incomes from property, although these complaints
have been diminished to some small extent by the raising of
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TAXATION
the minimum limit of the income assessed and the increase of
the principle of abatements.
The varieties of income charged being very great, and special
claims for consideration having been set up at different times,
the result has been the formation of an income tax code, denning
the methods and rules for assessing the different classes of
profits and income, and prescribing the way in which abate-
ments and exemptions are to be obtained. A leading peculiarity
is the avoidance of special inquisition into the aggregate of
individual incomes. Although it is called a direct tax, the
method of levy, as far as property is concerned, is upon the
profits at their source, and not as they are distributed among
the receivers. The question of the amount of individual
incomes only comes before the authorities when claims for
exemption and abatement are made. The character of the tax
is accordingly much less odious than it would be if an account
of individual incomes were invariably demanded, as was the
case in the United States during the Civil War, when an income
tax existed for a short time.
Other taxes grouped with the income tax by the authorities
are house duty and land tax, but they are unimportant by
comparison. The house duty replaced a window tax and other
charges which were formerly not unimportant, especially in
the interval between 1815 and 1843, when there was no income
tax. It is a charge upon the occupiers of houses, mainly
dwelling-houses, according to the amount of rent, the rate upon
dwelling-houses ranging from 3d. to pd. in the £, and the yield
being about £1,750,000 per annum. The incidence is probably
much the same as that of the income tax itself, though there
are curious questions as to the ultimate incidence as between
owners and occupiers of houses. The land tax is quite un-
important, being an ancient tax upon an old assessment which
has long become obsolete, and it interests economists most of
all by the illustration it furnishes of what may be called a rent-
charge tax — a tax, that is, which has been so long in existence
and so fixed in its basis that it becomes in reality a charge
upon the property, and not a direct burden upon the person
who pays it, as the income tax is upon the person who pays
it or for whom it is paid. In 1897 the basis of the tax was
varied, but not in any way to affect the principle just stated.
The next great group of taxes is that of the excise (q.v.)
and customs duties upon commodities. Excise duties are
charges upon commodities produced at home on their way
to the consumer, and customs duties in the United Kingdom
are charges upon commodities brought into the country from
abroad; and they are of essentially the same nature. Not
only so, but excise duties and customs duties are in some cases
supplementary to each other, like articles being produced at
home and imported from abroad, so that for the sake of the
revenue they have both to be taxed alike. Of this in the
British system spirits are the best instance.
Export duties, it may be observed, are not important in
systems of taxation generally, as there are few articles where
the charge will not really fall on the wages of labour and profits
of capital within the country imposing them; but opium
grown in India is a well-known exception, and in the West
Indies export duties on principal articles of production, in spite
of their incidence, have been found a convenient source of
revenue.
The list of commodities selected for taxation in the English
fiscal system, under Free Trade, is very small. Few countries
have so short a list of import duties, but this is in consequence
of their design to give protection, which raises totally different
questions from those of revenue.
The next large group of taxes is that of the stamp duties
(q.v.). The principal items are those derived from a stamp of
id. upon each cheque or receipt for money paid, and from a
variety of charges on deeds and other instruments, and prin-
cipally on the price paid for the transfer of real property and
of stocks and shares, and on mortgages. Included are various
charges on foreign bonds to bearer, to compensate for the
advantage they have in escaping the transfer duty on deeds,
through their passing on sale or mortgage from hand to hand.
The essence of the compulsion in the case of stamp duties is
the invalidity of the documents in courts of law unless the
stamp is affixed, besides liability to penalties for not affixing
the proper stamps. As things go in matters of taxation,
English stamp duties are low. In France, besides the stamp
duties, there are charges on the transfer of real property amount-
ing to about 6 per cent, on the official registration of the transfer
which is necessary to make it effective.
We come next, in dealing with taxation, to a group of charges
about which the question has been raised as to whether they
are, properly speaking, taxes or not. These are the post office
charges, and the charges for telegraph service, including tele-
phones. In the classification of the revenue in English budgets
and in official returns these charges are deliberately separated
from the above sources of the revenue described as taxes, and
classed with " revenue derived from other sources." The
correctness of this procedure is questionable. According to old
usage, the post office was made a state monopoly for the express
purpose of levying taxation by means of it. In France the
postage on letters is still called the taxe dss lettres. There is no
doubt also, that when postage on letters is charged at the rate
of id. each, where the cost of collection and delivery, as in the
metropolis, is perhaps not more than a tenth of a penny, it is
difficult to distinguish the levy from that of any other tax.
The excuse, as a rule, may hold good, that the postal charge
is only a reasonable one for service rendered, so that the net
income of the post office really resembles the profit of a business,
but the element of taxation appears undoubtedly to enter.
The same remark would apply to the charges for passenger
conveyance and goods freight made by governments which
carry on railway business, as in Prussia, India and the Aus-
tralian states. In strict theory, where the government makes
a charge, it levies a tax. The reasonableness of the charge
in a given case is to its credit, but the features of monopoly
and compulsion on the tax-payer make the charges difficult
to distinguish logically from other taxes. The facts are not
in dispute, however they may be described. If the govern-
ment derived a large income from post office and telegraph
service in excess of the amount expended, the whole income
would be generally, and not improperly, described as taxation;
but consideration, of course, must be given to the difference
made by the working of the service generally for the public
advantage rather than for purposes of revenue.
Another source of revenue in British imperial finance is that
from fees in courts of justice, patent stamps and the like, which
is usually classified, like the income of the post office, as revenue
derived from other sources than taxes. The amount is not
large, though unfortunately it is not exactly known, owing to
the fees being treated in many cases as extra receipts, and
deducted from the expenditure of the departments by which
they are received, so that this part of the national expenditure
is not shown in the accounts at all. The proceeding appears
to be quite incorrect, whatever excuse there may be for treating
revenue like that of the post office as non-tax revenue. Fees
levied on proceedings in courts of justice are not only taxes,
but taxes of the worst sort. They received the special con-
demnation of Jeremy Bentham. It is a blot on British finance,
therefore, that this part of the taxation is treated as if it were
not taxation at all, and largely concealed from view in the
way described.
Last of all, we have to notice among the imperial taxes the
estate (q.v.) or death duties, as they are called — the charges
made by government on the transfer of property from the dead
to the living. These have been considerably increased in
amount. Various interesting questions arise regarding them.
Logically they are apparently taxes upon the dead, as they
limit the area of bequest, but they are felt by the living who
receive the estate as if the burden of taxation fell on them.
Practically, when a stranger receives the estate of a deceased
man, the proper way of viewing the tax would appear to be
that it is a share of property claimed by the state against a
TAXATION
461
stranger who has no right in the matter except that which the
state gives him, so that it is hardly a tax at all, as the word is
usually understood; but when the estate is received by the
near relatives of the deceased who were subsisting upon it
even before his death, it is undoubtedly felt as a tax by them,
and operates as a tax. It is even at times a very burdensome
tax, falling upon a family when its sources of income are other-
wise diminished, while it has the demerit of striking a small
number annually instead of being diffused equally. Death
duties also raise the question as to their being taxes upon
capital. They are of large amount, even at the lowest rates
of i to 4 per cent, upon the capital charged, and they have to
be paid at such times as to cause their being paid out of capital
and not out of income, so that their tendency is to diminish
the capital available for productive enterprises.
Local Taxation. — Besides the above revenue from taxation
for imperial purposes, large amounts are raised for local pur-
poses. The local authorities derive a large income from private
property, and from monopolies such as water, gas, electric
light, telephones and tramway service, which they carry on,
and on which the same observations may be made as on the
post office and telegraph services; but in addition there is a
large amount of taxation. The principal portion of this taxa-
tion consists of rates, that is, a direct charge upon the income
or rental of real property, such as lands, houses, railways and
mines, but mainly lands and houses. Rates are even a more
important factor in direct taxation than the income tax, and
they have given rise to even greater complaints and discussion.
In 1896 a special royal commission was appointed, under the
chairmanship of Lord Balfour of Burleigh, to consider the
problems of the rates; it made several elaborate reports, the
final one appearing in 1901. The most important questions
raised in a scientific view appear to be the misconception of
the whole problem of local taxation by governments. Rates
were originally imposed, there is little question, when the
intention was to tax all local incomes equally, and this is still
the intention in the local taxation of the United States as well
as the United Kingdom. Rates were imposed, therefore, on
all kinds of property and the income arising from them, just as
they are imposed in the United States on the capital of the
property itself. But it has been found in practice that for
various reasons only real property, which is visibly local and
cannot be moved away, can be assessed and made to pay. The
owners of real property, however, continually urge that they
are unfairly treated, and that other property should be rated.
Next there has been misconception, arising from the same cause,
in the constant attempt to charge the occupier of lands and
houses with rates, although the real effect of the rates must be,
as a rule, to diminish the value of the property affected like an
old-established land tax, so that rates, properly speaking, do
not fall upon either owner or occupier. It would be hard,
however, to persuade the mass of occupiers in England that
they do not pay the rates, so that the expedient of dividing
the rates between owner and occupier, though it cannot affect
their real incidence to a substantial extent, constantly finds
favour. The confusion has been further increased of late years
by attempts, as far as towns are concerned, to find a new sub-
ject of taxation in what are called site values, as if rates them-
selves were not in reality an appropriation by the state of a
portion of the whole value of the property, subject to which all
the other interests exist. It would be impossible here even to
state all the questions that have arisen about rates; but the
essential confusion caused by the neglect of practical men to
study the natural history of taxation, as it may be called, must
be obvious to every student. The frank recognition that local
income taxes are impossible, and that taxation on property
for local purposes can only be applied to real property, where it
becomes, usually or frequently, in the nature of a rent-charge,
would have saved the legislature and the public an infinity of
laborious discussion.
Other taxes for local purposes comprise dues and tolls, such
as harbour dues, where the money is required for such a definite
purpose as a harbour, maintained at the expense of the traffic
accommodated. Here again the question arises as to whether
the tax is a mere compulsory charge or payment for a service
rendered. Among these tolls may perhaps be included some
charges in the nature of octroi dues, imposed on commodities
entering a town, but not to a great extent. Such dues, in the
nature of customs, are very common in continental cities, and
yield large revenue to the local authorities, although they have
been very generally, if not quite universally, abolished in the
United Kingdom. They have been regarded with much dislike
by most economists, and some dues of the kind which existed
in London, viz., dues on coal and wine imported, and metage
dues on grain, were much imposed until their final abolition in
recent years. When of moderate account, however, dues of
this sort appear no more objectionable than harbour dues
already mentioned, or any other moderate charges on transac-
tions. If of large amount and very numerous, they hamper
trade, as all taxation tends to do, but that is no reason for
condemning them specially when the choice lies between them
and other forms of taxation.
In addition, we have to notice certain taxes which up to
1910-11 were levied by the British government and distributed
to the local authorities, just as in France the government
levies certain direct taxes, or centimes additionnelles, added to
its own direct taxes for the benefit of the local authorities.
These taxes were additional beer and spirit dues (customs and
excise), excise licences, and share of probate and estate duty.
The remarks already made on the corresponding taxes levied
for imperial purposes of course apply to these. Exceptionally,
it may be added, as regards the licence taxes, which occupy
quite an inferior place in the British system of taxation for
imperial purposes, that the question whether some of them are
not really direct in their incidence on the first person charged
may also be raised, although they are classed with indirect taxes.
Many of the licences are those of brewers, distillers and
publicans, and others in trade, and are paid out of the general
profits of the business, so that they can hardly be passed on to
the consumers, while other licences are for shooting, for employ-
ing carriages and men-servants, and for similar objects, where
the charge on the payer is direct. This may be the place to
mention that in other countries, as in France, the licence duties
on traders are more general than in the United Kingdom, and
are levied on an elaborate scale, according to the size of popula-
tion of the town where the business is carried on, and the rent
paid for the premises. They take the place, to some extent,
of the income tax, and are usually classed with the direct taxes.
The peculiarity of taxes which are levied by the imperial
authority and distributed among the local authorities for dis-
bursement deserves notice. There must be a general cause for
such an arrangement when we find it to have been in existence
in France and other countries, and to have been introduced
into the United Kingdom. And this cause no doubt is the
need of the local authorities, and the difficulty of letting them
have taxes of their own to levy which do not interfere with
the imperial monopoly. The arrangement is obviously objec-
tionable on the score of its conducing to local extravagance, as
local authorities are not likely to be so economical with money
that comes to them from the outside, as it were, as they would
be with money directly taken from their own pockets. Local
authorities receive other subventions and aids from the central
government besides the proceeds of these taxes, so that their
appropriation for local needs is related to a large question which
belongs, however, to the general subject of local government,
and not so much to the special subject of taxation.
Incidence of Taxation. — In describing the principal taxes
which are employed in the United Kingdom to provide for
the national expenditure, observations have necessarily been
made upon the incidence, probable or assumed, upon the tax-
payer, and on the question how far they may fall equally on
the whole community without any special incidence being
traceable. The incidence of taxation is, however, a special
subject for discussion, and is connected with . various large
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TAXATION
issues, such as that of Free Trade, which are of deep interest
to economic students.
The starting-point of discussions as to incidence of taxation
is a classical passage in Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (book v.
chap, ii.), where he lays down the following maxims with regard
to taxes in general: i. The subjects of every state ought to
contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly
as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in
proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under
the protection of the state. 2. The tax which each individual
is bound to pay ought to be certain and not arbitrary. 3. Every
tax ought to be levied at the time or in the manner in which
it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay
it. [Adam Smith specially praises indirect taxes on com-
modities under this head, because the consumer " pays them
by little and little as he buys the goods," and " it must be his
own fault if he ever suffers any considerable inconveniency
from such taxes."] 4. Every tax ought to be so contrived
as both to take out and keep out of the pockets of the people
as little as possible over and above what it brings into the
public treasury of the state. [This last passage is specially
directed against taxes which are expensive to collect, or dis-
courage trade, or offer temptation to smuggling, or subject
people to frequent visits of the tax-gatherer.] These maxims
have commanded universal assent, as they are obviously the
common sense of the subject.
It may be observed, however, that while general maxims are
easy, the application presents difficulties, and since Adam
Smith wrote, and especially in modern times, new questions
of some interest have been raised. Adam Smith does not go
minutely into the incidence of taxation. Taxes in his view
must come out of rent, or profit, or the wages of labour; and
he observes that every tax which falls finally upon one only
of the three sorts of revenue " is necessarily unequal in so far
as it does not affect the other two," and in examining different
taxes he disregards as a rule this sort of inequality, and con-
fines his observations " to that inequality which is occasioned
by a particular tax falling unequally upon that particular sort
of private revenue which is affected by it." Recent discussion,
however, has gone rather to the point which Adam Smith
neglected, that of inequality generally, not merely as between
different sorts of income, but as between individuals and classes.
The whole burden of taxation, it is maintained, should fall
equally upon classes and individuals as far as possible, and,
if necessary, taxes falling equally upon special sources of private
revenue should be balanced against each other in order to
obtain the desired result. Along with this view has arisen
the question whether the burden of taxation should not be
progressive — the proportion of the sum taken by the state from
the tax-payers increasing with the wealth of the individual;
because ability to pay taxes is assumed to be not in proportion
to, but to increase with the size of, the income.
What opinion should be held regarding this modern view
as to equality in taxation, which differs so widely from any-
thing countenanced by Adam Smith, though his language is
echoed in it? The answer must be that, however sound, the
view is for the most part far too ambitious. One difficulty is
caused by the large proportion of the taxes in almost every
system of taxation, and at any rate in the British system,
where the exact incidence is in no way traceable, or where
there is no sort of general agreement as to the incidence. The
whole of the British revenue from post office and telegraph
service, and the whole of the stamp revenue, are derived from
charges whose exact incidence cannot be traced. We have
seen, indeed, that doubt is even felt as to whether post office
and telegraph charges can be treated as taxes at all. Again,
the death duties are in a distinct category, these duties falling
each year not on a particular class of the community, or a
particular kind of property, but on a few individuals only,
who are in some cases treated severely, while others may have
no cause of complaint. In the course of fifty years, it may
be said, the balance will be rectified, and the whole class to
which the individuals belong, and the property they own, will
•be visited in turn, so that this taxation should be credited to
them in an account of the incidence of taxes generally; but
fifty years is altogether too long a period for such adjustments
to be made. Thus a very large proportion of the total revenue
cannot be made available for an account showing the incidence
of taxation. There remain principally the income tax and one
or two minor " direct " taxes, and t,he customs and excise
duties. These, it is said, can be distributed among different
classes of tax-payers, because the income tax falls on the owners
of incomes of all kinds of property subject to the duty, if their
incomes are above a certain limit, while the incidence of customs
and excise duties can be ascertained by inquiries as to the
consumption of dutiable articles by different classes. Even
here, however, formidable difficulties are presented. The
payers of income tax, unfortunately, are not one class but
many, and although the rate of duty is the same, the defini-
tion of income seems imperfect, so that many pay on a much
larger assessment of income than seems fair in comparison
with other incomes of nominally the same amount, but really
of much greater value when all deductions from the gross sum
are fairly reckoned. If all who pay income tax are lumped
together and contrasted with those who do not pay, then there
is a false division to begin with, and there is so far no means
of establishing equality or inequality. As regards indirect
taxes, again, there appears no small difficulty in ascertaining
the relative consumption of different classes, for the simple
reason that in the same class so called the habits of consump-
tion differ widely. It is only by a wide extension of the term
" wdrking man," for instance, that a class which includes a steady
mechanic earning 305. to £2 a week, who is frequently a total
abstainer, and a labourer of inferior capacity and character earn-
ing 155. to 2os. a week, and who is not a total abstainer, can be
spoken of as one, and credit given to the one class for so much
taxation on spirits, beer, tobacco, wine, tea and sugar. There
are also geographical differences of a serious kind. On the
other hand, the consumption by the income tax paying classes
of customs and excise articles must vary indefinitely amongst
themselves, according to personal habits, size of families, and
even their geographical distribution. A further difficulty is
furnished by a question as to whether the employer of domestic
servants who gives them their board does or does not bear the
burden of the duties on the articles which they consume, and
which he buys for their use. Theoretically the burden falls
on them as consumers. They would have more real wages, it
is said, if the price of the articles they consume was not raised
by taxation. But practically most employers are convinced
that they pay the taxes for their servants. To establish,
therefore, any fair account of the incidence of indirect taxes
on different classes of the community, real classes being dis-
tinguished, and not a mere rough grouping into so-called classes
of units who are altogether heterogeneous, is probably beyond
the skill of man.
All this is evident on a view of imperial taxation alone. In
studying equality, moreover, local taxation must be brought
into view, with even more impracticable differences of opinion
as to the real incidence of the taxation. The moment rates
are brought into question it is seen at once how impossible
it would be to establish equality among tax-payers, when
owners on one side and occupiers on the other claim that they
each bear the burden of the same taxes, and economists favour
the opinion that much of the burden is in the nature of a rent-
charge on the property, and in any case is equally diffused over
the whole community.
Adam Smith was thus not altogether badly advised in not
carrying his investigations into the equality of taxation farther
than he did. There was another reason for his so doing in the
heaviness of the burden of taxation at the time he wrote,
governments exacting as much as they could, and being only
desirous of finding the easiest means of doing so. It is the
very lightness of taxation in recent years which has suggested
the possibility of comparing the relative burdens of different
TAXATION
463
classes, which would have seemed quite hopeless with a high
taxation and an immense variety of high taxes. The conclusion
that with good taxes long established the burden of taxation
tends to become equal over the whole community was certainly
not ill founded in the circumstances of former times, and may be
accepted as true even in the present day.
As to progressive taxation based on the assumption that
equality requires a larger proportionate charge upon a big
income than on one of a smaller amount, the practical applica-
tion of the principle, if true, would be impossible. A great
deal more would need to be known than is now known as to the
effect of taxes on different classes, and the aggregate amount
of different incomes, before such a task could be undertaken.
If there is a greater proportionate charge already on the larger
incomes, nothing more need be done, and we cannot know that
there is not. As to the justice of such a progressive tax, there
is a common opinion in its favour among economists, at least
to the extent of exempting a certain minimum of subsistence
from taxation; but the present writer, after accepting this
view in early life on the authority of Mill, must now express
the greatest doubt. The ideal is equality, and no measure of a
minimum of subsistence can really be devised.
Of course there may be single taxes which are progressive
in form, such as the licence tax in France, or the income tax
in Great Britain, where progression is established by abate-
ments, or the death duties, where progression by scale is very
common. But such progression may arise in a different way
and on different principles from those proposed in defence of a
general system of progressive taxation. It may be expedient
for balancing taxation and roughly redressing palpable in-
equalities, and may be adopted for that purpose and no other.
Statistical inquiries as to the incidence of taxation or of
particular taxes, though ideal or even approximate equality
of a palpable arithmetical kind is practically unattainable by
governments, are not altogether to be put aside. The informa-
tion thus obtainable may be useful as far as it goes, indicating
the directions in which the burden of taxation may press, and
forming a guide of some utility when changes of taxation are
contemplated. Calculations, for instance, as to what people
at the lower levels of the income tax must pay because they
happen to be struck by every sort of tax as no other class is,
and calculations as to the freedom from taxation of large
numbers of other classes whose habits of consumption and
living enable them to escape the tax-gatherer as the class to
which they belong cannot generally do, may help a finance
minister in the selection of taxes to be repealed or reduced
or to be newly imposed. With every effort after equality he
must fail to satisfy all, but friction may be diminished and the
work of carrying on government quietly and steadily facilitated.
Taxes and Free Trade. — Taxation ought not to interfere
with trade if possible, and the object of Adam Smith's maxims,
as we have seen, was largely to erect sign-posts warning finance
ministers against the kind of taxes likely to harass traders.
There has been much discussion, however, on free trade since
Adam Smith's time, and the far-reaching nature of his warnings
is not even yet generally understood. There will probably be
general agreement as to the wisdom of avoiding taxes which
are uncertain and arbitrary, or which involve frequent visits
of the tax-gatherer; but so far from there being a general
assent in all countries to his maxims as to the expediency of
avoiding taxation, which takes more from the tax-payer than
what comes into the hands of the government, this is the very
characteristic of duties deliberately imposed by most govern-
ments for the purpose of interfering with trade, and frequently
called for even in the United Kingdom with a similar object.
In a question of taxation, however, for the purpose of meeting
the expenses of the government, all such duties must be ruled
out. Taxes, as instruments for advancing the prosperity of a
country, are things unknown to the study of taxation " in
the proper sense of the word. The only proper object of taxa-
tion is to meet the expenses of the state, and when taxes are
used primarily or mainly for some other object they can only
be justified by political and economic reasons of a different order
from anything that has been under discussion.
On this ground, in an account of taxation proper, one might
avoid discussing altogether the question of irregular or illegiti-
mate taxation. But the subject is of too much popular interest,
perhaps, to be passed over altogether. Generally, then, it may
be affirmed that taxation in its essential nature cannot be
thought of as a good instrument for promoting trade and the
advancement of a country. So far as it operates at all, it
operates by diverting trade from the channels in which it would
naturally flow into other channels, and this diversion of in-
dustry, so far as it goes, must involve loss. People are induced
to do things they would otherwise leave alone, or to leave alone
what they would otherwise do, because money is given to them
out of the pockets of the tax-payers to make it worth their
while to do so; but there is palpably loss and not profit in the
proceeding. It is urged that in time industries are set up that
would not otherwise have existed, and population thereby
attracted, this being especially the argument for protective
duties in new countries; but even so, there is loss to set against
the final gain, if any, and we have not yet had an account in
which a balance of loss and gain is attempted. The presump-
tion is that on balance there is loss. In new countries especially
the diversion of industry from its natural development cannot
but be mischievous, wrong manufactures and industries being
set up at the expense of the whole community, instead of those
manufactures and industries which would be most profitable.
There is more to be said for the political argument which
induced Adam Smith to favour navigation laws, giving a pre-
ference to national shipping in national waters, and for a
similar political argument in favour of duties on agricultural
produce imported into the country, on the ground, as regards
navigation, that the prosperity of the shipping industry in
particular was essential to the safety of the country, and on
the ground, as regards duties on agricultural produce, that the
maintenance of a larger rural population and of a larger agri-
cultural production than would exist under natural conditions
of perfect free trade was essential to the welfare of the state
and even to its very existence in the possible event of a temporary
defeat at sea and a partial blockade of the coasts. This is not
the place to discuss such political problems, but there is no
question of free trade theory involved if the cost to the com-
murjity of any such taxation is frankly acknowledged.
Sir John A. Macdonald, the great protectionist prime minister
of Canada, in a conversation with the present writer in 1882,
avowed without hesitation that protectionist taxation in
Canada was indefensible on economic grounds, and he defended
it exclusively for political reasons. Politically one might differ
from him, but economists as such must either be silent when
political reasons are alleged for taxes that are against funda-
mental maxims, or must be content to point out the cost of the
taxes in order that the communities concerned may decide
whether the object in view is obtainable by means of the taxa-
tion, and is worth the price.
A great deal has been said as to taxes termed '.' counter-
vailing duties," which are called for in order to defend free
trade itself against the protectionist bounties of foreign govern-
ments. Such duties are obviously taxes outside the limits
to be considered in a question of taxation proper. They are
to be imposed for other purposes than revenue. As to the claim
for them that they will restore free trade conditions by nullify-
ing the foreign bounties which have caused a disturbance of
trade, this is really in the nature of a political reason. A
country which is so devoted to free trade that it not only
practises free trade itself but endeavours to convert others by
nullifying their protectionist measures as far as it can, even with
immediate loss to itself, departs from the guidance of self-
interest so far; but its political action may be justifiable in
the long run by other considerations. It seems right to point
out, however, that countervailing duties, which are really
differential duties of a special kind, are not the good expedient
they are supposed to be for nullifying foreign bounties; that
464
TAXIDERMY
experience of differential duties in former times is altogether
against them; and that they cannot be enforced without
certificates of origin and other causes of harassment and con-
fusion in the conduct of trade.
The extent of the interference with trade, in regard to par-
ticular taxes, is also a matter of importance. A particular
tax is not necessarily to be condemned because it takes a little
more out of the pockets of the people than what the government
receives. Such a defect is a ground for consideration in weighing
a particular tax against others, but it is only one inconvenience
among many incidental to all taxes.
Some English applications of free trade theory in recent times
in the matter of import duties have been pedantic — the abolition
of the shilling corn duty in 1869 by Robert Lowe (Lord Sher-
brooke) being typical of this pedantry, though it is not the only
instance. No doubt, in theory, this duty, being levied on the
import only and not on the home production of corn, took from
the tax-payer a shilling on every quarter of grain produced at
home which did not go into the exchequer. Per contra the tax
was wholly unfelt, a shilling a quarter only affecting an average
family of four persons to the extent of three shillings per annum,
or about three farthings a week, while it was paid little by little,
as Adam Smith explains with regard to indirect taxes in general.
The amount yielded, moreover, was considerable, being equal
to a penny on the income tax, which it is desirable to maintain
as a reserve of taxation. When we balance advantages and
disadvantages, therefore, the repeal of the corn duty and similar
measures would appear Lto have been sacrifices of revenue
without adequate reason.
Rates of Taxation. — Apart from the merits or demerits of
particular taxes or groups of taxes, and the questions as to
inequality, injury to trade, and the like already discussed, the
aggregate of taxation, or rather revenue, of a state may be con-
sidered in the most general way, having regard to the propor-
tion appropriated by the state of the total income of the com-
munity, and the return made by the state therefor. Here
there are the greatest variations. At one time, for instance,
during the great wars at the beginning of the ipth century, it
was calculated that the British government expenditure, and
the corresponding revenue, mostly raised by taxation, were
each equal to about one-third of the aggregate of individual
incomes — that is, as £90,000,000 to about £270,000,000. Pro-
portions even higher have not been unknown in history, and
it is probable that in Russia, India, Egypt, and in other countries
at this moment, in time of peace, the proportion may amount
to one-fourth or one-fifth. On the other hand, some years ago
in the United Kingdom, before the high expenditure on army
and navy began, and before the South African war of 1899-1902,
it is probable that with an outlay of less than £100,000,000 by
the central government, the proportion of this outlay to the
aggregate income of the people was not higher than one-
fourteenth. At the beginning of 1902, when the South African
war was closing, the normal peace expenditure, even reckoned
at £160,000,000, did not exceed one-tenth, while even peace and
war expenditure together in 1901, taking them as close on
£200,000,000, did not exceed one-eighth. These varying pro-
portions, however, mean different things economically, and it is
of obvious interest that, besides questions as to particular taxes,
the broad effect of the whole burden of taxation should also
be discussed.
The important points in this connexion appear to be: (i)
Very large appropriations can be made by the state from the
revenue of its subjects without permanent injury. The com-
munity thereby suffers, but the land and fixed capital remain,
and when the high government expenditure ceases individuals
at once have the benefit, subject to possible disturbance at the
moment of transition, when many persons employed by the
state return to private employment. (2) A state which in
ordinary times appropriates one-tenth or some less proportion
of aggregate individual incomes is much stronger relatively
than a state absorbing one-fourth, one-third, or even a higher
proportion. It has much larger resources, which would be
available if time were given to develop them. (3) When the
proportion becomes one-tenth or less it is doubtful whether the
state can do best for its subjects by making the proportion
still lower, that is, by abandoning one tax after another, or
whether equal or greater advantage would not be gained by
using the revenue for wise purposes under the direction of the
state, such as great works of sanitation, or water supply, or
public defence. In other words, when taxes are very moderate
and the revenue appropriated by the state is a small part only
of the aggregate of individual incomes, it seems possible that
individuals in a rich country may waste individually resources
which the state could apply to very profitable purposes. The
state, for instance, could perhaps more usefully engage in some
great works, such as establishing reservoirs of water for the use
of town populations on a systematic plan, or making a tunnel
under one of the channels between Ireland and Great Britain,
or a sea-canal across Scotland between the Clyde and the Forth,
or purchasing land from Irish landlords and transferring it to
tenants, than allow money to fructify or not fructify, as the
case may be, in the pockets of individuals. Probably there are
no works more beneficial to a community in the long run than
those like a tunnel between Ireland and Great Britain, which
open an entirely new means of communication of strategical as
well as commercial value, but are not likely to pay the individual
entrepreneur within a short period of time.
AUTHORITIES. — See also, for taxation and taxes in different
countries, the separate articles on the finance under the heading of
each country; and the articles on FREE TRADE, PROTECTION and
TARIFFS. The following short list of authors may be useful to the
student: — Adam Smith, Wealth of_ Nations; Ricardo-M'Culloch,
Principles of Taxation; Mill, Principles of Political Economy;
Bastable, Public Finance; E. R. A. Seligman, Shifting and Incidence
of Taxation (2nd ed., 1899); Gamier, Trails de Finances; Cohn,
System der National-Okonomie; Wagner, Finanzwissenschafl;
Roscher, System der Finanzwissenschaft. (R. Gu.)
TAXIDERMY, the art of preserving the integument, together
with the scales, feathers or fur, of animals. Little is known
of the beginnings of the practice of the " stuffing " or " setting
up " of animals for ornament or for scientific purposes; and it
is highly probable, from what we gather from old works of
travel or natural history, that the art is not more than some
three hundred years old. It was practised in England towards
the end of the iyth century, as is proved by the Sloane collec-
tion, which in 1725 formed the nucleus of the collection of
natural history now lodged in the galleries at South Kensington.
It was not until the middle of last century that any treatise
devoted to the principles of the then little understood art was
published in France, R. A. F. Reaumur's treatise (1749) being
probably the first. This was followed at intervals by others in
France and Germany, until the beginning of the I9th century,
when the English began to move in the matter, and several
works were published, notably those by E. Donovan,1 W.
Swainson,2 Capt. Thomas Brown 3 and others. These works,
however, are long since inadequate; and at the Great Ex-
hibition of 1851, the Germans and French taught British taxi-
dermists the rudiments of scientific treatment of natural
objects. The demands of sportsmen for the due preservation
of their trophies, and the requirements of the great museums
in every civilized country, have rapidly transformed a crude
handicraft into an elaborate art, and the finest modern results,
as produced by a private firm like Rowland Ward in England,
or the. expert staff of the American Museum of Natural History
in New York, leave almost nothing to be desired. The rapidly
recurring editions of Rowland Ward's handbook 4 supply a
guide to the amateur specially useful as indicating what may
be done in the field; John Rowley's little manual 6 supplies
1 Instructions for Collecting and Preserving Various Subjects of
Natural History (London, 1794).
1 The Naturalist's Guide for Collecting and Preserving Subjects of
Natural History and Botany (London, 1822).
8 Taxidermist's Manual (Glasgow, 1833).
4 The Sportsman's Handbook to Practical Collecting, Preserving
and Artistic Setting up of Trophies and Specimens (London, many
editions). * The Art of Taxidermy (New York, 1898).
TAXIDERMY
465
more detail as to what may be done in the workshop;
Montague Browne's elaborate treatise l remains a standard
work, whilst William T. Hornaday* has supplied a very full
account of the excellent American methods which he has done
so much to develop.
The first principle governing the art is that, after the specimen
has been procured, in as fresh and clean a state as may be,
it should have the skin stripped from the body in such a manner
as not to disturb the scales if a fish or a reptile, the feathers if
a bird, or the fur or hair if a mammal. To do this correctly
requires a small stock of tools, as well as a great amount of
patience and perseverance. The appliances comprise several
sharp knives (some pointed and some obtuse), a pair of scissors,
a pair of pliers, a pair of nippers or "cutting-pliers," some tow,
wadding, needles and thread, also a " stuffing-iron," some
crooked awls, a pair of fine long flat-nosed pliers, and a camel-
hair brush. The preservative compound is often the original
(B6coeur's) " arsenical soap," made by cutting up and boiling
2 Ib of white soap, to which 12 oz. of salt of tartar and 402.
of powdered lime (or whiting) are added when dissolved; to
this mixture, when nearly cold, 2 Ib of powdered arsenic and
5 oz. of camphor (the latter previously triturated in a mortar
with spirits of wine) are added. The mixture is put away in
small jars or pots for use. Like all arsenical preparations,
this is exceedingly dangerous in the hands of unskilled persons,
often causing shortness of breath, sores, brittleness of the nails
and other symptoms; and, as arsenic is really no protection
against the attacks of insects, an efficient substitute has been
invented by Browne, composed of i Ib of white curd soap
and 3 ft) of whiting boiled together, to which is added, whilst
hot, ij oz. of chloride of lime, and, when cold, i oz. of tincture
of musk. This mixture is perfectly safe to use when cold
(although when hot the fumes should not be inhaled, owing
to the chlorine given off), and is spoken of as doing its work
efficiently. Solutions of corrosive sublimate, often recom-
mended, are, even if efficient, dangerous in the extreme.
Powders consisting of tannin, pepper, camphor, and burnt alum
are sometimes used for " making skins," but they dry them too
rapidly for the purposes of " mounting." Mammals are best
preserved by a mixture of i Ib of burnt alum to $ Ib of salt-
petre; this, when intimately mixed, should be well rubbed into
the skin. Fishes and reptiles, when not cast and modelled,
are best preserved in rectified spirits of wine; but this, when
economy is desired, can be replaced by "Muller's solution"
(bichromate of potash 2 oz., sulphate of soda i oz., distilled
water 3 pints) or by a nearly saturated solution of chloride of
zinc. The cleaning of feathers and furs is performed by rubbing
them lightly with wadding soaked in benzoline, afterwards
dusting on plaster of Paris, which is beaten out, when dry,
with a bunch of feathers.
The preparation and mounting of bird specimens, the objects
most usually selected by the amateur, are performed in the follow-
ing manner. The specimen to be operated upon should have its
nostrils and throat closed by plugs of cotton-wool or tow; both
wing-bones should be broken close to the body, and the bird laid
upon a table on its back; and, as birds — especially white-breasted
ones — should seldom, if ever, be opened on the breast, an incision
should be made in the skin under the wing on the side most
damaged, from which the thigh protrudes when pushed up slightly ;
this is cut through at its junction with the body, when the knife
is gently used to separate the skin from this, until the wing-bone
is seen on the open side. This is then cut through by scissors,
and by careful manipulation the skin is further freed from the back
and breast until the neck can be cut off. The other side now
remains to be dealt with; from this the wing is cut by travelling
downwards, the remaining leg is cut away, and very careful skinning
over the stomach and upon the lower back brings the operator to
the tail, which is cut off, leaving a small portion of the bone (the
coccyx) in the skin. The body now falls off, and nothing remains
in the skin but the neck and head. To skin these out properly
without unduly stretching the integument, is a task trying to the
patience, but it can be accomplished by gradually working the
skin away from the back of the head forward, taking care to avoid
1 Artistic and Scientific Taxidermy and Modelling (London, 1896).
1 Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting (London, seventh edition,
1901).
cutting the eyes or the eyelids, but by cautious management, to
cut the membranous skin over those parts, so that the eyes are
easily extracted from the orbits without bursting. The skin should
be freed down nearly to the beak, and then the back of the head,
with neck attached, should be cut off, the brains extracted, all the
flesh cleared from the skull and from the bones of the wings, legs
and tail, the skin painted with the preservative, and ultimately
turned into its proper position. When " skins " only are to be
made for the cabinet, it is sufficient to fill the head and neck with
chopped tow, the body with a false one made of tow, tightly packed
or loose according to the genius of the preparer, to sew up the skin
of the stomach, and to place a band of paper lightly pinned around
the body over the breast and wings, and allow it to remain in a
warm position, free from dust, for several days or weeks, according
to the size of the specimen. It should then be labelled with name,
sex, locality and date, and put away with insect powder around it.
When, however, the specimen is to be " mounted," the opera-
tions should be carried up to the point of returning the skin, and
then a false body of tightly wrapped tow is made upon a wire
pointed at its upper end. This is inserted through the incision
under the wing, the pointed end going up the neck and through
the skull to the outside. When the imitation body rests within
the skin, pointed wires' are thrust through the soles of the feet, up
the skin of the back of the legs, and are finally clenched in the
body. Wires are also thrust into the butts of the wings, following
the skin of the under surface, and also clenched through into the
body. A stand or perch is provided, and the bird, being fixed
upon this, is, after the eyes have been inserted, arranged in the
most natural attitude which the skill of the taxidermist can give it.
Mammals are cut along the stomach from nearly the middle to
the breast, and are skinned by working out the hind legs first,
cutting them off under the skin at the junction of the femur with
the tibia, and carefully stripping the skin off the lower back and
front until the tail is reached, the flesh and bones of which are
pulled out of the skin, leaving the operator free to follow on up the
back and chest until the fore legs are reached, which are cut off
in like manner. The neck and head are skinned out down to the
inner edges of the lips and nose, great care being exercised not to
cut the outer portions of the ears, the eyelids, the nose or the lips.
The flesh being cleared off, and the brain and eyes extracted, the
skull should adhere to the skin by the inner edges of the lips. All
the flesh should be trimmed from the bones of the legs. The head,
being shaped, where the flesh was removed, by tow and clay, is
returned into the skin. A long wire of sufficient strength is
tightly bound with tow, making a long, narrow body, through
which wires are thrust by the skin of the soles of the feet. The
leg wires and bones being wrapped with tow and clay into shape,
the points of the wires are pushed through the tow body and
clenched. They and the body are then bent into the desired
position, and modelled up by the addition of more tow and clay,
until the contours of the natural body are imitated, when the
stomach is sewn up. A board is provided upon which to fix the
specimen, artificial eyes are inserted, the lips, nose and eyelids fixed
by means of pins or " needle-points," and the specimen is then
placed in a warm situation to dry.
Reptiles, when small, have their skin removed by cutting away
the attachment of the skull to the cervical vertebrae, and by turn-
ing the decapitated trunk out at the mouth by delicate manipula-
tion. \Vhen large , they are cut along their median line, and
treated in the same manner as mammals.
Fishes, after being covered on their best side with paper or
muslin to protect the scales, are cut along the other side from the
tail to the gills, and are skinned out by removing " cutlets," as
large as is possible without cracking the skin, which, indeed, should
be kept damp during work. After being cured with a preservative,
they are filled with sawdust or dry plaster of Paris, sewn up, turned
over on a board, the fins pinned out, and the mouth adjusted,
and, when perfectly dry, the plaster may be shaken out.
The new school of taxidermists, with new methods, whose
aim is to combine 'knowledge of anatomy and modelling with
taxidermic technique, has now come to the front, all processes
of " stuffing " have been discarded in favour of modelling.
Within the limits of an article like the present it is impossible
to do more than glance at the intricate processes involved in
this. In the case of mammals, after the skin has been com-
pletely removed, even to the toes, a copy is made of the body,
posed as in life, and from this an accurate representation of
form, including delineation of muscles, &c., is built up in light
materials, and known as the " manikin "; the model is then
covered with skin, which is damped, and moulded to follow
every depression and prominence, the manikin, before having
the skin put on it, frequently being covered completely with a
thin layer of clay; the study is then suffered to dry; and,
models having been made, in the case of large animals, of the
466
TAY— TAYLOR
mucous membrane of the jaws, palate, tongue and lips, these
are truthfully reproduced in a plastic material. The ordinary
glass eyes are discarded, and hollow globes, specially made, are
hand-painted from nature, and are fixed in the head so as to
convey the exact expression which the pose of the body demands.
Birds, if of any size, can be modelled in like manner, and fishes
are treated by a nearly identical process, being finally coloured
as in a " still life " painting.
To give a life-like representation, attention is also paid to
artistic " mounting." By this is meant the surrounding of
specimens with appropriate accessories, and it is well exemplified
by the work shown in the natural history museum at South
Kensington, where, for example, birds are arranged as in a
state of nature.
The great American museums have extended a similar method
to the mounting of even large mammals, whilst they have made
bird groups naturally still more life-like by panoramic back-
grounds and top and side lighting of the cases. (M. B.)
TAY, the longest river in Scotland. From its source in Ben
Lui (3708 ft.), a mountain on the borders of Perthshire and
Argyllshire, it pursues a mainly north-easterly direction to
Logierait, where it curves to the south by east as far as Dunkeld;
there its course turns to the south-east to the mouth of the
Isla, where it bends towards the south by west to the vicinity
of Scone. From this point it makes a sharp descent to the
south by east beyond the county town, when it sweeps south-
east to near Newburgh in Fifeshire, where it again faces the
north-east as far as Breughty Ferry, whence it flows straight
eastwards into the North Sea, off Buddon Ness in Forfarshire,
after a total run of 117 miles. During the first n miles it is
known as the Fillan and discharges into Loch Dochart. From
the lake it emerges as the Dochart (13 m.), which enters Loch
Tay at Killin. Flowing through the loch for 14^ m., it issues
at Kenmore under its proper name of Tay. From hence to the
sea its course measures 785 m., from which we may deduct
25 m. as the length of the Firth of Tay (which begins at Cairnie-
pier Ferry), leaving 535 m. as the length of the stream between
Kenmore and the mouth of the Earn. Its principal affluents on
the right are the Bran, Almond and Earn, and on the left the
Lyon, Tummel and Isla. Along with its tributaries, therefore,
it drains all Perthshire and portions of Forfarshire and Argyll-
shire, having a catchment basin of 2400 sq. m. In many parts
the current is impetuous, and in flood has occasionally wrought
much havoc, certain of the inundations being historically
important. Its mean discharge of water every minute is
estimated to amount to 273,000 cubic ft., a larger outpour
than that of any other stream in the United Kingdom. Vessels
make Dundee at all stages of the tide, and the estuary is navig-
able to Newburgh by vessels of 500 tons, and as far as Perth
by ships of 200 tons. The navigation, however, is seriously
obstructed by shifting sandbanks. The estuary varies in width
from 5 m. at Cairniepier Ferry to fully 3 m. at its mouth. The
principal points on the river are Crianlarich on the Fillan (with
stations on the West Highland and Callander to Oban railways),
Luib and Killin on the Dochart, Kenmore, Aberfeldy, Dunkeld,
Birnam, Stanley, Scone, Perth and, on the north shore of the
firth, Errol, Dundee, Broughty Ferry and Monifieth, and, on
the south shore, Newburgh, Newport and Tayport. It is
bridged at Kenmore, Aberfeldy, Logierait, Dunkeld, Caputh
and Perth (3). The first railway viaduct across the firth at
Dundee was nearly two miles long and had been in use for some
eighteen months from the date of its opening in 1877. During
the night of the 28th of December 1879, however, while a great
gale was at the height of its fury, the passing of a train over
the central section gave purchase to the tempest and that
portion of the structure was blown down along with the train
and the unfortunate travellers. Some 75 to go persons are
supposed to have perished. The second bridges of somewhat
lower height, 2 m. and 73 yds. in length, was erected 60 ft. higher
up stream and opened in 1887. The Tay is famous for salmon,
the annual catch in the river and estuary being the most
valuable in Scotland. There is a hatchery at Hormontfield,
close to Luncarty station, 4 m. N. of Perth, for the artificial
breeding of salmon, the fish being liberated from the ponds
about the age of three years. In respect of riparian scenery
the Tay as a whole is the most beautiful river in Scotland, the
stretch between Logierait and Cargill, particularly the reaches
above and below Dunkeld, being universally admired.
TAY, LOCH, the largest lake in Perthshire, Scotland. It is
situated about the middle of the county and has a flattened
ogee form, with a general trend from N.E. to S.W. It is 14$ m.
long from Killin at the head to Kenmore at the foot, from £ m.
to fully i m. wide. The maximum depth is 508 ft., the mean
depth 200 ft. The lake lies 355 ft. above the sea, covers an
area of 6550 acres, or over 10 sq. m., and has a drainage basin
of 232 sq. m., including the overflow from Lochs Dochart and
Tubhair. It receives at Killin the rivers Lochay and Dochart
and discharges by the Tay at Kenmore. Ben Lawers (3984 ft.)
rises near the left bank. There are piers at Killin, Ardeonaig,
Lawers, Fernan and Kenmore, at which the steamers call during
the tourist season; ferries at Ardeonaig and Lawers; and a
coaching road on the left shore and a somewhat longer and more
hilly road oh the right. At the foot of the lake is an island
containing the ruins of the priory which was founded in 1121
by Alexander I. in memory of his wife Sibylla, daughter of
Henry I. She was buried here. Loch Tay enjoys great repute
for its salmon-fishing.
TAY ABAS, a town of the province of Tayabas, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, 8 m. N. of Lucena, the capital. Pop. of
the municipality (1903) 14,740. Tayabas is picturesquely
situated on the slopes of the extinct volcano Banajao, and
commands a magnificent view of the surrounding country,
which is extremely fertile, and is planted in rice and coco-nuts.
Its climate, although cool, is very unhealthy, malignant malarial
fevers causing a high death-rate. It has a church and convent
of large size and massive construction. During the revolt of
1896 a Spanish garrison occupying these buildings withstood
a siege of fifty-eight days, at the end of which time it was
forced to surrender by lack of food. Tagalog and Bicol are
the languages spoken. Until 1901 Tayabas was the capital
of the province.
TAYGETUS CTavyeros or Tavyerov, mod. St Elias or Pente-
daktylon), the highest mountain ridge in the Peloponnese,
separating Laconia from Messenia. Height 7900 ft. The
highest point is H. Elias; here horses are said to have been
sacrificed to Helios.
TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866), afterwards Mrs. Gilbert, and
TAYLOR, JANE (1783-1824), English writers for children,
daughters of Isaac Taylor (1759-1829), were born in London
on the 30th of January 1782 and the 23rd of September 1783
respectively. In 1786 the Taylors went to live at Lavenham
in Suffolk, and ten years later removed to Colchester. Jane was
a lively and entertaining child, and composed plays and poems
at a very early age. Their father and mother held advanced
views on education, and under their guidance the girls were
instructed not only in their father's art of engraving, but in
the principles of fortification. Their poems were written in
short intervals in the round of each day's occupations. Ann
introduced herself to the publishers Darton and Harvey by a
rhymed answer to a puzzle in the Minor's Pocket Book for 1799,
and Jane made her first appearance in print in the same
periodical with " The Beggar Boy." The publishers then
wrote to Isaac Taylor asking for more verses for children from
his family, and the result was Original Poems for Infant Minds
(2 vols., 1804-5), by "several young persons," of whom Ann
and Jane were the largest contributors. The book had an
immediate and lasting success. It went through numerous
editions, and was translated into German, Dutch and Russian.
Ann and Jane Taylor wrote directly for children, and viewed
events and morals from the nursery standpoint. They had
many imitators, but few serious rivals in their own kind, except
perhaps Mrs Elizabeth Turner. They followed up this success
with Rhymes for the Nursery (1806), Hymns for Infant Minds
(1808, 2nd ed. 1810), a less-known collection, Signer Topsy
TAYLOR, BAYARD— TAYLOR, BROOK
467
Turvy's Wonderful Magic Lantern; or, The World Turned
Upside Down (1810), and Original Hymns for Sunday School
(1812). In 1813 Ann married a Congregational minister, the
Rev. Josiah Gilbert, and Jane went to live at Ilfracombe with
her brother Isaac. In 1816 Jane returned to Ongar, where the
family had been settled for some years, and died there on the
I3th of April 1824. Mrs Gilbert died at Nottingham on the
2oth of December 1866. Both sisters wrote after their separa-
tion, but none of their later works had the same vogue. Jane
showed more wit and vivacity than her sister, notably in the
Contributions of Q. Q. (2 vols., 1824), and in Display, a Tale for
Young People (1815); but, though she was generally supposed
to be the chief writer of the two, some of the most famous
pieces in their joint works, such as " I thank the goodness and
the grace," " Meddlesome Matty," " The Notorious Glutton,"
&c., are by Ann.
The best edition of the Poetical Works of the sisters is that of
1877. There is an excellent edition (1903) of the Original Poems
and Others, by Ann and Jane Taylor and Adelaide O'Keeffe, edited
by E. V. Lucas, with illustrations by F. D. Bedford.
Abundant information about Ann and Jane Taylor is to be
found in: Autobiography and Other Memorials of Mrs Gilbert
(2 vols., 1874), edited by her son Josiah Gilbert; Isaac Taylor,
Memoirs . . . of Jane Taylor (2 vols., 1825), and the collection by
the same editor entitled The Family Pen: Memorials . . . of the
Taylor Family of Ongar, vol. ii. (1867).
TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825-1878), American author, was born
at Kennett Square in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the
nth of January 1825. The son of a well-to-do farmer, he re-
ceived his early instruction in an academy at West Chester,
and later at Unionville. At the age of seventeen he was ap-
prenticed to a printer in West Chester. A little volume, pub-
lished at Philadelphia in 1844 under the title Ximena, or the
Battle of the Sierra Morena, and other Poems, brought its author
a little cash; and indirectly it did him better service as the
means of his introduction to The New York Tribune. With the
money thus obtained, and with an advance made to him on
account of some journalistic work to be done in Europe, " J. B.
Taylor " (as he had up to this time signed himself, though he
bore no other Christian name than Bayard) set sail for the East.
The young poet spent a happy time in roaming through certain
districts of England, France, Germany and Italy; that he
was a born traveller is evident from the fact that this pedestrian
tour of almost two years cost him only £100. The graphic
accounts which he sent from Europe to The New York Tribune,
The Saturday Evening Post, and The United States Gazette were
so highly appreciated that on Taylor's return to America he
was advised to throw his articles into book form. In 1846,
accordingly, appeared his Views Afoot, or Europe seen with
Knapsack and Staf (2 vols., New York). This pleasant book
had considerable popularity, and its author now found himself
a recognized man of letters; moreover, Horace Greeley, then
editor of the Tribune, placed Taylor on the Tribune staff (1848)
thus securing him a certain if a moderate income. His next
journey, made when the gold-fever was at its height, was to
California, as correspondent for the Tribune; from this ex-
pedition he returned by way of Mexico, and, seeing his oppor-
tunity, published (2 vols., New York, 1850) a highly successful
book of travels, entitled El Dorado; or, Adventures in the Path
of Empire. Ten thousand copies were said to have been sold
in America, and thirty thousand in Great Britain, within a
fortnight from the date of issue. Bayard Taylor always con-
sidered himself native to the East, and it was with great delight'
that in 1851 he found himself on the banks of the Nile. He
ascended as far as 12° 30' N., and stored his memory with
countless sights and delights, to many of which he afterwards
gave expression in metrical form. From England, towards
the end of 1852, he sailed for Calcutta, proceeding thence to
China, where he joined the expedition of Commodore Perry
to Japan. The results of these journeys (besides his poetical
memorials) were A Journey to Central Africa; or, Life and
Landscapes from Egypt to the Negro Kingdoms of the While Nile
(New York, 1854); The Lands of the Saracen; or, Pictures of
Palestine, Asia Minor, Sicily and Spain (1854); and A Visit
to India, China and Japan in the Year 1853 (1855). On his
return (December 20, 1853) from these various journeyings he
entered, with marked success, upon the career of a public
lecturer, delivering addresses in every town of importance
from Maine to Wisconsin. After two years' experience of this
lucrative profession, he again started on his travels, on this
occasion for northern Europe, his special object being the
study of Swedish life, language and literature. The most
noteworthy result was the long narrative poem Lars, but his
" Swedish Letters " to the Tribune were also republished,
under the title Northern Travel: Summer and Winter Pictures
(London, 1857). His first wife, May Agnew, died (1850) within a
year of her marriage, and in October 1857 he married Maria
Hansen, the daughter of Peter Hansen, the German astronomer.
The ensuing winter was spent in Greece. In 1859 Taylor once more
traversed the whole extent of the western American gold region,
the primary cause of the journey lying in an invitation to
lecture at San Francisco. About three years later he entered
the diplomatic service as secretary of legation at St Petersburg,
and the following year (1863) became charge d'affaires at the
Russian capital. In 1864 he returned to the United States
and resumed his active literary labours, and it was at this
period that Hannah Thurston (New York, 1863), the first of his
four novels, was published. This book had a moderate success,
but neither in it nor in its successors did Bayard Taylor betray
any special talent as a novelist. In 1874 he, went to Iceland, to
report for the Tribune the one thousandth anniversary of the first
settlement there. In June 1878 he was accredited United States
minister at Berlin. Notwithstanding the resistless passion for
travel which had always possessed him, Bayard Taylor was (when
not actually en route] sedentary in his habits, especially in the
later years of his life. His death occurred on the ipth of
December, only a few months after his arrival in Berlin.
Taylor's most ambitious productions in poetry — his Masque of
the Gods (Boston, 1872), Prince Deukalion; a lyrical drama (Boston,
1878), The Picture of St John (Boston, 1866), Lars; a Pastoral
of Norway (Boston, 1873), and The Prophet; a tragedy (Boston,
1874) — are marred by a ceaseless effort to overstrain his power.
But he will be remembered by his poetic and excellent translation
of Faust (2 vols., Boston, 1870-71) in the original metres. Taylor
felt, in all truth, " the torment and the ecstasy of verse "; but, as
a critical friend has written of him, " his nature was so ardent, so
full-blooded, that slight and common sensations intoxicated him,
and he estimated their effect, and his power to transmit it to others,
beyond the true value." He had, from the earliest period at which
he began to compose, a distinct lyrical faculty: so keen indeed was
his ear that he became too insistently haunted by the music of
others, pre-eminently of Tennyson. But he had often a true and
fine note of his own. His best short poems are " The Metem-
psychosis of the Pine " and the well-known Bedouin love-song. In
his critical essays Bayard Taylor had himself in no inconsiderable
degree what he wrote of as " that pure poetic insight which is the
vital spirit of criticism." The most valuable of these prose disser-
tations are the Studies in German Literature (New York, 1879).
Collected editions of his Poetical Works and his Dramatic Works
were published at Boston in 1888; his Life and Letters (Boston,
2 vols., 1884) were edited by his wife and Horace E. Scudder.
See also Albert H. Smyth, Bayard Taylor (Boston, 1896), in the
" American Men of Letters " series; and W. D. Howells's Literary
Friends and Acquaintances (1900).
TAYLOR, BROOK (1685-1731), English mathematician, was
the son of John Taylor, of Bifrons House, Kent, by Olivia,
daughter of Sir Nicholas Tempest, Bart., of Durham, and was
born at Edmonton in Middlesex on the i8th of August 1685.
He entered St John's College, Cambridge, as a fellow-commoner
in 1701, and took degrees of LL.B. and LL.D. respectively
in 1709 and 1714. Having studied mathematics under John
Machin and John Keill, he obtained in 1708 a remarkable
solution of the problem of the " centre of oscillation," which,
however, remaining unpublished until May 1714 (Phil. Trans.,
vol. xxviii. p. n), his claim to priority was unjustly disputed
by John Bernoulli. Taylor's Methodus Incrementorum Directa
et Inversa (London, 1715) added a new branch to the higher
mathematics, now designated the " calculus of finite differences."
Among other ingenious applications, he used it to determine
468
TAYLOR, SIR HENRY
the form ot movement of a vibrating string, by him first suc-
cessfully reduced to mechanical principles. The same work
contained the celebrated formula known as " Taylor's theorem "
(see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS), the importance of which re-
mained unrecognized until 1772, when J. L. Lagrange realized
its powers and termed it " le principal fondement dtt calcul
di/erentiel."
In his essay on Linear Perspective (London, 1715) Taylor set
forth the true principles of the art in an original and more
general form than any of his predecessors; but the work
suffered from the brevity and obscurity which affected most of
his writings, and needed the elucidation bestowed on it in the
treatises of Joshua Kirby (1754) and Daniel Fournier (1761).
Taylor was elected a fellow of the Royal Society early in
1712, sat in the same year on the committee for adjudicating
the claims of Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz,
and acted as secretary to the society from the i;jth of January
1714 to the 2ist of October 1718. From 1715 his studies took
a philosophical and religious bent. He corresponded, in that
year, with the Comte de Montmort on the subject of Nicolas
Malebranche's tenets; and unfinished treatises, " On the
Jewish Sacrifices " and " On the Lawfulness of Eating Blood,"
written on his return from Aix-la-Chapelle in 1719, were after-
wards found among his papers. His marriage in 1721 with
Miss Brydges of Wallington, Surrey, led to an estrangement
from his father, a person of somewhat morose temper, which
terminated in 1723 after the death of the lady in giving birth
to a son. The ensuing two years were spent by him with his
family at Bifrons, and in 1725 he married, with the paternal
approbation, Sabetta, daughter of Mr Sawbridge of Olantigh,
Kent, who, by a strange fatality, died also in childbed in 1730;
in this case, however, the infant, a daughter, survived. Taylor's
fragile health gave way; he fell into a decline, died on the 2pth
of December 1731, at Somerset House, and was buried at
St Ann's, Soho. By his father's death in 1729 he had inherited
the Bifrons estate. As a mathematician, he was the only
Englishman after Sir Isaac Newton and Roger Cotes capable
of holding his own with the Bernoullis; but a great part of
the effect of his demonstrations was lost through his failure
to express his ideas fully and clearly.
A posthumous work entitled Contemplatio Philosophica was
printed for private circulation in 1793 by his grandson, Sir William
Young, Bart., prefaced by a life of the author, and with an appendix
containing letters addressed to him by Bolingbroke, Bossuet, &c.
Several short papers by him were published in Phil. Trans., vols.
xxvii. to xxxii., including accounts of some interesting experiments
in magnetism and capillary attraction. He issued in 171^ an im-
proved version of his work on perspective, with the title New
Principles of Linear Perspective, revised by Colson in 1749, and
printed again, with portrait and life of the author, in 1811. A
French translation appeared in 1753 at Lyons. Taylor gave
(Methodus Incrementorum, p. 108) the first satisfactory investigation
of astronomical refraction.
See Watt, Bibliotheca Britannica; Hutton, Phil, and Math.
Dictionary; F6tis, Biog. des Musiciens; Th. Thomson, Hist, of the
R. Society, p. 302; Grant, Hist. Phys. Astronomy, p. 377; Marie,
Hist, des Sciences, vii. p. 231; M. Cantor, Geschichte der Mathe-
matik.
TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886), English poet and political
official, was born on the i8th of October 1800, at Bishop-
Middleham, Durham, where his ancestors had been small
landowners for some generations. His mother died while he
was yet an infant, and he was chiefly educated by his father,
a man of studious tastes, who, finding him less quick than his
two elder brothers, allowed him to enter the navy as a midship-
man. Finding the life uncongenial, he only remained eight
months at sea, and after obtaining his discharge was appointed
to a clerkship in the storekeeper's office. He had scarcely
entered upon his duties when he was attacked by typhus fever,
which carried off both his brothers, then living with him in
London. In three or four years more his office was abolished
while he was on duty in the West Indies. On his return he
found his father happily married to a lady whose interest and
sympathy proved of priceless value to him. Through her
he became acquainted with her cousin, Isabella Fenwick, the
neighbour and intimate friend of Wordsworth, who introduced
him to Wordsworth and Southey. Under these influences he
lost his early admiration for Byron, whose school, whatever its
merits, he at least was in no way calculated to adorn, and his
intellectual powers developed rapidly. In October 1822 he
published an article on Moore's Irish Melodies in the Quarterly
Review. A year later he went to London to seek his fortune
as a man of letters, and met with rapid success, though not
precisely in this capacity. He became editor of the London
Magazine, to which he had already contributed, and in January
1824 obtained, through the influence of Sir Henry Holland,
a good appointment in the Colonial Office. He was immediately
entrusted with the preparation of confidential state papers,
and his opinion soon exercised an important influence on the
decisions of the secretary of state. He visited Wordsworth
and Southey, travelled on the Continent with the latter, and at
the same time, mainly through his friend and official colleague,
the Hon. Hyde Villiers, became intimate with a very different set,
the younger followers of Bentham, without, however, adopting
their opinions — " young men," he afterwards reminded Stuart
Mill, " who every one said would be ruined by their independ-
ence, but who ended by obtaining all their hearts' desires,
except one who fell by the way." The reference is to Hyde
Villiers, who died prematurely. Taylor actively promoted the
emancipation of the slaves in 1833, and became an intimate
ally of Sir James Stephen, then counsel to the Colonial Office,
afterwards under-secretary, by whom the Act of Emancipation
was principally framed. His duties at the Colonial Office were
soon afterwards lightened by the appointment of James Sped-
ding, with whom he began a friendship that lasted till the end
of his life.
His first drama, Isaac Comnenus, Elizabethan in tone, and
giving a lively picture of the Byzantine court and people, was
published anonymously in 1828. Though highly praised by
Southey, it made little impression on the public. Philip van
Artevelde, an elaborate poetic drama, the subject of which had
been recommended to him by Southey, was begun in 1828,
published in 1834, and, aided by a laudatory criticism from
Lockhart's pen in the Quarterly, achieved extraordinary success.
Its great superiority to Taylor's other works may be explained
by its being to a great extent the vehicle of his own ideas and
feelings. Artevelde's early love experiences reproduce and
transfigure his own. Edwin the Fair (1842) was less warmly
received; but his character of Dunstan, the ecclesiastical
statesman, is a fine psychological study, and the play is full of
historical interest. Meanwhile he had married (1839) Theodosia
Spring-Rice, the daughter of his former chief Lord Monteagle,
and, in conjunction with Sir James Stephen, had taken a leading
part in the abolition of negro apprenticeship in the West Indies.
The Statesman, a volume of essays suggested by his official
position, had been published in 1836, and about the same time
he had written in the Quarterly the friendly notices of Words-
worth and Southey which did much to dispel the conventional
prejudices of the day, and which were published in 1849 under
the somewhat misleading title of Notes from Books.
In 1847 he was offered the under-secretaryship of state for
the colonies, which he declined. Notes from Life and The Eve
of the Conquest appeared in this year; and an experiment in
romantic comedy, The Virgin Widow, afterwards entitled A
Sicilian Summer, was published in 1850. " The pleasantest
play I had written," says the author; " and I never could tell
why people would not be pleased with it." His last dramatic
work was St Clement's Eve, published in 1862. In 1869
he was made K.C.M.G. He retired from the Colonial Office in
1872, though continuing to be consulted by government. His
last days were spent at Bournemouth in the enjoyment of
universal respect; and the public, to whom he had hitherto
been an almost impersonal existence, became familiarized with
the extreme picturesqueness of his appearance in old age, as
represented in the photographs of his friend Julia Margaret
Cameron. He died on the 27th of March 1886. His Auto-
biography, published a year before his death, while sinning a
TAYLOR, ISAAC— TAYLOR, JEREMY
469
little by the egotism pardonable in a poet and the garrulity
natural to a veteran, is in the main a pleasing and faithful
picture of an aspiring youth, an active maturity, and a happy
and honoured old age.
Taylor's Artevelde cannot fail to impress those who read it
as the work of a poet of considerable distinction; but, perhaps
for the very reason that he was so prominent as a state official,
he has not been accepted by the world as more than a very
accomplished man of letters. His lyrical work is in general
laboriously artificial, but he produced two well-known songs —
" Quoth tongue of neither maid nor wife " and " If I had the
wings of a dove."
Taylor's Autobiography (2 yols. 1885) should be supplemented by
his Correspondence (1888), edited by Edward Dowden. His Works
were collected in five volumes in 1877-78.
TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865), English author, son of Isaac
Taylor (1750-1829), engraver and author, was born at Laven-
ham, Suffolk, on the I7th of August 1787. He was trained by
his father to be an engraver, but early adopted literature as a
profession. From 1824, the year of his marriage, he lived a
busy but uneventful life at Stanford Rivers, near Ongar, Essex,
where he died on the 28th of June 1865. His attention was
drawn to the study of the fathers of the church through
reading the works of Sulpicius Severus, which he had picked
up at a bookstall. He published a History of the Transmission
of Ancient Books to Modern Times (1827), a study in biblical
criticism, and some other works, but he attracted little notice
until, in 1829, he published anonymously a book bearing upon
the religious and political problems of the day, entitled The
Natural History of Enthusiasm, which speedily ran through
eight or nine editions. Fanaticism (1833), Spiritual Despotism
(1835), Saturday Evening (1832), and The Physical Theory of
Another Life (1836), all commanded a large circulation. In
his Ancient Christianity (1839-46), a series of dissertations in
reply to the " Tracts for the Times," Taylor maintained that
the Christian church of the 4th century should not be regarded
as embodying the doctrine and practice of the apostles because
it was then already corrupted by contact with pagan super-
stition. The book met with great opposition, but Taylor did
not follow up the controversy.
Among his other works may be mentioned biographies of Ignatius
Loyola (1849) and John Wesley (1851); a volume entitled The
Restoration of Belief (1855); and a course of lectures on The Spirit
of Hebrew Poetry (1861).
TAYLOR, ISAAC (1820-1901), English philologist, eldest son
of the preceding, was born at Stanford Rivers, 2nd May 1829.
He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and took the
mathematical tripos in 1853. His interests, however, were
linguistic rather than mathematical, and his earliest publication
was a translation from the German of W. A. Becker's Charicles.
Though of Nonconformist stock, Isaac Taylor joined the Church
of England, and in 1857 was ordained to a country curacy. In
1860 he published The Liturgy of the Dissenters, an appeal for
the revision of the Book of Common Prayer " on Protestant
lines," " as expedient for the material interests of the Church,
and as an act of plain justice to the Dissenters." His studies
in local etymology bore fruit in Words and Places in Etymological
Illustration of History, Ethnology and Geography (1864). Be-
tween 1865 and 1869, when he was in charge of a Bethnal
Green parish, his philological studies were laid aside, and he
published only The Burden of the Poor and The Family Pen, a
record of the literary work of his own family, the Taylors of
Ongar. In 1869 he became incumbent of a church at Twicken-
ham, and used his comparative leisure to produce his Etruscan
Researches (1874), in which he contended for the Ugrian
origin of the Etruscan language. In 1875 he was presented
to the rectory of Settrington, Yorkshire, and began his systematic
researches into the origin of the alphabet. His Greeks and Goths;
a Study on the Runes (1879), in which he suggested that the
runes were of Greek origin, led to a good deal of controversy.
His most important work is The Alphabet, an Account of the
Origin and Development of Letters (1883; new and revised
edition 1899). Taylor points out that alphabetical changes
are the result of evolution taking place in accordance with fixed
laws. " Epigraphy and palaeography may claim, no less than
philology or biology, to be ranked among the inductive
sciences." He was largely indebted to the Egyptian researches
of Roug6, which it has since become necessary to reconside in
the light of discoveries in Crete. In 1885 Taylor became canon
of York, and two years later dean. His paper on the Origin of
the Aryans, read at the British Association in 1887, was after-
wards expanded into a book. In the following winter he
visited Egypt, and his letters from there, collected under the
title Leaves from an Egyptian Notebook, aroused considerable
controversy from the extremely favourable view he took of
the Mahommedan religjon. For the last few years of his life
Dean Taylor suffered from ill health, and was laid aside from
active work for some time before his death in October 1901.
TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667), English divine and author,
was baptized at Cambridge on the isth of August 1613. His
father, Nathaniel, though a barber, was a man of some educa-
tion, for Jeremy was " solely grounded in grammar and mathe-
matics " by him. The tradition that he was descended from
Dr Rowland Taylor, Cranmer's chaplain, who suffered martyr-
dom under Mary, is grounded on the untrustworthy evidence
of a certain Lady Wray, said to have been a granddaughter of
Jeremy Taylor. She supplied Bishop Heber in 1732 with other
biographical data of doubtful authenticity. Jeremy Taylor was
a pupil of Thomas Levering, at the newly founded Perse grammar
school. Lovering is first mentioned as master in 1619,50 that
Taylor probably spent seven years at the school before he was
entered at Gonville and Caius College as a sizar in 1626,' eighteen
months after Milton had entered Christ's, and while George
Herbert was public orator and Edmund Waller and Thomas
Fuller were undergraduates of the university. He was elected
a Perse scholar in 1628, and fellow of his college in 1633, but
the best evidence of his diligence as a student is the enormous
learning of which he showed so easy a command in after years.
In 1633, although still below the canonical age, he took holy
orders, and, accepting the invitation of Thomas Risden, a
former fellow-student, to supply his place for a short time as
lecturer in St Paul's, he at once attracted attention by his
eloquence and by his handsome face. Archbishop Laud sent
for Taylor to preach before him at Lambeth, and took the
young man under his special protection. Taylor did not vacate
his fellowship at Cambridge before 1636, but he spent, appa-
rently, much of his time in London, for Laud desired that his
" mighty parts should be afforded better opportunities of study
and improvement than a course of constant preaching would
allow of." In November 1635 he had been nominated by
Laud to a fellowship at All Souls, Oxford, where, says Wood
(Athen. Oxon., Ed. Bliss, iii. 781), love and admiration still
waited on him. He seems, however, to have spent little time
there. He became chaplain to his patron the archbishop, and
chaplain in ordinary to Charles I. At Oxford William ChLUing-
worth was then busy with his great work, The Religion of Pro-
testants, and it is possible that by intercourse with him Taylor's
mind may have been turned towards the liberal movement of
his age. After two years in Oxford, he was presented, in March
1638, by Juxon, bishop of London, to the rectory of Uppingham,
in Rutlandshire. In the next year he married Phoebe Langs-
dale, by whom he had six children, the eldest of whom died
at Uppingham in 1642. In the autumn of the same year he
was appointed to preach in St Mary's on the anniversary of
the Gunpowder Plot, and apparently used the occasion to clear
himself of a suspicion, which, however, haunted him through
life, of a secret leaning to the Romish communion. This
suspicion seems to have arisen chiefly from his intimacy with
Christopher Davenport, better known as Francis a Sancta
Clara, a learned Franciscan friar who became chaplain to Queen
1 An obviously erroneous entry in the Admission Book states
that he had been at school under Mr. Loverine for ten years, and
was in his fifteenth year. Admissions to GonvMe and Caius College
(ed. J. Venn, 1887).
47°
Henrietta; but it may have been strengthened by his known
connexion with Laud, as well as by his ascetic habits. More
serious consequences followed his attachment to the Royalist
cause. The author of The Sacred Order and Offices of Episcopacy
or Episcopacy Asserted against the Aerians and Acephali New
and Old (1642), could scarcely hope to retain his parish, which
was not, however, sequestrated until 1644. Taylor probably
accompanied the king to Oxford. In 1643 he was presented
to the rectory of Overstone, Northamptonshire, by Charles I.
There he would be in close connexion with his friend and patron
Spencer Compton, 2nd earl of Northampton.
During the next fifteen years Taylor's movements are not
easily traced. He seems to have been in London during the
last weeks of Charles I., from whom he is said to have received
his watch and some jewels which had ornamented the ebony
case in which he kept his Bible. He had been taken prisoner
with other Royalists while besieging Cardigan castle on the
4th of February 1645. In 1646 he is found in partnership with
two other deprived clergymen, keeping a school at Newton
Hall, in the parish of Llanvihangel-Aberbythych, Carmarthen-
shire. Here he became private chaplain to Richard Vaughan,
2nd earl of Carbery (1600-1686), whose hospitable mansion,
Golden Grove, is immortalized in the title of Taylor's still
popular manual of devotion, and whose first wife was a constant
friend of Taylor. The second Lady Carbery was the original
of the " Lady " in Milton's Comus. Mrs Taylor had died
early in 1651. He second wife was Joanna Bridges, said on
very doubtful authority to have been a natural daughter
of Charles I. She owned a good estate, though probably
impoverished by Parliamentarian exactions, at Mandinam, in
Carmarthenshire.
From time to time Jeremy Taylor appears in London in the
company of his friend Evelyn, in whose diary and correspond-
ence his name repeatedly occurs. He was three times im-
prisoned: in 1654-5 for an injudicious preface to his Golden
Grove; again in Chepstow castle, from May to October 1655,
on what charge does not appear; and a third time in the Tower
in 1657-8, on account of the indiscretion of his publisher,
Richard Royston, who had adorned his " Collection of
Offices " with a print representing Christ in the attitude of
prayer. ,
Much of his best work was produced at Golden Grove. In 1646
appeared his famous plea for toleration, GeoXoyia 'EKXexTt/n),
A Discourse of the Liberty of Prophesying. In 1649 he pub-
lished the complete edition of his Apology for authorized and
set forms of Liturgy against the Pretence of the Spirit, as well
as his Great Exemplar ... a History of . . . Jesus Christ, a
book which was inspired, its author tells us, by his earlier
intercourse with the earl of Northampton. Then followed in
rapid succession the Twenty-seven Sermons (1651), " for the
summer half-year," and the Twenty-five (1653), " for the winter
half-year," The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living (1650), The
Rule and Exercises of Holy Dying (1651), a controversial treatise
on The Real Presence . . . (1654), the Golden Grove; or a
Manuall of daily prayers and letanies . . . (1655), and the
Unum Necessarium (1655), which by its Pelagianism gave
great offence.1 The Rule and Exercises of Holy Living provided
a manual of Christian practice, which has retained its place
with devout readers. The scope of the work is described on
the title-page. It deals with " the means and instruments of
obtaining every virtue, and the remedies against every vice,
and considerations serving to the resisting all temptations,
together with prayers containing the whole Duty of a Christian."
Holy Dying was perhaps even more popular. A very charming
piece of work of a lighter kind was inspired by a question from
his friend, Mrs Katherine Phillips (the "matchless Orinda"),
asking " How far is a dear and perfect friendship authorized
by the principles of Christianity?" In answer to this he
dedicated to the " most ingenious and excellent Mrs Katherine
Phillips " his Discourse of the Nature, Offices and Measures of
1 See an angry letter by Brian Duppa, bishop of Salisbury, on
the subject (Eden i. xlii.).
TAYLOR, JEREMY
Friendship (1657), His Ductor Dubitantium, or the Rule of
Conscience . . . (1660) was intended to be the standard manual
of casuistry and ethics for the Christian people.
He probably left Wales in 1657, and his immediate connexion
with Golden Grove seems to have ceased two years earlier. In
1658, through the kind offices of his friend John Evelyn, Taylor
was offered a lectureship in Lisburn, Ireland, by Edward
Conway, second Viscount Conway. At first he declined a post
in which the duty was to be shared with a Presbyterian, or,
as he expressed it, " where a Presbyterian and myself shall
be like Castor and Pollux, the one up and the other down,"
and to which also a very meagre salary was attached. He
was, however, induced to take it, and found in his patron's
mansion at Portmore, on Lough Neagh, a congenial retreat.
At the Restoration, instead of being recalled to England, as
he probably expected and certainly desired, he was appointed
to the see of Down and Connor, to which was shortly added
the small adjacent diocese of Dromore. He was also made a
member of the Irish privy council and vice-chancellor of the
university of Dublin. None of these honours were sinecures.
Of the university he writes, " I found all things in a perfect
disorder .... a heap of men and boys, but no body of a
college, no one member, either fellow or scholar, having any
legal title to his place, but thrust in by tyranny or chance."
Accordingly he set himself vigorously to the task of framing
and enforcing regulations for the admission and conduct of
members of the university, and also of establishing lectureships.
His episcopal labours were still more arduous. There were,
at the date of the Restoration, about seventy Presbyterian
ministers in the north of Ireland, and most of these were from
the west of Scotland, and were imbued with the dislike of
Episcopacy which distinguished the Covenanting party. No
wonder that Taylor, writing to the duke of Ormonde shortly
after his consecration, should have said, " I perceive myself
thrown into a place of torment." . His letters perhaps somewhat
exaggerate the danger in which he lived, but there is no doubt
that his authority was resisted and his overtures rejected. His
writings also were ransacked for matter of accusation against
him, " a committee of Scotch spiders being appointed to see
if they can gather or make poison out of them." Here, then,
was Taylor's opportunity for exemplifying the wise toleration
he had in other days inculcated, but the new bishop had nothing
to offer the Presbyterian clergy but the bare alternative — sub-
mission to episcopal ordination and jurisdiction or deprivation.
Consequently, in his first visitation, he declared thirty-six
churches vacant; and of these forcible possesssion was taken
by his orders. At the same time many of the gentry were won
by his undoubted sincerity and devotedness as well as by his
eloquence. With the Roman Catholic element of the popula-
tion he was less successful. Ignorant of the English language,
and firmly attached to their ancestral forms of worship, they
were yet compelled to attend a service t.hey considered profane,
conducted in a language they could not understand. As
Heber says, " No part of the administration of Ireland by the
English crown has been more extraordinary and more un-
fortunate than the system pursued for the introduction of the
Reformed religion. " At the instance of the Irish bishops
Taylor undertook his last great work, the Dissuasive from Popery
(in two parts, 1664 and 1667), but, as he himself seemed partly-
conscious, he might have more effectually gained his end by
adopting the methods of Ussher and BedeU, and inducing his
clergy to acquire the Irish tongue.
The troubles of his episcopate no doubt shortened his life.
Nor were domestic sorrows wanting in these later years. In
1661 he buried, at Lisburn, Edward, the only surviving son of
his second marriage. His eldest son, an officer in the army,
was killed in a duel; and his second son, Charles, intended for
the church, left Trinity College and became companion and
secretary to the duke of Buckingham, at whose house he died.
The day after his son's funeral Taylor caught fever from a
patient whom he visited, and, after a ten days' illness, he died
at Lisburn on the i3th of August 1667, in the fifty-fifth year of
TAYLOR, JOHN
his life and the seventh of his episcopate, and was buried in the
cathedral of Dromore.
Taylor's fame has been maintained by the popularity of his
sermons and devotional writings rather than by his influence as a
theologian or his importance as an ecclesiastic. His mind was
neither scientific nor speculative, and he was attracted rather
to questions of casuistry than to the problems of pure theology.
His wide reading and capacious memory enabled him to carry in
his mind the materials of a sound historical theology, but these
materials were unsifted by criticism. His immense learning
served him rather as a storehouse of illustrations, or as an
armoury out of which he could choose the fittest weapon for
discomfiting on opponent, than as a quarry furnishing him
with material for building up a completely designed and endur-
ing edifice of systematized truth. Indeed, he had very limited
faith in the human mind as an instrument of truth. " Theo-
logy," he says, " is rather a divine life than a divine knowledge."
His great plea for toleration is based on the impossibility of
erecting theology into a demonstrable science. " It is im-
possible all should be of one mind. And what is impossible
to be done is not necessary it should be done." Differences of
opinion there must be; but " heresy is not an error of the
understanding but an error of the will." He would submit
all minor questions to the reason of the individual member,
but he set certain limits to toleration, excluding " whatsoever
is against the foundation of faith, or contrary to good life and
the laws of obedience, or destructive to human society, and the
public and just interests of bodies politic." Peace, he thought,
might be made " if men would not call all opinions by the name
of religion, and superstructures by the name of fundamental
articles." Of the propositions of sectarian theologians he said
that confidence was the first, and the second, and the third part.
Of a genuine poetic temperament, fervid and mobile in feeling,
and of a prolific fancy, he had also the sense and wit that come
of varied contact with men. All his gifts were made available
for influencing other men by his easy command of a style rarely
matched in dignity and colour. With all the majesty and stately
elaboration and musical rhythm of Milton's finest prose, Taylor's
style is relieved and brightened by an astonishing variety of
felicitous illustrations, ranging from the most homely and terse
to the most dignified and elaborate. His sermons especially
abound in quotations and allusions, which have the air of
spontaneously suggesting themselves, but which must sometimes
have baffled his hearers. This seeming pedantry is, however,
atoned for by the clear practical aim of his sermons, the noble
ideal he keeps before his hearers, and the skill with which he
handles spiritual experience and urges incentives to virtue.
The whole works of ... Jeremy Taylor with a life of the author
and a critical examination of his writings was published by Bishop
Reginald Heber in 1822, reissued after careful revision by Charles
Page Eden (1847-54). His most popular works, The Liberty of
Prophesying, Holy Living, and Holy Dying have been often reprinted.
The Poems and Verse-translations of Jeremy Taylor were edited
by Dr. A. B. Grosart in vol. i. of the Miscellanies of the Fuller
Worthies Library (1870). The first biographer of Jeremy Taylor
was his friend and successor, George Rust, who preached a funeral
sermon (in 1668) which remains a valuable document. His life
has been written by John Wheeldon (1793), H. K. Bonney (1815),
T. S. Hughes (1831), R. H. Willmott (1847), George L. Duyckinck
(New York, 1860). The chief authority is still Eden's revision of
Bishop Heber's memoir, which includes much valuable corre-
spondence. See also E. W. Gosse's Jeremy Taylor (1904) in the
English Men of Letters series. A bibliography of works dealing
with the subject is included in the article by the Rev. Alexander
Gordon in the Dictionary of National Biography. S. T. Coleridge
was a diligent student and a warm admirer of Jeremy Taylor, whom
he regarded as one of the great masters of English style. A series
of comments by Coleridge are collected in his Literary Remains
(1838, vol. iii. pp. 203-390).
TAYLOR, JOHN (1580-1653), English pamphleteer, com-
monly called the " Water-Poet," was born at Gloucester on
the 24th of August 1580. After fulfilling his apprenticeship
to a waterman, he served (1596) in Essex's fleet, and was present
at Flores in 1597 and at the siege of Cadiz. On his return to
England he became a Thames waterman, and was at one time
collector of the perquisites exacted by the lieutenant of the
Tower. He was an expert in the art of self-advertisement,
and achieved notoriety by a series of eccentric journeys. With
a companion as feather-brained as himself he journeyed from
London to Queenborough in a paper boat, with two stockfish
tied to canes for oars. The Pennyles Pilgrimage, or the Money-
lesse Perambulation of John Taylor . . . how he travailed on
foot from London to Edenborough in Scotland . . . 1618, contains
the account of a journey perhaps suggested by Ben Jonson's
celebrated undertaking, though Taylor emphatically denies any
intention of burlesque. He went as far as Aberdeen. At
Leith he met Jonson, who good-naturedly gave him twenty-
two shillings to drink his health in England. Other travels
undertaken for a wager were a journey to Prague, where he is
said to have been entertained (1620) by the queen of Bohemia,
and those described respectively in A very merry, wherry ferry
voyage, or Yorke for my money, and A New Discovery by sea
with a Wherry from London to Salisbury (1623). At the out-
break of the civil war Taylor began to keep a public-house at
Oxford, but when his friends the Royalists were obliged to
surrender the city he returned to London, where he set up a
similar business at the sign of " The Crown " in Phoenix Alley,
Long Acre. At the time of the king's execution he changed
his sign to the Mourning Crown, but the authorities objected,
and he substituted his own portrait. He was buried in the
churchyard of St Martin's-in-the-Fields on the 5th of December
1653-
Taylor gave himself the title of " the king's water-poet and
the queen's water-man." He was no poet, though he could
string rhymes together on occasion. His gifts lay in a coarse,
rough and ready wit, a talent for narrative, and a considerable
command of repartee, which made him a dangerous enemy.
Thomas Coryate, the author of the Crudities, was one of his
favourite butts, and he roused Taylor's special anger because
he persuaded the authorities to have burnt one of Taylor's
pamphlets directed against him. This was Laugh and be Fat
(1615?), a parody of the Odcombian Banquet.
Sixty-three of Taylor's " works " appeared in one volume in
1630. This was reprinted by the Spenser Society in 1868-9, being
followed by other tracts not included in the collection (1870-8).
Some of his more amusing productions were edited (1872) by
Charles Hindley as The Works of John Taylor. They provide some
very entertaining reading, but in spite of the legend on one of his
title-pages, " Lastly that (which is Rare in a Travailer) all is true,"
it is permissible to exercise some mental reservations in accepting
his statements. Mr Hindley edited other tracts of Taylor's in his
Miscellanea Antigua Anglicana (1873).
TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766), English classical scholar, was
born at Shrewsbury on the 22nd of June 1704. His father
was a barber, and, by the generosity of one of his customers,
the son, having received his early education at the grammar
school of his native town, was sent to St John's College, Cam-
bridge. In'i732 he was appointed librarian, in 1734 registrar
of the university. Somewhat late in life he took orders, became
rector of Lawford in Essex in 1751, and canon of St Paul's in
1757. He died in London on the 4th of April 176.6. Taylor
is best known for his editions of some of the Greek orators,
chiefly valuable for the notes on Attic law, e.g. Lysias (1739);
Demosthenes Contra Leptinem (1741) and Contra Midiam
(1743, with Lycurgus Contra Leocratem), intended as specimens
of a proposed edition, in five volumes, of the orations of Demos-
thenes, Aeschines, Dinarchus and .Demades, of which only
vols. ii. and iii. were published. Taylor also published (under
the title of M armor Sandvicense) a commentary on the inscrip-
tion on an ancient marble brought from Greece by Lord Sand-
wich, containing particulars of the receipts and expenditure of
the Athenian magistrates appointed to celebrate the festival
of Apollo at Delos in 374 B.C. His Elements of Civil Law
(1755) also deserves notice. It was severely attacked by
Warburton in his Divine Legation, professedly owing to a
difference of opinion in regard to the persecution of the early
Christians, in reality because Taylor had spoken disparagingly
of his scholarship.
TAYLOR, JOSEPH— TAYLOR, ROWLAND
472
TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. is86-c. 1653), English actor, is men-
tioned in the folio Shakespeare of 1623 as one of the twenty-six
who took principal parts in all of these plays. There is a
legend that he was trained by Shakespeare to play Hamlet,
and that he succeeded Burbage in this and other parts. Certain
it is that in many of Beaumont and Fletcher's plays he had a
leading r61e, and he is one of the ten actors who signed the
dedication of the first folio of these dramatists (1647).
TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757-1834), English politi-
cian, was a son of Sir Robert Taylor (1714-1788), the architect,
and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming
a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in 1774. He entered the House
of Commons as member for Poole in 1784, and, with the excep-
tion of the short period from 1802 to 1806, remained a member
of parliament until 1834, although not as the representative of
the same constituency. In parliament Taylor showed himself
anxious to curtail the delays in the Court of Chancery, and to
improve the lighting and paving of the London streets; and
he was largely instrumental in bringing about the abolition of
the pillory. At first a supporter of the younger Pitt, he soon
veered round to the side of Fox and the Whigs, favoured parlia-
mentary reform, and was a personal friend of the regent, after-
wards George IV. He was on the committee which managed
the impeachment of Warren Hastings; was made a privy
councillor in 1831; and died in London on the i6th of July
1834. Taylor is chiefly known in connexion with the Metro-
politan Paving Act of 1817, which is still referred to as " Michael
AngeloTaylor's Act." Often called " Chicken Taylor " because
of his reference to himself as a " mere chicken in the law,"
he is described by Sir Spencer Walpole as " a pompous barrister,
with a little body and a loud voice." Taylor's father, Sir
Robert, was the founder of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford.
TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858), American
Congregational theologian, was born in New Milford, Con-
necticut, on the 23rd of June 1786, grandson of Nathaniel
Taylor (1722-1800), pastor at New Milford. He graduated at
Yale College in 1807, studied theology under Timothy Dwight,
and in 1812 became pastor of the First Church of New Haven.
From 1822 until his death in New Haven on the loth of March
1858 he was Dwight professor of didactic theology at Yale.
He was the last notable representative of the New England
School, in which his predecessors were the younger Edwards,
John Smalley (1734-1820) and Nathaniel Emmons. In the
Yale Divinity School his influence was powerful, and in 1833
one of his foremost opponents, Bennet Tyler (1783-1858),
founded in East Windsor a Theological Institute to offset
Taylor's teaching at Yale.
Taylorism, sometimes called the " New Haven " theology, was
an attempt to defend Calvinism from Arminian attacks, and the
defence itself was accused of Arminianism and Pelagianism by
A. A. Hodge of Princeton and Leonard Woods of Andover. Taylor's
theology was distinctively inf ra-lapsarian ; it disagreed with Samuel
Hopkins and Emmons in rejecting the theory of " divine efficiency "
and in arguing that man can choose the right " even if he won't "
;— distinguishing like Edwards between natural ability and moral
inability; it distinguished sensibility or susceptibility as something
different from will or understanding, without moral qualities, to
which the appeal for right choice may be made; and it made self-
love (a term borrowed from Dugald Stewart, connoting the innocent
love of happiness and distinct from selfishness) the particular
feeling appealed to by the influences of the law and gospel.
He wrote Practical Sermons (1858; edited by Noah Porter);
Lectures on the Moral Government of God (2 vols., 1859), and Essays
and Lectures upon Select Topics in Revealed Theology (1859), all
published posthumously.
TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808-1876), Anglo-Indian
administrator and novelist, was born at Liverpool on the 25th
of September 1808. At the age of fifteen he was sent out to
India to become a clerk to a Bombay merchant. On his arrival
the house was in financial difficulties, and he was glad to accept
m 1824 a commission in the service of his highness the nizam,
to which service he remained devotedly attached throughout
his long career. He was speedily transferred from military
duty to a civil appointment, and in this capacity he acquired
a knowledge of the languages and the people of Southern India
which has seldom been equalled. He studied the laws, the
geology, the antiquities of the country; he was alternately
judge, engineer, artist and man of letters, for on his return to
England in 1840 on furlough he published the first of his Indian,
novels, Confesssions of a Thug, in which he reproduced, with
singular vivacity and truth, the scenes which he had heard
described by the chief actors in them. This book was followed
by a series of tales, Tippoo Sultaun (1840), Tara (1863), Ralph
Darnell (1865), Seeta (1872), and A Noble Queen (1878), all
illustrating periods of Indian history and society, and giving
a prominent place to the native character, for which and
the native institutions and traditions he had a great regard
and respect. Returning to India he acted from 1840 to 1853
as correspondent for The Times. He also wrote a Student's
Manual of the History of India (1870). About 1850, Meadows
Taylor was appointed by the nizam 's government to administer,
during a long minority, the principality of the young raja of
Shorapore. He succeeded without any European assistance
in raising this small territory to a high degree of prosperity,
and such was his influence with the natives that on the occur-
rence of the mutiny in Bengal he held his ground without
military support. Colonel Taylor, whose merits were now
recognized and acknowledged by the British government of
India — although he had never been in the service of the Com-
pany— was subsequently appointed to the deputy commissioner-
ship of the Western ceded districts, where he succeeded in
establishing a new assessment of revenues at once more equitable
to the cultivators and more productive to the government. By
indefatigable perseverance he had raised himself from the con-
dition of a half-educated lad, without patronage, and without
even the support of the Company, to the successful government
of some of the most important provinces of India, 36,000 square
miles in extent and with a population of more than five millions.
On his retirement from service in 1860 he was made a C.S.I.
and given a pension. Taylor died at Mentone on the i3th of
May 1876.
See Meadows Taylor's The Story of My Life (1877).
TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555), English Protestant martyr,
was born at Rothbury, Northumberland; he took minor orders
at Norwich in 1528 and graduated LL.B. at Cambridge in 1530
and LL.D. in 1534. Adopting reformed views he was made
chaplain by Cranmer hi 1540 and presented to the living of
Hadleigh, Suffolk, in 1544. In Whitsun week, 1547, he preached
a " notable sermon " at St Paul's Cross, and was given the third
stall in Rochester cathedral. In 1549 he was placed on a com-
mission to examine Anabaptists, and in 1551 he was appointed
chancellor to Bishop Ridley, select preacher at Canterbury,
and a commissioner for the reform of the canon law; in 1552
Coverdale made him archdeacon of Exeter. Apparently he
advocated the cause of Lady Jane Grey, for on the 25th of
July 1553, only six days after Mary's proclamation as queen,
he was committed to the custody of the sheriff of Essex. He
was released not long afterwards, and with the support of his
parishioners offered strenuous resistance to the restoration of
the Mass. He was consequently imprisoned in the King's
Bench prison on the 26th of March 1554. The sturdy pro-
testantism of Taylor and his flock, who seem to have caused
various commotions, marked him out for the special enmity
of Mary's government; and he was one of the first to suffer
when in January 1555 parliament had once more given the
clerical courts liberty of jurisdiction. He was sentenced on
the 22nd, excommunicated on the 29th, degraded by Bonner
on the 4th of February, and burnt on the 9th at Aldham
Common near Hadleigh. His blameless character had made
a great impression on his age, and he was commemorated in
many popular ballads. He was regarded as the ideal of a
Protestant parish priest; he was married and had nine children.
The alleged descent of Jeremy Taylor from him has not been
proved.
See Thomas Quinton Stow's Memoirs of Rowland Taylor (1833);
Diet, of Nat. Biogr. Iv. 463-4, and authorities there cited.
(A. F. P.)
TAYLOR, THOMAS— TAYLOR, ZACHARY
TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835), English writer, generally
called " the Platonist," was born in London on the 15th of
May 1758, and lived there till his death on the ist of November
1835. He was sent to St Paul's school, but was soon removed
to Sheerness, where he spent several years with a relative who
was engaged in the dockyard. He then began to study for the
dissenting ministry, but an imprudent marriage and pecuniary
difficulties compelled him to abandon the idea. He became a
schoolmaster, a clerk in Lubbock's banking-house, and from
1798-1806 was assistant secretary to the society for the en-
couragement of arts, manufactures and commerce, which post
he resigned to devote himself to the study of philosophy. He
had the good fortune to obtain the patronage of the duke of
Norfolk and of a Mr Meredith, a retired tradesman of literary
tastes, who assisted him to publish several of his works. These
mainly consisted of translations of the whole or part of the
writings of Aristotle, Plato, Plotinus, Proclus, Pausanias,
Porphyry, Ocellus Lucanus, and the Orphic hymns. His
efforts were unfavourably — almost contemptuously — received,
but, in spite of defects of scholarship and lack of critical faculty,
due recognition must be awarded to the indomitable industry
with which he overcame early difficulties. He figures as the
" modern Pletho " in Isaac Disraeli's Curiosities of Literature
and in his novel Vaurien, and as " England's gentile priest " iu
Mathias's Pursuits of Literature.
TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880), English dramatist and editor
of Punch, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, near Sunderland, on
the igth of October 1817. After attending school there,- and
studying for two sessions at Glasgow University, he in 1837
entered Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a
fellow. Subsequently he held for two years the professorship
of English literature at University College, London. He was
called to the bar (Middle Temple) in November 1846, and went
on the northern circuit until, in 1850, he became assistant
secretary of the Board of Health. On the reconstruction of
the Board in 1854 he was made secretary, and on its abolition
his services were transferred to a department of the Home
Office, retiring on a pension in 1876. In his very early years
Tom Taylor had shown a predilection for the drama, and had
been in the habit of performing dramatic pieces with a number
of children in a loft over a brewer's stable. Four burlesques of
his were produced at the Lyceum in 1844. He made his first
hit with To Parents and Guardians, brought out at the Lyceum
in 1845. He also wrote some burlesques in conjunction with
Albert Smith and Charles Kenny, and collaborated with Charles
Reade in Masks and Faces (1852). Before the close of his life
his dramatic pieces numbered over 100, amongst the best
known of which are Our American Cousin (1858), produced by
Laura Keene in New York, in which Sothern created the part
of Lord Dundreary; Still Waters Run Deep (1855); Victims
(1857); the Contested Election (1859); the Overland Route
(1860); the Ticket of Leave Man (1863); Anne Boleyn (1875);
and Joan of Arc (1871). He was perhaps the most popular
dramatist of his time; but, if his chief concern was the con-
struction of a popular acting play, the characters in his dramas
are clearly and consistently drawn, and the dialogue is natural,
nervous and pointed. In his blank verse historical dramas,
Anne Boleyn andJoan of Arc, he was not so successful.
Taylor had begun his career as a journalist when he first
came to London. He very soon became connected with the
Morning Chronicle and the Daily News, for which he wrote
leaders. He was on the staff of Punch until 1874, when he
succeeded Shirley Brooks as editor. He occasionally appeared
with success in amateur theatricals, more especially in the
character of Adam in As You Like It and of Jasper in A Sheep in
Wolf's Clothing. He had some talent for painting, and for
many years was art critic to The Times and the Graphic. He
died at Lavender Sweep, Wandsworth, on the I2th of July 1880.
Apart from the drama, Tom Taylor's chief contributions to
literature are his biographies of painters, viz., Autobiography of
B. R. Haydon (1853); Autobiography and Correspondence of C. R.
Leslie, R.A. (1860); and Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds
473
(1865), which had been left in a very incomplete state by Leslie.
His Historical Dramas appeared in one volume in 1877. He also
edited, with a memorial preface, Pen Sketches from a Vanished
Hand, selected from Papers of the late Mortimer Collins.
TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836), English man of letters,
son of a Norwich manufacturer, was born in that city on the
7th of November 1765. He belonged to the Unitarian com-
munity, and went to a school kept at Palgrave, Suffolk, by
Rochemont Barbauld, husband of Anna Letitia Barbauld,
where Frank Sayers (1763-1817) was among his schoolmates.
He travelled on the Continent for some years to perfect himself
in foreign languages. William Taylor and his father were both
in sympathy with the French Revolution, and belonged to a
" revolution society " at Norwich. In 1791 the disturbed con-
dition of affairs induced the elder Taylor to wind up his busi-
ness, and from this time William devoted himself to letters.
He was an enthusiast for German poetry, and did great service
to English literature by translations of Burger's Lenore (1790,
printed 1796), of Lessing's Nathan the Wise (1700, printed
1805), of Goethe's Iphigenia in Tauris (1790, printed 1793),
and of four of Wieland's Dialogues of the Gods (1795). He was
a prolific writer of review articles, in which his knowledge of
foreign literature served as a useful standard of criticism.
Much of this material was made use of in his most important
work, his Historic Survey of German Poetry (3 vols., 1828-30).
He also edited the works of his friend Sayers with a memoir
(1823). He died at Norwich on the sth of March 1836.
See a Memoir of the Life and Writings of the late W. Taylor of
Norwich, by John Warden Robberds (2 vols., 1843) ; Georg
Herzfeld, William Taylor von Norwich (1897). Taylor is well known
to readers of George Borrow 
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